On tap tieng anh

1. Cấu trúc chung của một câu trong tiếng Anh:

1.1 Subject (chủ ngữ):

1.2 Verb (động từ):

1.3 Complement (vị ngữ):

1.4 Modifier (trạng từ):

2. Noun phrase (ngữ danh từ)

2.1 Danh từ đếm được và không đếm được (Count noun/ Non-count noun):

2.2 Cách dùng quán từ không xác định "a" và "an"

2.3 Cách dùng quán từ xác định "The"

2.4 Cách sử dụng another và other.

2.5 Cách sử dụng little, a little, few, a few

2.6 Sở hữu cách

3. Verb phrase (ngữ động từ)

3.1 Present tenses (các thời hiện tại)

3.2 Past tenses (các thời quá khứ)

3.3 Future tenses (các thời tương lai)

4. Sự hòa hợp giữa chủ ngữ và động từ

4.1 Các trường hợp chủ ngữ đứng tách khỏi động từ

4.2 Các từ luôn đi với danh từ hoặc đại từ số ít

4.3 Cách sử dụng None và No

4.4 Cách sử dụng cấu trúc either... or (hoặc...hoặc) và neither... nor (không...mà cũng không)

4.5 V-ing làm chủ ngữ

4.6 Các danh từ tập thể

4.7 Cách sử dụng a number of, the number of:

4.8 Các danh từ luôn ở số nhiều

4.9 Cách dùng there is, there are

5. Đại từ

5.1 Subject pronoun (Đại từ nhân xưng chủ ngữ)

5.2 Complement pronoun (Đại từ nhân xưng tân ngữ)

5.3 Possessive pronoun (Đại từ sở hữu)

5.4 Reflexive pronoun (Đại từ phản thân)

6. Tân ngữ (complement / object) và các vấn đề liên quan

6.1 Động từ dùng làm tân ngữ

6.2 Đại từ đứng trước động từ nguyên thể hoặc V-ing trong tân ngữ

7. Một số động từ đặc biệt (need, dare, to be, get)

7.1 Need

7.2 Dare (dám)

7.3 Cách sử dụng to be trong một số trường hợp

7.4 Cách sử dụng to get trong một số trường hợp:

8. Câu hỏi

8.1 Câu hỏi Yes/ No

8.2 Câu hỏi lấy thông tin (information question)

8.3 Câu hỏi phức (embedded question)

8.4 Câu hỏi đuôi (tag questions)

9. Lối nói phụ họa

9.1 Phụ hoạ câu khẳng định

9.2 Phụ hoạ câu phủ định

10. Câu phủ định (negation)

10.1 Some/any:

10.2 Một số các câu hỏi ở dạng phủ định lại mang ý nghĩa khác (không dùng dấu ?):

10.3 Hai lần phủ định

10.4 Phủ định kết hợp với so sánh

10.5 Cấu trúc phủ định song song

10.6 Phủ định không dùng thể phủ định của động từ

10.7 Thể phủ định của một số động từ đặc biệt

10.8 No matter

10.9 Cách dùng Not ... at all; at all

11. Câu mệnh lệnh

11.1 Mệnh lệnh thức trực tiếp

11.2 Mệnh lệnh gián tiếp:

11.3 Dạng phủ định của câu mệnh lệnh

12. Các trợ động từ (Modal Auxiliaries)

12.1 Câu phủ định dùng trợ động từ

12.2 Câu nghi vấn dùng trợ động từ

13. Câu điều kiện

13.1 Điều kiện có thể thực hiện được (điều kiện có thực hay điều kiện dạng I)

13.2 Điều kiện không thể thực hiện được (điều kiện không có thực hay điều kiện dạng II, III)

13.3 Cách sử dụng will, would, could, should trong một số trường hợp khác

13.4 Cách sử dụng if trong một số trường hợp khác

13.5 Cách sử dụng Hope và Wish.

13.6 Cách sử dụng as if, as though (cứ như là, như thể là)

13.7 Cách sử dụng used to, (to be/get) used to

13.8 Cách sử dụng would rather

14. Cách dùng một số trợ động từ hình thái ở thời hiện tại

14.1 Cách sử dụng Would + like

14.2 Cách sử dụng could/may/might:

14.3 Cách sử dụng Should:

14.4 Cách sử dụng Must

14.5 Cách sử dụng have to

15. Dùng trợ động từ để diễn đạt tình huống quá khứ (modal + perfective)

15.1 Could, may, might + have + P_2 = có lẽ đã

15.2 Should have + P_2 = Lẽ ra phải, lẽ ra nên

15.3 Must have + P_2 = chắc là đã, hẳn là đã

16. Cách dùng should trong một số trường hợp cụ thể khác

17. Tính từ và phó từ

17.1 Tính từ

17.2 Phó từ

18. Liên từ (linking verb)

19. Các dạng so sánh của tính từ và phó từ

19.1 So sánh ngang bằng

19.2 So sánh hơn kém

19.3 Phép so sánh không hợp lý

19.4 Các tính từ và phó từ đặc biệt

19.5 So sánh bội số

19.6 So sánh kép

19.7 Cấu trúc No sooner... than (Vừa mới ... thì đã...)

19.8 So sánh hơn kém không dùng than (giữa 2 đối tượng)

19.9 So sánh bậc nhất (từ 3 đối tượng trở lên)

20. Danh từ dùng làm tính từ

20.1 Khi nào dùng danh từ làm tính từ, khi nào dùng tính từ của danh từ đó?

21. Cách dùng Enough

22. Much, many, a lot of và lots of – trong một số trường hợp khác

22.1 Much & many

22.2 Phân biệt alot/ lots of/ plenty/ a great deal với many/ much

22.3 More & most

22.4 Long & (for) a long time

23. Các cụm từ nối mang tính quan hệ nhân quả

23.1 Because, Because of

23.2 So that

23.3 So và such.

23.4 Một số cụm từ nối khác:

24. Câu bị động (passive voice)

25. Một số cấu trúc cầu khiến (causative)

25.1 To have sb do sth = to get sb to do sth = Sai ai, khiến ai, bảo ai làm gì

25.2 To have/to get sth done = làm một việc gì bằng cách thuê người khác

25.3 To make sb do sth = to force sb to do sth = Bắt buộc ai phải làm gì

25.5 To let sb do sth = to permit/allow sb to do sth = để cho ai, cho phép ai làm gì

25.6 To help sb to do sth/do sth = Giúp ai làm gì

25.7 Ba động từ đặc biệt: see, watch, hear

26. Câu phức hợp và đại từ quan hệ

26.1 That và which làm chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

26.2 That và which làm tân ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

26.3 Who làm chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

26.4 Whom làm tân ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

26.5 Mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc và không bắt buộc.

26.6 Cách sử dụng All, Both, Some, Several, Most, Few + Of + Whom/ Which

26.7 Cách loại bỏ đại từ quan hệ trong mệnh đề phụ

27. Cách sử dụng một số cấu trúc P_1

28. Cách sử dụng một số cấu trúc P_2

29. Những cách sử dụng khác của that

29.1 That dùng với tư cách là một liên từ (rằng)

29.2 Mệnh đề that

30. Câu giả định (subjunctive)

30.1 Dùng với would rather that

30.2 Dùng với động từ.

30.3 Dùng với tính từ.

30.4 Thể giả định trong một số trường hợp khác

31. Lối nói bao hàm (inclusive)

31.1 Not only ..... but also (không những ... mà còn)

31.2 As well as (vừa ... vừa ...)

31.3 Both ..... and... (vừa ... vừa)

32. to know, to know how.

33. Mệnh đề thể hiện sự nhượng bộ

33.1 Despite/Inspite of (bất chấp, cho dù, ...)

33.2 Although/Even though/Though (mặc dầu)

33.3 However + adj + S + linkverb = dù có .... đi chăng nữa thì ....

33.4 Although/ Albeit + Adjective/ Adverb/ Averbial Modifier

34. Những động từ dễ gây nhầm lẫn

35. Một số các động từ đặc biệt khác

36. Sự phù hợp về thời giưa hai vế của một câu

37. Cách sử dụng to say, to tell

38. One và You

38.1 One

38.2 You

39. Đi trước đại từ phải có một danh từ tương ứng với nó

40. Sử dụng V-ing, to + verb để mở đầu một câu

40.1 Sử dụng Verb-ing

40.2 Động từ nguyên thể (to + verb) mở đầu câu

41. Động từ (V-ing, V-ed) dùng làm tính từ

42. Thông tin thừa (redundancy)

43. Cấu trúc song song trong câu

44. Chuyển đổi vị trí tân ngữ trực tiếp và gián tiếp

45. Câu trực tiếp và câu gián tiếp

46. Khi phó từ đứng đầu câu để nhấn mạnh, phải đảo cấu trúc câu

Cách làm bài trắc nghiệm ngữ pháp

Những từ dễ gây nhầm lẫn

47. Cách sử dụng giới từ

48. Một số ngữ động từ thường gặp

Bảng các động từ bất quy tắc

1. Cấu trúc chung của một câu trong tiếng Anh:

Một câu trong tiếng Anh thường bao gồm các thành phần sau đây:

Ví dụ:

SUBJECT

VERB

COMPLEMENT

MODIFIER

John and I

ate

a pizza

last night.

We

studied

"present perfect"

last week.

He

runs

very fast.

I

like

walking.

1.1 Subject (chủ ngữ):

Chủ ngữ là chủ thể của hành động trong câu, thường đứng trước động từ (verb). Chủ ngữ thường là một danh từ (noun) hoặc một ngữ danh từ (noun phrase - một nhóm từ kết thúc bằng một danh từ, trong trường hợp này ngữ danh từ không được bắt đầu bằng một giới từ). Chủ ngữ thường đứng ở đầu câu và quyết định việc chia động từ.

Chú ý rằng mọi câu trong tiếng Anh đều có chủ ngữ (Trong câu mệnh lệnh, chủ ngữ được ngầm hiểu là người nghe. Ví dụ: “Don't move!” = Đứng im!).

Milk is delicious. (một danh từ)
That new, red car is mine. (một ngữ danh từ)

Đôi khi câu không có chủ ngữ thật sự, trong trường hợp đó, It hoặc There đóng vai trò chủ ngữ giả.

It is a nice day today.
There is a fire in that building.
There were many students in the room.
It is the fact that the earth goes around the sun.

1.2 Verb (động từ):

Động từ là từ chỉ hành động hoặc trạng thái của chủ ngữ. Mọi câu đều phải có động từ. Nó có thể là một từ đơn hoặc một ngữ động từ. Ngữ động từ (verb phrase) là một nhóm từ gồm một hoặc nhiều trợ động từ (auxiliary) và một động từ chính.

I love you. (chỉ hành động)
Chilli is hot. (chỉ trạng thái)
I have seen the movie three times before. (auxiliary: have; main verb: seen)
I am going to Sai Gon tomorrow. (auxiliary: am; main verb: going)

1.3 Complement (vị ngữ):

Vị ngữ là từ hoặc cụm từ chỉ đối tượng tác động của chủ ngữ. Cũng giống như chủ ngữ, vị ngữ thường là danh từ hoặc ngữ danh từ không bắt đầu bằng giới từ, tuy nhiên vị ngữ thường đứng sau động từ. Không phải câu nào cũng có complement. Vị ngữ trả lời cho câu hỏi What? hoặc Whom?

John bought a car yesterday. (What did John buy?)
Jill wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?)
She saw John at the movie last night. (Whom did she see at the movie?)

1.4 Modifier (trạng từ):

Trạng từ là từ hoặc cụm từ chỉ thời gian, địa điểm hoặc cách thức của hành động. Không phải câu nào cũng có trạng từ. Chúng thường là các cụm giới từ (prepositional phrase), phó từ (adverb) hoặc một cụm phó từ (adverbial phrase). Chúng trả lời câu hỏi When?, Where? hoặc How? Một cụm giới từ là một cụm từ bắt đầu bằng một giới từ và kết thúc bằng một danh từ (VD: in the morning, on the table,...). Nếu có nhiều trạng từ trong câu thì trạng từ chỉ thời gian thường đi sau cùng.

John bought a book at the bookstore. (Where did John buy a book?)
She saw John at the movie last night. (Where did she see John? When did she see him?)
She drives very fast. (How does she drive?)

Chú ý rằng trạng từ thường đi sau vị ngữ nhưng không nhất thiết. Tuy nhiên trạng từ là cụm giới từ không được nằm giữa động từ và vị ngữ.

She drove on the street her new car. (Sai)
She drove her new car on the street. (Đúng)

2. Noun phrase (ngữ danh từ)

2.1 Danh từ đếm được và không đếm được (Count noun/ Non-count noun):

· Danh từ đếm được: Là danh từ có thể dùng được với số đếm, do đó nó có 2 hình thái số ít và số nhiều. Nó dùng được với a hay với the. VD: one book, two books, ...

· Danh từ không đếm được: Không dùng được với số đếm, do đó nó không có hình thái số ít, số nhiều. Nó không thể dùng được với a, còn the chỉ trong một số trường hợp đặc biệt. VD: milk (sữa). Bạn không thể nói "one milk", "two milks" ... (Một số vật chất không đếm được có thể được chứa trong các bình đựng, bao bì... đếm được. VD: one glass of milk - một cốc sữa).

· Một số danh từ đếm được có hình thái số nhiều đặc biệt. VD: person - people; child - children; tooth – teeth; foot – feet; mouse – mice ...

· Một số danh từ đếm được có dạng số ít/ số nhiều như nhau chỉ phân biệt bằng có "a" và không có "a":
an aircraft/ aircraft; a sheep/ sheep; a fish/ fish.

· Một số các danh từ không đếm được như food, meat, money, sand, water ... đôi khi được dùng như các danh từ số nhiều để chỉ các dạng, loại khác nhau của vật liệu đó.

This is one of the foods that my doctor wants me to eat.

· Danh từ "time" nếu dùng với nghĩa là "thời gian" là không đếm được nhưng khi dùng với nghĩa là "thời đại" hay "số lần" là danh từ đếm được.

You have spent too much time on that homework. (thời gian, không đếm được)
I have seen that movie three times before. (số lần, đếm được)

Bảng sau là các định ngữ dùng được với các danh từ đếm được và không đếm được.

WITH COUNTABLE NOUN

WITH UNCOUNTABLE NOUN

a(n), the, some, any

the, some, any

this, that, these, those

this, that

none, one, two, three,...

None

many
a lot of
a [large / great] number of
(a) few
fewer... than
more....than

much (thường dùng trong câu phủ định, câu hỏi)
a lot of
a large amount of
(a) little
less....than
more....than

Một số từ không đếm được nên biết:

sand
food
meat
water

money
news
measles (bệnh sởi)
soap

information
air
mumps (bệnh quai bị)
economics

physics
mathematics
politics
homework

Note: advertising là danh từ không đếm được nhưng advertisement là danh từ đếm được, chỉ một quảng cáo cụ thể nào đó.

