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After the outstanding response to our release of the Online English Grammar as a desktop edition, we are developing a range of new English language guides and worksheets to help both students and teachers with their English language requirements. These guides and worksheets will all be available as downloads from our website at http://www.English4Today.com and you will be notified of their release as we publish them. At the moment we have the following under development:

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English grammar worksheets for teachers and students

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A Writer's Guide to Using English

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Writing Letters

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A Guide to English Pronunciation

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Grammar Games Pack We are also in the process of working on Version 2.0 of the PDF Version of the Online English Grammar - adding even more sections, sound files and exercises.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

MAIN SUBJECT INDEX

1.

active/passive equivalents

Keywords : active, passive equivalent
2.
as + adjective + as

Keywords : as, adjective
3.

as present participle

Keywords : present participle , with verbs of movement with verbs of perception, as adjective with spend, with waste, with catch, with find, replacing time clause, replacing reason clause
4.

certainty

Keywords : certainly, definitely, probably, surely

5.
changes of time and place reference
Keywords: time reference, place reference

6.

common irregular verbs - group 1

Keywords : irregular verbs 7.

common irregular verbs - group 2

Keywords : irregular verbs

8.
common irregular verbs - group 3

Keywords: irregular verbs

9.

comparative + than

Keywords : comparative , than, adjective
10.

comparative form

Keywords : comparative, adverbs

11.
comparatives & superlatives
Keywords: comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

12.

comparisons of quantity - showing no difference

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective, difference
13.

comparisons of quantity - menu

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective

14.
comparisons of quantity - showing difference
Keywords: quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

15.

compound nouns

Keywords : compound nouns, phrasal verbs
16.

countable & uncountable

Keywords : countable, uncountable, noun

17.
defining relative clauses
Keywords: defining relative clauses

18.

defining words - which,whose

Keywords : which, whose
19.

degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc

Keywords : enough, very, too, extremely, almost, nearly, completely

20.
demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc
Keywords: this, that, these, those, determiners

21.

difference words - other,another

Keywords : other, another
22.

distributives - all, both, half

Keywords : all, both, half, distributives, determiners

23.
distributives - each, every, either, neither
Keywords: each, every, either, neither

24.

distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either, neither
25.

examples
Keywords: get, got, getting
26.
exceptions to using the definite article
Keywords: no definite article, determiner, exceptions
27.
form - adjectives

Keywords : gender, position, form, adjective

28.
form - adverb
Keywords: adverb, form

29.

form -past

Keywords : be + past participle
30.

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

31.
function
Keywords: order, adjectives, function

32.

function

Keywords : adverb, function

33.
function
Keywords: function, infinitive of purpose, infinitive as subject, infinitive after adjectives, infinitive with too/enough
34.
function

Keywords : unknown agent, subject, by formal/scientific texts

35.

future continuous

Keywords : future, actions in progress

36.
future forms - introduction
Keywords: future, attitude
37.
future forms - simple future

Keywords : will/shall, prediction, decision, future facts, certainty

38.

future perfect

Keywords : future, completed actions

39.
future perfect continuous
Keywords: unfinished, future time
40.
future with 'going to'

Keywords : plans, intentions

41.

gerund or infinitive?

Keywords : gerund/infinitive-, no difference in meaning

42.
gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning
Keywords: gerund/infinitive, difference in meaning

43.

gerunds

Keywords : gerund, as subject, after prepositions, after phrasal verbs, in compound nouns, can't stand.can't help
44.

get,got,getting

Keywords : get, got, getting

45.
get/have something done, x needs doing
Keywords: get, need

46.

if sentences with conditional perfect continuous

Keywords : conditional perfect continuous
47.

if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional

Keywords : if + past, would, present condtional

48.
if sentences with if,condtional tenses
Keywords: if, condtional tenses

49.

if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs

Keywords : if+not, unless, verbs
50.

if sentences with mixed conditionals

Keywords : mixed conditionals

51.
if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect
Keywords: perfect conditional, if + past perfect

52.

if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

Keywords : wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only
53.

if setences with present continuous conditional

Keywords : present continuous conditional

54.
infinitive after question words
Keywords: infinitive, question words

55.

interrogative - why, where, how, when

Keywords : why, where, how, when
56.

introduction - defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses
Keywords: defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses
57.
introduction - irregular verbs
Keywords: verbs, irregular
58.
introduction - present participle, gerund

Keywords : present participle, gerund

59.
introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak
Keywords: reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

60.

irregular comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : irregular comparatives, superlatives, adjectives
61.

list of common irregular verb

Keywords : irregular, verbs

62.
main menu - adjectives
Keywords: adjectives

63.

main menu - adverbs

Keywords : adverbs
64.

manner - adverbs

Keywords : adverbs, manner

65.
menu - function and class
Keywords: determiners, function, class, pre-determiners

66.

menu - kinds of adverbs

Keywords : kinds, adverbs
67.

menu - nouns

Keywords : nouns

68.
menu - quantifiers
Keywords: much, many, a little, a few, some, any

69.

menu / introduction

Keywords : menu, introduction, tenses
70.

nationalities

Keywords : nationalities, country, nouns

71.
negative infinitive
Keywords: negative infinitive

72.

non-defining relative clauses

Keywords : relative clauses, non-defining
73.

not as + adjective + as

Keywords : not, as, so, not as, not so, adjective

74.
noun gender
Keywords: gender, masculine, feminine, noun

75.

order of adjectives

Keywords : order, adjectives
76.

other forms of future

Keywords : is to, obligation, about to, immediate future

77.
other forms of infinitive
Keywords: perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, passive infinitive, perfect continuous infinitive

78.

past continuous

Keywords : past continuous, description, narrative
79.

past perfect

Keywords : past perfect, just

80.
past perfect continuous
Keywords: past perfect continuous, process, reported speech

81.

place, adverbs of place

Keywords : adverbs, place
82.

plurals

Keywords : singular plural, irregular plural, noun

83.
possessive
Keywords: possessive, time expressions, apostrophe, names, possessive

84.

possessives

Keywords : possessive adjectives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs

85.
pre-determiners
Keywords: such, what, rather, quite
86.
prepositions in relative clauses

Keywords : prepositions, relative clauses

87.

present continuous

Keywords : -ing, verbs, tenses, present participle, verbs not used in continuous form

88.
present continuous for future events
Keywords: arrangements, future

89.
present perfect 1

Keywords : present perfect, past participle, irregular verbs 90.

present perfect 2

Keywords : present perfect, ever, never, already, yet 91.
present perfect 3

Keywords : present perfect, simple past, time, attitude

92.

present perfect 4

Keywords : present perfect, for, since

93.
present perfect continous
Keywords: present perfect continous, present participle
94.
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little

Keywords : determiners, a few, few, a little, little

95.

quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many, much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

96.
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.
Keywords: how, much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable
97.
quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions, decimals, units, years, zero

98.

quantifiers 5 - some and any

Keywords : determiners, quantifiers, some, any

99.
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.
Keywords: something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

100.

quantifiers 7 - enough

Keywords : enough, quantifiers, determiners
101.

question words - which,what,whose
Keywords: which, what, whose
102.
relative adverbs - which,what,whose

Keywords : where, when, why

103.
reporting hopes and intentions
Keywords: hopes, intentions, to-infinitive, that-clause
104.
reporting orders, requests, suggestions

Keywords: orders, requests, suggestions, should - omission, that-clause
105.
reporting questions

Keywords : reporting yes/no questions, reporting questions with question words

106.

simple past

Keywords : simple past, form, function, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago
107.

simple present

Keywords : verbs, tenses, present simple

108.
simple present for future events
Keywords: future, facts, timetable, calendar

109.

summary

Keywords : verb tenses, present tenses, perfect tenses, conditional tenses, past tenses, future tenses
110.

summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, to-infintive, that-clause

111.
tense changes
Keywords: reported speech, tense changes

112.

the + superlative

Keywords : the, superlative, adjectives
113.

the definite article

Keywords : the, definite article

114.
the indefinite article
Keywords: the, indefinite article, a, an

115.

the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions
116.

time, adverbs of

Keywords : adverbs, time

117.
type 1 conditional
Keywords: if + present + future, fact

118.

use of capital letters

Keywords : capital letters, names, months, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, streets, buildings, titles of books, nouns

119.
verbs + infinitive with/without noun
Keywords: verb with or without noun + infinitive
120.
verbs followed by gerund

Keywords : verb + gerund

121.

verbs followed by infinitive

Keywords : verbs + infinitive without a noun

122.
verbs followed by noun + infinitive
Keywords: verb + noun + infinitive
123.
viewpoint, commenting

Keywords : adverbs, viewpoint, commenting

124.

zero conditional

Keywords : if + present, general truths, instructions

125.
zero infinitive
Keywords: zero infinitive
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

General About the author Which English? Ask our English teachers a question Visit the members' section of the English4Today website Adjectives as + adjective + as comparative + than comparatives & superlatives comparisons of quantity - showing no difference comparisons of quantity - menu comparisons of quantity - showing difference form - adjectives function irregular comparatives & superlatives main menu - adjectives not as + adjective + as order of adjectives the + superlative Adverbs certainty comparative form degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc form - adverb function interrogative - why, where, how, when main menu - adverbs manner - adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs place, adverbs of place relative adverbs - which,what,whose time, adverbs of viewpoint, commenting Determiners defining words - which,whose demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc difference words - other,another distributives - all, both, half distributives - each, every, either, neither distributives - menu exceptions to using the definite article menu - function and class menu - quantifiers possessives pre-determiners quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc. quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc. quantifiers 4 - numbers quantifiers 5 - some and any quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc. quantifiers 7 - enough question words - which,what,whose the definite article the indefinite article the,a,an Direct and Indirect Speech changes of time and place reference introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak reporting hopes and intentions reporting orders, requests, suggestions reporting questions summary of reporting verbs tense changes
-ING Form as present participle gerund or infinitive? gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning gerunds introduction - present participle, gerund verbs followed by gerund Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 1
common irregular verbs - group 2
common irregular verbs - group 3
introduction - irregular verbs list of common irregular verb Nouns compound nouns countable & uncountable menu - nouns nationalities noun gender plurals use of capital letters Passive active/passive equivalents form -past function get/have something done, x needs doing Possessive with 's and ' possessive Relative Clauses defining relative clauses introduction - defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses non-defining relative clauses prepositions in relative clauses The Infinitive form, with or without 'to' function infinitive after question words negative infinitive other forms of infinitive verbs + infinitive with/without noun verbs followed by infinitive verbs followed by noun + infinitive zero infinitive To Get examples get,got,getting Verbs and Verb Tenses future continuous future forms - introduction future forms - simple future future perfect future perfect continuous future with 'going to' if sentences with conditional perfect continuous if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional if sentences with if,condtional tenses if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs if sentences with mixed conditionals if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only if setences with present continuous conditional menu / introduction other forms of future past continuous past perfect past perfect continuous present continuous present continuous for future events present perfect 1
present perfect 2
present perfect 3
present perfect 4
present perfect continous simple past simple present simple present for future events summary type 1 conditional zero conditional
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

A

Your search for items starting with the letter 'A' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives irregular comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : irregular

comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

main menu - adjectives

Keywords : adjectives

comparisons of quantity - menu

Keywords : quantity, comparison,

adjective

not as + adjective + as

Keywords : not, as, so, not as, not so, adjective

as + adjective + as

Keywords : as, adjective

the + superlative

Keywords : the, superlative, adjectives

comparisons of quantity - showing difference

Keywords : quantity,

comparison, adjective, difference

comparisons of quantity - showing no difference

Keywords :

quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : comparatives, superlatives,

adjectives

order of adjectives

Keywords : order, adjectives

function

Keywords : order, adjectives, function

form - adjectives

Keywords : gender, position, form, adjective

comparative + than

Keywords : comparative , than, adjective

Adverbs
comparative form

Keywords : comparative, adverbs

manner - adverbs

Keywords : adverbs, manner

form - adverb

Keywords : adverb, form

certainty

Keywords : certainly, definitely, probably, surely

time, adverbs of

Keywords : adverbs, time

relative adverbs - which,what,whose

Keywords : where, when, why

interrogative - why, where, how, when

Keywords : why, where,

how, when

function

Keywords : adverb, function

viewpoint, commenting

Keywords : adverbs, viewpoint, commenting

place, adverbs of place

Keywords : adverbs, place

degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc

Keywords :

enough, very, too, extremely, almost, nearly, completely

menu - kinds of adverbs

Keywords : kinds, adverbs

main menu - adverbs

Keywords : adverbs

Determiners
possessives
Keywords: possessive adjectives, possessive pronouns, my,
mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs

exceptions to using the definite article

Keywords : no definite

article, determiner, exceptions

the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions

distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either,

neither

difference words - other,another

Keywords : other, another

distributives - all, both, half

Keywords : all, both, half, distributives,

determiners

the indefinite article

Keywords : the, indefinite article, a, an

quantifiers 5 - some and any

Keywords : determiners, quantifiers,

some, any

quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords :

something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

the definite article

Keywords : the, definite article

-ING Form
as present participle

Keywords : present participle , with verbs of

movement with verbs of perception, as adjective with spend, with waste, with catch, with find, replacing time clause, replacing reason clause

Passive active/passive equivalents
Keywords: active, passive equivalent
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

B

Your search for items starting with the letter 'B' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Determiners
distributives - all, both, half

Keywords : all, both, half, distributives, determiners

distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either, neither

Passive
form -past
Keywords: be + past participle
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

C

Your search for items starting with the letter 'C' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives irregular comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : irregular comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

comparative + than

Keywords : comparative , than, adjective

comparisons of quantity - showing difference

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

comparisons of quantity - showing no difference

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

comparisons of quantity - menu

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective

Adverbs
comparative form

Keywords : comparative, adverbs

certainty

Keywords : certainly, definitely, probably, surely

viewpoint, commenting

Keywords : adverbs, viewpoint, commenting

Determiners quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords : something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

menu - function and class

Keywords : determiners, function, class, predeterminers

quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions, decimals, units, years, zero

quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.

Keywords : how,

much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable

Direct and Indirect Speech changes of time and place reference

Keywords : time reference,

place reference

Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 3

Keywords : irregular verbs

common irregular verbs - group 1
Keywords: irregular verbs

common irregular verbs - group 2
Keywords: irregular verbs

Nouns
nationalities

Keywords : nationalities, country, nouns

use of capital letters

Keywords : capital letters, names, months, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, streets, buildings, titles of books, nouns

countable & uncountable

Keywords : countable, uncountable, noun

compound nouns

Keywords : compound nouns, phrasal verbs

Relative Clauses introduction - defining relative clauses, non-defining relative
clauses

Keywords : defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses

prepositions in relative clauses

Keywords : prepositions, relative clauses

non-defining relative clauses

Keywords : relative clauses, non

defining

Verbs and Verb Tenses
type 1 conditional

Keywords : if + present + future, fact

present continuous

Keywords : -ing, verbs, tenses, present participle, verbs not used in continuous form

future continuous

Keywords : future, actions in progress

zero conditional

Keywords : if + present, general truths, instructions

if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional

Keywords : if + past, would, present condtional

if setences with present continuous conditional

Keywords : present continuous conditional

if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect

Keywords :

perfect conditional, if + past perfect

if sentences with conditional perfect continuous

Keywords : conditional perfect continuous

if sentences with mixed conditionals

Keywords : mixed conditionals

if sentences with if,condtional tenses

Keywords : if, condtional tenses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

D

Your search for items starting with the letter 'D' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc
Keywords:

enough, very, too, extremely, almost, nearly, completely

Determiners quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many,

much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

defining words - which,whose

Keywords : which, whose

question words - which,what,whose

Keywords : which, what, whose

difference words - other,another

Keywords : other, another

distributives - each, every, either, neither

Keywords : each, every, either, neither

distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either, neither

menu - function and class

Keywords : determiners, function, class, predeterminers

quantifiers 7 - enough

Keywords : enough, quantifiers, determiners

menu - quantifiers

Keywords : much, many, a little, a few, some, any

possessives

Keywords : possessive adjectives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs

demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc

Keywords : this, that,

these, those, determiners

exceptions to using the definite article

Keywords : no definite article, determiner, exceptions

the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions

the definite article

Keywords : the, definite article

quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions, decimals, units, years, zero

distributives - all, both, half

Keywords : all, both, half, distributives, determiners

quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords : something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

quantifiers 5 - some and any

Keywords : determiners, quantifiers, some, any

quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little

Keywords : determiners, a few, few, a little, little

quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.

Keywords : how,

much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable

the indefinite article

Keywords : the, indefinite article, a, an

pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

Direct and Indirect Speech reporting hopes and intentions

Keywords : hopes, intentions, toinfinitive, that-clause

summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, toinfintive, that-clause

reporting orders, requests, suggestions

Keywords : orders, requests,

suggestions, should - omission, that-clause

reporting questions

Keywords : reporting yes/no questions, reporting questions with question words

changes of time and place reference

Keywords : time reference, place reference

tense changes

Keywords : reported speech, tense changes

introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Keywords : reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Passive get/have something done, x needs doing

Keywords : get, need

Relative Clauses non-defining relative clauses

Keywords : relative clauses, non
defining

defining relative clauses
Keywords: defining relative clauses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

E

Your search for items starting with the letter 'E' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc
Keywords:

enough, very, too, extremely, almost, nearly, completely

Determiners distributives - each, every, either, neither

Keywords : each, every,

either, neither

quantifiers 7 - enough

Keywords : enough, quantifiers, determiners

exceptions to using the definite article

Keywords : no definite article, determiner, exceptions

the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions

To Get
examples
Keywords: get, got, getting
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

F

Your search for items starting with the letter 'F' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
form - adjectives
Keywords: gender, position, form, adjective

function

Keywords : order, adjectives, function

Adverbs
function

Keywords : adverb, function

form - adverb
Keywords: adverb, form

comparative form

Keywords : comparative, adverbs

Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions,
decimals, units, years, zero

quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many, much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

menu - function and class

Keywords : determiners, function, class, predeterminers

quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little

Keywords : determiners, a few, few, a little, little

-ING Form introduction - present participle, gerund
Keywords: present

participle, gerund

Nouns
noun gender

Keywords : gender, masculine, feminine, noun

Passive
form -past

Keywords : be + past participle

function

Keywords : unknown agent, subject, by formal/scientific texts

The Infinitive
verbs followed by infinitive

Keywords : verbs + infinitive without a

noun

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

function

Keywords : function, infinitive of purpose, infinitive as subject,

infinitive after adjectives, infinitive with too/enough

other forms of infinitive

Keywords : perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, passive infinitive, perfect continuous infinitive

Verbs and Verb Tenses
future continuous

Keywords : future, actions in progress

future forms - introduction

Keywords : future, attitude

future with 'going to'

Keywords : plans, intentions

future perfect

Keywords : future, completed actions

future perfect continuous

Keywords : unfinished, future time

other forms of future

Keywords : is to, obligation, about to, immediate future

future forms - simple future

Keywords : will/shall, prediction,
decision, future facts, certainty
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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G

Your search for items starting with the letter 'G' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
form - adjectives

Keywords : gender, position, form, adjective

-ING Form gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning

Keywords :

gerund/infinitive, difference in meaning

gerund or infinitive?

Keywords : gerund/infinitive-, no difference in meaning

verbs followed by gerund

Keywords : verb + gerund

gerunds
Keywords: gerund, as subject, after prepositions, after phrasal

verbs, in compound nouns, can't stand.can't help

Nouns
noun gender

Keywords : gender, masculine, feminine, noun

Passive get/have something done, x needs doing

Keywords : get, need

To Get
examples

Keywords : get, got, getting

get,got,getting
Keywords: get, got, getting
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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H

Your search for items starting with the letter 'H' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Determiners
distributives - all, both, half

Keywords : all, both, half, distributives, determiners

distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either, neither

Direct and Indirect Speech reporting hopes and intentions
Keywords: hopes, intentions, to
infinitive, that-clause
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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I

Your search for items starting with the letter 'I' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives irregular comparatives & superlatives
Keywords: irregular

comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

Adverbs interrogative - why, where, how, when

Keywords : why, where,

how, when

Determiners
the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions

the indefinite article

Keywords : the, indefinite article, a, an

Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, to

infintive, that-clause

reporting hopes and intentions

Keywords : hopes, intentions, toinfinitive, that-clause

reporting orders, requests, suggestions

Keywords : orders, requests, suggestions, should - omission, that-clause

changes of time and place reference

Keywords : time reference,

place reference

tense changes

Keywords : reported speech, tense changes

introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Keywords : reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

-ING Form verbs followed by gerund

Keywords : verb + gerund

introduction - present participle, gerund

Keywords : present participle, gerund

gerunds

Keywords : gerund, as subject, after prepositions, after phrasal verbs, in compound nouns, can't stand.can't help

gerund or infinitive?