There are too many advertisements during TV shows.

2.2 Cách dùng quán từ không xác định "a" và "an"

Dùng a hoặc an trước một danh từ số ít đếm được. Chúng có nghĩa là một. Chúng được dùng trong câu có tính khái quát hoặc đề cập đến một chủ thể chưa được đề cập từ trước.

A ball is round. (nghĩa chung, khái quát, chỉ tất cả các quả bóng)
I saw a boy in the street. (chúng ta không biết cậu bé nào, chưa được đề cập trước đó)

2.2.1 Dùng “an” với:

Quán từ an được dùng trước từ bắt đầu bằng nguyên âm (trong cách phát âm, chứ không phải trong cách viết). Bao gồm:

· Các từ bắt đầu bằng các nguyên âm a, e, i, o: an aircraft, an empty glass, an object
· Một số từ bắt đầu bằng u, y: an uncle, an umbrella
· Một số từ bắt đầu bằng h câm: an heir, haft an hour
· Các từ mở đầu bằng một chữ viết tắt: an S.O.S/ an M.P

2.2.2 Dùng “a” với:

Dùng a trước các từ bắt đầu bằng một phụ âm. Chúng bao gồm các chữ cái còn lại và một số trường hợp bắt đầu bằng u, y, h. VD: a house, a university, a home party, a heavy load, a uniform, a union, a year income,...

· Đứng trước một danh từ mở đầu bằng "uni..." phải dùng "a" (a university/ a uniform/ universal/ union) (Europe, eulogy (lời ca ngợi), euphemism (lối nói trại), eucalyptus (cây khuynh diệp)
· Dùng trong các thành ngữ chỉ số lượng nhất định như: a lot of/a great deal of/a couple/a dozen.
· Dùng trước những số đếm nhất định thường là hàng ngàn, hàng trăm như a/one hundred - a/one thousand.
· Dùng trước "half" (một nửa) khi nó theo sau một đơn vị nguyên vẹn: a kilo and a half, hay khi nó đi ghép với một danh từ khác để chỉ nửa phần (khi viết có dấu gạch nối): a half - share, a half - holiday (ngày lễ chỉ nghỉ nửa ngày).
· Dùng với các đơn vị phân số như 1/3 a/one third - 1/5 a /one fifth.
· Dùng trong các thành ngữ chỉ giá cả, tốc độ, tỉ lệ: $5 a kilo, 60 kilometers an hour, 4 times a day.

2.3 Cách dùng quán từ xác định "The"

Dùng the trước một danh từ đã được xác định cụ thể về mặt tính chất, đặc điểm, vị trí hoặc đã được đề cập đến trước đó, hoặc những khái niệm phổ thông, ai cũng biết.

The boy in the corner is my friend. (Cả người nói và người nghe đều biết đó là cậu bé nào)
The earth is round. (Chỉ có một trái đất, ai cũng biết)

Với danh từ không đếm được, dùng the nếu nói đến một vật cụ thể, không dùng the nếu nói chung.

Sugar is sweet. (Chỉ các loại đường nói chung)
The sugar on the table is from Cuba. (Cụ thể là đường ở trên bàn)

Với danh từ đếm được số nhiều, khi chúng có nghĩa đại diện chung cho một lớp các vật cùng loại thì cũng không dùng the.

Oranges are green until they ripen. (Cam nói chung)
Athletes should follow a well-balanced diet. (Vận động viên nói chung)

2.3.1 Sau đây là một số trường hợp thông dụng dùng The theo quy tắc trên:

· The + danh từ + giới từ + danh từ: The girl in blue, the Gulf of Mexico.
· Dùng trước những tính từ so sánh bậc nhất hoặc only: The only way, the best day.
· Dùng cho những khoảng thời gian xác định (thập niên): In the 1990s
· The + danh từ + đại từ quan hệ + mệnh đề phụ: The man to whom you have just spoken is the chairman.
· The + danh từ số ít tượng trưng cho một nhóm thú vật hoặc đồ vật: The whale = whales (loài cá voi), the deep-freeze (thức ăn đông lạnh)
· Đối với man khi mang nghĩa "loài người" tuyệt đối không được dùng the: Since man lived on the earth ... (kể từ khi loài người sinh sống trên trái đất này)
· Dùng trước một danh từ số ít để chỉ một nhóm, một hạng người nhất định trong xã hội: The small shopkeeper: Giới chủ tiệm nhỏ/ The top offcial: Giới quan chức cao cấp
· The + adj: Tượng trưng cho một nhóm người, chúng không bao giờ được phép ở số nhiều nhưng được xem là các danh từ số nhiều. Do vậy động từ và đại từ đi cùng với chúng phải ở ngôi thứ 3 số nhiều: The old = The old people;
The old are often very hard in their moving
· The + tên gọi các đội hợp xướng/ dàn nhạc cổ điển/ ban nhạc phổ thông: The Back Choir/ The Philharmonique Philadelphia Orchestra/ The Beatles.
· The + tên gọi các tờ báo (không tạp chí)/ tàu biển/ các khinh khí cầu: The Times/ The Titanic/ The Hindenberg
· The + họ của một gia đình ở số nhiều = gia đình nhà: The Smiths = Mr/ Mrs Smith and children
· Thông thường không dùng the trước tên riêng trừ trường hợp có nhiều người hoặc vật cùng tên và người nói muốn ám chỉ một người cụ thể trong số đó:
There are three Sunsan Parkers in the telephone directory. The Sunsan Parker that I know lives on the First Avenue.
· Tương tự, không dùng "the" trước bữa ăn: breakfast, lunch, dinner:
We ate breakfast at 8 am this morning.
Trừ khi muốn ám chỉ một bữa ăn cụ thể:
The dinner that you invited me last week were delecious.
· Không dùng "the" trước một số danh từ như home, bed, church, court, jail, prison, hospital, school, class, college, university v.v... khi nó đi với các động từ và giới từ chỉ chuyển động chỉ đi đến đó là mục đích chính hoặc ra khỏi đó cũng vì mục đích chính:
Students go to school everyday.
The patient was released from hospital.
Nhưng nếu đến đó hoặc ra khỏi đó không vì mục đích chính thì dùng "the".
Students go to the school for a class party.
The doctor left the hospital for lunch.

2.3.2 Bảng sử dụng "the" và không sử dụng "the" trong một số trường hợp điển hình

Có "The"

Không "The"

+ Dùng trước tên các đại dương, sông ngòi, biển, vịnh và các cụm hồ (số nhiều)
The Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Persian Gufl, the Great Lakes

+ Trước tên các dãy núi:
The Rocky Mountains

+ Trước tên những vật thể duy nhất trong vũ trụ hoặc trên thế giới:
The earth, the moon

+ The schools, colleges, universities + of + danh từ riêng
The University of Florida

+ The + số thứ tự + danh từ
The third chapter.

+ Trước tên các cuộc chiến tranh khu vực với điều kiện tên khu vực đó phải được tính từ hoá
The Korean War (=> The Vietnamese economy)

+ Trước tên các nước có hai từ trở lên (ngoại trừ Great Britain)
The United States, The Central African Republic

+ Trước tên các nước được coi là một quần đảo hoặc một quần đảo
The Philipines, The Virgin Islands, The Hawaii

+ Trước tên các tài liệu hoặc sự kiện lịch sử
The Constitution, The Magna Carta

+ Trước tên các nhóm dân tộc thiểu số
the Indians

+ Trước tên các môn học cụ thể
The Solid matter Physics

+ Trước tên các nhạc cụ khi đề cập đến các nhạc cụ đó nói chung hoặc khi chơi các nhạc cụ đó.
The violin is difficult to play
Who is that on the piano

+ Trước tên một hồ
Lake Geneva

+ Trước tên một ngọn núi
Mount Vesuvius

+ Trước tên các hành tinh hoặc các chòm sao
Venus, Mars

+ Trước tên các trường này nếu trước nó là một tên riêng
Stetson University

+ Trước các danh từ đi cùng với một số đếm
Chapter three, Word War One

+ Trước tên các nước chỉ có một từ:
China, France, Venezuela, Vietnam

+ Trước tên các nước mở đầu bằng New, một tính từ chỉ hướng:
New Zealand, North Korean, France

+ Trước tên các lục địa, tỉnh, tiểu bang, thành phố, quận, huyện:
Europe, Florida

+ Trước tên bất kì môn thể thao nào
baseball, basketball

+ Trước các danh từ trừu tượng (trừ một số trường hợp đặc biệt):
freedom, happiness

+ Trước tên các môn học nói chung
mathematics

+ Trước tên các ngày lễ, tết
Christmas, Thanksgiving

+ Trước tên các loại hình nhạc cụ trong các hình thức âm nhạc cụ thể (Jazz, Rock, classical music..)
To perform jazz on trumpet and piano

2.4 Cách sử dụng another và other.

Hai từ này thường gây nhầm lẫn.

Dùng với danh từ đếm được

Dùng với danh từ không đếm được

- an + other + danh từ đếm được số ít = một cái nữa, một cái khác, một người nữa, một người khác (= one more).
another pencil = one more pencil

- the other + danh từ đếm được số ít = cái cuối cùng còn lại (của một bộ), người còn lại (của một nhóm), = last of the set.
the other pencil = the last pencil present

Không dùng

- Other + danh từ đếm được số nhiều = mấy cái nữa, mấy cái khác, mấy người nữa, mấy người khác (= more of the set).
other pencils = some more pencils

- The other + danh từ đếm được số nhiều = những cái còn lại (của một bộ), những người còn lại (của một nhóm), = the rest of the set.
the other pencils = all remaining pencils

- Other + danh từ không đếm được = một chút nữa (= more of the set).
other water = some more water

- The other + danh từ không đếm được = chỗ còn sót lại.
the other water = the remaining water

· Another và other là không xác định trong khi the other là xác định; nếu chủ ngữ là đã biết (được nhắc đến trước đó) thì ta có thể bỏ danh từ đi sau another hoặc other, chỉ cần dùng another hoặc other như một đại từ là đủ. Khi danh từ số nhiều bị lược bớt (trong cách nói tắt nêu trên) thì other trở thành others. Không bao giờ được dùng others + danh từ số nhiều:

I Don 't want this book. Please give me another.
(another = any other book - not specific)

I Don 't want this book. Please give me the other.
(the other = the other book, specific)

This chemical is poisonous. Others are poisonous too.
(others = the other chemicals, not specific)

I Don 't want these books. Please give me the others.
(the others = the other books, specific)

· Trong một số trường hợp người ta dùng one hoặc ones đằng sau another hoặc other thay cho danh từ:

I Don 't want this book. Please give me another one.
I don't want this book. Please give me the other one.
This chemical is poisonous. Other ones are poisonous too.
I don't want these books. Please give me the other ones.

· This hoặc that có thể dùng với one nhưng these và those không được dùng với ones, mặc dù cả 4 từ này đều có thể dùng thay cho danh từ (với vai trò là đại từ) khi không đi với one hoặc ones:

I don't want this book. I want that.

2.5 Cách sử dụng little, a little, few, a few

· Little + danh từ không đếm được: rất ít, không đủ để (có khuynh hướng phủ định)
I have little money, not enough to buy groceries.

· A little + danh từ không đếm được: có một chút, đủ để
I have a little money, enough to buy groceries

· Few + danh từ đếm được số nhiều: có rất ít, không đủ để (có tính phủ định)
I have few books, not enough for reference reading

· A few + danh từ đếm được số nhiều: có một chút, đủ để
I have a few records, enough for listening.

· Trong một số trường hợp khi danh từ ở trên đã được nhắc đến thì ở phía dưới chỉ cần dùng little hoặc few như một đại từ là đủ (cũng giống như đối với other/another; this/that).
Are you ready in money. Yes, a little.

· Quite a few + đếm được = Quite a bit + không đếm được = Quite a lot of + noun = rất nhiều.

2.6 Sở hữu cách

· The noun's + noun: Chỉ được dùng cho những danh từ chỉ người hoặc động vật, không dùng cho các đồ vật.
The student's book,        The cat's legs.

· Đối với danh từ số nhiều đã có sẵn "s" ở đuôi chỉ cần dùng dấu phẩy
The students' book.

· Nhưng đối với những danh từ đổi số nhiều đặc biệt không "s" ở đuôi vẫn phải dùng đầy đủ dấu sở hữu cách.
The children's toys,         The people's willing

· Nếu có hai danh từ cùng đứng ở sở hữu cách thì danh từ nào đứng gần danh từ bị sở hữu nhất sẽ mang dấu sở hữu.
Paul and Peter's room.

· Đối với những tên riêng hoặc danh từ đã có sẵn "s" ở đuôi có thể chỉ cần dùng dấu phẩy và nhấn mạnh đuôi khi đọc hoặc dùng sở hữu cách và phải thay đổi cách đọc. Tên riêng không dùng "the" đằng trước.
The boss' car = the boss 's car [bosiz]
Agnes' house = Agnes 's [siz] house.

· Sở hữu cách cũng được dùng cho thời gian (năm, tháng, thập niên, thế kỉ)
The 1990s' events: những sự kiện của thập niên 90
The 21st century's prospects.

· Dùng cho các mùa trong năm trừ mùa xuân và mùa thu. Nếu dùng sở hữu cách cho hai mùa này thì người viết đã nhân cách hoá chúng. Ngày nay người ta dùng các mùa trong năm như một tính từ cho các danh từ đằng sau, ít dùng sở hữu cách.
The Autumn's leaf: chiếc lá của nàng thu.

· Dùng cho tên các công ty lớn, các quốc gia
The Rockerfeller's oil products.
China's food.

· Đối với các cửa hiệu có nghề nghiệp đặc trưng chỉ cần dùng danh từ với dấu sở hữu.
In a florist's
At a hairdresser's
Đặc biệt là các tiệm ăn với tên riêng: The Antonio's

· Dùng trước một số danh từ bất động vật chỉ trong một số thành ngữ
a stone's throw from ...(Cách nơi đâu một tầm đá ném).

3. Verb phrase (ngữ động từ)

Như đã đề cập ở phần cấu trúc chung của câu, ngữ động từ tiếng Anh gồm có một động từ chính và một hoặc nhiêu trợ động từ. Động từ trong tiếng Anh chia làm 3 thời chính:

Quá khứ (Past)
Hiện tại (Present)
Tương lai (Future)

Mỗi thời chính lại chia thành nhiều thời nhỏ để diễn đạt tính chính xác của hành động.

3.1 Present tenses (các thời hiện tại)

3.1.1 Simple Present (thời hiện tại thường)

Dùng để diễn đạt một hành động mang tính thường xuyên (regular action), theo thói quen (habitual action) hoặc hành động lặp đi lặp lại có tính qui luật.
I walk to school every day.
Khi chia động từ ở thời này, đối với ngôi thứ nhất (I), thứ hai (you) và thứ 3 số nhiều (they) động từ không phải chia, sử dụng động từ nguyên thể không có to như ở ví dụ nêu trên. Đối với ngôi thứ  3 số ít (he, she, it), phải có "s" ở sau động từ và âm đó phải được đọc lên:
He walks.
She watches TV

Thường dùng thời hiện tại thường với một số các phó từ chỉ thời gian như today, present day, nowadays,... và với các phó từ chỉ tần suất như: always, sometimes, often, every + thời gian ...

Simple present thường không dùng để diễn đạt hành động đang xảy ra ở thời điểm hiện tại (now), ngoại trừ với các động từ thể hiện trạng thái (stative verb) như sau:

know
believe
hear
see
smell
wish

understand
hate
love
like
want
sound

have
need
appear
seem
taste
own

Các từ trong danh sách trên thường cũng không bao giờ xuất hiện trong thời tiếp diễn (hiện tại tiếp diễn, quá khứ tiếp diễn...).

Một số ví dụ khác về thời hiện tại thường:

They understand the problem now. (stative verb)
He always swims in the evening. (habitual action)
We want to leave now. (stative verb)
The coffee tastes delicious. (stative verb)
Your cough sounds bad. (stative verb)
I walk to school every day. (habitual action)

3.1.2 Present Progressive (thời hiện tại tiếp diễn)

· Dùng để diễn đạt một hành động xảy ra vào thời điểm hiện tại. Thời điểm này được xác định cụ thể bằng một số phó từ như : now, rightnow, at this moment.
· Dùng thay thế cho thời tương lai gần, đặc biệt là trong văn nói.

The president is trying to contact his advisors now. (present time)
We are flying to Paris next month. (future time)

· Các động từ trạng thái (stative verb) ở bảng sau không được chia ở thể tiếp diễn (bất cứ thời nào) khi chúng là những động từ tĩnh diễn đạt trạng thái cảm giác của hoạt động tinh thần hoặc tính chất của sự vật, sự việc.

know
believe
hear
see
smell
wish

understand
hate
love
like
want
sound

have
need
appear
seem
taste
own

Nhưng khi chúng quay sang hướng động từ hành động thì chúng lại được phép dùng ở thể tiếp diễn.

He has a lot of books.
He is having dinner now. (Động từ hành động: ăn tối)
I think they will come in time.
I'm thinking of my test tomorrow. (Động từ hành động: Đang nghĩ về)

3.1.3 Present Perfect (thời hiện tại hoàn thành)

Thời hiện tại hoàn thành dùng để:
(1). Diễn đạt một hành động xảy ra ở một thời điểm không xác định trong quá khứ.
John has traveled around the world. (We don't know when)
(2). Chỉ một hành động xảy ra nhiều lần trong quá khứ.
George has seen this movie three time.
(3). Một hành động bắt đầu diễn ra trong quá khứ và vẫn còn xảy ra ở hiện tại.
John has lived in that house for 20 years. (He still lives there.)
= John has lived in that house since 1984. (Giả sử hiện nay là 2004)

3.1.3.1 Cách dùng SINCE và FOR:

FOR + khoảng thời gian: for three days, for ten minutes, for twenty years ...
SINCE + thời điểm bắt đầu: since 1982, since January, ...

3.1.3.2 Cách dùng ALREADY và YET:

Already dùng trong câu khẳng định, already có thể đứng ngay sau have và cũng có thể đứng ở cuối câu.

We have already written our reports.
We have written our reports already.

Yet dùng trong câu phủ định, câu nghi vấn. Yet thường xuyên đứng ở cuối câu.

We haven't written our reports yet.
Have you written your reports yet?

Trong một số trường hợp ở thể phủ định, yet có thể đứng ngay sau have nhưng phải thay đổi về mặt ngữ pháp: động từ PII trở về dạng nguyên thể có to và không dùng not.

John has yet to learn the material = John hasn't learnt the material yet.

3.1.3.3 Thời hiện tại hoàn thành thường dược dùng với một số cụm từ chỉ thời gian như sau:

· Dùng với now that... (giờ đây khi mà...)
Now that you have passed the TOEFL test successfully, you can apply for the scholarship.
· Dùng với một số phó từ như till now, untill now, so far (cho đến giờ). Những cụm từ này có thể đứng đầu câu hoặc cuối câu.
So far the problem has not been resolved.
· Dùng với recently, lately (gần đây) những cụm từ này có thể đứng đầu hoặc cuối câu.
I have not seen him recently.
· Dùng với before đứng ở cuối câu.
I have seen him before.

Xem thêm các động từ bất quy tắc

3.1.4 Present Perfect Progressive (thời hiện tại hoàn thành tiếp diễn)

Chỉ đối với các hành động thộc loại (3) của thời hiện tại hoàn thành chúng ta mới có thể dùng thời hiện tại hoàn thành tiếp diễn.
John has been living in that house for 20 years.
= John has lived in that house for 20 years.

Phân biệt cách dùng giữa hai thời:

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Progressive

Hành động đã chấm dứt ở hiện tại do đó đã có kết quả rõ rệt.
I've waited for you for half an hour.
(and now I stop waiting because you didn't come).

Hành động vẫn tiếp diễn ở hiện tại, có khả năng lan tới tương lai do đó không có kết quả rõ rệt.

I've been waiting for you for half an hour.
(and now I'm still waiting, hoping that you'll come)

3.2 Past tenses (các thời quá khứ)

3.2.1 Simple Past (thời quá khứ thường):

Dùng để diễn đạt một hành động đã xảy ra dứt điểm tại một thời gian xác định trong quá khứ (không còn diễn ra hoặc ảnh hưởng tới hiện tại). Thời điểm trong câu được xác định rõ rệt bằng một số các phó từ chỉ thời gian như: yesterday, at that moment, last week, ...

He went to Spain last year.
Bob bought a new bicyle yesterday.
Maria did her homework last night.
Mark washed the dishes after dinner.
We drove to the grocery store this afternoon.
George cooked dinner for his family Saturday night.

3.2.2 Past Progresseive (thời quá khứ tiếp diễn):

Thời quá khứ tiếp diễn dùng để diễn đạt:

(1) một hành động đang xảy ra trong quá khứ thì bị một hành động khác “chen ngang” (khi đang... thì bỗng...). Trong trường hợp này, mẫu câu chung là:

I was watching TV when she came home.
hoặc

When she came home, I was watching television.

(2) Hai hành động cùng đồng thời xảy ra trong quá khứ. Trong trường hợp này, mẫu câu sau được áp dụng:

Martha was watching television while John was reading a book.
hoặc

While John was reading a book, Martha was watching television.

Cấu trúc sau đây cũng đôi khi được dùng nhưng không thông dụng bằng hai mẫu trên:

While John was reading a book, Martha watched television.

(3) Một hành động đang xảy ra tại một thời điểm xác định trong quá khứ:

Martha was watching TV at seven o’clock last night.
What were you doing at one o’clock this afternoon?
Henry was eating a snack at midnight last night.

3.2.3 Past Perfect (thời quá khứ hoàn thành):

Thời quá khứ hoàn thành được dùng để diễn đạt:
(1) một hành động xảy ra trước một hành động khác trong quá khứ, trong câu thường có có 2 hành động:

Thời quá khứ hoàn thành thường được dùng với 3 phó từ chỉ thời gian là: after, before và when.

Phó từ when có thể được dùng thay cho after và before trong cả 4 mẫu trên mà không làm thay đổi ý nghĩa của câu. Chúng ta vẫn biết hành động nào xảy ra trước do có sử dụng quá khứ hoàn thành.

The police came when the robber had gone away.

(2) Một trạng thái đã tồn tại một thời gian trong quá khứ nhưng đã chấm dứt trước hiện tại. Trường hợp này tương tự trường hợp (3) đối với hiện tại hoàn thành nhưng trong trường hợp này không có liên hệ gì với hiện tại.

John had lived in New York for ten years before he moved to VN.

3.2.4 Past Perfect Progressive (thời quá khứ hoàn thành tiếp diễn):

Chỉ đối với các hành động thuộc nhóm (2) của thời quá khứ hoàn thành ta mới có thể dùng thời quá khứ hoàn thành tiếp diễn, với ý nghĩa của câu không thay đổi.

John had been living in New York for ten years before he moved to VN.

Lưu ý: Thời này ngày nay ít dùng, người ta thay thế nó bằng Past Perfect và chỉ dùng khi nào cần điễn đạt tính chính xác của hành động.

3.3 Future tenses (các thời tương lai)

3.3.1 Simple Future (thời tương lai thường):

Ngày nay ngữ pháp hiện đại, đặc biệt là ngữ pháp Mĩ chấp nhận việc dùng will cho tất cả các ngôi, còn shall chỉ dùng với các ngôi I, we trong một số trường hợp như sau:

· Đưa ra đề nghị một cách lịch sự:
Shall I take you coat?
· Dùng để mời người khác một cách lịch sự:
Shall we go out for lunch?
· Dùng để ngã giá trong khi mặc cả, mua bán:
Shall we say : $ 50
· Thường được dùng với 1 văn bản mang tính pháp qui buộc các bên phải thi hành điều khoản trong văn bản:
All the students shall be responsible for proper execution of the dorm rule.

Trong tiếng Anh bình dân , người ta thay shall = must ở dạng câu này. Nó dùng để diễn đạt một hành động sẽ xảy ra ở một thời điểm nhất định trong tương lai nhưng không xác định cụ thể. Thường dùng với một số phó từ chỉ thời gian như tomorrow, next + time, in the future, in future, from now on.

3.3.2 Near Future (tương lai gần):

Diễn đạt một hành động sẽ xảy ra trong tương lai gần, thường dùng với các phó từ dưới dạng: In a moment (lát nữa), at 2 o'clock this afternoon....
We are going to have a reception in a moment
Nó chỉ 1 việc chắc chắn sẽ phải xảy ra theo như dự tính cho dù thời gian là tương lai xa.
We are going to take a TOEFL test next year.
Ngày nay người ta thường dùng present progressive.

3.3.3 Future Progressive (thời tương lai tiếp diễn):

· Dùng để diễn đạt một hành động sẽ xảy ra vào một thời điểm nhất định trong tương lai.
At 8:00 am tomorrow morning we will be attending the lecture.
Good luck with the exam! We will be thinking of you.
· Dùng kết hợp với present progressive khác để diễn đạt hai hành động đang song song xảy ra. Một ở hiện tại, còn một ở tương lai.
Now we are learning English here, but by this time tomorrow we will be attending the meeting at the office.
· Được dùng để đề cập đến các sự kiện tương lai đã được xác định hoặc quyết định (không mang ý nghĩa tiếp diễn).
Professor Baxter will be giving another lecture on Roman glass-making at the same time next week.
· Hoặc những sự kiện được mong đợi là sẽ xảy ra theo một tiến trình thường lệ (nhưng không diễn đạt ý định của cá nhân người nói).
You will be hearing from my solicitor.
I will be seeing you one of these days, I expect.
· Dự đoán cho tương lai:
Don't phone now, they will be having dinner.
· Diễn đạt lời đề nghị nhã nhặn muốn biết về kế hoạch của người khác
Will you be staying in here this evening? (ông có dự định ở lại đây tối nay chứ ạ)

3.3.4 Future Perfect (thời tương lai hoàn thành):

Dùng để chỉ một hành động sẽ phải được hoàn tất ở vào một thời điểm nhất định trong tương lai. Nó thường được dùng với trạng từ chỉ thời gian dưới dạng: by the end of....., by the time + sentence

We will have accomplished the English grammar course by the end of next week.
By the time human being migrates to the moon, most of the people alive today will have died.

4. Sự hòa hợp giữa chủ ngữ và động từ

Trong một câu tiếng Anh, chủ ngữ và động từ phải phù hợp với nhau về ngôi và số (số ít hay số nhiều)

The worker works very well.

số ít   số ít

The workers  work very well.

số nhiều  số nhiều

4.1 Các trường hợp chủ ngữ đứng tách khỏi động từ

Trong câu tiếng Anh, có nhiều trường hợp rất khó xác định được đâu là chủ ngữ của câu do chủ ngữ và động từ không đi liền với nhau.
The boys in the room are playing chess.
Thông thường trong các trường hợp đó, một ngữ giới từ (một giới từ mở đầu và các danh từ theo sau – in the room) thường nằm giữa chủ ngữ và động từ. Các ngữ giới từ này không ảnh hưởng đến việc chia động từ.
The study of languages is very interesting.
Serveral theories on this subject have been proposed.
The view of these disciplines varies from time to time.
The danger of forest fires is not to be taken lightly.

Chú ý rằng trong các ví dụ trên các danh từ nằm trong ngữ giới từ đều trái ngược với chủ ngữ về số ít / số nhiều nhưng động từ luôn được chia theo chủ ngữ chính.

Các cụm từ sau cùng với các danh từ đi theo sau nó tạo nên hiện tường đồng chủ ngữ. Chúng đứng giữa chủ ngữ và động từ, phân tách khỏi 2 thành phần đó bởi dấu phảy. Chúng cũng không có ảnh hưởng gì đến việc chia động từ.

Together with

along with

accompanied by

as well as

Mary, along with her manager and some friends, is going to a party tonight.
Mr. Robbins, accompanied by her wife and children, is arriving tonight.

Nếu 2 danh từ làm chủ ngữ nối với nhau bằng and thì động từ phải chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số nhiều (tương đương với they)

Mary and her manager are going to a party tonight.

Nhưng nếu 2 đồng chủ ngữ nối với nhau bằng or thì động từ phải chia theo danh từ đứng sau or. Nếu danh từ đó là số ít thì động từ phải chia số ít và ngược lại.

Mary or her manager is going to answer the press interview.

4.2 Các từ luôn đi với danh từ hoặc đại từ số ít

Đó là các danh từ ở bảng sau (còn gọi là các đại từ phiếm chỉ).

any + singular noun

no + singular noun

some + singular noun

anybody
anyone
anything

nobody
no one
nothing

somebody
someone
something

every + singular noun
everybody                          everyone                       everything

each

either *

neither *

* Either và neither là số ít nếu chúng không đi với or hoặc nor. Either (có nghĩa 1 trong 2) chỉ dùng cho 2 người hoặc 2 vật. Nếu 3 người (vật) trở lên phải dùng any. Neither (không một ai trong hai) chỉ dùng cho 2 người, 2 vật. Nếu 3 người (vật) trở lên dùng not any.

Everybody who wants to buy a ticket should be in this line.
Something is in my eye.
Anybody who has lost his ticket should report to the desk.
Neither of his pens is able to be used.
If either of you takes a vacation now, we will not be able to finish the work.
No problem is harder than this one.
Nobody works harder than John does.