Keywords : gerund/infinitive-, no difference in meaning

gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning

Keywords : gerund/infinitive, difference in meaning

as present participle

Keywords : present participle , with verbs of movement with verbs of perception, as adjective with spend, with waste, with catch, with find, replacing time clause, replacing reason clause

Irregular Verbs introduction - irregular verbs

Keywords : verbs, irregular

list of common irregular verb

Keywords : irregular, verbs

common irregular verbs - group 1

Keywords : irregular verbs

common irregular verbs - group 3

Keywords : irregular verbs

common irregular verbs - group 2

Keywords : irregular verbs

Relative Clauses introduction - defining relative clauses, non-defining relative
clauses

Keywords : defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses

The Infinitive
negative infinitive

Keywords : negative infinitive

infinitive after question words

Keywords : infinitive, question words

function

Keywords : function, infinitive of purpose, infinitive as subject, infinitive after adjectives, infinitive with too/enough

other forms of infinitive

Keywords : perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, passive infinitive, perfect continuous infinitive

verbs followed by infinitive

Keywords : verbs + infinitive without a noun

verbs followed by noun + infinitive

Keywords : verb + noun + infinitive

verbs + infinitive with/without noun

Keywords : verb with or

without noun + infinitive

zero infinitive

Keywords : zero infinitive

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

Verbs and Verb Tenses if sentences with mixed conditionals

Keywords : mixed conditionals

menu / introduction

Keywords : menu, introduction, tenses

if sentences with if,condtional tenses

Keywords : if, condtional tenses

zero conditional

Keywords : if + present, general truths, instructions

type 1 conditional

Keywords : if + present + future, fact

if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional

Keywords : if + past, would, present condtional

if setences with present continuous conditional

Keywords : present continuous conditional

if sentences with conditional perfect continuous

Keywords :

conditional perfect continuous

if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs

Keywords : if+not, unless, verbs

if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

Keywords : wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect

Keywords :
perfect conditional, if + past perfect
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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J

Your search for items starting with the letter 'J' has not returned any related items. You may have better luck with a keyword search using the keyword search box.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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K

Your search for items starting with the letter 'K' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs
Keywords: kinds, adverbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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L

Your search for items starting with the letter 'L' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Determiners quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little

Keywords : determiners, a few, few, a little, little

quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many, much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

Irregular Verbs list of common irregular verb
Keywords: irregular, verbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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M

Your search for items starting with the letter 'M' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives main menu - adjectives

Keywords : adjectives

Adverbs menu - kinds of adverbs

Keywords : kinds, adverbs

main menu - adverbs
Keywords: adverbs

manner - adverbs

Keywords : adverbs, manner

Determiners
distributives - menu

Keywords : all, both, half, each, every, either,
neither

quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many, much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

menu - quantifiers

Keywords : much, many, a little, a few, some, any

menu - function and class

Keywords : determiners, function, class, predeterminers

Nouns
menu - nouns
Keywords: nouns

noun gender

Keywords : gender, masculine, feminine, noun

Verbs and Verb Tenses
menu / introduction

Keywords : menu, introduction, tenses

if sentences with mixed conditionals
Keywords: mixed conditionals

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

N

Your search for items starting with the letter 'N' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
not as + adjective + as

Keywords : not, as, so, not as, not so, adjective

Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions,

decimals, units, years, zero

quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.

Keywords : how, much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable

distributives - each, every, either, neither

Keywords : each, every, either, neither

quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords : something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

Nouns
plurals

Keywords : singular plural, irregular plural, noun

countable & uncountable

Keywords : countable, uncountable, noun

compound nouns

Keywords : compound nouns, phrasal verbs

use of capital letters

Keywords : capital letters, names, months, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, streets, buildings, titles of books, nouns

noun gender

Keywords : gender, masculine, feminine, noun

menu - nouns

Keywords : nouns

nationalities

Keywords : nationalities, country, nouns

Relative Clauses non-defining relative clauses
Keywords: relative clauses, non

defining

The Infinitive
negative infinitive

Keywords : negative infinitive

verbs followed by noun + infinitive
Keywords: verb + noun +

infinitive

verbs + infinitive with/without noun

Keywords : verb with or without noun + infinitive

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O

Your search for items starting with the letter 'O' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
order of adjectives
Keywords: order, adjectives

function

Keywords : order, adjectives, function

Determiners difference words - other,another

Keywords : other, another

quantifiers 4 - numbers
Keywords: cardinal, ordinal, fractions,

decimals, units, years, zero

Direct and Indirect Speech reporting orders, requests, suggestions

Keywords : orders, requests,

suggestions, should - omission, that-clause

The Infinitive
other forms of infinitive

Keywords : perfect infinitive, continuous

infinitive, passive infinitive, perfect continuous infinitive

Verbs and Verb Tenses
other forms of future

Keywords : is to, obligation, about to, immediate
future

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

P

Your search for items starting with the letter 'P' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs place, adverbs of place

Keywords : adverbs, place

Determiners
menu - function and class

Keywords : determiners, function, class, pre

determiners

pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

possessives

Keywords : possessive adjectives, possessive pronouns, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs

-ING Form
as present participle

Keywords : present participle , with verbs of movement with verbs of perception, as adjective with spend, with waste, with catch, with find, replacing time clause, replacing reason clause

introduction - present participle, gerund

Keywords : present

participle, gerund

Nouns
plurals

Keywords : singular plural, irregular plural, noun

Passive
form -past

Keywords : be + past participle

function

Keywords : unknown agent, subject, by formal/scientific texts

get/have something done, x needs doing

Keywords : get, need

active/passive equivalents

Keywords : active, passive equivalent

Possessive with 's and '
possessive
Keywords: possessive, time expressions, apostrophe, names,

possessive

Relative Clauses prepositions in relative clauses

Keywords : prepositions, relative
clauses

defining relative clauses
Keywords: defining relative clauses

Verbs and Verb Tenses
past perfect

Keywords : past perfect, just

present perfect 1

Keywords : present perfect, past participle, irregular verbs

present continuous

Keywords : -ing, verbs, tenses, present participle, verbs not used in continuous form

present perfect 2

Keywords : present perfect, ever, never, already, yet

present perfect 3

Keywords : present perfect, simple past, time, attitude

present perfect 4

Keywords : present perfect, for, since

past continuous

Keywords : past continuous, description, narrative

past perfect continuous

Keywords : past perfect continuous, process, reported speech

present continuous for future events

Keywords : arrangements,

future

if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

Keywords : wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

present perfect continous

Keywords : present perfect continous, present participle
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

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Q

Your search for items starting with the letter 'Q' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives comparisons of quantity - showing no difference

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

comparisons of quantity - showing difference

Keywords : quantity, comparison, adjective, difference

comparisons of quantity - menu

Keywords : quantity, comparison,

adjective

Determiners quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords :

something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

quantifiers 5 - some and any

Keywords : determiners, quantifiers, some, any

quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little
Keywords:

determiners, a few, few, a little, little

quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.

Keywords : how, much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable

pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

question words - which,what,whose

Keywords : which, what, whose

quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions, decimals, units, years, zero

quantifiers 7 - enough

Keywords : enough, quantifiers, determiners

quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc.

Keywords : many, much, more, most, little, less, least, few, fewer, fewest

menu - quantifiers

Keywords : much, many, a little, a few, some, any

Direct and Indirect Speech
reporting questions
Keywords: reporting yes/no questions, reporting

questions with question words

The Infinitive
infinitive after question words

Keywords : infinitive, question words

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

R

Your search for items starting with the letter 'R' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs relative adverbs - which,what,whose

Keywords : where, when, why

Determiners
pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, to
infintive, that-clause

reporting hopes and intentions
Keywords: hopes, intentions, to

infinitive, that-clause

reporting orders, requests, suggestions

Keywords : orders, requests, suggestions, should - omission, that-clause

reporting questions

Keywords : reporting yes/no questions, reporting questions with question words

changes of time and place reference

Keywords : time reference,

place reference

tense changes

Keywords : reported speech, tense changes

introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Keywords : reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Relative Clauses non-defining relative clauses

Keywords : relative clauses, nondefining

prepositions in relative clauses

Keywords : prepositions, relative clauses

defining relative clauses

Keywords : defining relative clauses

introduction - defining relative clauses, non-defining relative
clauses

Keywords : defining relative clauses, non-defining relative clauses

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

S

Your search for items starting with the letter 'S' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
the + superlative

Keywords : the, superlative, adjectives

comparatives & superlatives

Keywords : comparatives, superlatives, adjectives

Determiners quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc.

Keywords : something, somebody, someone, somewhere, anything, anybody, anyone, anywhere, nothing, nobody, noone, nowhere,

quantifiers 5 - some and any

Keywords : determiners, quantifiers, some, any

pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, toinfintive, that-clause

introduction - reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Keywords : reported speech, 'that', say, tell, talk, speak

Verbs and Verb Tenses simple present for future events

Keywords : future, facts, timetable, calendar

simple past

Keywords : simple past, form, function, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago

simple present

Keywords : verbs, tenses, present simple

summary

Keywords : verb tenses, present tenses, perfect tenses, conditional tenses, past tenses, future tenses

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

T

Your search for items starting with the letter 'T' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adjectives
the + superlative
Keywords: the, superlative, adjectives

comparative + than

Keywords : comparative , than, adjective

Adverbs
time, adverbs of

Keywords : adverbs, time

Determiners
the indefinite article

Keywords : the, indefinite article, a, an

demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc

Keywords : this, that, these, those, determiners

the,a,an

Keywords : the, a, an, indefinite article, exceptions

the definite article

Keywords : the, definite article

Direct and Indirect Speech changes of time and place reference

Keywords : time reference, place reference

tense changes

Keywords : reported speech, tense changes

The Infinitive verbs + infinitive with/without noun

Keywords : verb with or without noun + infinitive

infinitive after question words

Keywords : infinitive, question words

negative infinitive

Keywords : negative infinitive

zero infinitive

Keywords : zero infinitive

other forms of infinitive

Keywords : perfect infinitive, continuous infinitive, passive infinitive, perfect continuous infinitive

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

verbs followed by infinitive

Keywords : verbs + infinitive without a noun

verbs followed by noun + infinitive

Keywords : verb + noun + infinitive

function

Keywords : function, infinitive of purpose, infinitive as subject, infinitive after adjectives, infinitive with too/enough

To Get
examples
Keywords: get, got, getting

get,got,getting

Keywords : get, got, getting

Verbs and Verb Tenses
present perfect continous

Keywords : present perfect continous,

present participle

simple present

Keywords : verbs, tenses, present simple

future continuous

Keywords : future, actions in progress

present continuous

Keywords : -ing, verbs, tenses, present participle, verbs not used in continuous form

present perfect 1

Keywords : present perfect, past participle, irregular verbs

present perfect 2

Keywords : present perfect, ever, never, already, yet

present perfect 3

Keywords : present perfect, simple past, time, attitude

present perfect 4

Keywords : present perfect, for, since

summary

Keywords : verb tenses, present tenses, perfect tenses, conditional tenses, past tenses, future tenses

simple past

Keywords : simple past, form, function, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago

past continuous

Keywords : past continuous, description, narrative

past perfect

Keywords : past perfect, just

past perfect continuous

Keywords : past perfect continuous, process, reported speech

future forms - introduction

Keywords : future, attitude

future forms - simple future
Keywords: will/shall, prediction,
decision, future facts, certainty

present continuous for future events

Keywords : arrangements, future

future with 'going to'

Keywords : plans, intentions

menu / introduction

Keywords : menu, introduction, tenses

future perfect

Keywords : future, completed actions

future perfect continuous

Keywords : unfinished, future time

other forms of future

Keywords : is to, obligation, about to, immediate future

type 1 conditional

Keywords : if + present + future, fact

simple present for future events

Keywords : future, facts, timetable, calendar

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

U

Your search for items starting with the letter 'U' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Determiners quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc.

Keywords : how, much, many, few, lot, number, several, countable, uncountable

quantifiers 4 - numbers

Keywords : cardinal, ordinal, fractions, decimals, units, years, zero

Nouns
use of capital letters

Keywords : capital letters, names, months, days, holidays, seasons, geographical, names, streets, buildings, titles of books, nouns

countable & uncountable

Keywords : countable, uncountable, noun

Verbs and Verb Tenses if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only
Keywords: wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

V

Your search for items starting with the letter 'V' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs
viewpoint, commenting

Keywords : adverbs, viewpoint, commenting

Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs

Keywords : summary, reporting verbs, to

infintive, that-clause

-ING Form verbs followed by gerund

Keywords : verb + gerund

Irregular Verbs common irregular verbs - group 2

Keywords : irregular verbs

common irregular verbs - group 1

Keywords : irregular verbs

list of common irregular verb

Keywords : irregular, verbs

introduction - irregular verbs

Keywords : verbs, irregular

common irregular verbs - group 3

Keywords : irregular verbs

The Infinitive verbs followed by noun + infinitive

Keywords : verb + noun + infinitive

verbs + infinitive with/without noun

Keywords : verb with or without noun + infinitive

verbs followed by infinitive

Keywords : verbs + infinitive without a noun

Verbs and Verb Tenses
present continuous

Keywords : -ing, verbs, tenses, present participle, verbs not used in continuous form

simple past

Keywords : simple past, form, function, irregular verbs, irregular verbs, auxiliary 'did', ago

future forms - introduction

Keywords : future, attitude

past perfect continuous

Keywords : past perfect continuous, process, reported speech

past perfect

Keywords : past perfect, just

future forms - simple future

Keywords : will/shall, prediction, decision, future facts, certainty

past continuous

Keywords : past continuous, description, narrative

present perfect continous

Keywords : present perfect continous, present participle

present perfect 4

Keywords : present perfect, for, since

present perfect 3

Keywords : present perfect, simple past, time, attitude

present continuous for future events

Keywords : arrangements, future

present perfect 1

Keywords : present perfect, past participle, irregular verbs

if sentences with if,condtional tenses

Keywords : if, condtional

tenses

simple present

Keywords : verbs, tenses, present simple

summary

Keywords : verb tenses, present tenses, perfect tenses, conditional tenses, past tenses, future tenses

present perfect 2

Keywords : present perfect, ever, never, already, yet

if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional

Keywords : if + past, would, present condtional

menu / introduction

Keywords : menu, introduction, tenses

if sentences with wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

Keywords : wish, would rather, suppose, what if, if only

if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs

Keywords : if+not, unless, verbs

if sentences with mixed conditionals

Keywords : mixed conditionals

if sentences with conditional perfect continuous

Keywords : conditional perfect continuous

future perfect continuous

Keywords : unfinished, future time

if setences with present continuous conditional

Keywords : present continuous conditional

simple present for future events

Keywords : future, facts, timetable, calendar

type 1 conditional

Keywords : if + present + future, fact

zero conditional

Keywords : if + present, general truths, instructions

other forms of future

Keywords : is to, obligation, about to, immediate future

future perfect

Keywords : future, completed actions

future continuous

Keywords : future, actions in progress

future with 'going to'

Keywords : plans, intentions

if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect

Keywords : perfect conditional, if + past perfect

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

W

Your search for items starting with the letter 'W' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Adverbs relative adverbs - which,what,whose

Keywords : where, when, why

interrogative - why, where, how, when

Keywords : why, where, how, when

Determiners
pre-determiners

Keywords : such, what, rather, quite

defining words - which,whose

Keywords : which, whose

question words - which,what,whose

Keywords : which, what, whose

The Infinitive verbs + infinitive with/without noun

Keywords : verb with or without noun + infinitive

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

X

Your search for items starting with the letter 'X' has not returned any related items. You may have better luck with a keyword search using the keyword search box.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

Y

Your search for items starting with the letter 'Y' has not returned any related items. You may have better luck with a keyword search using the keyword search box.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER

Z

Your search for items starting with the letter 'Z' has returned the following list. The item may appear in the top heading, main sub-heading or in the list of keywords. Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers
Keywords: cardinal, ordinal, fractions,

decimals, units, years, zero

The Infinitive
zero infinitive

Keywords : zero infinitive

form, with or without 'to'

Keywords : to-infinitive, zero infinitive

Verbs and Verb Tenses
zero conditional

Keywords : if + present, general truths, instructions
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE QUANTIFIERS

NUMBERS The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, and the ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) refer to distribution. Number Ordinal

1 one
2 two
3 three
4 four
5 five
6 six
7 seven
8 eight
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven
12 twelve
13 thirteen
14 fourteen
15 fifteen
16 sixteen
17 seventeen
18 eighteen
19 nineteen
20 twenty
21 twenty-one
22 twenty-two
23 twenty-three
24 twenty-four
25 twenty-five
26 twenty-six
27 twenty-seven
28 twenty-eight
29 twenty-nine
30 thirty
31 thirty-one
40 forty
50 fifty
60 sixty
70 seventy
80 eighty
90 ninety
100 one hundred
500 five hundred
1,000 one thousand
100,000 one hundred thousand
1,000,000 one million

Cardinal

first second third fourth fifth sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth eleventh twelfth thirteenth fourteenth fifteenth sixteenth seventeenth eighteenth nineteenth twentieth twenty-first twenty-second twenty-third twenty-fourth twenty-fifth twenty-sixth twenty-seventh twenty-eighth twenty-ninth thirtieth thirty-first fortieth fiftieth sixtieth seventieth eightieth ninetieth hundredth five hundredth thousandth hundred thousandth millionth

Examples:

q

There are twenty-five people in the room.

q

He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934.

q

Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake.

q

I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet.

q

He went to Israel for the third time this year. Fractions and decimals Said half a quarter three quarters Written Said
0.5 point five
0.25 point two five
0.75 point seven five Percentages Written
25%
50%
75%
100% Said twenty five percent fifty percent seventy five percent a/one hundred percent Units Written $1,200 £16,486 545kms $25.35 Said one thousand two hundred dollars sixteen thousand four hundred and eighty-six pounds five hundred and forty-five kilometres twenty-five dollars thirty-five Years Written
1988
1864
1999 Said Nineteen eighty-eight Eighteen sixty-four Nineteen ninety-nine How to say '0' nought used in mathematical expressions and decimals: 'nought times three equals nought'
0.3 = 'nought point three' (or 'point three')
0.03 = 'point nought three' zero 'o' (the letter) nil/nothing used in scientific expressions, especially temperatures: 20

o

C = minus twenty degrees or twenty degrees below zero also used to mean 'the lowest point': 'The heavy rain reduced visibility to zero' used in telephone numbers: 0171 390 0062 = 'o one seven one three nine o double o six two' used to express the score in games such as football: 2 - 0 = 'two nil' or 'two nothing'
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

DETERMINERS

FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS Function Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. The word 'people' by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If someone says 'these people', we know which group they are talking about, and if they say 'a lot of people' we know how big the group is. Classes of Determiners There are several classes of determiners: Definite and Indefinite articles the, a, an Demonstratives this, that, these, those Possessives my, your, his, her, its, our, their Quantifiers a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc. Numbers one, ten, thirty, etc. Distributives all, both, half, either, neither, each, every Difference words other, another Question words Which, what, whose Defining words which, whose The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles: such and what, half, rather, quite
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

THE, A, AN Definite article: THE Indefinite article: A/AN Exceptions to using the definite article
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

DEFINITE ARTICLE

THE Articles in English are invariable. That is, they do not change according to the gender or number of the noun they refer to, e.g. the boy, the woman, the children 'The' is used: 1. to refer to something which has already been mentioned. Example: An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose. 2. when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about, even if it has not been mentioned before. Example: 'Where's the bathroom?' 'It's on the first floor.' 3. in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object: Examples: The man who wrote this book is famous. 'Which car did you scratch?' 'The red one. My house is the one with a blue door.'
4. to refer to objects we regard as unique: Examples: the sun, the moon, the world
5. before superlatives and ordinal numbers: (see Adjectives) Examples: the highest building, the first page, the last chapter.
6. with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people: Examples: the Japanese (see Nouns - Nationalities), the old
7. with names of geographical areas and oceans: Examples: the Caribbean, the Sahara, the Atlantic
8. with decades, or groups of years: Example: she grew up in the seventies

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

THE + SUPERLATIVE 'the' is placed before the superlative: For example: He is the richest man in the world.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms: Adjective Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst little less least much more most far further / farther furthest / farthest
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE Number of syllables one syllable tall Comparative + -er taller Superlative + -est tallest one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant: double the final consonant: fat big sad Number of syllables two syllables ending in: -y, -ly, -ow ending in: -le, -er or -ure these common adjectives - handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet fatter bigger sadder

Comparative + -er OR more + adj fattest biggest saddest Superlative + -est OR most + adj happy happier/ more happy yellow yellower/ more yellow simple simpler/ more simple tender tenderer/ more tender happiest/ most happy yellowest/ most yellow simplest/ most simple tenderest/ most tender If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + Note: Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc:. replace the -y with ier or -iest in the comparative and superlative form busy busier busiest Number of syllables three syllables or more important expensive Comparative more + adj more important more expensive Superlative most + adj most important most expensive Examples: a. A cat is fast, a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest b. A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the heaviest c. A park bench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is more comfortable, but a sofa is the most comfortable
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

ORDER Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The usual order is: Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming Size Age/Temperature Shape Colour Origin Material small, huge, tiny old, hot, young round, square, rectangular red, blonde, black Swedish, Victorian, Chinese plastic, wooden, silver Examples:

q

a lovely old red post-box

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some small round plastic tables

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some charming small silver ornaments
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

FUNCTION Adjectives tell us more about a noun. They can: Describe feelings or qualities: He is a lonely man They are honest people Give nationality or origin: Pierre is French This clock is German Our house is Victorian Tell more about a thing's characteristics: A wooden table. The knife is sharp. Tell us about age: He's a young man My coat is very old Tell us about size and measurement: John is a tall man. This is a very long film. Tell us about colour: Paul wore a red shirt. The sunset was crimson and gold. Tell us about material/what something is made of: It was a wooden table She wore a cotton dress Tell us about shape: A rectangular box A square envelope Express a judgement or a value: A fantastic film Grammar is boring.

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

FORM 1. Adjectives are invariable: They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun. A hot potato Some hot potatoes 2. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use 'very' or 'really': A very hot potato Some really hot potatoes. (BUT see also Modifiers/Adverbs) 3. Position of adjectives: a) Usually in front of a noun: A beautiful girl. b) After verbs like "to be", "to seem" , "to look", "to taste":

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The girl is beautiful

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You look tired

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This meat tastes funny. c) After the noun: in some fixed expressions:

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The Princess Royal
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The President elect

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a court martial the adjectives involved, present, concerned:

1.

I want to see the people involved/concerned (= the people who have something to do with the matter)

2.

Here is a list of the people present (= the people who were in the building or at the meeting) Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different meaning:

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An involved discussion = detailed, complex

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A concerned father = worried, anxious

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The present situation = current, happening now

ADVERBS - FUNCTION

Adverbs modify, or tell us more about other words, usually verbs:

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The bus moved slowly.

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The bears ate greedily. Sometimes they tell us more about adjectives:

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You look absolutely fabulous! They can also modify other adverbs:

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She played the violin extremely well.

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You're speaking too quietly.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

ADVERBS - MENU

q

Function

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Form

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Comparative forms

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Kinds of adverbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

ADVERBS - FORM

1. In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective: Adjective Adverb cheap quick slow cheaply quickly slowly Examples:

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Time goes quickly.

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He walked slowly to the door.

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She certainly had an interesting life.

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He carefully picked up the sleeping child. If the adjective ends in '-y', replace the 'y' with 'i' and add '-ly': Adjective Adverb easy easily angry angrily happy happily lucky luckily If the adjective ends in 'able', '-ible', or '-le', replace the '-e' with '-y': Adjective probable terrible gentle Adverb probably terribly gently If the adjective ends in '-ic', add '-ally': Adjective Adverb basic economic tragic basically economically tragically Note: Exception: public - publicly 2. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: Adjective / Adverb early late fast near hard straight high wrong Compare:

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It is a fast car.

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He drives very fast.

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This is a hard exercise.

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He works hard.

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We saw many high buildings.

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The bird flew high in the sky. 3. 'Well' and 'good' 'Well' is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective 'good'. Examples:

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He is a good student.

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He studies well.

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She is a good pianist.

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She plays the piano well.

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They are good swimmers.

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They swim well.
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COMPARATIVE FORMS OF ADVERBS

In general, comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are the same as for adjectives:

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add -er or -est to short adverbs: Adverb Comparative Superlative hard harder late later fast faster the hardest the latest the fastest Example:

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Jim works harder than his brother.

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Everyone in the race ran fast, but John ran the fastest of all. with adverbs ending in -ly, use more for the comparative and most for the superlative: Adverb quietly slowly seriously Comparative more quietly more slowly more seriously Superlative most quietly most slowly most seriously Example:

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The teacher spoke more slowly to help us to understand.

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Could you sing more quietly please? Some adverbs have irregular comparative forms: Adverb Comparative Superlative badly worse worst far farther/further farthest/furthest little less least well better best Example:

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The little boy ran further than his friends.

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You're driving worse today than yesterday ! BE CAREFUL! Sometimes 'most' can mean 'very':

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We were most grateful for your help

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I am most impressed by this application.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

KINDS OF ADVERBS

There are several classes or 'kinds' of adverbs that we use for specific functions:
1. Adverbs of manner
2. Adverbs of place
3. Adverbs of time
4. Adverbs of certainty
5. Adverbs of degree
6. Interrogative adverbs
7. Relative adverbs
8. Viewpoint and commenting adverbs
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNER Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object. Examples:

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He swims well, (after the main verb)

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He ran... rapidly, slowly, quickly..

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She spoke... softly, loudly, aggressively..

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James coughed loudly to attract her attention.

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He plays the flute beautifully. (after the object)

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He ate the chocolate cake greedily. BE CAREFUL! The adverb should not be put between the verb and the object:

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He ate greedily the chocolate cake [incorrect]

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He ate the chocolate cake greedily [correct] If there is a preposition before the object, e.g. at, towards, we can place the adverb either before the preposition or after the object. Example:

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The child ran happily towards his mother.

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The child ran towards his mother happily. Sometimes an adverb of manner is placed before a verb + object to add emphasis:

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He gently woke the sleeping woman. Some writers put an adverb of manner at the beginning of the sentence to catch our attention and make us curious:

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Slowly she picked up the knife. (We want to know what happened slowly, who did it slowly, why they did it slowly) However, adverbs should always come AFTER intransitive verbs (=verbs which have no object). Example:

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The town grew quickly

q
He waited patiently Also, these common adverbs are almost always placed AFTER the verb:

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well

q

badly

q

hard

q

fast The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in a sentence. If the adverb is placed after a clause, then it modifies the whole action described by the clause. Notice the difference in meaning between the following pairs of sentences:

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She quickly agreed to re-type the letter (= her agreement was quick)

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She agreed to re-type the letter quickly (= the re-typing was quick)

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He quietly asked me to leave the house (= his request was quiet)

q

He asked me to leave the house quietly (= the leaving was quiet)
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KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF PLACE Adverbs of place tell us where something happens. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object: Example: after the main verb:

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I looked everywhere

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John looked away, up, down, around...

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I'm going home, out, back

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Come in after the object:

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They built a house nearby

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She took the child outside 'Here' and 'there' With verbs of movement, here means towards or with the speaker:

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Come here (= towards me)

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It's in here (= come with me to see it) There means away from, or not with the speaker:

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Put it there (= away from me)

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It's in there (= go by yourself to see it) Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial phrases: down here, down there; over here, over there; under here, under there; up here, up there Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations or when emphasis is needed. They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun:

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Here comes the bus. (followed by the verb) Or by a pronoun if this is the subject (it, she, he etc.):

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Here it is! (followed by the pronoun)

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There she goes! (followed by the pronoun) NOTE: most common adverbs of place also function as prepositions. Examples: about, across, along, around, behind, by, down, in, off, on, over, round, through, under, up. Go to Prepositions or Phrasal Verbs Other adverbs of place: ending in 'wards', expressing movement in a particular direction: backwards forwards downwards upwards inwards outwards northwards southwards eastwards westwards homewards onwards Example:

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Cats don't usually walk backwards.

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The ship sailed westwards. BE CAREFUL! 'Towards' is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always followed by a noun or a pronoun:

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He walked towards the car.

q

She ran towards me. expressing both movement and location: ahead, abroad, overseas, uphill, downhill, sideways, indoors, outdoors Example:

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The child went indoors.

q
He lived and worked abroad.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF TIME Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often. Examples:

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When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year

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For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year

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How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly "When" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

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Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.

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I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow. This is a "neutral" position, but some "when" adverbs can be put in other positions to give a different emphasis Compare:

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Later Goldilocks ate some porridge. (the time is more important)

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Goldilocks later ate some porridge. (this is more formal, like a policeman's report)

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Goldilocks ate some porridge later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis) "For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

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She stayed in the Bears' house all day.

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My mother lived in France for a year. Notice: 'for' is always followed by an expression of duration:

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for three days,

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for a week,

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for several years,

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for two centuries. 'since' is always followed by an expression of a point in time:

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since Monday,

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since 1997,

q

since the last war. "How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually placed before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must):

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I often eat vegetarian food. (before the main verb)

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He never drinks milk. (before the main verb)

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You must always fasten your seat belt. (after the auxiliary must)

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She is never sea-sick.(after the auxiliary is)

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I have never forgotten my first kiss. (after the auxiliary have and before the main verb forgotten) Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an action happens and are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

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This magazine is published monthly.

q
He visits his mother once a week. When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much stronger. Compare:

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She regularly visits France.

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She visits France regularly. Adverbs that can be used in these two positions:

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frequently,

q

generally,

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normally,

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occasionally,

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often,

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regularly,

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sometimes,

q

usually 'Yet' and 'still' Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences, and is placed at the end of the sentence or after not.

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Have you finished your work yet? (= a simple request for information) No, not yet. (= simple negative answer)

q

They haven't met him yet. (= simple negative statement)

q

Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing slight surprise) Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions, and is placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, might, will)

q

I am still hungry.

q

She is still waiting for you

q

Are you still here?

q

Do you still work for the BBC? ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence, use them in this order:
1: 'how long'
2: 'how often'
3: 'when' (think of 'low') Example:

q

1 + 2 : I work (1) for five hours (2) every day

q

2 + 3 : The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.

q

1 + 3 : I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year.

q

1 + 2 + 3 : She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week (3) last year.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY These adverbs express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event. Common adverbs of certainty: certainly, definitely, probably, undoubtedly, surely Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb but after the verb 'to be':

q

He definitely left the house this morning.

q
He is probably in the park. With other auxiliary verb, these adverbs go between the auxiliary and the main verb:

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He has certainly forgotten the meeting.

q

He will probably remember tomorrow. Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence:

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Undoubtedly, Winston Churchill was a great politician. BE CAREFUL! with surely. When it is placed at the beginning of the sentence, it means the speaker thinks something is true, but is looking for confirmation: Example:

q

Surely you've got a bicycle? See also ADVERBS OF ATTITUDE

KINDS OF ADVERBS

VIEWPOINT AND COMMENTING ADVERBS There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the speaker's viewpoint or opinion about an action, or make some comment on the action. Viewpoint Frankly, I think he is a liar. (= this is my frank, honest opinion) Theoretically, you should pay a fine. (= from a theoretical point of view but there may be another way of looking at the situation) These adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence and are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Some common Viewpoint adverbs: honestly, seriously, confidentially, personally, surprisingly, ideally, economically, officially, obviously, clearly, surely, undoubtedly. Examples:

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Personally, I'd rather go by train.

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Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the smaller model.

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Geographically, Britain is rather cut off from the rest of Europe. Commenting

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She is certainly the best person for the job.

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You obviously enjoyed your meal. These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs, and often the same words, but they go in a different position - after the verb to be and before the main verb. Some common Commenting adverbs: definitely, certainly, obviously, simply.

KINDS OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF DEGREE Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb. Common adverbs of degree: Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely. Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

1.

before the adjective or adverb they are modifying: e.g. The water was extremely cold.

2.

before the main verb: e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished. Examples:

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She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.

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They are completely exhausted from the trip.

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I am too tired to go out tonight.

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He hardly noticed what she was saying. Enough, very, too Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs. Example:

q

Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)

q
He didn't work hard enough. (adverb) It also goes before nouns, and means 'as much as is necessary'. In this case it is not an adverb, but a 'determiner'. Example:

q

We have enough bread.

q
They don't have enough food. Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g.

q
This coffee is too hot. (adjective)

q
He works too hard. (adverb) Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'. Example:

q

The dress was big enough for me.

q

She's not experienced enough for this job.

q

The coffee was too hot for me.

q

The dress was too small for her. We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb. Example:

q

The coffee was too hot to drink.

q

He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.

q

She's not old enough to get married.

q

You're too young to have grandchildren! Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger. Example:

q

The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)

q
He worked very quickly. (adverb) If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very. Example:

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The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful

q

He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly. BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.

q

Very expresses a fact: He speaks very quickly.

q

Too suggests there is a problem: He speaks too quickly (for me to understand). Other adverbs like very These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive to negative: extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly. Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows: Positive: The teacher was rather nice. Negative: The film was rather disappointing. Note on inversion with negative adverbs: Normally the subject goes before the verb: SUBJECT VERB I left She goes However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject Example: I have never seen such courage.

Never have I seen such courage. She rarely left the house.

Rarely did she leave the house. Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking. Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this: seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only ..... but also, no sooner ..... than, not until, under no circumstances.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

KINDS OF ADVERBS

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS These are: why

,

where, how

,

when They are usually placed at the beginning of a question. Examples:

q

Why are you so late?

q

Where is my passport?

q

How are you?

q

How much is that coat?

q

When does the train arrive? Notice that how can be used in four different ways: 1. meaning 'in what way?': How did you make this sauce? How do you start the car? 2. with adjectives: How tall are you? How old is your house? 3. with much and many: How much are these tomatoes? How many people are coming to the party? 4. with other adverbs: How quickly can you read this? How often do you go to London?

KINDS OF ADVERBS

RELATIVE ADVERBS The following adverbs can be used to join sentences or clauses. They replace the more formal structure of preposition + which in a relative clause: where, when, why Examples:

q

That's the restaurant where we met for the first time. (where = at/in which)

q

I remember the day when we first met. (when = on which)

q

There was a very hot summer the year when he was born. (when = in which)

q

Tell me (the reason) why you were late home. (why = for which, but could replace the whole phrase 'the reason for which')

ADJECTIVES

Section Menu FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

s Form
s Function

s Order

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

s Forming the Comparative and Superlative

s Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives
s the + Superlative
s The Comparative + than
s As + adjective + as
s Not as + adjective + as
s Comparisons of quantity

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARATIVE + THAN To compare the difference between two people, things or events. Examples:

q

Mt. Everest is higher than Mt. Blanc.

q

Thailand is sunnier than Norway.

q

A car is more expensive than a bicycle.

q

Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

AS + ADJECTIVE + AS To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use as + adjective + as:

q

Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John. More examples:

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Moscow is as cold as St. Petersburg in the winter.

q

Ramona is as happy as Raphael.

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Einstein is as famous as Darwin.

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A tiger is as dangerous as a lion.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS Difference can also be shown by using not so/as ...as:

q

Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest

q

Norway is not as sunny as Thailand

q

A bicycle is not as expensive as a car

q

Arthur is not as intelligent as Albert
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show difference: more, less, fewer + than To show no difference: as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show difference: more, less, fewer + than Examples: With countable nouns: more / fewer

q

Eloise has more children than Chantal.

q

Chantal has fewer children than Eloise.

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There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol

q

I have visited fewer countries than my friend has.

q

He has read fewer books than she has. With uncountable nouns: more / less

q

Eloise has more money than Chantal.

q

Chantal has less money than Eloise.

q

I spend less time on homework than you do.

q

Cats drink less water than dogs.

q

This new dictionary gives more information than the old one. So, the rule is: MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable FEWER + countable nouns LESS + uncountable nouns To show no difference see next page.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY To show no difference: as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as

q

as many as / as few as + countable nouns

q

as much as / as little as + uncountable nouns Examples: With countable nouns:

q

They have as many children as us.

q

We have as many customers as them.

q

Tom has as few books as Jane.

q

There are as few houses in his village as in mine.

q

You know as many people as I do.

q

I have visited the States as many times as he has. With uncountable nouns:

q

John eats as much food as Peter.

q

Jim has as little food as Sam.

q

You've heard as much news as I have.

q

He's had as much success as his brother has.

q

They've got as little water as we have.

NOUNS

NATIONALITIES

a.

Country: I live in England.

b.

Adjective: He reads English literature.

c.

Noun: She is an Englishwoman.

COUNTRY ADJECTIVE NOUN Africa African an African America American an American Argentina Argentinian an Argentinian Austria Austrian an Austrian Autralia Australian an Australian Bangladesh Bangladesh(i) a Bangladeshi Belgium Belgian a Belgian Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian Britain British a Briton/Britisher Cambodia Cambodian a Cambodian Chile Chilean a Chilean China Chinese a Chinese Colombia Colombian a Colombian Croatia Croatian a Croat the Czech Republic Czech a Czech Denmark Danish a Dane England English

Finland Finnish France French Germany German Greece Greek Holland Dutch Hungary Hungarian Iceland Icelandic India Indian Indonesia Indonesian Iran Iranian Iraq Iraqi Ireland Irish Israel Israeli Jamaica Jamaican an

Englishman/Englishwoman a Finn a Frenchman/Frenchwoman a German a Greek a Dutchman/Dutchwoman a Hungarian an Icelander an Indian an Indonesian an Iranian an Iraqi an Irishman/Irishwoman an Israeli a Jamaican Japan Japanese a Japanese Mexico Mexican a Mexican Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan Norway Norwegian a Norwegian Peru Peruvian a Peruvian the Philippines Philippine a Filipino Poland Polish a Pole Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese Rumania Rumanian a Rumanian Russia Russian a Russian Saudi Arabia Saudi, Saudi Arabian a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian Scotland Scottish a Scot Serbia Serbian a Serb the Slovak Republic Slovak a Slovak Sweden Swedish a Swede Switzerland Swiss a Swiss Thailand Thai a Thai The USA American an American Tunisia Tunisian a Tunisian Turkey Turkish a Turk Vietnam Vietnamese a Vietnamese Wales Welsh a Welshman/Welshwoman Yugoslavia Yugoslav a Yugoslav

Note: We use the + nationality adjective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality: The Chinese are very hard-working. The Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon.
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INDEFINITE ARTICLE

A / AN Use 'a' with nouns starting with a consonant (letters that are not vowels), 'an' with nouns starting with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) Examples: A boy An apple A car An orange A house An opera NOTE: An before an h mute - an hour, an honour. A before u and eu when they sound like 'you': a european, a university, a unit The indefinite article is used:

q

to refer to something for the first time: An elephant and a mouse fell in love. Would you like a drink? I've finally got a good job.

q

to refer to a particular member of a group or class Examples:

r

with names of jobs: John is a doctor. Mary is training to be an engineer. He wants to be a dancer.

r

with nationalities and religions: John is an Englishman. Kate is a Catholic.

r

with musical instruments: Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived. (BUT to describe the activity we say "He plays the violin.")

r

with names of days: I was born on a Thursday

q

to refer to a kind of, or example of something: the mouse had a tiny nose the elephant had a long trunk it was a very strange car

q

with singular nouns, after the words 'what' and 'such': What a shame! She's such a beautiful girl.

q

meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person: I'd like an orange and two lemons please. The burglar took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting. Notice also that we usually say a hundred, a thousand, a million. NOTE: that we use 'one' to add emphasis or to contrast with other numbers: I don't know one person who likes eating elephant meat. We've got six computers but only one printer.
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EXCEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

There is no article:

q

with names of countries (if singular) Germany is an important economic power. He's just returned from Zimbabwe. (But: I'm visiting the United States next week.)

q

with the names of languages French is spoken in Tahiti. English uses many words of Latin origin. Indonesian is a relatively new language.

q

with the names of meals. Lunch is at midday. Dinner is in the evening. Breakfast is the first meal of the day.

q

with people's names (if singular): John's coming to the party. George King is my uncle. (But: we're having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.)

q

with titles and names: Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son. President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. Dr. Watson was Sherlock Holmes' friend. (But: the Queen of England, the Pope.)

q

After the 's possessive case: His brother's car. Peter's house.

q

with professions: Engineering is a useful career. He'll probably go into medicine.

q

with names of shops: I'll get the card at Smith's. Can you go to Boots for me?

q

with years: 1948 was a wonderful year. Do you remember 1995?

q

With uncountable nouns: Rice is the main food in Asia. Milk is often added to tea in England. War is destructive.

q
with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands: Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska. She lives near Lake Windermere. Have you visited Long Island?

q

with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports: Victoria Station is in the centre of London. Can you direct me to Bond Street? She lives in Florence. They're flying from Heathrow.

q
in some fixed expressions, for example: by car at school by train at work by air at University on foot in church on holiday in prison on air (in in bed broadcasting)
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THE DEMONSTRATIVES

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE 1. Function The demonstratives this, that, these, those ,show where an object or person is in relation to the speaker. This (singular) and these (plural) refer to an object or person near the speaker. That (singular) and those (plural) refer to an object or person further away. It can be a physical closeness or distance as in: Who owns that house? (distant) Is this John's house? (near) Or it can be a psychological distance as in: That's nothing to do with me.. (distant) This is a nice surprise! (near) 2. Position a) Before the noun. b) Before the word 'one'. c) Before an adjective + noun. d) Alone when the noun is 'understood'. Examples: This car looks cleaner than that one. This old world keeps turning round Do you remember that wonderful day in June? I'll never forget this.

THE POSSESSIVES

Possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives show who the thing belongs to. PERSON ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
1st (I) my mine
2nd (you) your yours
3rd (he) his his (she) her hers (it) it its Plural
1st (we) our ours
2nd (you) your yours
3rd (they) their theirs NOTE: In English, possessive adjectives and pronouns refer to the possessor, not the object or person that is possessed. Example: Jane's brother is married to John's sister. Her brother is married to his sister. Examples: a. Peter and his sister. b. Jane and her father. c. Do you know where your books are? d. Is this their picnic? No, it is ours. e. I think this is your passport. Yes, it is mine.