4.3 Cách sử dụng None và No

None và No đều dùng được với cả danh từ số ít và số nhiều.
· Nếu sau None of the là một danh từ không đếm được thì động từ phải ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít. Nếu sau nó là một danh từ số nhiều thì động từ phải chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số nhiều.

None of the + non-count noun + singular verb
None of the + plural count noun + plural verb

None of the counterfeit money has been found.
None of the students have finished the exam yet.

· Nếu sau No là một danh từ đếm được số ít hoặc không đếm được thì động từ phải ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít. Nếu sau nó là một danh từ số nhiều thì động từ phải ở ngôi thứ 3 số nhiều

No + {singular noun / non-count noun} + singular verb
No + plural noun + plural verb

No example is relevant to this case.
No examples are relevant to this case.

4.4 Cách sử dụng cấu trúc either... or (hoặc...hoặc) và neither... nor (không...mà cũng không)

Điều cần lưu ý nhất khi sử dụng cấu trúc này là động từ phải chia theo danh từ đi sau or hoặc nor. Nếu danh từ đó là số ít thì động từ chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít và ngược lại. Nếu or hoặc nor xuất hiện một mình (không có either hoặc neither) thì cũng áp dụng quy tắc tương tự (như đã đề cập ở phần trên)

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.
Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.
Neither the boys nor Carmen has seen this movie before.
Either John or Bill is going to the beach today.
Neither the director nor the secretary wants to leave yet.

4.5 V-ing làm chủ ngữ

Khi V-ing dùng làm chủ ngữ thì động từ cũng phải chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít.

Knowing her has made him what he is.
Not studying has caused him many problems.
Washing with special cream is recommended for scalp infection.
Being cordial is one of his greatest assets.
Writing many letters makes her happy.

Người ta sẽ dùng V-ing khi muốn diễn đạt 1 hành động cụ thể xảy ra nhất thời nhưng khi muốn diễn đạt bản chất của sự vật, sự việc thì phải dùng danh từ

Dieting is very popular today.
Diet is for those who suffer from a cerain disease.

Động từ nguyên thể cũng có thể dùng làm chủ ngữ và động từ sau nó sẽ chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít. Nhưng người ta thường dùng chủ ngữ giả it để mở đầu câu.

To find the book is necessary for him = It is necessary for him to find the book.

4.6 Các danh từ tập thể

Đó là các danh từ ở bảng sau dùng để chỉ 1 nhóm người hoặc 1 tổ chức nhưng trên thực tế chúng là những danh từ số ít, do vậy các đại từ và động từ theo sau chúng cũng ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít.

Congress
family
group
committee
class

Organization
team
army
club
crowd

Government
jury
majority*
minority
public

The committee has met, and it has rejected the proposal.
The family was elated by the news.
The crowd was wild with excitement
Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.
The organization has lot many members this year.
Our team is going to win the game.

Tuy nhiên nếu các thành viên trong nhóm đang hoạt động riêng rẽ, động từ sẽ chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số nhiều:

Congress votes for the bill. (Quốc hội bỏ phiếu cho dự luật, gồm tất cả mọi người)
Congress are discussing about the bill. (Quốc hội đang tranh luận về dự luật, tức là một số tán thành, một số phản đối. Thi TOEFL không bắt lỗi này).

* Danh từ majority được dùng tuỳ theo thành phần sau nó để chia động từ
The majority + singular verb
The majority of the + plural noun + plural verb

The majority believes that we are in no danger.
The majority of the students believe him to be innocent.

· The police/the sheep/the fish + plural verb.
The sheep are breaking away
The police come only to see the dead bodies and a ruin in the bank
· A couple + singular verb
A couple is walking on the path
· The couple + plural verb
The couple are racing their horses through the meadow.
· Các cụm từ ở nhóm sau chỉ một nhóm động vật hoặc gia súc. Cho dù sau giới từ of là danh từ số nhiều thì động từ vẫn chia theo ngôi chủ ngữ chính – ngôi thứ 3 số ít: flock of birds/ sheep, school of fish, herd of cattle, pride of lions, pack of dogs
The flock of birds is circling overhead.
The herd of casttle is breaking away.
A school of fish is being attacked by sharks.
· Tất cả các danh từ tập thể chỉ thời gian, tiền bạc, số đo, ... khi được đề cập đến như một thể thống nhất thì đều được xem là một danh từ số ít. Do đó các động từ và đại từ theo sau chúng phải ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít.
Twenty-five dollars is too much for the meal.
Fifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish this test
Twenty dollars is all I can afford to pay for that radio.
Two miles is too much to run in one day.
He has contributed $50, and now he wants to contribute another fifty.

4.7 Cách sử dụng a number of, the number of:

A number of = “Một số những ...”, đi với danh từ số nhiều, động từ chia ở số nhiều.

A number of + plural noun + plural verb

A number of students are going to the class picnic (Một số sinh viên sẽ đi ...)
A number of applicants have already been interviewed.

The number of = “Số lượng những ...”, đi với danh từ số nhiều, động từ vẫn ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít.

The number of + plural noun + singular verb...

The number of days in a week is seven. (Số lượng ngày trong tuần là 7)
The number of residents who have been questioned on this matter is quite small.

4.8 Các danh từ luôn ở số nhiều

Bảng sau là những danh từ bao giờ cũng ở hình thái số nhiều vì chúng bao gồm 2 thực thể nên các đại từ và động từ đi cùng với chúng cũng phải ở số nhiều.

scissors
shorts
pants

jeans
tongs
trousers

eyeglasses
pliers
tweezers

Nếu muốn chúng thành ngôi số ít phải dùng a pair of...
The pants are in the drawer.
A pair of pants is in the drawer.
These scissors are dull. (Cái kéo này cùn. Chú ý chỉ có 1 cái kéo nhưng cũng dùng với these)

4.9 Cách dùng there is, there are

Được dùng để chỉ sự tồn tại của người hoặc vật tại một nơi nào đó. Chủ ngữ thật của câu là là danh từ đi sau động từ. Nếu nó là danh từ số ít thì động từ to be chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít và ngược lại. Mọi biến đổi về thời và thể đều ở to be còn there giữ nguyên.

There has been an increase in the importation of foreign cars.
Threre is a storm approaching.
There was an accident last night.
There was water on the floor.

There have been a number of telephone calls today.
There were too many people at the party.

Lưu ý:

- Các cấu trúc: there is certain/ sure/ likely/ bound to be = chắc chắn là sẽ có
There is sure to be trouble when she gets his letter. (Chắc chắn là sẽ có rắc rối khi cô ấy nhận được thư anh ta)
Do you think there is likely to be snow. (Anh cho rằng chắc chắn sẽ có tuyết chứ)

- Trong dạng tiếng Anh quy chuẩn hoặc văn chương một số các động từ khác ngoài to be cũng được sử dụng với there:
Động từ trạng thái: stand/ lie/ remain/ exist/ live
Động từ chỉ sự đến: enter/ go/ come/ follow/ develop

In a small town in Germany there once lived a poor shoemaker. (Tại một thị trấn nhỏ ở Đức có một ông thợ giày nghèo sống ở đó)
There remains nothing more to be done . (Chả còn có gì nữa mà làm)
Suddenly there entered a strange figure dressed all in black.  (Bỗng có một hình bóng kì lạ mặc toàn đồ đen đi vào)
There followed an uncomfortable silence. (Sau đó là một sự im lặng đến khó chịu)

- There + subject pronoun + go/ come/ be: kìa/ thế là/ rồi thì
There he comes  (Anh ta đã đến rồi kia kìa)
There you are, I have been waiting for you for over an hour.  (Anh đây rồi, tôi đang chờ anh đến hơn một tiếng rồi đấy)

5. Đại từ

Đại từ được chia làm 5 loại với các chức năng sử dụng khác nhau, bao gồm:

5.1 Subject pronoun (Đại từ nhân xưng chủ ngữ)

I
You
He
She
It

We
You

They

Đại từ nhân xưng chủ ngữ (còn gọi là đại từ nhân xưng) thường đứng ở vị trí chủ ngữ trong câu hoặc đứng sau động từ be, đằng sau các phó từ so sánh như than, as, that...

I am going to the store.
We have lived here for twenty years.
The teachers who were invited to the party were George, Bill and I.
It was she who called you.
George and I would like to leave now.
We students are going to have a party.

- Ngay sau các ngôi số nhiều như we, you bạn có thể dùng một danh từ số nhiều để làm rõ we, you là chỉ cái gì.
We students are going to have a party (Sinh viên chúng tôi .....)
You guys (Bọn mày)

•         We/ You/ They có thể dùng với all/ both. Trong trường hợp câu có động từ đơn thì chúng đi liền với nhau:
We all go to school now.
They both bought the ensurance
You all come shopping.

•         Nhưng nếu all hoặc both đi với các đại từ này ở dạng câu có trợ động từ thì all hoặc both sẽ đứng sau trợ động từ:
We will all go to school next week.
They have both bought the insurance.

•         All và Both cũng phải đứng sau động từ to be, trước tính từ
We are all ready to go swimming.

•         Dùng he/she thay thế cho các vật nuôi nếu chúng được xem là có tính cách, thông minh hoặc tình cảm (chó, mèo, ngựa...)
Go and find the cat if where she stays in.
How's your new car? Terrrific, she is running beautifully.

•         Tên nước, tên các con tàu được thay thế trang trọng bằng she (ngày nay it dùng).
England is an island country and she is governed by a mornach.
Titanic was the biggest passenger ship ever built. She could carry as many as 2000 passenger on board.

5.2 Complement pronoun (Đại từ nhân xưng tân ngữ)

me
you
him
her
it

us
you

them

Đại từ tân ngữ đứng ở vị trí tân ngữ (đằng sau động từ hoặc giới trừ khi giới từ đó mở đầu một mệnh đề mới). Bạn cần phân biệt rõ đại từ tân ngữ với đại từ chủ ngữ. Chủ ngữ là chủ thể của hành động (gây ra hành động), còn tân ngữ là đối tượng nhận sự tác động của hành động.

They invited us to the party last night.
The teacher gave him a bad grade.
I told her a story.
The policeman was looking for him.

Đằng sau us có thể dùng một danh từ số nhiều trực tiếp, giống như đối với đại từ nhân xưng chủ ngữ.
The teacher has made a lot of questions for us students.

5.3 Possessive pronoun (Đại từ sở hữu)

mine
yours
his
hers
its

ours
yours

theirs

Người ta dùng đại từ sở hữu để tránh khỏi phải nhắc lại tính từ sở hữu + danh từ đã đề cập trước đó. Nó có nghĩa: mine = cái của tôi; yours = cái của (các) bạn; ... Do đó chúng thay thế cho danh từ. Đừng bao giờ dùng cả đại từ sở hữu lẫn danh từ. Mặc dù cách viết của his và its đối với tính từ sở hữu và đại từ sở hữu là giống nhau nhưng bạn cần phân biệt rõ hai trường hợp này.

This is my book; that is yours. (yours = your book)
Your teacher is the same as his. (his = his teacher)
Jill’s dress is green and mine is red. (mine = my dress)
Your books are heavy, ours are heavy too. (ours = our books)

5.3.1 Possessive adjectives (Tính từ sở hữu)

my
your
his
her
its

our
your

their

Tính từ sở hữu khác với đại từ sở hữu (nêu trên đây) ở chỗ nó bổ nghĩa cho danh từ chứ không thay thế cho danh từ. Gọi là tính từ sở hữu vì nó thể hiện tính chất sở hữu của người hoặc vật đối với danh từ đi sau nó. Chú ý rằng cũng dùng tính từ sở hữu đối với các bộ phận trên cơ thể.

John is eating his dinner.
This is not my book.
The cat has injured its foot.
The boy broke his arm yesterday.
She forgot her homework this morning.
My food is cold.

5.4 Reflexive pronoun (Đại từ phản thân)

myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself

ourselves
yourselves

themselves

- Dùng để diễn đạt chủ ngữ vừa là tác nhân gây ra hành động, vừa là tác nhân nhận tác động của hành động đó. Nó đứng ngay đằng sau động từ hoặc giới từ for, to ở cuối câu.
Jill bought himself a new car.
Chú ý: “Jill bought him a new car” thì câu có nghĩa khác: “him” = another person.
I washed myself
He sent the letter to himself.
She served herself in the cafeteria.
We hurt ourselves playing football
John and Mary hurt themselves in a car accident.
You can see the difference for yourselves.

- Dùng để nhấn mạnh việc chủ ngữ tự làm lấy việc gì, trong trường hợp này nó đứng ngay sau chủ ngữ hoặc sau từ by.
I myself believe that there is no God.
She prepared the nine-course meal by herself.
John washed the dishes by himself.
The students themselves decorated the room.
Chú ý: ở dạng số nhiều self biến thành selves.

6. Tân ngữ (complement / object) và các vấn đề liên quan

6.1 Động từ dùng làm tân ngữ

Không phải bất cứ động từ nào trong tiếng Anh cũng đều đòi hỏi tân ngữ đứng sau nó là một danh từ. Một số các động từ lại đòi hỏi tân ngữ sau nó phải là một động từ khác. Động từ dùng làm tân ngữ được chia làm hai loại:

6.1.1. Loại 1: Động từ nguyên thể làm tân ngữ (to + verb)

- Bảng dưới đây là những động từ đòi hỏi tân ngữ sau nó là một động từ nguyên thể khác.

agree
attempt
claim
decide
demand

desire
expect
fail
forget
hesitate

hope
intend
learn
need
offer

plan
prepare
pretend
refuse
seem

strive
tend
want
wish

John expects to begin studying law next semester.
Mary learned to swim when she was very young.
The committee decided to postpone the meeting.
The president will attempt to reduce inflation rate.

- Trong câu phủ định, thêm not vào trước động từ làm tân ngữ:
John decided not to buy the car.

6.1.2. Loại 2: Động từ Verb-ing dùng làm tân ngữ

- Bảng dưới đây là những động từ đòi hỏi tân ngữ theo sau nó phải là một Verb-ing

admit
appreciate
avoid
can't help
delay
deny
resist

enjoy
finish
miss
postpone
practice
quit
resume

suggest
consider
mind
recall
risk
repeat
resent

John admitted stealing the jewels.
We enjoyed seeing them again after so many years.
You shouldn’t risk entering that building in its present condition.
He was considering buying a new car until the prices went up.
The Coast Guard has reported seeing another ship in the Florida Straits.

- Trong câu phủ định, thêm not vào trước Verb-ing.
John regretted not buying the car.

•         Lưu ý rằng trong bảng này có mẫu động từ can't help doing/ but do smt có nghĩa ‘không thể đừng được phải làm gì’
With such good oranges, we can't help buying two kilos at a time.