THE QUANTIFIERS

Quantifiers are adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate answers to the questions "How much?" and "How many?" Example: I've got a little money. I've got a lot of friends.

r

Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns

r

A few and few, a little and little

r

Some and any

r

Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO

r

Graded Quantifiers

r

Enough + Noun

THE QUANTIFIERS

Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns Adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe quantity are shown below. Some can only go with countable nouns (friends, cups, people), and some can only go with uncountable nouns (sugar, tea, money, advice). The words in the middle column can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Only with

uncountable nouns How much? a little a bit (of)
a great deal of a large amount of

With uncountable

and countable nouns How much? or How many? no/none not any some (any) a lot of plenty of lots of
Only with

countable nouns How many? a few a number (of) several a large number of a great number of

+ noun

Note: much and many are used in negative and question forms. Example:

q

How much money have you got?

q

How many cigarettes have you smoked?

q

There's not much sugar in the cupboard.

q

There weren't many people at the concert. They are also used with too, (not) so, and (not) as :There were too many people at the concert - we couldn't see the band. It's a problem when there are so many people. There's not so much work to do this week. In positive statements, we use a lot of:

q
I've got a lot of work this week.

q
There were a lot of people at the concert.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE QUANTIFIERS

A few and few, a little and little These expressions show the speaker's attitude towards the quantity he/she is referring to. A few (for countable nouns) and a little (for uncountable nouns) describe the quantity in a positive way:

q
"I've got a few friends" (= maybe not many, but enough)

q

"I've got a little money" (= I've got enough to live on) Few and little describe the quantity in a negative way:

q

Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors)

q
He had little money (= almost no money)
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE QUANTIFIERS

Some and Any Some and any are used with countable and uncountable nouns, to describe an indefinite or incomplete quantity. Some is used in positive statements:

q

I had some rice for lunch

q

He's got some books from the library. It is also used in questions where we are sure about the answer:

q

Did he give you some tea? (= I'm sure he did.)

q
Is there some fruit juice in the fridge? (= I think there is) Some is used in situations where the question is not a request for information, but a method of making a request, encouraging or giving an invitation:

q

Could I have some books, please?

q

Why don't you take some books home with you?

q

Would you like some books? Any is used in questions and with not in negative statements:

q

Have you got any tea?

q

He didn't give me any tea.

q

I don't think we've got any coffee left. More examples: SOME in positive sentences. a. I will have some news next week. b. She has some valuable books in her house. c. Philip wants some help with his exams. d. There is some butter in the fridge. e. We need some cheese if we want to make a fondue. SOME in questions: a. Would you like some help? b. Will you have some more roast beef? ANY in negative sentences a. She doesn't want any kitchen appliances for Christmas. b. They don't want any help moving to their new house. c. No, thank you. I don't want any more cake. d. There isn't any reason to complain. ANY in interrogative sentences a. Do you have any friends in London? b. Have they got any children? c. Do you want any groceries from the shop? d. Are there any problems with your work?
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THE QUANTIFIERS

Compound nouns made with SOME, ANY and NO Some + Any + -thing -body -one -where No + Compound nouns with some and any are used in the same way as some and any. Positive statements:

q

Someone is sleeping in my bed.

q
He saw something in the garden.

q

I left my glasses somewhere in the house. Questions:

q

Are you looking for someone? (= I'm sure you are)

q

Have you lost something? (= I'm sure you have)

q

Is there anything to eat? (real question)

q

Did you go anywhere last night? Negative statements:

q
She didn't go anywhere last night.

q
He doesn't know anybody here. NOTICE that there is a difference in emphasis between nothing, nobody etc. and not ... anything, not ... anybody:

q
I don't know anything about it. (= neutral, no emphasis)

q

I know nothing about it (= more emphatic, maybe defensive) More examples: SOMETHING, SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE a. I have something to tell you. b. There is something to drink in the fridge. c. He knows somebody in New York d. Susie has somebody staying with her. e. They want to go somewhere hot for their holidays. f. Keith is looking for somewhere to live. ANYBODY, ANYTHING, ANYWHERE a. Is there anybody who speaks English here? b. Does anybody have the time? c. Is there anything to eat? d. Have you anything to say? e. He doesn't have anything to stay tonight. f. I wouldn't eat anything except at Maxim's. NOBODY, NOTHING, NOWHERE a. There is nobody in the house at the moment b. When I arrived there was nobody to meet me. c. I have learnt nothing since I began the course. d. There is nothing to eat. e. There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris in the Spring. f. Homeless people have nowhere to go at night. ANY can also be used in positive statements to mean 'no matter which', 'no matter who', 'no matter what': Examples: a. You can borrow any of my books. b. They can choose anything from the menu. c. You may invite anybody to dinner, I don't mind.
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THE QUANTIFIERS

Graded Quantifiers They function like comparatives and hold a relative position on a scale of increase or decrease. INCREASE From 0% to 100% With plural countable nouns: many more most With uncountable nouns: much more most DECREASE From 100% to 0% With plural countable nouns: few fewer fewest With uncountable nouns: little less least Examples:

q

There are many people in England, more in India, but the most people live in China.

q

Much time and money is spent on education, more on health services but the most is spent on national defence.

q

Few rivers in Europe are not polluted.

q

Fewer people die young now than in the seventeenth century.

q

The country with the fewest people per square kilometre must be Australia.

q

Scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before the year 2,000.

q

She had less time to study than Paul but had better results.

q

Give that dog the least opportunity and it will bite you.
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THE QUANTIFIERS

Enough + Noun Enough is placed before the noun, to indicate the quantity required or necessary:

q
There is enough bread for lunch.

q

She has enough money. Enough is also used with adjectives and adverbs - see these sections.

q

We didn't have enough time to visit London Bridge.

q
Are there enough eggs to make an omelette?

q
Richard has enough talent to become a singing star.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES

ALL, BOTH, HALF EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER These words refer to a group of people or things, and to individual members of the group. They show different ways of looking at the individuals within a group, and they express how something is distributed, shared or divided.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE DISTRIBUTIVES

ALL, BOTH, HALF These words can be used in the following ways:
1 Uncountable noun
2 the or ALL + 3 my, your, etc. Countable noun in the plural
4a this, that Uncountable noun
4b these, those Countable noun in the plural Example:
1. All cheese contains protein All children need affection
2. All the people in the room were silent. Have you eaten all the bread?
3. I've invited all my friends to the party. I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a. Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b. Look at all those balloons!
1
2 the Countable noun in the plural BOTH +
3 my, your, etc.
4 these, those Example:
1. Both children were born in Italy.
2. He has crashed both (of) the cars.
3. Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4 You can take both (of) these books back to the library. See note below
1 a Uncountable
2 the or HALF + 3 my, your, etc. countable noun
4 this, that, these, those Example:
1. I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2. You can have half (of) the cake. She gave me half (of) the apples.
3. I've already given you half (of) my money. Half (of) his books were in French.
4 Half (of) these snakes are harmless You can take half (of) this sugar. NOTE: All, both, half + OF: 'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun: All of you; both of us; half of them It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when there is no article (No.1 in all the tables above.)

THE DISTRIBUTIVES

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER These distributive words are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed before the noun. Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns but must be followed by 'of':
Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:

q

Each child received a present.

q

Each of the children received a present.
Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members:

q

Every child in the world deserves affection. It can also express different points in a series, especially with time expressions:

q
Every third morning John goes jogging.

q
This magazine is published every other week.
Either and Neither are concerned with distribution between two things - either is positive, neither is negative:

q

Which chair do you want? Either chair will do.

q

I can stay at either hotel, they are both good

q

There are two chairs here. You can take either of them.

q

Neither chair is any good, they're both too small.

q

Which chair do you want? Neither of them - they're both too small.

DIFFERENCE WORDS

OTHER, ANOTHER These words refer to something different, remaining, or additional. They are placed before the noun. Another is used with singular nouns, other with singular or plural.

q

There are other jobs you could try.

q

Where's the other packet of cereals?

q

Is there any other bread?

q

Have another cup of tea.
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QUESTION WORDS

WHICH, WHAT, WHOSE In questions, these words ask which thing or person is being referred to. They are placed before the noun.

q

Which dress are you going to wear tonight?

q

What colour is your dress?

q

Whose car are you going to use?
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

DEFINING WORDS

WHICH AND WHOSE In a statement, these words define or explain which thing or person is referred to: Example:

q

He went back to the house. (Which house?) The house which stood on the corner. = He went back to the house which stood on the corner.

q
I saw the man. (Which man?) The man whose car you damaged. = I saw the man whose car you damaged. More examples:

q

He couldn't remember which film he had seen.

q

That's the man whose wife works in my office.

q

Tell me which coffee you like.

q

The woman whose dog bit you is at the door.

PRE-DETERMINERS

SUCH, WHAT, RATHER, QUITE These words are normally placed before the indefinite article. Such and what are often used to express surprise or other emotions: Examples: a. What a lovely day! b. She's such a lovely woman! c. What an incredible film! d. He's such a fantastic guitarist! Rather and quite are 'commenting' words, referring to the degree of a particular quality. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or other emotions, and are used before a/an + adjective + noun: Examples: a. It's rather a small car. (= I'm a bit disappointed because it's small) b. It was quite a nice day.(= I was agreeably surprised.) c. He's had quite a bad accident. (= I'm worried) d. I've just met rather a nice man. (= I'm pleased)

THE INFINITIVE

The zero infinitive is used: a. after most auxiliaries (e.g. must, can, should, may, might) b. after verbs of perception, (e.g. see, hear, feel) with the pattern verb + object + zero infinitive c. after the verbs 'make' and 'let', with the pattern make/let + object + zero infinitive d. after the expression 'had better' e. after the expression 'would rather' when referring to the speaker's own actions Examples: After auxiliaries:

q

She can't speak to you.

q

He should give her some money.

q

Shall I talk to him?

q

Would you like a cup of coffee?

q

I might stay another night in the hotel.

q

They must leave before 10.00 a.m. After verbs of perception:

q

He saw her fall from the cliff.

q

We heard them close the door.

q

They saw us walk toward the lake.

q

She felt the spider crawl up her leg. After the verbs 'make' and 'let':

q

Her parents let her stay out late.

q

Let's go to the cinema tonight.

q

You made me love you.

q

Don't make me study that boring grammar book! NOTICE that the 'to-infinitive' is used when 'make' is in the passive voice:

q
I am made to sweep the floor every day.

q
She was made to eat fish even though she hated it. After 'had better': We had better take some warm clothing. She had better ask him not to come. You'd better not smile at a crocodile! We had better reserve a room in the hotel. You'd better give me your address. They had better work harder on their grammar! After 'would rather': Note: this is ONLY when referring to the speaker's own actions - see 'would rather' in section on Unreal past.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE INFINITIVE

1. Form The infinitive is the base form of a verb. It may be preceded by 'to' (the toinfinitive) or stand alone (the base or zero infinitive). 2. Infinitive with or without 'to' The to-infinitive is used: a. after certain verbs. e.g. want, wish, agree, fail, mean, decide, learn b. after the auxiliaries to be to, to have to, and ought to c. in the pattern 'it is + adjective + to-infinitive' Examples: with 'to'

q

The elephant decided to marry the mouse

q

The mouse agreed to marry the elephant

q

You will have to ask her

q

You are to leave immediately

q

He ought to relax

q

She has to go to Berlin next week

q

It's easy to speak English

q

It is hard to change jobs after twenty years

q

It's stupid to believe everything you hear without 'to'

q

I would rather visit Rome.

q

She would rather live in Italy.

q

Would you rather eat steak or fish?

q

He would rather work in a bank.

q

I'd rather be a forest than a tree.

THE 'ZERO' CONDITIONAL

1. Form In 'zero' conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present: 'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) If + simple present If you heat ice If it rains MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT) simple present it melts. you get wet NOTE: The order of the clauses is not fixed - the 'if' clause can be first or second:

q
Ice melts if you heat it.

q

You get wet if it rains. 2. Function In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are used to make statements about the real world, and often refer to general truths, such as scientific facts. Examples: a. If you freeze water, it becomes a solid. b. Plants die if they don't get enough water. c. If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it. d. If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars. e. If you mix red and blue, you get purple. This structure is often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause:

q
If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.

q
Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.

THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
C. These are the most common of the verbs followed by a to-infinitive, with or without a noun. Example:

q

I asked him to show me the book.

q
I asked to see the book. ask* expect* beg* help choose mean* (=intend) dare request* desire* want elect wish* The verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause Note: dare: In negative and interrogative sentences the infinitive with or without 'to' is possible, though it is more common to omit the 'to':

q

I never dared tell him what happened.

q

Dare you tell him the news?

q

Would you dare (to) jump out of a plane? Examples:

q

We've chosen John to represent the company at the conference.

q

The elephant didn't mean to tread on the mouse.

q

We expect you to do your best in the exam.

q

Do you want to go to the beach?

q

Do you want me to go with you to the beach?

q

You are requested to be quiet in this library.

REPORTED SPEECH

SUMMARY OF REPORTING VERBS Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following groups. 1. Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause: ask say know see remember 2. Verbs followed by a that-clause: add admit agree announce answer argue boast claim comment complain confirm consider deny doubt reply estimate report explain reveal fear say feel state insist suggest mention suppose observe tell persuade think propose understand remark warn remember repeat 3. Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive: decide promise expect swear guarantee threaten hope 4. Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should (but note that it may be omitted, leaving a subject + zero-infinitive): advise insist recommend beg prefer request demand propose suggest 5. Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word: decide describe discover discuss explain forget guess imagine see know suggest learn teach realise tell remember think reveal understand say wonder 6. Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive advise forbid teach ask instruct tell beg invite warn command
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'- ING' FORM

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used after certain verbs. Example: miss: I miss living in England. The most important of these verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause Example: VERB She admitted... She admitted... GERUND breaking the window THAT-CLAUSE that she had broken the window. acknowledge,* admit,* anticipate,* appreciate,* avoid, celebrate, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny,* detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, entail, escape, excuse, fancy (=imagine)*, finish, forgive, imagine,* involve, keep, loathe, mean,(=have as result)* mention,* mind, miss, pardon, postpone, prevent, propose,* recall,* recollect,* remember, report,* resent, resist, risk, save (=prevent the wasted effort) stop, suggest,* understand,* Notes: Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the subject. Compare : I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...) I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...) Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said): Excuse me interrupting. Excuse me for interrupting. Excuse my interrupting. Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL. It is important not to confuse these patterns: suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund: He suggests going to Glastonbury He suggested going to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted): He suggests that I should go to Glastonbury He suggested that I should go to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests I should go to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests I go to Glastonbury He suggested I went to Glastonbury. suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive: He suggested where to go. Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest': John proposed going to the debate but by the infinitive when it means 'intend': The Government proposes bringing in new laws.. Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? section. Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think', in the expression 'I dread to think': I dread to think what she'll do next. Prevent is followed EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund: You can't prevent my leaving. OR by an object + from + gerund: You can't prevent me from leaving. Examples:

q

Normally, a mouse wouldn't contemplate marrying an elephant.

q

Most mice dread meeting elephants.

q

We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.

q

If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.

q

I can't imagine living in that big house.

q

If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London.

q

She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.

q

They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved.
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'- ING' FORM

GERUND OR INFINITIVE? The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. Usually this has no effect on the meaning, but with some verbs there is a clear difference in meaning. Verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause. Example: to prefer I prefer to live in an apartment. I prefer living in an apartment. A. Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning: allow deserve neglect attempt fear* omit begin hate* permit bother intend* prefer* cease like recommend* continue love start Notes: 1. Allow is used in these two patterns: a. Allow + object + to-infinitive: Her parents allowed her to go to the party. b. Allow + gerund: Her parents don't allow smoking in the house. 2. Deserve + gerund is not very common, but is mainly used with passive constructions or where there is a passive meaning: a. Your proposals deserve being considered in detail. b. These ideas deserve discussing. (= to be discussed). 3. The verbs hate, love, like, prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions 'would love to', 'would hate to', etc. Compare:

q

I hate to tell you, but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.

q

I hate looking after elderly relatives!

q

I love dancing.

q

I would love to dance with you.
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irregular verbs introduction page

COMMON GROUP 2 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS

Two of the three forms are the same. Examples with 'catch':
q Mary catches the bus to work every day.
q Mary caught the bus to work yesterday.
q Mary has caught the bus to work since her car broke down.

Base Past beat beat become became behold beheld bend bent beseech besought bet bet, betted bind bound bleed bled breed bred bring brought build built burn burnt, burned buy bought catch caught cling clung come came creep crept dare dared deal dealt dig dug dive dived dream dreamt dwell dwelt,dwelled feed fed feel felt fight fought find found fit fit, fitted flee fled fling flung get got gild gilt, gilded gird girt, girded grind ground

Past Participle beaten become beheld bent besought bet, betted bound bled bred brought built burnt, burned bought caught clung come crept dared dealt dug dived dreamt dwelt,dwelled fed felt fought found fit, fitted fled flung got, gotten gilt, gilded girt, girded ground

Group 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Note
regular in AE
regular in AE

regular in BE 'gotten' in AE hang hung

have had hear heard hold held keep kept kneel knelt lay laid lead led leap leapt, leaped learn learnt leave left lend lent light lit lose lost make made mean meant meet met pay paid plead pled, pleaded rend rent run ran say said seek sought sell sold send sent shine shone sit sat sleep slept slide slid sling slung slink slunk smell smelt sneak snuck, sneaked speed sped, speeded spell spelt spend spent spill spilt spin spun spit spat spoil spoilt, spoiled stand stood stick stuck sting stung strike struck sweep swept swing swung teach taught tell told hung 2
had 2
heard 2
held 2
kept 2
knelt 2
laid 2
led 2
leapt, leaped 2
learnt 2
left 2
lent 2
lit 2
lost 2
made 2
meant 2
met 2
paid 2
pled, pleaded 2
rent 2
run 2
said 2
sought 2
sold 2
sent 2
shone 2
sat 2
slept 2
slid 2
slung 2
slunk 2
smelt 2
snuck, sneaked 2
sped, speeded 2
spelt 2
spent 2
spilt 2
spun 2
spat 2
spoilt, spoiled 2
stood 2
stuck 2
stung 2
struck 2
swept 2
swung 2
taught 2
told 2
regular in AE
regular in AE

regular in AE regular in AE think

understand weep wet win wind withdraw wring thought understood wept wet, wetted won wound withdrew wrung thought 2
understood 2
wept 2
wet, wetted 2 regular in BE won 2
wound 2
withdraw 2
wrung 2
AE=American English
BE=British English
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS

Irregular verbs are the bane of students whose mother tongue is not English and who are trying to understand how these verbs are applied in various tenses. They even trip up native English speakers who aren't always sure of the form of these verbs! It isn't made any easier by the fact that some verbs are regular in American English and irregular in British English.
However, there are some general classifications that make it a little easier to remember how these
verbs are formed and to remember them when applying them in your sentences.
Irregular verbs in English fall into three categories:

1. GROUP 1: verbs where all three forms are the same - e.g. 'hit, hit, hit'
2. GROUP 2: verbs where two of the three forms are the same - e.g. 'become,

became,become '
3. GROUP 3: verbs where all three forms are different - e.g. 'choose,chose,chosen'
Common irregular verbs that differ in American English and British English

q wake can be regular in American English but is irregular in British English
q dive is irregular in American English but regular in British English
q get in American English usually has a past particple of 'gotten' while in British English the

past participle is ' got'
q wet,quit,and fit are regular in British English but irregular in American English
q learn,lean,smell,burn,dream,spill and spoil are all regular in American English while in British English they can be regular but is more common to see the past and past participles with -t added (e.g. dreamt,spoilt,spilt,smelt)
irregular verbs introduction page

COMMON GROUP 1 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
All three forms are the same.

Base Past Past Participle Group Note bid bid bid 1
cut cut cut 1
hit hit hit 1
hurt hurt hurt 1
let let let 1
put put put 1
quit quit quit 1 regular in BE read read read 1
rid rid rid 1
shut shut shut 1
split split split 1
spread spread spread 1
thrust thrust thrust 1
AE=American English
BE=British English
irregular verbs introduction page

COMMON GROUP 3 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS

All of the three forms are different. Examples with 'begin':
q I begin my day with a glass of organge juice.
q I began to study French when I was living in Paris.
q I have begun to understand my parents since I have had children of my own.