6.1.3 Bảng dưới đây là những động từ mà tân ngữ sau nó có thể là một động từ nguyên thể hoặc một verb-ing mà ngữ nghĩa không thay đổi.

begin
can't stand

continue
dread

hate
like

love
prefer

start
try

He started to study after dinner = he started studying after dinner.

Lưu ý rằng trong bảng này có một động từ can't stand to do/doing smt: không thể chịu đựng được khi phải làm gì.
He can't stand to wait (waiting) such a long time.

6.1.4 Bốn động từ đặc biệt

Đó là những động từ mà ngữ nghĩa của chúng sẽ đổi khác hoàn toàn khi tân ngữ sau nó là một động từ nguyên thể hoặc verb-ing.

1a) Stop to do smt: dừng lại để làm gì
He stoped to smoke = Anh ta dừng lại để hút thuốc.
1b) Stop doing smt: dừng làm việc gì
He stoped smoking = Anh ta đã bỏ thuốc.
2a) Remember to do smt: Nhớ sẽ phải làm gì
Remember to send this letter. = Hãy nhớ gửi bức thư này nhé.
2b) Remember doing smt: Nhớ là đã làm gì
I remember locking the door before leaving, but now I can't find the key.
Đặc biệt nó thường được dùng với mẫu câu: S + still remember + V-ing : Vẫn còn nhớ là đã...
I still remember buying the first motorbike
3a) Forget to do smt: quên sẽ phải làm gì
I forgot to pickup my child after school = Tôi quên không đón con.
3b) Forget doing smt: (quên là đã làm gì). Đặc biệt nó thường được dùng với mẫu câu S + will never forget + V-ing: sẽ không bao giờ quên được là đã ...
She will never forget meeting the Queen = Cô ấy không bao giờ quên lần gặp Nữ hoàng
4a) Regret to do smt: Lấy làm tiếc vì phải làm gì (thường dùng khi báo tin xấu)
We regret to inform the passengers that the flight for Washington DC was canceled because of the bad weather.
4b) Regret doing smt: Lấy làm tiếc vì đã làm gì
He regrets leaving school early. It's the biggest mistake in his life.

6.1.5 Động từ đứng sau giới từ

Tất cả các động từ đứng ngay sau giới từ đều phải ở dạng V-ing.

6.1.5.1 Verb + preposition + verb-ing

Sau đây là bảng các động từ có giới từ theo sau, vì vậy các động từ khác đi sau động từ này phải dùng ở dạng verb-ing.

Verb + prepositions + V-ing

approve of
be better of
count on
depend on

give up
insist on
keep on
put off

rely on
succeed in
think about
think of

worry abount
object to
look forward to
confess to

John gave up smoking because of his doctor’s advice.
He insisted on taking the bus instead of the plane.
Hery is thinking of going to France next year.
Fred confessed to stealing the jewels

Chú ý rằng ở 3 động từ cuối cùng trong bảng trên, có giới từ to đi sau động từ. Đó là giới từ chứ không phải là to trong động từ nguyên thể (to do st), nên theo sau nó phải là một verb-ing chứ không phải là một verb nguyên thể.

We are not looking forward to going back to school.
Jill objected to receiving the new position.
He confessed to causing the fire.

6.1.5.2 Adjective + preposition + verb-ing:

Adjective + prepositions + V-ing

accustomed to
afraid of

intent on
interested in

capable of
fond of

successful in
tired of

Mitch is afraid of getting married now.
We are accustomed to sleeping late on weekends.
I am fond of dancing.
We are interested in seeing this film.

6.1.5.3 Noun + preposition + verb-ing:

Noun + prepositions + V-ing

choice of
excuse for

intention of
method for

possibility of
reason for

(method of)

There is no reason for leaving this early.
George has no excuse for droping out of school.
There is a possibility of acquiring this property at a good price.
He has developed a method for evaluating this problem.

Các trường hợp khác:
Trong các trường hợp khác, động từ đi sau giới từ cũng phải ở dạng verb-ing.
After leaving the party, he drove home.
He should have stayed in New York instead of moving to Maine.

6.1.6 Động từ đi sau tính từ:

Nói chung, nếu động từ đi ngay sau tính từ (không có giới từ) thì được dùng ở dạng nguyên thể. Những tính từ đó bao gồm.

anxious
boring
dangerous
hard

eager
easy
good
strange

pleased
prepared
ready
able

usual
common
difficult

It is dangerous to drive in this weather.
Mike is anxious to see his family.
We are ready to leave now.
It is difficult to pass this test.

Chú ý: able và capable có nghĩa như nhau nhưng cách dùng khác nhau:
(able/ unable) to do smt = (capable/ incapable) of doing smt.

6.2 Đại từ đứng trước động từ nguyên thể hoặc V-ing trong tân ngữ

6.2.1 Trường hợp tân ngữ là động từ nguyên thể

Trong trường hợp tân ngữ là động từ nguyên thể (loại 1) thì bất cứ danh từ hay đại từ nào trực tiếp đứng trước nó cũng phải ở dạng tân ngữ (complement form).
Joe asked her to call him.

S + V + {pronoun/ noun in complement form} + [to + verb] ...

Sau đây là một số động từ đòi hỏi tân ngữ là một động từ nguyên thể có đại từ làm tân ngữ gián tiếp.

allow
ask
beg

convince
expect
instruct

invite
order
permit

persuade
prepare
promise

remind
urge
want

We ordered him to appear in court.
I urge you to reconsider your decision.
They were trying to persuade him to change his mind.
The teacher permitted them to turn their assignments in late.
You should prepare your son to take this examination.

6.2.2 Trường hợp tân ngữ là V-ing

Trong trường hợp tân ngữ là một V- ing thì đại từ/danh từ phải ở dạng sở hữu.

Subject + verb + {pronoun/ noun}(possessive form) + verb-ing...

We understand your not being able to stay longer.
We object to their calling at this hour.
He regrets her leaving.
We are looking forward to their coming next year.
We don’t approve of John’s buying this house.
We resent the teacher’s not announcing the test sooner.

7. Một số động từ đặc biệt (need, dare, to be, get)

7.1 Need

7.1.1 Need dùng như một động từ thường:

a) Động từ đi sau need chỉ ở dạng nguyên thể khi chủ ngữ là một vật thể sống:

My friend needs to learn Spanish.
He will need to drive alone tonight.
John needs to paint his house.

b) Động từ đi sau need phải ở dạng verb-ing hoặc dạng bị động nếu chủ ngữ không phải là vật thể sống.

The grass needs cutting           OR The grass needs to be cut.
The telivision needs repairing   OR The TV needs to be repaired.
Your thesis needs rewriting     OR Your thesis needs to be rewritten.

Chú ý:

need + noun = to be in need of + noun

Jill is in need of money. = Jill needs money.
The roof is in need of repair. = The roof needs repairing.

Want và Require cũng đôi khi được dùng theo mẫu câu này nhưng không phổ biến:

Your hair wants cutting
All cars require servicing regularly

7.1.2 Need dùng như một trợ động từ

Chỉ dùng ở thể nghi vấn hoặc phủ định thời hiện tại. Ngôi thứ ba số ít không có "s" tận cùng. Không dùng với trợ động từ to do. Sau need (trợ động từ) là một động từ bỏ to:
We needn't reserve seats - there will be plenty of rooms.
Need I fill out the form?

•         Thường dùng sau các từ như if/ whether/ only/ scarcely/ hardly/ no one
I wonder if I need fill out the form.
This is the only form you need fill out.

•         Needn 't + have + P2 : Lẽ ra không cần phải
You needn't have come so early - only waste your time.

•         Needn't = không cần phải; trong khi mustn't = không được phép.
You needn’t apply for a visa to visit France if you hold a EU passport, but if you are not an EU citizen, you mustn’t unless you have a visa.

7.2 Dare (dám)

7.2.1 Dùng như một nội động từ

Không dùng ở thể khẳng định, chỉ dùng ở thể nghi vấn và phủ định.
Did they dare (to) do such a thing? = Dared they do such a thing? (Họ dám làm như vậy sao?)
He didn't dare (to) say anything = He dared not say anything. (Anh ta không dám nói gì.)

•         Dare không được dùng ở thể khẳng định ngoại trừ thành ngữ I dare say/ I daresay với 2 nghĩa sau:
Tôi cho rằng: I dare say there is a restaurant at the end of the train.
Tôi thừa nhận là: I daresay you are right.

•         How dare/ dared + S + Verb in simple form: Sao ... dám (tỏ sự giận giữ)
How dared you open my letter: Sao mày dám mở thư của tao.

7.2.2 Dùng như một ngoại động từ

Mang nghĩa “thách thức”: Dare sb to do smt = Thách ai làm gì
They dare the boy to swim across the river in such a cold weather.
I dare you to touch my toes = Tao thách mày dám động đến một sợi lông của tao.

7.3 Cách sử dụng to be trong một số trường hợp

•         To be of + noun = to have: có (dùng để chỉ tính chất hoặc tình cảm)
Mary is of a gentle nature = Mary có một bản chất tử tế.

•         To be of + noun: Nhấn mạnh cho danh từ đứng đằng sau
The newly-opened restaurant is of (ở ngay) the Leceister Square.

•         To be + to + verb: là dạng cấu tạo đặc biệt, sử dụng trong trường hợp:
- Để truyền đạt các mệnh lệnh hoặc các chỉ dẫn từ ngôi thứ nhất qua ngôi thứ hai đến ngôi thứ ba.
No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police.
- Dùng với mệnh đề if khi mệnh đề chính diễn đạt một câu điều kiện: Một điều phải xảy ra trước nếu muốn một điều khác xảy ra. (Nếu muốn... thì phải..)
If we are to get there by lunch time we had better hurry.
Something must be done quickly if the endangered birds are to be saved.
He knew he would have to work hard if he was to pass his exam
- Được dùng để thông báo những yêu cầu xin chỉ dẫn:
He asked the air traffic control where he was to land.
- Được dùng khá phổ biến để truyền đạt một dự định, một sự sắp đặt, đặc biệt khi nó là chính thức.
She is to get married next month.
The expedition is to start in a week.
We are to get a ten percent wage rise in June.
- Cấu trúc này thông dụng trên báo chí, khi là tựa đề báo thì to be được bỏ đi.
The Primer Minister (is) to make a statement tomorrow.

•         were + S + to + verb = if + S + were + to + verb = thế nếu (một giả thuyết)
Were I to tell you that he passed his exams, would you believe me.

•         was/ were + to + verb: Để diễn đạt ý tưởng về một số mệnh đã định sẵn
They said goodbye without knowing that they were never to meet again.
Since 1840, American Presidents elected in years ending in zero were to be died (have been destined to die) in office.

•         to be about to + verb = near future (sắp sửa)
They are about to leave.

•         Be + adj ... (mở đầu cho một ngữ) = tỏ ra...
Be careless in a national park where there are bears around and the result are likely to be tragical indeed.

•         Be + subject + noun/ noun phrase/ adjective = cho dù là ...
Societies have found various methods to support and train their artists, be it the Renaissance system of royal support of the sculptors and painters of the period or the Japanese tradition of passing artistic knowledge from father to son. (Ở các xã hội đều tìm thấy một số phương pháp hỗ trợ và đào tạo các nghệ sỹ, cho dù là hệ thống hỗ trợ các nhà điêu khắc và hoạ sỹ của các hoàng gia thời kỳ Phục hưng hay phương pháp truyền thụ hiểu biết nghệ thuật từ cha sang con theo truyền thống Nhật Bản)
To have technique is to possess the physical expertise to perform whatever steps a given work may contain, be they simple or complex. (Có được kỹ thuật là sẽ có được sự điêu luyện để thực hiện bất kỳ thao tác nào mà một công việc đòi hỏi, cho dù là chúng đơn giản hay phức tạp)

7.4 Cách sử dụng to get trong một số trường hợp:

7.4.1. To get + P2

get washed/ dressed/ prepared/ lost/ drowned/ engaged/ married/ divorced.
Chỉ việc chủ ngữ tự làm lấy một việc gì hoặc tình huống mà chủ ngữ đang gặp phải.
You will have 5 minutes to get dressed.(Em có 5 phút để mặc quần áo)
He got lost in old Market Street yesterday. (tình huống bị lạc đường)
Tuyệt nhiên không được lẫn trường hợp này với dạng bị động.

7.4.2. Get + V-ing = Start + V-ing: Bắt đầu làm gì

We'd better get moving, it's late.

7.4.3. Get sb/smt +V-ing: Làm cho ai/ cái gì bắt đầu.

Please get him talking about the main task. (Làm ơn bảo anh ta hãy bắt đầu đi vào vấn đề chính)
When we get the heater running, the whole car will start to warm up. (Khi chúng ta cho máy sưởi bắt đầu chạy..)

7.4.4. Get + to + verb

- Tìm được cách.
We could get to enter the stadium without tickets.(Chúng tôi đã tìm được cách lọt vào...)
- Có cơ may
When do I get to have a promotion? (Khi nào tôi có cơ may được tăng lương đây?)
- Được phép
At last we got to meet the general director. (Cuối cùng thì rồi chúng tôi cũng được phép gặp tổng đạo diễn)

7.4.5. Get + to + Verb (về hành động) = Come + to + Verb (về nhận thức) = Gradually = dần dần

We will get to speak English more easily as time goes by.
He comes to understand that learning English is not much difficult.

8. Câu hỏi

Tiếng Anh có nhiều loại câu hỏi có những chức năng và mục đích khác nhau. Trong câu hỏi, trợ động từ hoặc động từ be bao giờ cũng đứng trước chủ ngữ. Nếu không có trợ động từ hoặc động từ be, ta phải dùng dạng thức do, does, did như một trợ động từ để thay thế. Sau các động từ hoặc trợ động từ đó, phải dùng động chính từ ở dạng nguyên thể không có to. Thời và thể của câu hỏi chỉ được chia bởi trợ động từ, chứ không phải động từ chính.

8.1 Câu hỏi Yes/ No

Sở dĩ ta gọi là như vậy vì khi trả lời, dùng Yes/No. Nhớ rằng khi trả lời:
- Yes + Positive verb
- No + Negative verb.
(không được trả lời theo kiểu câu tiếng Việt)

Isn't Mary going to school today?
Was Mark sick yesterday?
Have you seen this movie before?
Will the committe decide on the proposal today?
Don't you still want to use the telephone?
Did you go to class yesterday?
Doesn't Ted like this picture?

8.2 Câu hỏi lấy thông tin (information question)

Đối với loại câu hỏi này, câu trả lời không thể đơn giản là yes hay no mà phải có thêm thông tin. Chúng thường dùng các từ nghi vấn, chia làm 3 loại sau:

8.2.1 Who hoặc What: câu hỏi chủ ngữ

Đây là câu hỏi khi muốn biết chủ ngữ hay chủ thể của hành động.

Something happened lastnight => What happened last night?
Someone opened the door. => Who opened the door?

Chú ý các câu sau đây là sai ngữ pháp:
Who did open the door? (SAI)
What did happen lastnight? (SAI)

8.2.2 Whom hoặc What: câu hỏi tân ngữ

Đây là các câu hỏi dùng khi muốn biết tân ngữ hay đối tượng tác động của hành động

Nhớ rằng trong tiếng Anh viết chính tắc bắt buộc phải dùng whom mặc dù trong tiếng Anh nói có thể dùng who thay cho whom trong mẫu câu trên.
George bought something at the store. => What did George buy at the store?
Ana knows someone from UK. => Whom does Ana know from UK?

8.2.3 When, Where, How và Why: Câu hỏi bổ ngữ

Dùng khi muốn biết nơi chốn, thời gian, lý do, cách thức của hành động.

How did Maria get to school today?
When did he move to London?
Why did she leave so early?
Where has Ted gone?
When will she come back?
Chú ý tránh nhầm lẫn với các câu sai như ví dụ ở phần 8.2.1

8.3 Câu hỏi phức (embedded question)

Là câu hoặc câu hỏi chứa trong nó một câu hỏi khác. Câu có hai thành phần nối với nhau bằng một từ nghi vấn (question word). Động từ ở mệnh đề thứ hai (mệnh đề nghi vấn) phải đi sau và chia theo chủ ngữ, không được đảo vị trí như ở câu hỏi độc lập.

S + V (phrase) + question word + S + V

The authorities can't figure out why the plane landed at the wrong airport.
We haven’t assertained where the meeting will take place.

•         Trong trường hợp câu hỏi phức là một câu hỏi, áp dụng mẫu câu sau:

auxiliary + S + V + question word + S + V

Do you know where he went?
Could you tell me what time it is?

•         Question word có thể là một từ, cũng có thể là một cụm từ như: whose + noun, how many, how much, how long, how often, what time, what kind.

I have no idea how long the interview will take.
Do you know how often the bus run at night?
Can you tell me how far the museum is from the store?
I’ll tell you what kind of ice-cream tastes best.
The teacher asked us whose book was on his desk.

8.4 Câu hỏi đuôi (tag questions)

Trong câu hỏi đuôi, người đặt câu hỏi đưa ra một mệnh đề (mệnh đề chính) nhưng không hoàn toàn chắc chắn về tính đúng / sai của mệnh đề đó, do vậy họ dùng câu hỏi dạng này để kiểm chứng về mệnh đề đưa ra.

He should stay in bed, shouldn't he? (Anh ấy nên ở yên trên giường, có phải không?)
She has been studying English for two years, hasn't she?
There are only twenty-eight days in February, aren’t there?
It’s raining now, isn’t it? (Trời vẫn còn mưa, phải không?)
You and I talked with the professor yesterday, didn’t we?
You won’t be leaving for now, will you?
Jill and Joe haven’t been to VN, have they?

Câu hỏi đuôi chia làm hai thành phần tách biệt nhau bởi dấu phẩy theo quy tắc sau:

•         Sử dụng trợ động từ giống như ở mệnh đề chính để làm phần đuôi câu hỏi. Nếu không có trợ động từ thì dùng do, does, did để thay thế.

•         Nếu mệnh đề chính ở thể khẳng định thì phần đuôi ở thể phủ định và ngược lại.

•         Thời của động từ ở đuôi phải theo thời của động từ ở mệnh đề chính.

•         Chủ ngữ của mệnh đề chính và của phần đôi là giống nhau. Đại từ ở phần đuôi luôn phải để ở dạng chủ ngữ (in subject form)

•         Phần đuôi nếu ở dạng phủ định thì thường được rút gọn (n’t). Nếu không rút gọn thì phải theo thứ tự: auxiliary + subject + not? (He saw it yesterday, did he not?)

•         Động từ have có thể là động từ chính, cũng có thể là trợ động từ. Khi nó là động từ chính của mệnh đề trong tiếng Anh Mỹ thì phần đuôi phải dùng trợ động từ do, does hoặc did. Tuy nhiên, trong tiếng Anh Anh thì bạn có thể dùng chính have như một trợ động từ trong trường hợp này. Khi bạn thi TOEFL là kỳ thi kiểm tra tiếng Anh Mỹ, bạn phải chú ý để khỏi bị mất điểm.
You have two children, haven’t you? (British English: OK, TOEFL: NOT)
You have two children, don't you? (Correct in American English)

•         There is, there are và it is là các chủ ngữ giả nên phần đuôi được phép dùng lại there hoặc it giống như trường hợp đại từ làm chủ ngữ.

9. Lối nói phụ họa

9.1 Phụ hoạ câu khẳng định

Khi muốn nói một người hoặc vật nào đó làm một việc gì đó và một người, vật khác cũng làm một việc như vậy, người ta dùng so hoặc too. Để tránh phải lặp lại các từ của câu trước (mệnh đề chính), người ta dùng liên từ and và thêm một câu đơn giản (mệnh đề phụ) có sử dụng so hoặc too. Ý nghĩa của hai từ này có nghĩa là “cũng thế”.

John went to the mountains on his vacation, and we did too.
John went to the mountains on his vacation, and so did we.
I will be in VN in May, and they will too.
I will be in VN in May, and so will they.
He has seen her play, and the girls have too.
He has seen her play, and so have the girls.
We are going to the movie tonight, and he is too.
We are going to the movie tonight, and so is he.
She will wear a custome to the party, and we will too.
She will wear a custome to the party, and so will we.
Picaso was a famous painter, and Rubens was too.
Picaso was a famous painter, and so was Rubens.

Tuỳ theo từ nào được dùng mà cấu trúc câu có sự thay đổi:

1.      Khi trong mệnh đề chính có động từ be ở bất cứ thời nào thì trong mệnh đề phụ cũng dùng từ be ở thời đó.

I am happy, and you are too.
I am happy, and so are you.

2.      Khi trong mệnh đề chính có một cụm trợ động từ + động từ, ví dụ will go, should do, has done, have written, must consider, ... thì các trợ động từ trong mệnh đề đó được dùng lại trong mệnh đề phụ.

They will work in the lab tomorrow, and you will too.
They will work in the lab tomorrow, and so will you.

3.      Khi trong mệnh đề chính không phải là động từ be, cũng không có trợ động từ, bạn phải dùng các từ do, does, did làm trợ động từ thay thế. Thời và thể của trợ động từ này phải chia theo chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ.

Jane goes to that school, and my sister does too.
Jane goes to that school, and so does my sister.

9.2 Phụ hoạ câu phủ định

Cũng giống như too và so trong câu khẳng định, để phụ hoạ một câu phủ định, người ta dùng either hoặc neither. Hai từ này có nghĩa “cũng không”. Ba quy tắc đối với trợ động từ, động từ be hoặc do, does, did cũng được áp dụng giống như trên. Ta cũng có thể gói gọn 3 quy tắc đó vào một công thức như sau:

I didn't see Mary this morning, and John didn't either
I didn't see Mary this morning, and neither did John.
She won’t be going to the conference, and her friends won’t either.
She won’t be going to the conference, and neither will her friends.
John hasn’t seen the new movie yet, and I haven’t either.
John hasn’t seen the new movie yet, and neither have I.

10. Câu phủ định (negation)

Để tạo câu phủ định đặt not sau trợ động từ hoặc động từ be . Nếu không có trợ động từ hoặc động từ be thì dùng dạng thức thích hợp của do, does hoặc did để thay thế.

John is rich => John is not rich.
Mark has seen Bill => Mark has not seen Bill
Mary can swim => Mary cannot swim.
I went to the store yesterday => I did not go to the store yesterday.
Mark likes spinach => Mark doesn’t like spinach.
I want to leave now => I don’t want to leave now.

10.1 Some/any:

Đặt any đằng trước danh từ làm vị ngữ sẽ nhấn mạnh câu phủ định. Cũng có thể nhấn mạnh một câu phủ định bằng cách dùng no + danh từ hoặc a single + danh từ số ít.
John has some money => John doesn’t have any money.
He sold some magazines yesterday => He didn't sell a single magazine yesterday.
= He sold no magazine yesterday.

10.2 Một số các câu hỏi ở dạng phủ định lại mang ý nghĩa khác (không dùng dấu ?):

- Nhấn mạnh cho sự khẳng định của người nói.
Shouldn 't you put on your hat, too! : Thế thì anh cũng đội luôn mũ vào đi.
Didn't you say that you would come to the party tonight: Thế anh đã chẳng nói là anh đi dự tiệc tối nay hay sao.
- Dùng để tán dương
Wasn 't the weather wonderful yesterday: Thời tiết hôm qua đẹp tuyệt vời.
Wouldn't it be nice if we didn't have to work on Friday.
Thật là tuyệt vời khi chúng ta không phải làm việc ngày thứ 6.

10.3 Hai lần phủ định

Negative + Negative = Positive (Mang ý nghĩa nhấn mạnh)
It's unbelieveable he is not rich. (Chẳng ai có thể tin được là anh ta lại không giàu có.)

10.4 Phủ định kết hợp với so sánh

Negative + comparative (more/ less) = superlative (Mang nghĩa so sánh tuyệt đối)
I couldn't agree with you less = I absolutely agree with you.
You couldn't have gone to the beach on a better day = It's the best day to go to the beach.
Nhưng phải hết sức cẩn thận vì :
He couldn't have been more unfriendly when I met him first. = the most unfriendly
The surgery couldn't have been more unnecessary. = absolutely unnecessary

10.5 Cấu trúc phủ định song song

Negative... even/still less/much less + noun/ verb in simple form: không ... mà lại càng không.
These students don't like reading novel, much less textbook.
Những sinh viên này chẳng thích đọc tiểu thuyết, chứ chưa nói đến sách giáo khoa.
It's unbelieveable how he could have survived such a freefall, much less live to tell about it on television.
Thật không thể tin được anh ta lại có thể sống sót sau cú rơi tự do đó, chứ đừng nói đến chuyện lên TV kể về nó.

10.6 Phủ định không dùng thể phủ định của động từ

Một số các phó từ trong tiếng Anh mang nghĩa phủ định (negative adverb), khi đã dùng nó thì trong câu không dùng cấu tạo phủ định của động từ nữa:
Hardly, barely, scarcely = almost nothing/ almost not at all = hầu như không.
Hardly ever, seldom, rarely = almost never = hầu như không bao giờ.

subject + negative adverb + positive verb

subject + to be + negative adverb

John rarely comes to class on time. (John chẳng mấy khi đến lớp đúng giờ)
Tom hardly studied lastnight. (Tôm chẳng học gì tối qua)
She scarcely remembers the accident. (Cô ấy khó mà nhớ được vụ tai nạn)
We seldom see photos of these animals. (Chúng tôi hiếm khi thấy ảnh của những động vật này)

*Lưu ý rằng các phó từ này không mang nghĩa phủ định hoàn toàn mà mang nghĩa gần như phủ định. Đặc biệt là những từ như barely và scarcely khi đi với những từ như enough và only hoặc những thành ngữ chỉ sự chính xác.
- Do you have enough money for the tution fee?
- Only barely. Vừa đủ.

10.7 Thể phủ định của một số động từ đặc biệt

Đối với những động từ như to think, to believe, to suppose, to imagine + that + sentense. Khi chuyển sang câu phủ định, phải cấu tạo phủ định ở các động từ đó, không được cấu tạo phủ định ở mệnh đề thứ hai.
I don't think you came to class yesterday. (Không dùng: I think you didn't come to class yesterday)
I don't believe she stays at home now.

10.8 No matter

No matter + who/what/which/where/when/how + Subject + verb in present: Dù có... đi chăng nữa... thì
No matter who telephones, say I’m out.
Cho dù là ai gọi đến thì hãy bảo là tôi đi vắng.
No matter where you go, you will find Coca-Cola.
Cho dù anh có đi đến đâu, anh cũng sẽ thấy nhãn hiệu Coca-Cola
No matter who = whoever; No matter what = whatever
No matter what (whatever) you say, I won’t believe you.
Cho dù anh có nói gì đi chăng nữa, tôi cũng không tin anh.
Các cấu trúc này có thể đứng cuối câu mà không cần có mệnh đề theo sau:
I will always love you, no matter what.

10.9 Cách dùng Not ... at all; at all

Not ... at all: Chẳng chút nào. Chúng thường đứng cuối câu phủ định
I didn’t understand anything at all.
She was hardly frightened at all

At all còn được dùng trong câu hỏi, đặc biệt với những từ như if/ever/any...
Do you play poker at all? (Anh có chơi bài poker được chứ?)

11. Câu mệnh lệnh

Câu mệnh lệnh là câu có tính chất sai khiến nên còn gọi là câu cầu khiến. Một người ra lệnh hoặc yêu cầu cho một người khác làm một việc gì đó. Nó thường theo sau bởi từ please. Chủ ngữ của câu mệnh lệnh được ngầm hiểu là you. Luôn dùng dạng thức nguyên thể (không có to) của động từ trong câu mệnh lệnh. Câu mệnh lệnh chia làm 2 loại: Trực tiếp và gián tiếp.

11.1 Mệnh lệnh thức trực tiếp

Close the door
Please turn off the light.
Open the window.
Be quiet.

Sau đây là lời thoại trong một đoạn quảng cáo bia trên TV:
Tên cướp xông vào một quán bia, rút súng ra chĩa vào mọi người và quát:
- Give me your jewelry! Don’t move!
Một thanh niên từ từ tiến lại từ phía sau, gí một chai bia Laser lạnh vào gáy hắn:
- Drop your weapon!
Tên cướp tưởng sau gáy hắn là một họng súng liền buông vũ khí đầu hàng.

11.2 Mệnh lệnh gián tiếp:

Dạng thức gián tiếp thường được dùng với: to order/ ask/ say/ tell sb to do smt.
John asked Jill to turn off the light.
Please tell Jaime to leave the room.
I ordered him to open the book.

11.3 Dạng phủ định của câu mệnh lệnh

Ở dạng phủ định, thêm Don’t vào trước động từ trong câu trực tiếp (kể cả động từ be) hoặc thêm not vào trước động từ nguyên thể trong câu gián tiếp.

Don’t move! Or I’ll shoot. (Đứng im, không tao bắn)
Don’t turn off the light when you go out.
Don’t be silly. I’ll come back. (Đừng có ngốc thế, rồi anh sẽ về mà)
John asked Jill not to turn off the light.
Please tell Jame not to leave the room.
I ordered him not to open his book.