Base arise awake be bear befall beget begin bereave bestride bid bite blow blow break broadcast burst cast choose cost dive do draw drink drive eat fall fly forbear forbid forget forgive forsake

Past arose awoke, awaked was bore befell begot began bereaved bestrode bade bit blew blew broke broadcast burst cast chose cost dove did drew drank drove ate fell flew forbore forbade forgot forgave forsook

Past Participle Group Note arisen 3
awoken 3
been 3
borne 3
befallen 3
begotten 3
begun 3
bereft 3
bestridden 3
bidden 3
bitten 3
blown 3
blown 3
broken 3
broadcast 3
burst 3
cast 3
chosen 3
cost 3
dived 3 regular in BE done 3
drawn 3
drunk 3
driven 3
eaten 3
fallen 3
flown 3
forborne 3
forbidden 3
forgotten 3
forgiven 3
forsaken 3
freeze froze give gave go went grow grew hide hid know knew lie lay melt melted mow mowed ride rode ring rang rise rose rise rose see saw sew sewed shake shook shear sheared shed shed shoe shod, shoed shoot shot show showed shrink shrank sing sang sink sank slit slit smite smote speak spoke spring sprang steal stole stride strode swear swore swim swam take took tear tore throw threw tread trod tread trod undergo underwent undertake undertook wake woke wear wore weave wove write wrote AE=American English
BE=British English

frozen 3
given 3
gone 3
grown 3
hidden 3
known 3
lain 3
melted, molten 3
mown, mowed 3
ridden 3
rung 3
risen 3
risen 3
seen 3
sewn 3
shaken 3
shorn, sheared 3
shed 3
shone 3
shone 3
shown 3
shrunk 3
sung 3
sunk 3
slit 3
smitten 3
spoken 3
sprung 3
stolen 3
stridden 3
sworn 3
swum 3
taken 3
torn 3
thrown 3
trodden 3
trodden 3
undergone 3
undertaken 3
woken 3 can be regular in AE worn 3
woven 3
written 3
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ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS

Base arise awake be bear beat become befall beget begin behold bend bereave beseech bestride bet bid bid bind bite bleed blow blow break breed bring broadcast build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut dare deal

Past arose awoke, awaked was bore beat became befell begot began beheld bent bereaved besought bestrode bet, betted bade bid bound bit bled blew blew broke bred brought broadcast built burnt, burned burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dared dealt

Past Participle Group arisen 3
awoken 3
been 3
borne 3
beaten 2
become 2
befallen 3
begotten 3
begun 3
beheld 2
bent 2
bereft 3
besought 2
bestridden 3
bet, betted 2
bidden 3
bid 1
bound 2
bitten 3
bled 2
blown 3
blown 3
broken 3
bred 2
brought 2
broadcast 3
built 2
burnt, burned 2
burst 3
bought 2
cast 3
caught 2
chosen 3
clung 2
come 2
cost 3
crept 2
cut 1
dared 2
dealt 2
dig dive dive do draw dream drink drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find fit flee fling fly forbear forbid forget forgive forsake freeze get gild gird give go grind grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel know lay lead leap learn leave lend dug dove dived did drew dreamt drank drove dwelt,dwelled ate fell fed felt fought found fit, fitted fled flung flew forbore forbade forgot forgave forsook froze got gilt, gilded girt, girded gave went ground grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knew laid led leapt, leaped learnt left lent dug 2
dived 3
dived 2
done 3
drawn 3
dreamt 2
drunk 3
driven 3
dwelt,dwelled 2
eaten 3
fallen 3
fed 2
felt 2
fought 2
found 2
fit, fitted 2
fled 2
flung 2
flown 3
forborne 3
forbidden 3
forgotten 3
forgiven 3
forsaken 3
frozen 3
got, gotten 2
gilt, gilded 2
girt, girded 2
given 3
gone 3
ground 2
grown 3
hung 2
had 2
heard 2
hidden 3
hit 1
held 2
hurt 1
kept 2
knelt 2
known 3
laid 2
led 2
leapt, leaped 2
learnt 2
left 2
lent 2
let let lie lay light lit lose lost make made mean meant meet met melt melted mow mowed pay paid plead pled, pleaded put put quit quit read read rend rent rid rid ride rode ring rang rise rose rise rose run ran say said see saw seek sought sell sold send sent sew sewed shake shook shear sheared shed shed shine shone shoe shod, shoed shoot shot show showed shrink shrank shut shut sing sang sink sank sit sat sleep slept slide slid sling slung slink slunk slit slit smell smelt smite smote sneak snuck, sneaked speak spoke let 1
lain 3
lit 2
lost 2
made 2
meant 2
met 2
melted, molten 3
mown, mowed 3
paid 2
pled, pleaded 2
put 1
quit 1
read 1
rent 2
rid 1
ridden 3
rung 3
risen 3
risen 3
run 2
said 2
seen 3
sought 2
sold 2
sent 2
sewn 3
shaken 3
shorn, sheared 3
shed 3
shone 2
shone 3
shone 3
shown 3
shrunk 3
shut 1
sung 3
sunk 3
sat 2
slept 2
slid 2
slung 2
slunk 2
slit 3
smelt 2
smitten 3
snuck, sneaked 2
spoken 3
speed spell spend spill spin spit split spoil spread spring stand steal stick sting stride strike swear sweep swim swing take teach tear tell think throw thrust tread tread undergo understand undertake wake wear weave weep wet win wind withdraw wring write sped, speeded spelt spent spilt spun spat split spoilt, spoiled spread sprang stood stole stuck stung strode struck swore swept swam swung took taught tore told thought threw thrust trod trod underwent understood undertook woke wore wove wept wet, wetted won wound withdrew wrung wrote sped, speeded 2
spelt 2
spent 2
spilt 2
spun 2
spat 2
split 1
spoilt, spoiled 2
spread 1
sprung 3
stood 2
stolen 3
stuck 2
stung 2
stridden 3
struck 2
sworn 3
swept 2
swum 3
swung 2
taken 3
taught 2
torn 3
told 2
thought 2
thrown 3
thrust 1
trodden 3
trodden 3
undergone 3
understood 2
undertaken 3
woken 3
worn 3
woven 3
wept 2
wet, wetted 2
won 2
wound 2
withdraw 2
wrung 2
written 3
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
B. These are the most common of the verbs that are normally followed by a noun + infinitive. The verbs marked * may also be followed by a 'thatclause'. Example: VERB He reminded NOUN me He reminded me INFINITIVE to buy some eggs. THAT-CLAUSE that I had to buy some eggs. accustom aid appoint assist cause challenge command* defy direct* drive empower enable encourage entice entitle entreat force get implore* incite induce inspire instruct* invite lead leave (make someone responsible) tempt oblige trust* warn* Notes: order* persuade* press prompt provoke remind* require* stimulate summon teach tell command, direct, entreat, implore, order, require, trust: there is no noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

q
The general commanded his men to surrender.

q
The general commanded that his men should surrender. persuade and remind: there is always a noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

q
You can't persuade people to buy small cars.

q
You can't persuade people that small cars are better. instruct, teach, warn: the noun is optional between these verbs and a 'that-clause':

q

She taught her students to appreciate poetry.

q

She taught her students that poetry was valuable.

q

She taught that poetry was valuable. Examples:

q

The professor challenged his students to argue with his theory.

q

This law empowers the government to charge more taxes.

q

You can't force me to do something I don't agree with.

q

You are obliged to drive on the left in England.

q

I invited the new student to have dinner with me.

q

What inspired you to write this poem?

q

The elephant told the mouse to climb up his tail.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE INFINITIVE

VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
A. The to-infinitive is used after the verbs in this group, without a preceding noun. The verbs marked * can also be followed by a 'that-clause' Example: VERB I hope... I hope... TO-INFINITIVE to see you next week. THAT- CLAUSE that I'll see you next week afford agree* aim appear † arrange* bother care claim* condescend consent decide* demand* determine* endeavour fail guarantee* happen † hasten have (= be obliged) hesitate hope* learn long manage offer prepare pretend* proceed promise* propose prove (= turn out) refuse resolve* seek seem † strive swear* tend threaten* trouble undertake volunteer vow* † These verbs can only be followed by a 'that-clause' when they have the subject 'it'. e.g. It appeared that no-one had locked the door. Examples:

q

He claimed to be an expert.

q

I managed to reach the top of the hill.

q

I know you're only pretending to love me!

q

Don't pretend that you know the answer.

q

She failed to explain the problem clearly.

q

The customs man demanded to search our luggage.

q

I can't afford to go out tonight.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

TENSES

PRESENT CONTINUOUS 1. Present continuous, form The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present tense of the verb to be + the present participle of the main verb. (The form of the present participle is: base+ing, e.g. talking, playing, moving, smiling)

Affirmative Subject + to be + base+ing she is talking

Negative Subject + to be + not + base+ing she is not (isn't) talking

Interrogative to be + subject + base+ing is she talking?

Example: to go, present continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative I am going I am not going Am I going? You are going You aren't going. Are you going? He, she, it is going He, she, it isn't going Is he, she, it going? We are going We aren't going Are we going? You are going You aren't going Are you going? They are going They aren't going Are they going?

Note: alternative negative contractions: I'm not going, you're not going, he's not going etc. 2. Present continuous, function As with all tenses in English, the speaker's attitude is as important as the time of the action or event. When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something that is unfinished or incomplete. The present continuous is used:

q

to describe an action that is going on at this moment e.g. You are using the Internet. You are studying English grammar.

q

to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend, e.g. Are you still working for the same company? More and more people are becoming vegetarian.

q

to describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared (See also 'Ways of expressing the future) e.g. We're going on holiday tomorrow. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight. Are they visiting you next winter?

q

to describe a temporary event or situation, e.g. He usually plays the drums, but he's playing bass guitar tonight. The weather forecast was good, but it's raining at the moment.

q

with 'always, forever, constantly', to describe and emphasise a continuing series of repeated actions, e.g. Harry and Sally are always arguing! You're forever complaining about your mother-in-law! BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not used in the continuous form - see below. 3. Verbs that are not normally used in the continuous form The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form, because they refer to states, rather than actions or processes: List of common verbs normally used in simple form:

Senses / Perception

feel *, hear, see*, smell, taste Opinion assume, believe, consider, doubt, feel (= think), find (= consider),

suppose, think * Mental states forget, imagine, know, mean, notice, recognise, remember, understand Emotions / desires envy, fear, dislike, hate, hope, like, love, mind, prefer, regret, want,

wish Measurement contain, cost, hold, measure, weigh Others look (=resemble), seem, be (in most cases), have (when it means to

possess) *

Notes:
1. 'Perception' verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with 'can': e.g. I can see...
2. * These verbs may be used in the continuous form but with a different meaning, compare: a. This coat feels nice and warm. (= your perception of the coat's qualities) b. John's feeling much better now (= his health is improving) a. She has three dogs and a cat. (=possession) b. She's having supper. (= She's eating) a. I can see Anthony in the garden (= perception) b. I'm seeing Anthony later (= We are planning to meet) Examples:

q

I wish I was in Greece now.

q

She wants to see him now.

q

I don't understand why he is shouting.

q

I feel we are making a mistake.

q

This glass holds half a litre.
.
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TENSES

SIMPLE PAST BE CAREFUL! The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own language, but the meaning may be different. 1. Simple past, form Regular verbs: base+ed e.g. walked, showed, watched, played, smiled, stopped Irregular verbs: see list in verbs Simple past, be, have, do:

Verb Subject Be Have Do

I was had did You were had did He, she, it was had did We were had did You were had did They were had did

Affirmative a. I was in Japan last year b. She had a headache yesterday. c. We did our homework last night. Negative and interrogative Note: For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "do" as an ordinary verb, use the auxiliary "do", e.g. We didn't do our homework last night. The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the auxiliary "do", but sometimes by simply adding not or the contraction "n't". The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary "do".

q

They weren't in Rio last summer.

q

We hadn't any money.

q

We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.

q

We didn't do our exercises this morning.

q

Were they in Iceland last January?

q

Did you have a bicycle when you were a boy?

q

Did you do much climbing in Switzerland? Simple past, regular verbs Affirmative Subject I Negative Subject They Interrogative Did Did Interrogative negative Did not Didn't verb + ed washed did not didn't infinitive without to visit ... subject she infinitive without to arrive...? subject you infinitive without to like..? Example: to walk, simple past.

Affirmative
I walked
You walked

He,she,it walked We walked You walked They walked

Negative I didn't walk You didn't walk

He didn't walk We didn't walk You didn't walk They didn't walk

Interrogative Did I walk? Did you walk?

Did he walk? Did we walk? Did you walk? Did they walk?

Note: For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past, always use the auxiliary 'did''. Examples: Simple past, irregular verbs to go a. He went to a club last night. b. Did he go to the cinema last night? c. He didn't go to bed early last night. to give d. We gave her a doll for her birthday. e. They didn't give John their new address. f. Did Barry give you my passport? to come g. My parents came to visit me last July. h. We didn't come because it was raining. i. Did he come to your party last week? 2. Simple past, function The simple past is used to talk about a completed action in a time before now. Duration is not important. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past.

q

John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.

q

My father died last year.

q

He lived in Fiji in 1976.

q

We crossed the Channel yesterday. You always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is associated with certain past time expressions Examples:

q

frequency: often, sometimes, always;

q

a definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks ago.

q

an indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago etc. Note: the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is placed after the period of time e.g. a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago. Examples: a. Yesterday, I arrived in Geneva. b. She finished her work at seven o'clock. c. We saw a good film last week. d. I went to the theatre last night. e. She played the piano when she was a child. f. He sent me a letter six months ago. g. Peter left five minutes ago.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

TENSES

FUTURE FORMS Introduction There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English. It is important to remember that we are expressing more than simply the time of the action or event. Obviously, any 'future' tense will always refer to a time 'later than now', but it may also express our attitude to the future event. All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses: a. Simple prediction b. Arrangements c. Plans and intentions d. Time-tabled events e. Prediction based on present evidence f. Willingness g. An action in progress in the future h. An action or event that is a matter of routine i. Obligation j. An action or event that will take place immediately or very soon k. Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a completed action. The example sentences below correspond to the ideas above: a. There will be snow in many areas tomorrow. b. I'm meeting Jim at the airport. c. We're going to spend the summer abroad. d. The plane takes off at 3 a.m. e. I think it's going to rain! f. We'll give you a lift to the cinema. g. This time next week I'll be sun-bathing. h. You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow, won't you? i. You are to travel directly to London. j. The train is about to leave. k. A month from now he will have finished all his exams. It is clear from these examples that several tenses are used to express the future. The sections that follow show the form and function of each of these tenses.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

TENSES

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Past perfect continuous, form The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect of the verb to be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing). Examples: Subject I had been verb-ing had been walking Affirmative She Negative We Interrogative Had you had been trying hadn't been sleeping been eating Interrogative negative Hadn't they been living Example: to buy, past perfect continuous

Affirmative I had been buying You had been buying He,she,it had been buying We had been buying You had been buying They had been buying

Negative Interrogative I hadn't been buying You hadn't been buying He hadn't been buying We hadn't been buying You hadn't been buying They hadn't been buying Had I been buying? Had you been buying Had she been buying? Had we been buying? Had you been buying Had they been buying

Past perfect continuous, function The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous, but with reference to a time earlier than 'before now'. Again, we are more interested in the process. Examples: a. Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived? b. We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found her key. c. It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet. d. Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in. This form is also used in reported speech. It is the equivalent of the past continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech: Jane said "I have been gardening all afternoon."

Jane said she had been gardening all afternoon. When the police questioned him, John said "I was working late in the office that night."

When the police questioned him, John told them he had been working late in the office that night.
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TENSES

PAST PERFECT Past perfect, form The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb. Subject We had had past participle decided... Affirmative She Negative We Interrogative Had had given. hadn't asked. they arrived? Interrogative negative Hadn't you finished? Example: to decide, Past perfect

Affirmative I had decided You had decided He, she, it had decided We had decided You had decided They had decided

Negative I hadn't decided You hadn't decided He hadn't decided We hadn't decided You hadn't decided They hadn't decided

Interrogative Had I decided? Had you decided? Had she decided? Had we decided? Had you decided? Had they decided?

Past perfect, function The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first. In these examples, Event A is the first or earliest event, Event B is the second or latest event:

a. John had gone out Event A I had saved my document
b.

Event A When they arrived c. Event B

when I arrived in the office. Event B

before the computer crashed. Event B
we had already started cooking
Event A
He was very tired because he hadn't slept well.
d. Event B Event A

Past perfect + just 'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before now, e.g. a. The train had just left when I arrived at the station. b. She had just left the room when the police arrived. c. I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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TENSES

SIMPLE FUTURE Simple future, form The 'simple' future is composed of two parts: will / shall + the infinitive without 'to' Subject will He will infinitive without to leave... Affirmative I will I shall Negative They will not They won't Interrogative Will she Interrogative negative Won't she take? Contractions: I will

I'll You will

you'll He,she, will

he'll, she'll go go see see ask? We will

we'll You will

you'll They will

they'll NOTE: The form 'it will' is not normally shortened. Example: to see, simple future

Affirmative I'll see *I will/shall see You'll see He, she, it will see We'll see *We will/shall see You will see They'll see

Negative Interrogative I won't see/ I shan't see You won't see He won't see We won't see/ We shan't see You won't see They won't see Will I see?/ Shall I see? Will you see? Will she see? Will we see?/ Shall we see? Will you see? Will they see?

*NOTE: shall is slightly dated but can be used instead of will with I / we. Simple future, function The simple future refers to a time later than now, and expresses facts or certainty. In this case there is no 'attitude'. The simple future is used: a. to predict a future event: It will rain tomorrow. b. (with I/we) to express a spontaneous decision: I'll pay for the tickets by credit card. c. to express willingness: I'll do the washing-up. He'll carry your bag for you. d. (in the negative form) to express unwillingness: The baby won't eat his soup. I won't leave until I've seen the manager! e. (with I in the interrogative form) to make an offer: Shall I open the window? f. (with we in the interrogative form) to make a suggestion: Shall we go to the cinema tonight? g. (with I in the interrogative form) to ask for advice or instructions: What shall I tell the boss about this money? h. (with you) to give orders: You will do exactly as I say. i. (with you) to give an invitation: Will you come to the dance with me? Will you marry me? NOTE: In modern English will is preferred to shall. Shall is mainly used with I and we to make an offer or suggestion (see examples (e) and (f) above, or to ask for advice (example (g) above). With the other persons (you, he, she, they) shall is only used in literary or poetic situations, e.g. "With rings on her fingers and bells on her toes, She shall have music wherever she goes."
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TENSES

PAST CONTINUOUS 1. Past continuous - form. The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts : the past tense of the verb to be (was/were), and the base of the main verb +ing. Subject was/were They were base-ing watching Affirmative She was Negative She wasn't Interrogative Was she Interrogative negative Wasn't she reading reading reading? reading? Example: to play, past continuous

Affirmative

I was playing You were playing He, she, it was playing We were playing You were playing They were playing

Negative Interrogative I was not playing You were not playing She wasn't playing We weren't playing You weren't playing They weren't playing Was I playing? Were you playing? Was she playing? Were we playing? Were you playing? Were they playing?

2. Past continuous, function The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking. In other words, it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past. It is used:

q

often, to describe the background in a story written in the past tense, e.g. "The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant came out of the jungle. The other animals were relaxing in the shade of the trees, but the elephant moved very quickly. She was looking for her baby, and she didn't notice the hunter who was watching her through his binoculars. When the shot rang out, she was running towards the river..."

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to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another event or action: "I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm clock rang."

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to express a change of mind: e.g. "I was going to spend the day at the beach but I've decided to go on an excursion instead."

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with 'wonder', to make a very polite request: e.g. "I was wondering if you could baby-sit for me tonight." More examples: a. They were waiting for the bus when the accident happened. b. Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg. c. When we arrived he was having a bath. d. When the fire started I was watching television. Note: with verbs not normally used in the continuous form, the simple past is used. See list in Present continuous
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TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS Present perfect continuous, form The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements: (a) the present perfect of the verb 'to be' (have/has been), and (b) the present participle of the main verb (base+ing). Subject has/have been She has been base+ing swimming Affirmative She has been / She's been Negative She hasn't been Interrogative Has she been Interrogative negative Hasn't she been running running running? running? Example: to live, present perfect continuous

Affirmative I have been living You have been living

Negative I haven't been living You haven't been living He, she, it has been living He hasn't been living We have been living You have been living They have been living
We haven't been living
You haven't been living

Interrogative Have I been living? Have you been living? Has she been living? Have we been living? Have you been living? They haven't been living Have they been living?

Present perfect continuous, function The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between 'before now' and 'now'. The speaker is thinking about something that started but perhaps did not finish in that period of time. He/she is interested in the process as well as the result, and this process may still be going on, or may have just finished. Examples: 1. Actions that started in the past and continue in the present. a. She has been waiting for you all day (=and she's still waiting now). b. I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (=and I still haven't finished it). c. They have been travelling since last October (=and they're not home yet). 2. Actions that have just finished, but we are interested in the results: a. She has been cooking since last night (=and the food on the table looks delicious). b. It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet). c. Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone). Note: Verbs without continuous forms With verbs not normally used in the continuous form, use the present perfect simple. See list of these verbs under 'Present Continuous':

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I've wanted to visit China for years.

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She's known Robert since she was a child.

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I've hated that music since I first heard it.

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I've heard a lot about you recently.

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We've understood everything we've heard this morning.
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TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT + for, since Using the present perfect, we can define a period of time before now by considering its duration, with for + a period of time, or by considering its starting point, with since + a point in time. For + a period of time: for six years, for a week, for a month, for hours, for two hours. I have worked here for five years. Since + a point in time: since this morning, since last week, since yesterday, since I was a child, since Wednesday, since 2 o'clock. I have worked here since 1990. More examples: present perfect with for: a. She has lived here for twenty years. b. We have taught at this school for a long time. c. Alice has been married for three months. d. They have been at the hotel for a week. present perfect with since: a. She has lived here since 1980. b. We have taught at this school since 1965. c. Alice has been married since March 2nd. d. They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday. Note:
1. For and since can both be used with the past perfect.
2. Since can only be used with perfect tenses, for can also be used with the simple past.

TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT OR SIMPLE PAST? Always use the present perfect when the time is not important, or not specified. Always use the simple past when details about the time or place are specified or asked for. Compare:

Present perfect I have lived in Lyon. They have eaten Thai food. Have you seen 'Othello'?. We have been to Ireland.

Simple past I lived in Lyon in 1989. They ate Thai food last night. Where did you see 'Othello'? When did you go to Ireland?

There is also a difference of attitude that is often more important than the time factor. "What did you do at school today?" is a question about activities, and considers the school day as finished. "What have you done at school today?" is a question about results - "show me", and regards the time of speaking as a continuation of the school day.

TENSES

PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE EVENTS 1. Present continuous for the future, form See notes on form in section on Present Continuous. Subject + to be + baseing She is meeting 2. Future: Present continuous for the future, function The present continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events at a time later than now. There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event, and that some preparation has already happened. e.g. a. I'm meeting Jim at the airport = and both Jim and I have discussed this. b. I am leaving tomorrow. = and I've already bought my train ticket. c. We're having a staff meeting next Monday = and all members of staff have been told about it. More examples: a. Is she seeing him tomorrow? b. He isn't working next week. c. They aren't leaving until the end of next year. d. We are staying with friends when we get to Boston. Note: in example (a), seeing is used in a continuous form because it means meeting. BE CAREFUL! The simple present is used when a future event is part of a programme or time-table. Notice the difference between: a. We're having a staff meeting next Monday. b. We have a staff meeting next Monday.(= we have a meeting every Monday, it's on the time-table.)

TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT 1. Present perfect - form The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the section called 'Verbs'. Affirmative Subject She Negative Subject She Interrogative to have Has to have has past participle visited to have + not hasn't past participle visited subject she past participle visited..? Interrogative negative to have + not subject Hasn't she past participle visited...? Example: to walk, present perfect Affirmative

I have walked You have walked He, she, it has walked We have walked You have walked They have walked

Negative

I haven't walked You haven't walked He, she, it hasn't walked We haven't walked You haven't walked They haven't walked

Interrogative

Have I walked? Have you walked? Has he,she,it walked Have we walked? Have you walked? Have they walked?

2. Present perfect, function The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself. BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the meaning is probably NOT the same. The present perfect is used to describe:
1.An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. Example: I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
2. An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. Example: She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)
3. A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. Example: We have visited Portugal several times.
4. An action that was completed in the very recent past, (expressed by 'just'). Example: I have just finished my work.
5. An action when the time is not important. Example: He has read 'War and Peace'. (the result of his reading is important) Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past. Example: He read 'War and Peace' last week. Examples: 1. Actions started in the past and continuing in the present. a. They haven't lived here for years. b. She has worked in the bank for five years. c. We have had the same car for ten years. d. Have you played the piano since you were a child? 2. When the time period referred to has not finished. a. I have worked hard this week. b. It has rained a lot this year. c. We haven't seen her today. 3. Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now. a. They have seen that film six times. b. It has happened several times already. c. She has visited them frequently. d. We have eaten at that restaurant many times. 4. Actions completed in the very recent past (+just). a. Have you just finished work? b. I have just eaten. c. We have just seen her. d. Has he just left? 5. When the precise time of the action is not important or not known. a. Someone has eaten my soup! b. Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'? c. She's studied Japanese, Russian and English.
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'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST

In this section you will find information on sentences containing the word 'if', the use of conditional tenses, and the 'unreal past', that is, when we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to past time. IF AND THE CONDITIONAL There are four main types of 'if' sentences in English: 1. The 'zero' conditional, where the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present: 'IF' CLAUSE If + simple present If you heat ice If it rains MAIN CLAUSE simple present it melts. you get wet In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are often used to refer to general truths. 2. The Type 1 conditional, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future 'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + simple present Simple future If it rains you will get wet If you don't hurry we will miss the train. In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result. 3. The Type 2 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + simple past If it rained If you went to bed earlier MAIN CLAUSE Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so tired. In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. 4. The Type 3 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + past perfect If it had rained If you had worked harder MAIN CLAUSE Perfect conditional you would have got wet you would have passed the exam. In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed, and they refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. A further type if 'if' sentence exists, where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed. The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + past perfect If I had worked harder at school If we had looked at the map MAIN CLAUSE Present conditional I would have a better job now. we wouldn't be lost. In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL

1. Form In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future 'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) If + simple present If it rains If you don't hurry MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT) Simple future you will get wet we will miss the train. 2. Function In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result. They are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We often use such sentences to give warnings:

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If you don't leave, I'll call the police.

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If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot! Examples:

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If you drop that glass, it will break.

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Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.

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If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

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What will you do if you miss the plane? NOTE: We can use modals to express the degree of certainty of the result:

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If you drop that glass, it might break.

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I may finish that letter if I have time.

TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

1. Form In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + simple past If it rained If you went to bed earlier MAIN CLAUSE Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so tired. Present conditional, form The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.) Subject She would infinitive without to would learn Affirmative I Negative I Interrogative Would Interrogative negative Wouldn't would go wouldn't ask she come? they accept? Would: Contractions of would In spoken English, would is contracted to 'd. I'd We'd you'd you'd he'd, she'd they'd The negative contraction = wouldn't. Example: to accept, Present conditional Affirmative Negative Interrogative I would accept I wouldn't accept Would I accept? You would accept He would accept We would accept You would accept They would accept You wouldn't accept She wouldn't accept We wouldn't accept You wouldn't accept They wouldn't accept Would you accept? Would he accept? Would we accept? Would you accept? Would they accept? 2. Function In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase starting with "but", that expresses the real situation:

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If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park (...but it is bad, so we can't go)

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If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone £100. (...but I'm not, so I won't) Examples of use: 1. To make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible: I would visit her if I had time. (= I haven't got time but I might have some time) 2. To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real: If I were you, I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you) Examples: a. If I was a plant, I would love the rain. b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring. c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her. d. You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar. e. Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket? f. They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her g. We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money NOTE: It is correct, and very common, to say "If I were" instead of "If I was".
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TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

1. Form In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + past perfect If it had rained If you had worked harder MAIN CLAUSE Perfect conditional you would have got wet you would have passed the exam. Perfect conditional - form The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of two elements: would + the perfect infinitive of the main verb (=have + past participle): Subject He They Affirmative I Negative She Interrogative Would Interrogative negative Wouldn't would would would perfect infinitive have gone... have stayed... would have believed ... wouldn't have given... you have left...? he have been...? Example: to go, Past conditional

Affirmative

I would have gone You would have gone He would have gone We would have gone You would have gone They would have gone

Negative I wouldn't have gone You wouldn't have gone She wouldn't have gone We wouldn't have gone You wouldn't have gone They wouldn't have gone

Interrogative Would I have gone? Would you have gone? Would it have gone? Would we have gone? Would you have gone? Would they have gone?

In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. Type 3 conditional sentences, are truly hypothetical or unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or its result to exist. There is always an unspoken "but..." phrase:

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If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam (but I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass the exam).

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If I'd known you were coming I'd have baked a cake (but I didn't know, and I haven't baked a cake). NOTE: Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing. Remember that you NEVER use would in the IFclause, so in the example above, "If I'd known" must be "If I had known", and "I'd have baked" must be "I would have baked.." Examples: a. If I'd known you were in hospital, I would have visited you. b. I would have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday. c. If they'd had a better goalkeeper they wouldn't have lost the game. d. If you had told me you were on the Internet, I'd have sent you an e-mail. e. Would you have bought an elephant if you'd known how much they eat?
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TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT (See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present') Simple present, third person singular Note:

1.

he, she, it: in the third person singular the verb always ends in -s: he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks.

2.

Negative and question forms use DOES (=the third person of the auxiliary'DO') + the infinitive of the verb. He wants. Does he want? He does not want.

3.
Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies: fly

flies, cry

cries Exception: if there is a vowel before the y: play

plays, pray

prays

4.
Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch: he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present', and 'Be, do & have' Examples: 1. Third person singular with s or -es a. He goes to school every morning. b. She understands English. c. It mixes the sand and the water. d. He tries very hard. e. She enjoys playing the piano. 2. Simple present, form Example: to think, present simple

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I think Do I think ? I do not think. You think Do you think? You don't think. he, she, it thinks Does he, she, it think? He, she, it doesn't think. we think Do we think? We don't think. you think Do you think? You don't think.

The simple present is used:

1.

to express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and wishes: I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large city (general truth)

2.
to give instructions or directions: You walk for two hundred metres, then you turn left.

3.
to express fixed arrangements, present or future: Your exam starts at 09.00

4.

to express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as soon as, until: He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday. BE CAREFUL! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now. See Present Continuous. Examples:

1.

For habits He drinks tea at breakfast. She only eats fish. They watch television regularly.

2.

For repeated actions or events We catch the bus every morning. It rains every afternoon in the hot season. They drive to Monaco every summer.

3.

For general truths Water freezes at zero degrees. The Earth revolves around the Sun. Her mother is Peruvian.

4.

For instructions or directions Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water. You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.

5.

For fixed arrangements His mother arrives tomorrow. Our holiday starts on the 26th March

6.

With future constructions She'll see you before she leaves. We'll give it to her when she arrives.

TENSES

SUMMARY OF VERB TENSES Present tenses Simple present: She wants a drink. Present continuous: They are walking home. Past tenses Simple past: Peter lived in China in 1965. Past continuous: I was reading when she arrived. Perfect tenses Present Perfect: I have lived here since 1987. Present perfect continuous: I have been living here for years. Past perfect: We had been to see her several times before she visited us. Past perfect continuous: He had been watching her for some time when she turned and smiled. Future perfect: We will have arrived in the States by the time you get this letter. Future perfect continuous: By the end of your course, you will have been studying for five years. Future tenses Simple future: They will go to Italy next week. Future continuous: I will be travelling by train. Conditional tenses Present conditional: If he had the money he would go Present continuous conditional: He would be getting up now if he was in Australia. Perfect conditional: She would have visited me if she had had time. Perfect continuous conditional: I would have been playing tennis if I hadn't broken my arm.

TENSES

FUTURE PERFECT Future perfect, form The future perfect is composed of two elements: the simple future of the verb to have (will have) + the past participle of the main verb: Subject He will have will have past participle finished Affirmative I will have left Negative They won't have gone Interrogative Will we have seen? Interrogative negative Won't he have arrived? Example: to arrive, future perfect

Affirmative

I 'll have arrived You'll have arrived He'll have arrived We'll have arrived You'll have arrived They'll have arrived

Negative I won't have arrived You won't have arrived She won't have arrived We won't have arrived You won't have arrived They won't have arrived

Interrogative Will I have arrived? Will you have arrived? Will it have arrived? Will we have arrived? Will you have arrived? Will they have arrived?

Future perfect, function The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future. When we use this tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking back at an action that will be completed some time later than now. It is often used with a time expression using by + a point in future time. Examples: a. I'll have been here for six months on June 23rd. b. By the time you read this I'll have left. c. You will have finished your work by this time next week.

TENSES

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS Future perfect continuous, form This form is composed of two elements: the future perfect of the verb to be (will have been) + the present participle of the main verb (base+ing): Subject We will have been will have been base+ing living Affirmative I Negative I Interrogative Will will have been working won't have been working I have been working? Interrogative negative Won't I have been working? Example: to live, Future Perfect continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative I'll have been living I won't have been living Will I have been living? You'll have been You won't have been living Will you have been living He'll have been living He won't have been living

We 'll have been living You'll have been living They'll have been living

We won't have been living living? Will she have been living? Will we have been living?

You won't have been living Will you have been living? They won't have been Will they have been living living?

Future perfect continuous, function Like the future perfect simple, this form is used to project ourselves forward in time and to look back. It refers to events or actions in a time between now and some future time, that may be unfinished. Examples: a. I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock. b. By 2001 I will have been living here for sixteen years. c. By the time I finish this course, I will have been learning English for twenty years. d. Next year I will have been working here for four years.

TENSES

FUTURE CONTINUOUS Future continuous, form The future continuous is made up of two elements: the simple future of the verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing) Subject simple future, 'to be' You will be base+ing watching Affirmative I will be asking Negative She won't be leaving Interrogative Will they be retiring? Interrogative negative Won't we be staying? Example: to stay, future continuous

Affirmative I will be staying You will be staying He, she, it will be staying We will be staying You will be staying They will be staying

Negative Interrogative I won't be staying You won't be staying He won't be staying We won't be staying You won't be staying They won't be staying Will I be staying? Will you be staying? Will she be staying? Will we be staying? Will you be staying? Will they be staying?

Future continuous, function The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in progress at a time later than now. It is used: a. to project ourselves into the future and see something happening: This time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali. b. to refer to actions/events that will happen in the normal course of events: I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week. c. in the interrogative form, especially with 'you', to distinguish between a simple request for information and an invitation: Will you be coming to the party tonight? (= request for information) Will you come to the party? (= invitation) d. to predict or guess about someone's actions or feelings, now or in the future: You'll be feeling tired after that long walk, I expect. More examples: a. events in progress in the future: When you are in Australia will you be staying with friends? This time next week you will be working in your new job. At four thirty on Tuesday afternoon I will be signing the contract. b. events/actions in normal course of events: I'll be going into town this afternoon, is there anything you want from the shops? Will you be using the car tomorrow? - No, you can take it. I'll be seeing Jane this evening - I'll give her the message. c. asking for information: Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight? Will Jim be coming with us? d. predicting or guessing: You'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun. He'll be coming to the meeting, I expect. You'll be missing the sunshine now you're back in England.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes
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TENSES

PRESENT PERFECT + ever, never, already, yet The adverbs ever and never express the idea of an unidentified time before now e.g. Have you ever visited Berlin? 'Ever' is used a. in questions. e.g. Have you ever been to England? Has she ever met the Prime Minister? b. in negative questions e.g. Haven't they ever been to Europe? Haven't you ever eaten Chinese food? c. and in negative statements using the pattern nothing.......ever, nobody.......ever e.g. Nobody has ever said that to me before. Nothing like this has ever happened to us. d. 'Ever' is also used with 'The first time.... e.g. It's the first time (that) I've ever eaten snails. This is the first time I've ever been to England. 'Never' means at no time before now, and is the same as not ..... ever: I have never visited Berlin BE CAREFUL! You must not use never and not together: I haven't never been to Italy. I have never been to Italy. Position: 'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the main verb (past participle). Already and yet: Already refers to an action that has happened at an unspecified time before now. It suggests that there is no need for repetition, e.g. a. I've already drunk three coffees this morning. (and you're offering me another one!) b. Don't write to John, I've already done it. It is also used in questions: a. Have you already written to John? b. Has she finished her homework already? Position: already can be placed before the main verb (past participle) or at the end of the sentence: a. I have already been to Tokyo. b. I have been to Tokyo already. yet is used in negative statements and questions, to mean (not) in the period of time between before now and now, (not) up to and including the present. e.g. a. Have you met Judy yet? b. I haven't visited the Tate Gallery yet. c. Has he arrived yet? d. They haven't eaten yet. Position: Yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence.
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TENSES

Introduction It is important to understand the meaning and use of tenses in English. The form may be like that of a tense in your own language, but the meaning may be different, so be very careful! Summary of Verb Tenses Present tenses Simple present Present continuous Past tenses Simple past Past continuous Perfect tenses Present Perfect Present perfect continuous Past perfect Past perfect continuous Future perfect Future perfect continuous Future tenses Simple future Future continuous Conditional tenses Present conditional Present continuous conditional Perfect conditional Perfect continuous conditional

UNREAL PAST

The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an 'unreal' situation. So, although the tense is the past, we are usually talking about the present, e.g. in a Type 2 conditional sentence: If an elephant and a mouse fell in love, they would have many problems. Although fell is in the past tense, we are talking about a hypothetical situation that might exist now or at any time, but we are not referring to the past. We call this use the unreal past. Other situations where this occurs are:

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after other words and expressions like 'if' (supposing, if only, what if);

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after the verb 'to wish';

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after the expression 'I'd rather..' Expressions like 'if' The following expressions can be used to introduce hypothetical situations:
- supposing, if only, what if. They are followed by a past tense to indicate that the condition they introduce is unreal:

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Supposing an elephant and a mouse fell in love? (= but we know this is unlikely or impossible)

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What if we painted the room purple? (= that would be very surprising)

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If only I had more money. (= but I haven't). These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and then they are followed by the past perfect. Examples:

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If only I hadn't kissed the frog (= I did and it was a mistake because he turned into a horrible prince, but I can't change it now.)

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What if the elephant had trodden on the mouse? (She didn't, but we can imagine the result!)

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Supposing I had given that man my money! (I didn't, so I've still got my money now.) The verb to wish The verb to wish is followed by an 'unreal' past tense when we want to talk about situations in the present that we are not happy about but cannot change:

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I wish I had more money (=but I haven't)

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She wishes she was beautiful (= but she's not)

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We wish we could come to your party (but we can't) When we want to talk about situations in the past that we are not happy about or actions that we regret, we use the verb to wish followed by the past perfect:

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I wish I hadn't said that (= but I did)

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He wishes he hadn't bought the car (= but he did buy it.)

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I wish I had taken that job in New York (= but I didn't, so I'm stuck in Bristol) NOTE: When we want to talk about situations we are not happy about and where we want someone else to change them, we use to wish followed by would + infinitive:

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I wish he would stop smoking. (= I don't like it, I want him to change it)

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I wish you would go away. (= I don't want you here, I want you to take some action)

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I wish you wouldn't squeeze the toothpaste from the middle! (= I want you to change your habits.) I'd rather and it's time... These two expressions are also followed by an unreal past. The verb is in the past tense, but the situation is in the present. When we want to talk about a course of action we would prefer someone else to take, we use I'd rather + past tense:

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I'd rather you went

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He'd rather you called the police

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I'd rather you didn't hunt elephants. NOTE: the stress can be important in these sentences, to show what our preference is:

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I'd rather you went = not me,

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I'd rather you went = don't stay

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He'd rather you called the police = he doesn't want to

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He'd rather you called the police = not the ambulance service Similarly, when we want to say that now is a suitable moment to do something, either for ourselves or for someone else, we use it's time + past tense:

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It's (high) time I went.

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It's time you paid that bill.

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Don't you think it's time you had a haircut?

UNLESS

Unless means the same as if...not. Like if, it is followed by a present tense, a past tense or a past perfect (never by 'would'). It is used instead of if + not in conditional sentences of all types: Type 1: (Unless + present) a. You'll be sick unless you stop eating. (= You will be sick if you don't stop eating) b. I won't pay unless you provide the goods immediately. (= If you don't provide them I won't pay) c. You'll never understand English unless you study this grammar carefully. (= You'll never understand if you don't study...) Type 2: (Unless + past) a. Unless he was very ill, he would be at work. b. I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry. c. She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic. Type 3: (Unless + past perfect) a. The elephant wouldn't have seen the mouse unless she'd had perfect eyesight. b. I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it. c. They would have shot her unless she'd given them the money.

MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence: A. Present result of past condition: 1. Form The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE If + past perfect If I had worked harder at school If we had looked at the map MAIN CLAUSE Present conditional I would have a better job now. we wouldn't be lost. 2. Function In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. They express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present: 'If I had worked harder at school' is contrary to past fact - I didn't work hard at school, and 'I would have a better job now' is contrary to present fact - I haven't got a good job. If we had looked at the map (we didn't), we wouldn't be lost (we are lost). Examples:

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I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job.

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If you'd caught that plane you'd be dead now.

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If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs, you wouldn't be broke. B. Past result of present or continuing condition. 1. Form The tense in the Ifclause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional: 'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + simple past Perfect conditional If I wasn't afraid of I would have picked it up. spiders we would have sacked him months If we didn't trust him ago. 2. Function In these sentences the time in the Ifclause is now or always, and the time in the main clause is before now. They refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result: 'If I wasn't afraid of spiders' is contrary to present reality - I am afraid of spiders, and 'I would have picked it up' is contrary to past reality - I didn't pick it up.
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'If we didn't trust him' is contrary to present reality - we do trust him, and 'we would have sacked him' is contrary to past reality - we haven't sacked him. Examples: a. If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat. b. I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better. c. If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch. d. If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.
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PERFECT CONDITIONAL, CONTINUOUS

1. Perfect conditional, continuous - Form This tense is composed of two elements: the perfect condtional of the verb 'to be' (would have been) + the present participle (base+ing). Subject I We Affirmative I Negative You Interrogative Would would have been would have been would have been base+ing sitting swimming would have been studying. wouldn't have been living. we have been travelling? Interrogative negative Wouldn't it have been working? Examples: to work, Past continuous conditional

Affirmative

I would have been working You would have been working He would have been working We would have been working You would have been working They would have been working Interrogative Would I have been working? Would you have been working? Would he have been working? Would we have been working? Would you have been working? Would they have been working?

Negative I wouldn't have been working You wouldn't have been working. She wouldn't have been working We wouldn't have been working You wouldn't have been working They wouldn't have been working Interrogative negative Wouldn't I have been working? Wouldn't you have been working? Wouldn't she have been working? Wouldn't we have been working? Wouldn't you have been working? Wouldn't they have been working?

2. Function This tense can be used in Type 3 conditional sentences. It refers to the unfulfilled result of the action in the if-clause, and expresses this result as an unfinished or continuous action. Again, there is always an unspoken "but.." phrase:

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If the weather had been better (but it wasn't), I'd have been sitting in the garden when he arrived (but I wasn't and so I didn't see him).

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If she hadn't got a job in London (but she did), she would have been working in Paris (but she wasn't). Examples:

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If I'd had a ball I would have been playing football.

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If I'd had any money I'd have been drinking with my friends in the pub that night.

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If I had known it was dangerous I wouldn't have been climbing that cliff.

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She wouldn't have been wearing a seat-belt if her father hadn't told her to.
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS CONDITIONAL

In type 2 conditional sentences, the continuous form of the present conditional may be used: If I were a millionaire, I wouldn't be doing this job! 1. Present continuous conditional - form. This form is composed of two elements: the present conditional of the verb 'to be' (would be) + the present participle of the main verb (base+ing). Subject He They Affirmative We Negative You would be base+ing would be would be going living would be coming wouldn't be working Interrogative Would you be sharing? Interrogative negative Wouldn't they be playing? Example: to live, Present continuous conditional.
Affirmative
I would be
living
You would
be living
He would be
living
We would
be living
You would

be living They would be living
Negative
I wouldn't be
living
You wouldn't
be living
She wouldn't
be living
We wouldn't
be living
You wouldn't
be living

They wouldn't be living
Interrogative
Would I be
living?
Would you be
living?
Would he be
living?
Would we be
living?
Would you be

living? Would they be living?