Chú ý: let's khác let us
let's go: mình đi nào
let us go: hãy để chúng tôi đi
Câu hỏi có đuôi của let's là shall we
Let's go out for dinner, shall we

12. Các trợ động từ (Modal Auxiliaries)

Các trợ động từ (còn gọi là trợ động từ hình thái - xem bảng sau) dùng để bổ nghĩa thêm cho động từ chính về tính chất, mức độ, khả năng, hình thái, ... của hành động. Chúng ta sẽ lần lượt đề cập đến ý nghĩa của chúng ở các phần sau. Do chúng là các trợ động từ, nên không thay thế được cho động từ chính (phải luôn có động từ chính đi kèm), cũng như không dùng kèm với các trợ động từ khác cùng loại hoặc với các trợ động từ do, does, did. Cũng không dùng tiểu từ to trước và sau các trợ động từ. Trợ động từ hình thái không biến đổi theo ngôi hay theo số (số ít và số nhiều như nhau, ngôi thứ nhất, thứ hai hay thứ ba cũng như nhau). Động từ chính đi sau trợ động từ cũng không chia (luôn ở dạng nguyên thể không có to).

present tense

past tense

will
can
may
shall
must (have to)
would (used to)

could
might
should (ought to) (had better)
(had to)

Các từ đặt trong ngoặc là các động từ bán hình thái. Chúng có vai trò và ý nghĩa giống như các trợ động từ hình thái nhưng về ngữ pháp thì không giống, bởi vì chúng biến đổi theo ngôi và số. Ví dụ về cách dùng trợ động từ:

I can swim; she can swim, too. (không chia theo ngôi)
He can swim. (Không dùng: He cans swim hoặc He can swims)
They will leave now. (Không dùng: They will leaving now hoặc They will can leave now.)
They have to go now.
He has to go now. (chia theo ngôi).

12.1 Câu phủ định dùng trợ động từ

Trong câu phủ định, thêm not vào sau trợ động từ, trước động từ chính:
John will leave now. => John will not leave now.
He can swim => He can not swim.
Chú ý khi viết tắt: will not => won't; must not => musn't; would not => wouldn't; could not => couldn't; can not => can't.

12.2 Câu nghi vấn dùng trợ động từ

Trong câu hỏi, đặt trợ động từ ở đầu câu:
John will leave now. =>Will he leave now?

Xin nhắc lại, trợ động từ hình thái luôn đi với dạng thức nguyên thể không có to của động từ. Vì vậy, sau trợ động từ hình thái không bao giờ có các dạng [verb-ing], [verb+s], [to + verb] hay thời quá khứ của động từ. Chỉ có hai cách sử dụng trợ động từ hình thái:

(1) modal + [simple form of verb]: would be, can go, will have, must see, ...
(2) modal + have + [verb in past participle]: could have gone, would have been,..

Tất nhiên trong cách (2), từ have chính là động từ nguyên thể không có to; không được thay thế nó bằng has hay had.

13. Câu điều kiện

Các trợ động từ hình thái như will, would, can, could thường xuất hiện trong các câu điều kiện. Các câu điều kiện thường chứa từ if (nếu). Có hai loại câu điều kiện là điều kiện có thực và điều kiện không có thực.

13.1 Điều kiện có thể thực hiện được (điều kiện có thực hay điều kiện dạng I)

Câu điều kiện có thực là câu mà người nói dùng để diễn đạt một hành động hoặc một tình huống thường xảy ra (thói quen) hoặc sẽ xảy ra (trong tương lai) nếu điều kiện ở mệnh đều chính được thoả mãn. Nếu nói về tương lai, dạng câu này được sử dụng khi nói đến một điều kiện có thể thực hiện được hoặc có thể xảy ra.

TƯƠNG LAI (FUTURE ACTION)

If he tries much more, he will improve his English.
If I have money, I will buy a new car.

THÓI QUEN (HABITUAL)

if + S + simple present tense ... + simple present tense ...

If the doctor has morning office hours, he visits every patiens in the affternoon.
I usually walk to school if I have enough time.

MỆNH LỆNH (COMMAND)

If + S + simple present tense ... + command form of verb + ...

If you go to the Post Office, mail this letter for me.
Please call me if you hear anything from Jane.

13.2 Điều kiện không thể thực hiện được (điều kiện không có thực hay điều kiện dạng II, III)

Câu điều kiện không có thực dùng để diễn tả một hành động hoặc một trạng thái sẽ xảy ra hoặc đã có thể xảy ra nếu như tình huống được đặt ra trong câu khác với thực tế đang xảy ra hoặc đã xảy ra. Câu điều kiện không có thực thường gây nhầm lẫn vì sự thực về sự kiện mà câu thể hiện lại trái ngược với cách thể hiện của câu: nếu động từ của câu là khẳng định thì ý nghĩa thực của câu lại là phủ định và ngược lại.

If I were rich, I would travel around the world.
(I am not rich) (I’m not going to travel around the world)

If I hadn’t been in a hurry, I wouldn’t have had an accident.
(I was in a hurry) (I had an accident)

13.2.1 Điều kiện không có thực ở hiện tại (dạng II)

PRESENT OR FUTURE TIME

If I had enough money now, I would buy a tourist trip to the moon.
He would tell you about it if he were here.
If he didn’t speak so quickly, you could understand him.
(He speaks very quicky) (You can’t understand him)
Động từ to be phải chia là were ở tất cả các ngôi.
If I were you, I wouldn't go to that movie.

13.2.2 Điều kiện không có thực trong quá khứ (dạng III)

PAST TIME

If we had known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.
(We didn’t know ...) (We didn’t write you a letter)
If we hadn’t lost our way, we would have arrived sooner.
If he had studied harder for that test, he would have passed it.

Chú ý rằng cũng có thể thể hiện một điều kiện không có thực mà không dùng if. Trong trường hợp đó, trợ động từ had được đưa lên đầu câu, đứng trước chủ ngữ. Mệnh đề điều kiện sẽ đứng trước mệnh đề chính.

Had we known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.
Had he studied harder for the test, he would have passed it.

Lưu ý: Câu điều kiện không phải lúc nào cũng tuân theo qui luật trên. Trong một số trường hợp đặc biệt, một vế của điều kiện là quá khứ nhưng vế còn lại có thể ở hiện tại (do thời gian qui định).
If she had caught the train, she would be here by now.

13.3 Cách sử dụng will, would, could, should trong một số trường hợp khác

Thông thường các trợ động từ này không được sử dụng với if trong mệnh đề điều kiện của câu điều kiện, tuy nhiên vẫn có một số ngoại lệ như sau:

- If you (will/would): Nếu ..... vui lòng. Thường được dùng trong các yêu cầu lịch sự. Would lịch sự hơn will.
If you will/would wait for a moment, I will go and see if Mr Conner is here.

•         If + Subject + Will/Would: Nếu ..... chịu. Để diễn đạt ý tự nguyện.
If he will listen to me, I can help him.
Will còn được dùng theo mẫu câu này để diễn đạt sự ngoan cố: Nếu ..... nhất định, Nếu ..... cứ.
If you will turn on the music loudly so late tonight, no wonder why your neighbours complain.

•         If you could: Xin vui lòng. Diễn đạt lịch sự 1 yêu cầu mà người nói cho rằng người kia sẽ đồng ý như là một lẽ đương nhiên.
If you could open your book, please.

•         If + Subject + should + ..... + command: Ví phỏng như. Diễn đạt một tình huống dù có thể xảy ra được song rất khó.
If you should find any difficulty in using that TV, please call me.
Có thể đảo should lên trên chủ ngữ và bỏ if
Should you find any difficulty in using that TV, please call me.

13.4 Cách sử dụng if trong một số trường hợp khác

•         If... then: Nếu... thì
If she can’t come to us, then we will have to go and see her.

•         If dùng trong dạng câu suy diễn logic (không phải câu điều kiện): Động từ ở các mệnh đề diễn biến bình thường theo thời gian của chính nó.
If you want to learn a musical instrument, you have to practice.
If you did not do much maths at school, you will find economics difficult to understand.
If that was Marry, why didn’t she stop and say hello.

•         If... should = If... happen to... = If... should happen to... diễn đạt sự không chắc chắn (Xem thêm phần sử dụng should ở trên)
If you should happen to pass a supermarket, perhaps you could get some eggs.
(Ngộ nhỡ mà anh có tình cờ ghé qua chợ có lẽ mua cho em ít trứng)

•         If.. was/were to... Diễn đạt điều kiện không có thật hoặc tưởng tượng. Nó gần giống câu điều kiện không có thật ở hiện tại.
If our boss was/were to come in now (= if the boss came in now), we would be in real trouble.
What would we do if I was/were to lose my job.
Hoặc có thể diễn đạt một ý lịch sự khi đưa ra đề nghị
If you were to move your chair a bit, we could all sit down.
(Nếu anh vui lòng dịch ghế của anh ra một chút thì chúng ta có thể cùng ngồi được)
Note: Cấu trúc này tuyệt đối không được dùng với các động từ tĩnh tại hoặc chỉ trạng thái tư duy
Correct: If I knew her name, I would tell you.
Incorrect: If I was/were to know...

•         If it + to be + not + for: Nếu không vì, nếu không nhờ vào.
Thời hiện tại:
If it wasn’t/weren’t for the children, that couple wouldn’t have any thing to talk about.
(Nếu không vì những đứa con thì vợ chồng nhà ấy chả có chuyện gì mà nói)
Thời quá khứ:
If it hadn’t been for your help, I don’t know what to do.
(Nếu không nhờ vào sự giúp đỡ của anh thì tôi cũng không biết phải làm gì đây).
Có thể đảo lại:
Had it not been for your help, I don’t know what to to.

•         Not đôi khi được thêm vào những động từ sau if để bày tỏ sự nghi ngờ, không chắc chắn. (Có nên ... Hay không ...)
I wonder if we shouldn’t ask the doctor to look at Mary.

•         It would... if + subject + would... (sẽ là... nếu – không được dùng trong văn viết)
It would be better if they would tell every body in advance.
(Sẽ là tốt hơn nếu họ kể cho mọi người từ trước)

How would we feel if this would happen to our family.
(Ta sẽ cảm thấy thế nào nếu điều này xảy ra đối với gia đình chúng ta.)

•         If...’d have...’d have: Dùng trong văn nói, không dùng trong văn viết, diễn đạt điều kiện không thể xảy ra ở quá khứ
If I’d have known, I’d have told you.
If she’d have recognized him it would have been funny.

•         If + preposition + noun/verb... (subject + be bị lược bỏ)
If in doubt, ask for help. (= If you are in doubt, ...)
If about to go on a long journey, try to have a good nights sleep. (= If you are about to go on... )

•         If dùng với một số từ như any/anything/ever/not để diễn đạt phủ định
There is little if any good evidence for flying saucers.
(There is little evidence, if there is any at all, for flying saucers)
(Có rất ít bằng chứng về đĩa bay, nếu quả là có thực)
I’m not angry. If anything, I feel a little surprised.
(Tôi không giận dữ đâu. Mà có chăng tôi cảm thấy hơi ngạc nhiên)
Cách nói này còn diễn đạt ý kiến ướm thử: Nếu có...
I’d say he was more like a father, if anything
(Tôi xin nói rằng ông ấy còn hơn cả một người cha, nếu có thể nói thế.)
He seldom if ever travel abroad.
(Anh ta chả mấy khi đi ra nước ngoài)
Usually, if not always, we write “cannot” as one word
(Thông thường, nhưng không phải là luôn luôn... )

•         If + Adjective = although (cho dù là)
Nghĩa không mạnh bằng although - Dùng để diễn đạt quan điểm riêng hoặc vấn đề gì đó không quan trọng.
His style, if simple, is pleasant to read.
(Văn phong của ông ta, cho dù là đơn giản, thì đọc cũng thú)
The profits, if little lower than last year’s, are still extremely wealthy
(Lợi nhuận, cho dù là có thấp hơn năm qua một chút, thì vẫn là rất lớn.)
Cấu trúc này có thể thay bằng may..., but
His style may be simple, but it is pleasant to read.

13.5 Cách sử dụng Hope và Wish.

Hai động từ này tuy cùng nghĩa nhưng khác nhau về cách sử dụng và ngữ pháp. Hope dùng để diễn đạt một hành động hoặc tình huống có thể sẽ xảy ra hoặc có thể đã xảy ra, còn wish dùng để diễn đạt một điều chắc chắn sẽ không xảy ra hoặc chắc chắn đã không xảy ra. Thời của mệnh đề sau hope (hi vọng rằng) có thể là bất kỳ thời nào. Thời của mệnh đề sau wish bắt buộc không được ở thời hiện tại.

We hope that they will come. (We don’t know if they are coming or not)
We wish that they could come. (We know they can’t come)

We hope that he came there yesterday. (We don’t know if he came there or not.)
We wish that he had come there yesterday. (He didn’t come)

13.5.1 Wish ở tương lai:

That là tuỳ chọn (có hoặc không có). Hai chủ ngữ (S) có thể giống nhau hoặc khác nhau.
We wish that you could come to the party tonight. (We known you can't come)

13.5.2 Wish ở hiện tại

S + wish + (that) + S + simple past tense ...

Động từ ở mệnh đề sau wish sẽ chia ở Simple past, to be phải chia là were ở tất cả các ngôi.
I wish that I had enough time to finish my homework.

13.5.3 Wish ở quá khứ

Động từ ở mệnh đề wish sẽ chia ở Past perfect hoặc could have + P_2.

I wish that I had washed the clothes yesterday.
She wishes that she could have been there.

Lưu ý 1: Động từ ở mệnh đề sau wish bắt buộc phải ở dạng điều kiện không thể thực hiện được nhưng điều kiện ấy ở thời nào lại phụ thuộc vào chính thời gian của bản thân mệnh đề chứ không phụ thuộc vào thời của wish.

She wishes that she could have gone earlier yesterday.(Past)
He wished that he would come to visit me next week.(Future)
The photographer wished we stood clother than we are standing now. (Present).

Lưu ý 2: Cần phân biệt wish (ước gì/ mong gì) với wish mang nghĩa "chúc" trong mẫu câu: to wish sb smt

I wish you a happy birthday.

Lưu ý 3: và phân biệt với wish mang nghĩa "muốn":

wish to do smt (Muốn làm gì)
Why do you wish to see the manager
I wish to make a complaint.

To wish smb to do smt (Muốn ai làm gì)
The government does not wish Dr.Jekyll Hyde to accept a professorship at a foreign university.

13.6 Cách sử dụng as if, as though (cứ như là, như thể là)

Mệnh đề đằng sau hai thành ngữ này luôn ở dạng điều kiện không thể thực hiện được. Có hai trường hợp:

13.6.1 Ở thời hiện tại:

Nếu động từ ở mệnh đề trước chia ở thời hiện tại đơn giản thì động từ ở mệnh đề sau chia ở quá khứ đơn giản. To be phải chia là were ở tất cả các ngôi.