2. Present continuous conditional - function This form is common in Type 2 conditional sentences. It expresses an unfinished or continuing action or situation, which is the probable result of an unreal condition:

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I would be working in Italy if I spoke Italian. (but I don't speak Italian, so I am not working in Italy.

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She would be living with Jack if she wasn't living with her parents. (but she is living with her parents so she's not living with Jack). More examples:

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I wouldn't be eating this if I wasn't extremely hungry.

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If I had an exam tomorrow, I'd be revising now.

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You wouldn't be smiling if you knew the truth. NOTE: This form is also found in: mixed conditional sentences (See section on Mixed Conditional Sentences); in indirect speech: She said "I'll be working in the garden."

She said she would be working in the garden. (See section on Indirect Speech)

TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENT FOR FUTURE EVENTS
1. Form - see Simple Present section.
2. Simple present for future events - function The simple present is used to make statements about events at a time later than now, when the statements are based on present facts, and when these facts are something fixed like a time-table, schedule, calendar. Examples: a. The plane arrives at 18.00 tomorrow. b. She has a yoga class tomorrow morning. c. The restaurant opens at 19.30 tonight. d. Next Thursday at 14.00 there is an English exam. Note the difference between: a. The plane leaves in ten minutes (= statement of fact) b. The plane's going to leave in ten minutes (= prediction based on present situation, meaning "...and if you don't hurry up you're going to miss it!")

TENSES

OTHER WAYS OF TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE 1. IS TO + INFINITIVE Form: This form is composed of two elements: the appropriate form of the verb to be + to (am to, are to, is to), and the infinitive of the main verb without 'to'.

.

Subject to be to infinitive without to We are to leave Affirmative She is to travel Negative You are not (aren't) to travel Interrogative Am I to travel? Interrogative negative Aren't they to travel? Function: This form refers to an obligation to do something at a time later than now. It is similar to 'must', but there is a suggestion that something has been arranged or organised for us. It is not normally used in spoken English, but might be found in spy stories, e.g. "You are to leave this room at once, and you are to travel by train to London. In London you are to pick up your ticket from Mr Smith, and you are to fly to your destination alone. When you arrive, you are to meet our agent, Mr X, who will give you further information. You are to destroy this message now." 2. BE + ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE Form: This form is composed of three elements : the appropriate form of the verb to be, present tense, + 'about to' + the infinitive of the main verb without 'to': Subject be about to infinitive without to I am about to leave She is about to arrive Function: This form refers to a time immediately after the moment of speaking, and emphasises that the event or action will happen very soon: Examples: a. She is about to leave. b. You are about to see something very unusual. c. I am about to go to a meeting - can I talk to you later? It is often used with the word 'just', which emphasises the immediacy of the action: We are just about to go to sleep. Sally is just about to take an exam. This form can also be used in the simple past tense to refer to an action that was imminent, but was interrupted. In such cases it is often followed by a 'when - clause': She was about to leave when he arrived. I was just about to telephone her when she walked into the house.
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TENSES

FUTURE WITH GOING TO 1. Future with Going to - form This form is composed of three elements: the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + going to + the infinitive of the main verb: Subject 'to be' going to infinitive She is going to leave 2. Future with Going to - function The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong association with the present. The time is not important - it is later than now, but the attitude is that the event depends on a present situation, that we know about. So it is used: a) to refer to our plans and intentions: We're going to move to London next year. (= the plan is in our minds now.) b) to make predictions based on present evidence: Look at those clouds - it's going to pour with rain! (= It's clear from what I can see now.) Note: In everyday speech, 'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna', especially in American English. More examples: Plans and intentions: a. Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon? b. Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy? c. I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week. Predictions based on present evidence: a. There's going to be a terrible accident! b. He's going to be a brilliant politician. c. I'm going to have terrible indigestion. NOTE: It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...' Instead, we use 'going to' + a place or event: Examples: We are going to the beach tomorrow. She is going to the ballet tonight. Are you going to the party tomorrow night?

NOUNS

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS WITH NOUNS Capital letters are used with: Names and titles of people a. Winston Churchill b. Marilyn Monroe c. the Queen of England d. the President of the United States e. the Headmaster of Eton f. Doctor Mathews g. Professor Samuels. Note: The personal pronoun 'I' is always written with a capital letter. Titles of works, books etc. a. War and Peace b. The Merchant of Venice c. Crime and Punishment d. Tristan and Isolde Months of the year January February March April May June Days of the week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Seasons Spring Summer Autumn Winter Holidays July August September October November December Friday Saturday Sunday Christmas Easter New Year's Day May DayBoxing Day Thanksgiving Day Geographical names... names of countries and continents America England China Peru Africa Europe names of regions, states, districts etc. Scotland Albania Asia California Tuscany Costa Brava Sussex Provence Florida Queensland Vaud Tyrol names of cities, towns, villages etc. London Cape Town Florence Bath Vancouver Wellington Rome Wagga Wagga Peking names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes etc. the Atlantic Lake Leman the Rhine the Dead Sea Lake Victoria the Thames the Pacific Lake Michigan the Nile names of geographical formations the Himalayas the Alps the Sahara Adjectives relating to nationality nouns France - French music Australia - Australian animals Germany - German literature Arabia - Arabic writing Indonesia - Indonesian poetry China - Chinese food Names of streets, buildings, parks etc. Park Lane George Street Hyde Park Central Avenue Sydney Opera House the Empire State Building Pall Mall Central Park Wall Street
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NOUNS

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS Countable nouns are for things we can count Example: dog, horse, man, shop, idea. They usually have a singular and plural form. Example: two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas. Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count Example: tea, sugar, water, air, rice. They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities. Example: knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love. They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. We cannot say sugars, angers, knowledges. Examples of common uncountable nouns: money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge. We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of one of these nouns, use a word or expression like: some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of... Examples:

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There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.

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He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.

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They've got a lot of furniture.

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Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns? Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. Some of the most common of these are: accommodation advice baggage behaviour bread furniture information luggage news progress traffic travel trouble weather work BE CAREFUL with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountable in English: She has long blonde hair It can also be countable when referring to individual hairs: My father's getting a few grey hairs now See also Adjectives - Comparisons of quantity
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REPORTED SPEECH

CHANGE OF TIME AND PLACE REFERENCE Time/place references are also changed in reported speech Examples: "I will see you here tomorrow", she said.

She said that she would see me there the next day. The most common of these changes are shown below:
Today
"I saw him today", she said.

that day She said that she had seen him that day. Yesterday

"I saw him yesterday", she said.
The day before yesterday
"I met her the day before yesterday", he

said. Tomorrow

"I'll see you tomorrow", he said The day after tomorrow

"We'll come the day after tomorrow",

they said. Next week/month/year

"I have an appointment next week", she

said. Last week/month/year

"I was on holiday last week", he told us.

ago

"I saw her a week ago," he said. this (for time)

"I'm getting a new car this week", she
said.
the day before
She said that she had seen him the day

before . two days before He said that he had met her two days

before . the next/following day He said that he would see me the next day. in two days time/ two days later They said that they would come in two days

time/ two days later . the following week/month/year She said that she had an appointment the

following week . the previous/week/month/year He told us that he had been on holiday the

previous week . before He said he had seen her a week before. that She said she was getting a new car that

week. this/that (adjectives)

the

"Do you like this shirt?" he asked here

He said, "I live here". He asked if I liked the shirt. there He told me he lived there.

Other changes: In general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural, except when the speaker reports his own words: I/me/my/mine, you/your/yours

him/his/her/hers we/us/our/ours, you/your/yours

they/their/theirs: He said: "I like your new car."

He told her that he liked her new car. I said: "I'm going to my friend's house."

I said that I was going to my friend's house.
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REPORTED SPEECH

TENSE CHANGES Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech: She said, "I am tired."

She said that she was tired. The changes are shown below:

Simple present "I always drink coffee", she said Present continuous "I am reading a book", he explained.
Simple past
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.

Present perfect "I have been to Spain", he told me. Past perfect "I had just turned out the light," he

explained. Present perfect continuous They complained, "We have been waiting

for hours". Past continuous "We were living in Paris", they told me.

Simple past She said that she always drank coffee.

Past continuous He explained that he was reading a

book

Past perfect He said that Bill had arrived on

Saturday

Past perfect He told me that he had been to Spain

Past perfect He explained that he had just turned

out the light.

Past perfect continuous They complained that they had been

waiting for hours.

Past perfect continuous They told me that they had been living
in Paris.
Future

Present conditional "I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said Future continuous

She said, " I'll be using the car next Friday".

He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Conditional continuous
She said that she would be using the car
next Friday.

NOTE: 1. You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g. He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one. We explained that it is very difficult to find our house. 2. These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g. We explained that it could be difficult to find our house. She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
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THE INFINITIVE

INFINITIVE AFTER QUESTION WORDS These verbs: ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, understand, can be followed by a question word such as where, how, what, who, when or 'whether' + the 'to-infinitive'. Examples:

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She asked me how to use the washing machine.

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Do you understand what to do?

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Tell me when to press the button.

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I've forgotten where to put this little screw.

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I can't decide whether to wear the red dress or the black one. The question word Why is followed by the zero infinitive in suggestions: Examples:

q

Why wait until tomorrow?

q

Why not ask him now?

q

Why walk when we can go in the car?

q

Why not buy a new bed for your bedroom?

q

Why leave before the end of the game?

q

Why not spend a week in Beirut and a week in Baghdad?
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THE INFINITIVE

NEGATIVE INFINITIVE To form the negative infinitive, place not before the to or zero infinitive: e.g. not to worry: It's hard not to worry about exams. Examples:

q

I decided not to go to London.

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He asked me not to be late.

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Elephants ought not to marry mice.

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You'd better not smile at the crocodile.

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I'd rather not eat meat.
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THE INFINITIVE

OTHER FORMS The infinitive can have the following forms:

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The perfect infinitive

q

The continuous infinitive

q

The perfect continuous infinitive

q

The passive infinitive NOTE: as with the present infinitive, there are situations where the to is omitted, e.g. after most modal auxiliaries. The perfect infinitive: to have + past participle, e.g. to have broken, to have seen, to have saved. This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional perfect, e.g. If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. Examples:

q

Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.

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I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.

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He pretended to have seen the film.

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If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it. The continuous infinitive: to be + present participle, e.g.to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting Examples:

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I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now.

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You must be joking!

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I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened. The perfect continuous infinitive: to have been + present participle Examples: to have been crying to have been waiting to have been painting

q

The woman seemed to have been crying.

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You must have been waiting for hours!

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He pretended to have been painting all day. The passive infinitive: to be + past participle, e.g. to be given, to be shut, to be opened Examples:

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I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.

q

These doors should be shut.

q

This window ought to be opened.
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THE INFINITIVE

FUNCTION The most common uses of the infinitive are: To indicate the purpose or intention of an action (where the 'to' has the same meaning as 'in order to' or 'so as to'):

q

She's gone to collect her pay cheque.

q

The three bears went into the forest to find firewood. As the subject of the sentence:

q

To be or not to be, that is the question.

q

To know her is to love her. (Note: this is more common in written English than spoken) With nouns or pronouns, to indicate what something can be used for, or what is to be done with it:

q

Would you like something to drink?

q

I haven't anything to wear.

q

The children need a garden to play in. After adjectives in these patterns:

q

It is + adjective +to-infinitive It is good to talk

q

It is + adjective + infinitive + for someone + toinfinitive. It is hard for elephants to see mice

q

It is + adjective + infintive + of someone + toinfinitive. It is unkind of her to say that. After an adjective + noun when a comment or judgement is being made:

q

It was a stupid place to park the car.

q

This is the right thing to do.

q

It was an astonishing way to behave. With too and enough in these patterns: too much/many (+ noun) + to-infinitive There's too much sugar to put in this bowl. I had too many books to carry. too + adjective + to-infinitive This soup is too hot to eat. She was too tired to work. too + adverb + to-infinitive He arrived too late to see the actors. enough (+ noun) + to-infinitive I've had enough (food) to eat. adjective + enough + to-infinitive She's old enough to make up her own mind. not enough (+noun) + to-infinitive There isn't enough snow to ski on. not + adjective + enough + to-infinitive You're not old enough to have grandchildren!
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TO GET

TO GET + direct object = to obtain, to receive, to buy: To obtain

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She got her driving license last week.

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They got permission to live in Switzerland. To receive

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I got a letter from my friend in Nigeria.

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He gets £1,000 a year from his father. To buy

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She got a new coat from Zappaloni in Rome.

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We got a new television for the sitting room. TO GET + place expression = reach, arrive at a place:

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We got to London around 6 p.m.

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What time will we get there?

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When did you get back from New York? TO GET + adjective = to become, show a change of state:

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It's getting hotter.

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By the time they reached the house they were getting hungry.

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I'm getting tired of all this nonsense.

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My mother's getting old and needs looking after.

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It gets dark very early in the winter.

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Don't touch the stove until is gets cool. TO GET + preposition / adverb is used in many phrasal verbs. Here are some of the most common ones: Phrasal Verb get at get away with get by get down Meaning try to express escape punishment for a crime or bad action manage (financially) descend; depress get off get on get out of get over get through get up get up to leave a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane) enter/sit on a form of transport (train, bus, bicycle, plane); have a relationship with someone; manage avoid doing something, especially a duty recover (from an illness, a surprise) use or finish the supply of something leave your bed do - usually something bad Examples: a. He got on his bicycle and rode down the street. b. He gets up at 6.00 a.m. every morning. c. She got out of the washing-up every day, even when it was her turn. d. We got off the train just before the bomb exploded. e. We've got through all the sugar - can you buy some more? f. The children are very quiet - I wonder what they're getting up to.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

TO GET

'To get' can be used in a number of patterns and has a number of meanings. TO GET + direct object = obtain, receive, buy. Example: I got my passport last week.

More Examples

TO GET + place expression = reach, arrive at a place. Example: How are you getting home tonight?

More Examples

TO GET + adjective = become, show a change of state. Example: I am getting old.

More Examples

TO GET + preposition/adverb is used in many phrasal verbs. Example: This rain is really getting me down.

More Examples

TO GET has a number of other meanings: a. Do you get it? (= understand) b. He's getting dinner tonight. (= prepare a meal) c. I'll get the bill. (= pay) d. That really gets me! (= irritate, annoy) Other expressions with GET:

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To get rid of something means to throw it away. Example: I'm going to get rid of all these old newspapers.

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To get out of be on the wrong side means to be in a bad mood. Example: He got out of the wrong side of the bed this morning and he's been horrible all day.

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To get your own back means to have your revenge or punish someone. Example: She's getting her own back for all those rude things you said at the party last night.

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:

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by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)

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by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech). Direct Speech Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between inverted commas ("....") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation Examples: She says "What time will you be home?" She said "What time will you be home?" and I said "I don't know! " "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone. John said, "There's an elephant outside the window." Reported Speech Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used. She said, "I saw him."

She said that she had seen him.

a.

'That' may be omitted: She told him that she was happy. She told him she was happy.

b.

'Say' and 'tell': Use 'say' when there is no indirect object: He said that he was tired. Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object): He told me that he was tired. 'Talk' and 'speak' are used:
- to describe the action of communicating: He talked to us. She was speaking on the telephone.
- with 'about' to refer to what was said: He talked (to us) about his parents.

REPORTED SPEECH

HOPES, INTENTIONS, PROMISES When we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriate reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive: "I'll pay you the money tomorrow."

He promised to pay me the money the next day. He promised that he would pay me the money the next day. Other verbs used in this pattern include: hope, propose, threaten, guarantee, swear. Examples:

a.

"I'll be back by lunchtime." He promised to be back by lunchtime. He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.

b.

"We should arrive in London before nightfall." They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall. They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.

c.

"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!" He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe. He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe. Note: see also Summary of Reporting Verbs.

REPORTED SPEECH

ORDERS, REQUESTS, SUGGESTIONS 1. When we want to report an order or request, we can use a verb like 'tell' with a to-clause. Examples: He told me to go away. The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause. (The indirect object is the person spoken to.) Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are: command, order, warn, ask, advise, invite, beg, teach, forbid. Examples: a. The doctor said to me, "Stop smoking!".

The doctor told me to stop smoking. b. "Get out of the car!" said the policeman.

The policeman ordered him to get out of the car. c. "Could you please be quiet," she said.

She asked me to be quiet. d. The man with the gun said to us, "Don't move!"

The man with the gun warned us not to move. (See also section on Verbs followed by infinitive and Verbs followed by gerund) 2. Requests for objects are reported using the pattern ask + for + object: Examples: a. "Can I have an apple?", she asked.

She asked for an apple. b. "Can I have the newspaper, please?"

He asked for the newspaper. c. "May I have a glass of water?" he said.

He asked for a glass of water. d. "Sugar, please."

She asked for the sugar. e. "Could I have three kilos of onions?"

He asked for three kilos of onions. 3. Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause. 'That' and 'should' are optional in these clauses: She said: "Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?"

She suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the car. OR She suggested I get a mechanic to look at the car. Other reporting verbs used in this way are: insist, recommend, demand, request, propose. Examples: a. "It would be a good idea to see the dentist", said my mother.

My mother suggested I see the dentist. b. The dentist said, "I think you should use a different toothbrush".

The dentist recommended that I should use a different toothbrush. c. My manager said, "I think we should examine the budget carefully at this meeting."

My manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully at the meeting. d. "Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said.

She suggested that I sleep overnight at her house. Notes: Suggest can also be followed by a gerund: I suggested postponing the visit to the dentist. See also Summary of Reporting Verbs.
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'- ING' FORM

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND The gerund is used after certain verbs. Example: miss: I miss living in England. The most important of these verbs are shown below. Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause Example: VERB She admitted... She admitted... GERUND breaking the window THAT-CLAUSE that she had broken the window. acknowledge,* admit,* anticipate,* appreciate,* avoid, celebrate, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny,* detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, entail, escape, excuse, fancy (=imagine)*, finish, forgive, imagine,* involve, keep, loathe, mean,(=have as result)* mention,* mind, miss, pardon, postpone, prevent, propose,* recall,* recollect,* remember, report,* resent, resist, risk, save (=prevent the wasted effort) stop, suggest,* understand,* Notes: Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the gerund does not refer to the subject. Compare : I appreciate having some time off work. (I'm having the time...) I appreciate your giving me some time off work. (You're giving me the time...) Excuse, forgive, pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for + object and the gerund (both common in spoken English), or a possessive adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said): Excuse me interrupting. Excuse me for interrupting. Excuse my interrupting. Suggest can be used in a number of ways, but BE CAREFUL. It is important not to confuse these patterns: suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund: He suggests going to Glastonbury He suggested going to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should may be omitted): He suggests that I should go to Glastonbury He suggested that I should go to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests I should go to Glastonbury He suggested/suggests I go to Glastonbury He suggested I went to Glastonbury. suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive: He suggested where to go. Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest': John proposed going to the debate but by the infinitive when it means 'intend': The Government proposes bringing in new laws.. Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive, but there is a change of meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? section. Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think', in the expression 'I dread to think': I dread to think what she'll do next. Prevent is followed EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund: You can't prevent my leaving. OR by an object + from + gerund: You can't prevent me from leaving. Examples:

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Normally, a mouse wouldn't contemplate marrying an elephant.

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Most mice dread meeting elephants.

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We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.

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If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.

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I can't imagine living in that big house.

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If you buy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to London.

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She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.

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They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather improved.

REPORTED SPEECH

QUESTIONS 1. Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did': "Where does Peter live?"

She asked him where Peter lived. 2. Yes / no questions: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if / whether + clause: a. "Do you speak English?"

He asked me if I spoke English. b. "Are you British or American?"

He asked me whether I was British or American. c. "Is it raining?"

She asked if it was raining. d. "Have you got a computer?"

He wanted to know whether I had a computer. e. "Can you type?"

She asked if I could type. f. "Did you come by train?"

He enquired whether I had come by train. g. "Have you been to Bristol before?"

She asked if I had been to Bristol before. 3. Question words: This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') + question word + clause. The clause contains the question, in normal word order and with the necessary tense change. Examples: a. "What is your name?" he asked me.

He asked me what my name was. b. "How old is your mother?", he asked.

He asked how old her mother was. c. The mouse said to the elephant, "Where do you live?"

The mouse asked the elephant where she lived. d. "What time does the train arrive?" she asked.

She asked what time the train arrived. e. "When can we have dinner?" she asked.

She asked when they could have dinner. f. The elephant said to the mouse, "Why are you so small?"

The elephant asked the mouse why she was so small.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES The information in these clauses is not essential. It tells us more about someone or something, but it does not help us to identify them or it. Compare:
1. Elephants that love mice are very unusual. (This tells us which elephants we are talking about).
2. Elephants, which are large and grey, can sometimes be found in zoos. (This gives us some extra information about elephants - we are talking about all elephants, not just one type or group). 3. John's mother, who lives in Scotland, has 6 grandchildren. (We know who John's mother is, and he only has one. The important information is the number of grandchildren, but the fact that she lives in Scotland might be followed with the words "by the way" - it is additional information). Punctuation Non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The commas have a similar function to brackets: My friend John has just written a best-selling novel. (He went to the same school as me) > My friend John, who went to the same school as me, has just written a best-selling novel. Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses Person Thing Place Subject who which Object who/whom which where Possessive whose Notes:
1. In non-defining clauses, you cannot use ‘that’ instead of who, whom or which.
2. You cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause: He gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope. He gave me the letter, which I read immediately 3. The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause, e.g. This is Stratford-on-Avon, which you have all heard about. This pattern is often used in spoken English, but in written or formal English you can also put the preposition before the pronoun: e.g. Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written is Shakespeare’s birthplace. 4. Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of, many of + relative pronoun: Person Thing all of + whom + which any of + whom + which (a) few of + whom + which both of + whom + which each of + whom + which either of + whom + which half of + whom + which many of + whom + which most of + whom + which much of + whom + which none of + whom + which one of + whom + which two of etc… + whom + which Examples: a. There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom I had known for years. b. He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken. 5. The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause, can refer to all the information contained in the previous part of the sentence, rather than to just one word. a. Chris did really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= the fact that he did well in his exams was a big surprise). b. An elephant and a mouse fell in love, which is most unusual. (= the fact that they fell in love is unusual). Examples: a. My grandmother, who is dead now, came from the North of England. b. I spoke to Fred, who explained the problem. c. The elephant looked at the tree, under which she had often sat. d. We stopped at the museum, which we’d never been into. e. She’s studying maths, which many people hate. f. I’ve just met Susan, whose husband works in London. g. He had thousands of books, most of which he had read.

RELATIVE CLAUSE

WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A RELATIVE CLAUSE There are often prepositions in relative clauses, and the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition. This means that the preposition can sometimes be omitted.

1.
The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause: Is that the man (who) you arrived with? Do you know the girl (that) John is talking to?

2.
In formal or written English, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun, and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted: The person with whom he is negotiating is the Chairman of a large company. It is a society to which many important people belong. However, this is unusual in spoken English. Examples:

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The jungle the elephant lived in was full of strange and unusual animals.

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He was very fond of the mouse that he lived with.

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The tree under which they had their home was the largest and oldest in the jungle.

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In the middle of the jungle was a river that all the animals went to every day.

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It was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse preferred to swim.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES As the name suggests, these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are talking about. Obviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved. Example: Elephants who marry mice are very unusual. In this sentence we understand that there are many elephants, but it is clear that we are only talking the ones who marry mice. Punctuation Commas are not used in defining relative clauses. Relative pronouns The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses:

Person Subject who/that Object who/whom/that/ø Possessive whose Thing Place Time Reason which/that which/that/ø where when why whose

Notes: 1. The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun. This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence:

The woman who/that

Noun, relative subject of pronoun main clause referring to 'the woman', subject of 'spoke'
spoke at the meeting was very knowledgeable.
verb + rest of relative verb + rest of main clause
clause

2. Who, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spoken English.
3. The relative pronoun can be omitted (ø) when it is the object of the clause: The mouse that the elephant loved was very beautiful. OR The mouse the elephant loved was very beautiful. Both of these sentences are correct, though the second one is more common in spoken English.
The mouse that/ø the elephant loved was very beautiful.

Noun, subject of main clause relative verb + rest of verb + rest of main pronoun, relative clause clause. referring to 'the mouse, object of 'loved'

(You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by another subject + verb.) 4. Whose is used for things as well as for people. Examples: The man whose car was stolen. A tree whose leaves have fallen. 5. Whom is very formal and is only used in written English. You can use who/that, or omit the pronoun completely : The doctor whom/who/that/ø I was hoping to see wasn't on duty. 6. That normally follows words like something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives. Examples:

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There's something that you should know.

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It was the best film that I've ever seen. Examples:

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A clown is someone who makes you laugh.

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An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.

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The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. I have eaten them.

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Where are the plums (that) I put in the fridge?

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Has anyone seen the book I was reading?

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Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.

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Let's go to a country where the sun always shines.

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They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

See also Pronouns. There are two different types of relative clause:

1.

A "defining" or identifying clause, which tells us which person or thing we are talking about.

2.

A "non-defining" or non-essential clause, which gives us more information about the person or thing we are talking about. This kind of clause could often be information included in brackets (...) Example: The farmer (his name was Fred) sold us some potatoes.

The farmer, whose name was Fred, sold us some potatoes. It is important to see the difference between the two types of clause, as it affects: a. the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause, b. the punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause.

'- ING' FORM

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the following ways: a. as part of the continuous form of a verb (See continuous tenses in VERB TENSES) Example: I am working, he was singing, they have been walking. b. after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle Example:

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She went shopping

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He lay looking up at the clouds

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She came running towards me This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go', as in these common expressions : to go shopping to go ski-ing to go fishing to go surfing to go walking to go swimming to go running to go dancing c. after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle Example: I heard someone singing. He saw his friend walking along the road. I can smell something burning! NOTE: There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a zero-infinitive rather than a participle. The infinitive refers to a complete action, but the participle refers to an incomplete action, or part of an action. Compare:

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I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her, and probably went on afterwards)

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I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance) d. as an adjective Examples: amazing, worrying, exciting, boring.

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It was an amazing film.

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It's a bit worrying when the police stop you

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Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.

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Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.

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He was trapped inside the burning house.

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Many of his paintings depict the setting sun. e. with the verbs spend and waste, in the pattern: verb + time/money expression + present participle Example:

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My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.

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Don't waste time playing computer games!

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They've spent the whole day shopping. f. with the verbs catch and find, in the pattern: verb + object + present participle: With catch, the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance or anger:

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If I catch you stealing my apples again, there'll be trouble!

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Don't let him catch you reading his letters. This is not the case with find, which is unemotional:

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We found some money lying on the ground.

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They found their mother sitting in the garden. g. to replace a sentence or part of a sentence: When two actions occur at the same time, and are done by the same person or thing, we can use a present participle to describe one of them:

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They went out into the snow. They laughed as they went.

They went laughing out into the snow.

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He whistled to himself. He walked down the road.

Whistling to himself, he walked down the road. When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person or thing, we can express the first action with a present participle:

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He put on his coat and left the house.

Putting on his coat, he left the house.

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She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air.

Dropping the gun, she put her hands in the air. The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as, since, because, and it explains the cause or reason for an action:

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Feeling hungry, he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge. (= because he felt hungry...)

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Being poor, he didn't spend much on clothes.

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Knowing that his mother was coming, he cleaned the flat.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

'- ING' FORM

INTRODUCTION The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund. The form is identical, the difference is in the function, or the job the word does in the sentence. The present participle: This is most commonly used:

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as part of the continuous form of a verb, he is painting; she has been waiting

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after verbs of movement/position in the pattern: verb + present participle, She sat looking at the sea

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after verbs of perception in the pattern: verb + object + present participle, We saw him swimming

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as an adjective, e.g. amazing, worrying, exciting, boring The gerund: This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used:

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as the subject of the sentence: Eating people is wrong.

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after prepositions: Can you sneeze without opening your mouth? She is good at painting

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after certain verbs, e.g. like, hate, admit, imagine

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in compound nouns, e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, birdwatching, trainspotting

NOUNS

THE PLURAL OF NOUNS Most nouns form the plural by adding s or es. Singular Plural boat boats hat hats house houses river rivers A noun ending in y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies. Singular Plural a cry cries a fly flies a nappy nappies a poppy poppies a city cities a lady ladies a baby babies There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. Some of the most common ones are listed below. Examples of irregular plurals: Singular woman man child tooth foot person leaf half knife wife life loaf potato Plural women men children teeth feet people leaves halves knives wives lives loaves potatoes cactus focus fungus nucleus syllabus analysis diagnosis oasis thesis crisis phenomenon criterion datum cacti foci fungi nuclei syllabi/syllabuses analyses diagnoses oases theses crises phenomena criteria data Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. Examples: Singular Plural sheep sheep fish fish species species aircraft aircraft Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb. Examples: news

The news is on at 6.30 p.m. athletics

Athletics is good for young people. linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language. darts

Darts is a popular game in England. billiards

Billiards is played all over the world. Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb. Examples: trousers

My trousers are too tight. jeans

Her jeans are black. glasses

Those glasses are his. others include: savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits
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THE PASSIVE VOICE

PASSIVE, FORM The passive voice in English is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + the past participle of the verb in question: Subject verb 'to be' The house was past participle built ... Example: to clean

Subject verb 'to be' Simple present: The house is Present continuous:

past participle cleaned every day. The house is being cleaned at the moment.

Simple past: The house Past continuous: The house Present perfect: The house Past perfect: The house Future: The house

was cleaned yesterday. was being cleaned last week. has been cleaned since you left. had been cleaned before their arrival. will be cleaned next week.

Future continuous: The house will be being Present conditional: The house would be Past conditional: The house would have been

cleaned tomorrow. cleaned if they had visitors. cleaned if it had been dirty.

NOTE: 'to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense: I was born in 1976. When were you born? BUT: Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
Infinitive form: infinitive of 'to be' + past participle: (to) be cleaned This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an infinitive, e.g. You have to be tested on your English grammar John might be promoted next year. She wants to be invited to the party.
Gerund or -ing form: being + past participle: being cleaned This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund Examples: a. Most film stars hate being interviewed. b. I remember being taught to drive. c. The children are excited about being taken to the zoo. NOTE: Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the verb to be: a. He got arrested for dangerous driving. b. They're getting married later this year. c. I'm not sure how the window got broken.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

THE PASSIVE VOICE

PASSIVE, FUNCTION The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an action rather than the person or object that performs the action, e.g.

q

The passive is used ...: We are interested in the passive, not who uses it.

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The house was built in 1654: We are interested in the house, not the builder.

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The road is being repaired: We are interested in the road, not the people repairing it. In other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence. Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or cannot express who or what performed the action:

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I noticed that a window had been left open

q
Every year people are killed on our roads. If we want to say who or what performs the action, we use the preposition by:

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"A Hard Day's Night" was written by the Beatles

q

ET was directed by Spielberg The passive voice is often used in formal or scientific texts:

q

A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words.

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Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases.

q
Waste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

GET / HAVE SOMETHING DONE This construction is passive in meaning. It may describe situations where we want someone else to do something for us. Examples: a. I must get / have my hair cut. b. When are you going to get that window mended? c. We're having the house painted. If the verb refers to something negative or unwanted, it has the same meaning as a passive sentence: d. Jim had his car stolen last night. (= Jim's car was stolen) e. They had their roof blown off in the storm. (= Their roof was blown off in the storm) The construction can refer to the completion of an activity, especially if a time expression is used: f. We'll get the work done as soon as possible. g. I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime. In all these sentences, we are more interested in the result of the activity than in the person or object that performs the activity. 'X' NEEDS DOING In the same way, this construction has a passive meaning. The important thing in our minds is the person or thing that will experience the action, e.g. a. The ceiling needs painting (= the ceiling needs to be painted) b. My hair needs cutting (= my hair needs to be cut)

THE PASSIVE VOICE

PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS Notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as the tense of the main verb in the active voice. Example: to keep

TENSE / VERB FORM Simple present Present continuous Simple past Past continuous Present perfect Past perfect future Conditional present Conditional past present infinitive perfect infinitive present participle/gerund perfect participle

ACTIVE VOICE keeps is keeping kept was keeping have kept had kept will keep would keep would have kept to keep to have kept keeping having kept

PASSIVE VOICE is kept is being kept was kept was being kept have been kept had been kept will be kept would be kept would have been kept to be kept to have been kept being kept having been kept

Example sentences: Active: I keep the butter in the fridge. Passive: The butter is kept in the fridge. Active: They stole the painting. Passive: The painting was stolen. Active: They are repairing the road. Passive: The road is being repaired. Active: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Passive: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. Active: A dog bit him. Passive: He was bitten by a dog.

NOUNS

COMPOUND NOUNS Formation Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The second part identifies the object or person in question (man, friend, tank, table, room). The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is (police, boy, water, dining, bed): What type / what purpose What or who police man boy friend water tank dining table bed room The two parts may be written in a number of ways :
1. as one word. Example: policeman, boyfriend
2. as two words joined with a hyphen. Example: dining-table
3. as two separate words. Example: fish tank. There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you know well as one word, and the others as two words. The two parts may be: noun + noun noun + verb Examples: bedroom water tank motorcycle printer cartridge rainfall haircut train-spotting noun + adverb hanger-on passer-by washing machine verb + noun driving licence swimming pool lookout verb + adverb* take-off drawback greenhouse adjective + noun software redhead dry-cleaningadjective + verbpublic speaking onlookeradverb + nounbystander output adverb + verb * overthrow upturn input Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separate words. Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g. greenhouse) and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house). In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable: a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun) a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun) a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun) a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun) * Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb + adverb or adverb + verb). Examples: breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up, hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.
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NOUNS

Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" They give names to things, people and qualities. Examples: dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty, truth, world. NOUN GENDER In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words. Examples: Different words: Masculine man father uncle boy husband Feminine woman mother aunt girl wife Different forms: Masculine actor prince hero waiter widower Feminine actress princess heroine waitress widow Some nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject: Examples: cousin cook relation teenager student colleague teacher doctor parent friend partner leader

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Mary is a doctor. She is a doctor

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Peter is a doctor. He is a doctor.

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Arthur is my cousin. He is my cousin.

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Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin. It is possible to make the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'. Example: a female student; a male cousin For professions, we can add the word 'woman' Example: a woman doctor; a woman journalist. In some cases nouns describing things are given gender. Examples:

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I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.

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France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment.

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I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth, she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

NOUNS

SECTION MENU: Noun Gender The Plural of Nouns Countable and Uncountable nouns Compound Nouns Proper Nouns Nationalities
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

'- ING' FORM

THE GERUND This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and for this reason it is now common to call both forms 'the -ing form'. However it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb), so it can be used: a. as the subject of the sentence:

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Eating people is wrong.

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Hunting elephants is dangerous.

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Flying makes me nervous. b. as the complement of the verb 'to be':

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One of his duties is attending meetings.

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The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.

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One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed. c. after prepositions. The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:

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Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

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She is good at painting.

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They're keen on windsurfing.

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She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.

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We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.

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My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary. This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of, there's no point in..:

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There's no point in waiting.

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In spite of missing the train, we arrived on time. d. after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a verb + preposition/adverb Example: to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, to keep on:

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I look forward to hearing from you soon. (at the end of a letter)

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When are you going to give up smoking?

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She always puts off going to the dentist.

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He kept on asking for money. NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the word 'to' as a preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive: - to look forward to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is important to recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund:

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We are looking forward to seeing you.

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I am used to waiting for buses.

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She didn't really take to studying English. It is possible to check whether 'to’ is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive: if you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it, then it is a preposition and must be followed by a gerund:

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I am accustomed to it (the cold).

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I am accustomed to being cold. e. in compound nouns Example:

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a driving lesson, a swimming pool, birdwatching, trainspotting It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun, not of a continuous verb. Example:

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the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in. f. after the expressions: can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the adjective worth:

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The elephant couldn't help falling in love with the mouse.

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I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.

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It's no use/good trying to escape.

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It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.
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'- ING' FORM

GERUND OR INFINITIVE? B. Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning: Verbs marked with an asterisk* can also be followed by a that-clause. come mean* stop forget* regret* try go on remember* NOTES: Come: Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by the gerund, and means that the subject is doing something as they move:

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She came running across the field. Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or develops, perhaps outside the subject's control:

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At first I thought he was crazy, but I've come to appreciate his sense of humour.

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How did you come to be outside the wrong house?

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This word has come to mean something quite different. Forget, regret and remember: When these verbs are followed by a gerund, the gerund refers to an action that happened earlier:

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I remember locking the door (= I remember now, I locked the door earlier)

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He regretted speaking so rudely. (= he regretted at some time in the past, he had spoken rudely at some earlier time in the past.) Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future form:

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I'll never forget meeting the Queen. When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive, the infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time, or later:

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I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it, then I did it.)

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Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about it and then do it.)

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We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45 from Paddington. (= We feel sorry before we tell you this bad news.) Go on: Go on + gerund means to continue with an action:

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He went on speaking for two hours.

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I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted. Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action, which is often the next stage in a process:

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After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits for the company.

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John Smith worked in local government for five years, then went on to become a Member of Parliament. Mean: Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will be, or what will be necessary:

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If you take that job in London it will mean travelling for two hours every day.

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We could take the ferry to France, but that will mean spending a night in a hotel. Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan:

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Did you mean to dial this number?

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I mean to finish this job by the end of the week!

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Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you. Stop: Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress:

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I stopped working for them because the wages were so low. Stop tickling me! Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order to do something else, so the infinitive is used to express a purpose:

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I stopped to have lunch. (= I was working, or travelling, and I interrupted what I was doing in order to eat.)

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It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to stop to answer the phone every five minutes. Try: Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might be a solution to your problem.

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If you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga before you go to bed, or you could try drinking some warm milk.

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'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried emailing him?' Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something. It may be something very difficult or even impossible:

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The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating table.

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We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public telephone.

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Elephants and mice have to try to live together in harmony.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1 © copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001, Anthony Hughes

ABOUT ANTHONY HUGHES Author of the Online English Grammar Anthony Hughes has been involved in education for the past twenty years. He spent his formative years in Australia and attended the Universities of Sydney (B.A.), New England (M.Litt) and the University of New South Wales (Cert. TESOL) After receiving a Masters in English Literature and Language he went on to teach English in several countries including Australia, Switzerland and France. While in Switzerland he wrote and directed a six part audio-visual course for English language learners and was the director of the international education fair 'Mondolingua'. In 1995 he moved to Bristol in the UK and formed the Digital Education Network Ltd with David Blackie. The Digital Education Network (DEN) is now a world leader in the provision of educational information on the Internet and counts amongst its clients many of the world's top educational organisations. Charged with the development of the DEN websites and content and with the development of educational websites for clients around the world, he has become an expert in the development and design of high-end, database driven and interactive sites for education. Along with the technical expertise he has developed content in the form of the Online English Grammar which currently attracts over 180,000 monthly user sessions on DEN and of interactive games in the DEN test centre. He is currently working on a number of multimedia and DV video based projects for primary and secondary schools as well as a series on the use of English. In 1999 he formed ZEP Media Ltd to provide an online educational software shop and resource centre for schools and to act as a 'laboratory' for the development of educational applications using the new technologies. Apart from his business activities he has contributed articles and photographs to a number of magazines, written a screenplay on the life of Friedrich Nietzsche and maintains a strong interest in the development of creative learning applications using the new technologies. Professional, publishing and Online Grammar licensing enquiries can be sent to akh@zepmedia.com

WHICH ENGLISH?

Trash or Rubbish? - Sorting out our English Colour or color? Socks or sox? Organisations or Organizations? Underground or subway? Gas or petrol? Fall or Autumn? Candy or sweets? Cookie or biscuit? Centre or Center, Trash or rubbish? I often get emails from users berating me for my terrible spelling. While I admit to a few glaring typos from time to time the emails are often concerned with spellings that have more to do with geography than with poor literacy skills. Just to confuse the issue a little more, I was born in England, went to Australia when I was five, was entirely educated in Australia, spent several years in the USA and Canada and then ten years in France, and now live in England married to a Colombian wife where the common language at home is French, where my wife speaks Spanish to the children, I speak English to them and they spend undue amounts of time listening to American TV shows like Sesame Street, Buffy the Vampire Killer and the Simpsons or listening to American rappers, English Spice Girls or, when forced, heroes from the seventies such as Van Morrison and James Taylor. And they suck vocabulary, expressions, idioms and grammar out of all of this and plonk it into their own English. In my home, as in many others around the world, English isn't something that you can pin down as you would a prize butterfly and say 'There it is! That is English'. There is no longer, if there ever was, a standard English to which all speakers should pay homage. Now we recognise as legitimate variations American English, Australian English, British English, Indian English, there is even a variety called Singlish from Singapore. You only have to have used an electronic spell checker to know that you can select from some of these English varieties when correcting your spelling in a word processor. Although it is true that we have a wonderfully rich global mapping of English which makes it possible for English speakers to almost immediately fix a fellow English speaker to a geographical area, it is also true that there is more that is similar among these English varieties than is dissimilar. If there wasn't, English speakers from different parts of the world would have absolutely no hope of understanding each other! In most cases it is pronunciation and not usage, vocabulary or grammar that makes a fellow English speaker from another part of the world, or sometimes even another part of the country, difficult to understand. In the Online English Grammar I try to remain open to the international and evolving character of English and, at the risk of falling into the sea, try to keep one foot each in British and American English - if I had more feet I would attempt to cover some of the other main English variations as well, but a shortage of feet is one of the many drawbacks of being a lowly biped. What this means is that I try to point out grammatical rules that may vary slightly depending on where you are, the same with spelling. As far as spelling goes for the actual explanations and examples I tend to use the Australian/British spellings. For example I use 'organisation' rather than 'organization' and 'colour' rather than 'color' and prefer 'program' to 'programme'. Australia has always had the great advantage of being able to choose to follow the American or British ways or invent things for itself. However, if you look under the bonnet of these pages you will see that we are forced to use American English in the HTML which we use to code the pages - 'colour' is always 'color' and 'centre', 'center' there! The important thing to remember is that while spelling 'remember' as 'rember' is definately wrong, spelling 'socks' as 'sox' is not! That saying 'She speak English really well' is definately wrong (the verb 'speak' must be third person 'speaks' or used in another tense such as 'spoke'), saying 'She speaks English real well' may not be wrong (it is acceptable to use 'real' rather than 'really' in informal American English.) When visualising English always think of it as a writhing, manyheaded, sensual, changing and wonderful creature and not some dry, changeless, inanimate measuring stick. That should avoid the urge to condemn other people's use of English before carefully thinking about what they have said and where they come from - perhaps they are even contributing something new, unique and colourful to the language. This may also slow the flow of emails arriving in my in-tray from angry users who think it is a disgrace that I consistently spell 'center' as 'centre' - am I dyslexic? Anthony Hughes Author of the Online English Grammar