The old lady dresses as if it were winter even in the summer. (Bà cụ ăn mặc cứ như bây giờ là mùa đông)
(It is not winter now)
He acts as though he were rich. (Anh ta cứ làm như thể là anh ta giàu có lắm)
(He is not rich infact)
He talks as if he knew everything in the world.

13.6.2 Thời quá khứ:

Nếu động từ ở mệnh đề trước chia ở quá khứ đơn giản thì động từ ở mệnh đề sau chia ở quá khứ hoàn thành.

Jeff looked as though he had seen a ghost. (Trông Jeff như thể anh ta vừa gặp ma)
(He didn't see a ghost)
She talked about the contest as if she had won the grand prize.

Lưu ý: Mệnh đề sau as if, as though không phải lúc nào cũng tuân theo qui luật trên. Trong một số trường hợp, nếu điều kiện trong câu là có thật hoặc theo quan niệm của người nói, người viết là có thật thì hai công thức trên không được sử dụng. Động từ ở mệnh đề sau chúng diễn biến bình thường theo mối quan hệ với động từ ở mệnh đề chính.
He looks as if he has finished the test.

13.7 Cách sử dụng used to, (to be/get) used to

13.7.1 Used to + Verb:

Chỉ một thói quen, một hành động thường xuyên xảy ra trong quá khứ.

S + used to + [verb in simple form] ....

When David was young, he used to swim once a day.
- Nghi vấn: Did + S + use to + verb in simple form
Did David use to swim once a day when he was young?
- Phủ định: S + didn't + use to + verb in simple form
David didn’t use to swim once a day when he was young.

13.7.2 To be/ to get used to + V-ing/ Noun: Trở nên quen với.

He is used to swimming every day.
He got used to American food.

Lưu ý 1: Used to luôn luôn ở dạng như vậy, không thay đổi theo số, theo ngôi của chủ ngữ. Không được thay thế nó bằng use to.

Lưu ý 2: Có sự khác nhau về nghĩa giữa used to, be used to và get used to.

•         used to: chỉ một thói quen, một hành động thường xuyên trong quá khứ (past time habit):
The program director used to write his own letter.

•         be used to: quen với việc ... (be accustomed to)
I am used to eating at 7:00 PM

•         get used to: trở nên quen với việc ... (become accustomed to)
We got used to cooking our own food when we had to live alone.

Lưu ý 3: Có thể dùng would thay thế cho used to mà ý nghĩa và ngữ pháp không đổi.
When David was young, he would swim once a day.

13.8 Cách sử dụng would rather

would rather .... than cũng có nghĩa giống như prefer .... to (thích hơn) nhưng ngữ pháp lại không giống. Đằng sau would rather bắt buộc phải là một động từ nguyên thể không có to nhưng sau prefer là một V-ing hoặc một danh từ. Khi so sánh hai vế, would rather dùng với than còn prefer dùng với to.

We would rather die in freedom than live in slavery.
I would rather drink Coca than Pepsi.
I prefer drinking Coca to drinking Pepsi.
I prefer Coca to Pepsi.

Cách sử dụng would rather phụ thuộc vào số lượng chủ ngữ của câu cũng như thời của câu.

13.8.1 Loại câu có một chủ ngữ

Loại câu này dùng would rather ... (than) là loại câu diễn tả sự mong muốn hay ước muốn của một người và chia làm 2 thời:

13.8.1.1 Thời hiện tại:

Sau would rather là nguyên thể bỏ to. Nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định đặt not trước nguyên thể và bỏ to.

S + would rather + [verb in simple form] ...

Jim would rather go to class tomorrow than today.
Jim would rather not go to class tomorrow.

13.8.1.2 Thời quá khứ:

Động từ sau would rather phải là have + P_2, nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định đặt not trước have.

S + would rather + have + [verb in past participle]

Jim would rather have gone to class yesterday than today.
Jim would rather not have gone to the class yesterday.

13.8.2 Loại câu có hai chủ ngữ

Loại câu này dùng would rather that (ước gì, mong gì) và dùng trong một số trường hợp sau:

13.8.2.1 Câu cầu kiến ở hiện tại (present subjunctive):

Là loại câu người thứ nhất muốn người thứ hai làm việc gì (nhưng làm hay không còn phụ thuộc vào người thứ hai). Xem thêm về câu cầu khiến ở phần sau. Trong trường hợp này động từ ở mệng đề hai để ở dạng nguyên thể bỏ to. Nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định đặt not trước nguyên thể bỏ to.

S_1 + would rather that + S_2 + [verb in simple form] ...

I would rather that you call me tomorrow.
He would rather that I not take this train.

Ngữ pháp nói ngày nay đặc biệt là ngữ pháp Mỹ cho phép bỏ that trong cấu trúc này mà vẫn giữ nguyên hình thức giả định.

13.8.2.2 Câu giả định đối lập với thực tế ở hiện tại

Động từ sau chủ ngữ hai sẽ chia ở simple past, to be phải chia là were ở tất cả các ngôi.

S_1 + would rather that + S_2 + [verb in simple past tense] ...

Henry would rather that his girlfriend worked in the same department as he does.
(His girlfriend does not work in the same department)
Jane would rather that it were winter now. (Infact, it is not winter now)

Nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định dùng didn't + verb hoặc were not sau chủ ngữ hai.

Henry would rather that his girlfriend didn’t work in the same department as he does.
Jane would rather that it were not winter now.

13.8.2.3 Câu giả định trái ngược với thực tế ở quá khứ

Động từ sau chủ ngữ hai sẽ chia ở dạng past perfect. Nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định dùng hadn't + P2.

S_1 + would rather that + S_2 + past perfect ...

Bob would rather that Jill had gone to class yesterday.
(Jill did not go to class yesterday)
Bill would rather that his wife hadn’t divorced him.

Lưu ý: Trong văn nói bình thường hàng ngày người ta dùng wish thay cho would rather that.

14. Cách dùng một số trợ động từ hình thái ở thời hiện tại

14.1 Cách sử dụng Would + like

Để diễn đạt một cách lịch sự lời mời hoặc ý muốn gì. Không dùng do you want khi mời người khác.
Would you like to dance with me?
I would like to visit Japan.
Trong tiếng Anh của người Anh, nếu để diễn đạt sở thích thì sau like là một v-ing.
He likes reading novel. (enjoyment)
Nhưng để diễn đạt sự lựa chọn hoặc thói quen thì sau like là một động từ nguyên thể.
Between soccer and tennis, I like to see the former. (choice)
When making tea, he usually likes to put some sugar and a slice of lemon in first. (habit)
Trong tiếng Anh Mỹ thường không có sự phân biệt này, tất cả sau like đều là động từ nguyên thể có to.

- Wouldn't like = không ưa, trong khi don't want = không muốn.
- Would you like somemore coffee ?
- No, thanks/ No, I don't want any more. (polite)
- I wouldn't like (thèm vào) (impolite)

•         Lưu ý rằng khi like được dùng với nghĩa "cho là đúng" hoặc "cho là hay/ khôn ngoan" thì bao giờ theo sau cũng là một nguyên thể có to (infinitive)
She likes the children to play in the garden (She think they are safe playing there)
Cô ấy muốn bọn trẻ con chơi trong vườn cho chắc/ cho an toàn
I like to go to the dentist twice a year.
Tôi muốn đến bác sĩ nha khoa 2 lần/ năm cho chắc

•         Would like = would care /love/ hate/ prefer + to + verb: khi diễn đạt điều kiện cho một hành động cụ thể ở tương lai.
- Would you (like/care) to come with me?
- I'd love to

•         Would like/ would care for/ would enjoy + Verb-ing khi diễn đạt khẩu vị, ý thích nói chung của chủ ngữ.
She would like/ would enjoy riding if she could ride better.
I wonder if Tom would care for/ would enjoy hang-gliding.

14.2 Cách sử dụng could/may/might:

Chỉ khả năng có thể xảy ra ở hiện tại nhưng người nói không dám chắc. (Cả 3 trợ động từ đều có giá trị như nhau).

It might rain tomorrow.
It may rain tomorrow.
It could rain tomorrow.
It will possibly rain tomorrow
Maybe it will rain tomorrow.

Chú ý maybe là sự kết hợp của cả may và be nhưng nó là một từ và không phải là trợ động từ. Nó là một phó từ, có nghĩa như perhap (có lẽ)

14.3 Cách sử dụng Should:

(1) Để diễn đạt một lời khuyên, sự gợi ý, sự bắt buộc (nhưng không mạnh).

He should study tonight.
One should do exercise daily.
You should go on a diet.
She should see a doctor about her pain.

(2) Diễn đạt người nói mong muốn điều gì sẽ xảy ra. (Expectation)

It should rain tomorrow. (I expect it to rain tomorrow)
My check should arrive next week. (I expect it to arrive next week)

Các cụm từ had better, ought to, be supposed to đều có nghĩa tương đương và cách dùng tương tự với should trong cả hai trường hợp trên (với điều kiện động từ be trong be supposed to phải chia ở thời hiện tại).

John ought to study tonight.
John is supposed to study tonight.
John had better study tonight.

14.4 Cách sử dụng Must

(1) có nghĩa “phải”: mang nghĩa hoàn toàn bắt buộc (mạnh hơn should). Với should (nên), nhân vật có thể lựa chọn có thực hiện hành động hay không nhưng với must (phải), họ không có quyền lựa chọn.
George must call his insurance agent today.
A car must have gasoline to run.
A pharmacist must keep a record of the prescripton that are filled.
(Dược sỹ phải giữ lại bản sao đơn thuốc đã được bác sỹ kê - khi bán thuốc cho bệnh nhân)
An attorney must pass an examination before practicing law.
(Luật sư phải qua một kỳ kiểm tra trước khi hành nghề)

(2) có nghĩa “hẳn là”, “chắc đã”: chỉ một kết luận logic dựa trên những hiện tượng đã xảy ra.
John's lights are out. He must be asleep.
(Đèn phòng John đã tắt. Anh ta chắc đã ngủ)
The grass is wet. It must be raining.

14.5 Cách sử dụng have to

Người ta dùng have to thay cho must với nghĩa bắt buộc (nghĩa 1). Quá khứ của nó là had to, tương lai là will have to. Chú ý rằng have to không phải là một trợ động từ nhưng nó mang ý nghĩa giống như trợ động từ hình thái must.
We will have to take an exam next week.
George has to call his insurance agent today.
Để diễn đạt một nghĩa vụ trong quá khứ, phải dùng had to chứ không được dùng must.
George had to call his insurance agent yesterday.
Mrs.Kinsey had to pass an examination before she could practice law.
Trong câu hỏi, have to thường được dùng thay cho must để hỏi xem bản thân người hỏi bắt buộc phải làm gì hoặc để diễn đạt sự bắt buộc do khách quan đem lại.
- Guest: Do I have to leave a deposit? (Tôi có phải đặt cọc không)
- Receptionist: No, you needn't. But you have to leave your I.D card. I'm sorry but that's the way it is.
Trong văn nói, người ta dùng have got to, cũng có nghĩa như have to.
He has got to go to the office tonight.
Đặc biệt, dùng để nhấn mạnh các trường hợp cá biệt:
I have to work everyday except Sunday. But I don't have got to work a full day on Saturday.

15. Dùng trợ động từ để diễn đạt tình huống quá khứ (modal + perfective)

15.1 Could, may, might + have + P_2 = có lẽ đã

Diễn đạt một khả năng có thể đã xảy ra ở quá khứ song người nói không dám chắc.

It may have rained last night, but I'm not sure.
He could have forgotten the ticket for the concert last night.
I didn't hear the telephone ring, I might have been sleeping at that time.
The cause of death could have been bacteria.
John migh have gone to the movies yesterday.

15.2 Should have + P_2 = Lẽ ra phải, lẽ ra nên

Chỉ một việc lẽ ra đã phải xảy ra trong quá khứ nhưng vì lí do nào đó lại không xảy ra.

Maria shouldn't have called John last night. (She did call him)
John should have gone to the post office this morning.
The policeman should have made a report about the burglary.

Chúng ta cũng có thể dùng cụm từ was/were supposed to + [verb in simple form] để thay cho should + perfective.

John was supposed to go to the post office this morning.
The policeman was supposed to make a report about the burglary. (Anh ta đã không lập biên bản vụ trộm)

15.3 Must have + P_2 = chắc là đã, hẳn là đã

Chỉ một kết luận logic dựa trên những hiện tượng có đã xảy ra ở quá khứ (nghĩa 2 của must ở phần trên). Chú ý rằng không bao giờ dùng cấu trúc này với nghĩa 1. Chỉ được dùng had to hoặc should + perfective hoặc be supposed to khi diễn tả một trách nhiệm bắt buộc ở quá khứ.

The grass is wet. It must have rained last night.
(It probably rained last night)
Jane did very well on the exam. She must have studied hard.
I didn't hear you knock, I must have been gardening behind the house

16. Cách dùng should trong một số trường hợp cụ thể khác

•         Diễn đạt kết quả của một yếu tố tưởng tượng: Sẽ
If I was asked to work on Sunday I should resign.

•         Dùng trong mệnh đề có that sau những tính từ chỉ trạng thái như anxious/ sorry/ concerned/ happy/ delighted...: Lấy làm ... rằng/ lấy làm ...vì
I'm anxious that she should be well cared for.
(Tôi lo lắng rằng liệu cô ấy có được săn sóc tốt không)
We are sorry that you should feel uncomfortable
(Chúng tôi lấy làm tiếc vì anh thấy không được thoải mái)
That you should speak to him like that is quite astonishing
(Cái cách mà anh nói với anh ấy như vậy quả là đáng ngạc nhiên).

•         Dùng với if/in case để chỉ một điều khó có thể xảy ra, người ta đưa ra ý kiến chỉ đề phòng ngừa.
If you should change your mind, please let me know.
In case he should have forgotten to go to the airport, nobody will be there to meet her.
(Ngộ nhỡ ông ấy quên ra sân bay, thì sẽ không có ai ở đó đón cô ta mất)

•         Dùng sau so that/ in order that để chỉ mục đích (Thay cho would/ could)
He put the cases in the car so that he should be able to make an early start.
She repeated the instructions slowly in order that he should understand.

•         Dùng trong lời yêu cầu lịch sự
I should like to make a phone call, if possible.
(tôi xin phép gọi điện thoại nếu tôi có thể)

•         Dùng với imagine/ say/ think... để đưa ra lời đề nghị: Thiết tưởng, cho là
I should imagine it will take about 3 hours
(Tôi thiết tưởng công việc sẽ tốn mất 3 giờ đồng hồ đấy).
I should say she's over 40
(Tôi cho là bà ta đã ngoài 40)

•         Dùng trong câu hỏi để diễn tả sự nghi ngờ, thiếu chắc chắn
How should I know? (Làm sao tôi biết được kia chứ)
Why should he thinks that? (sao nó lại nghĩ như vậy chứ)

•         Dùng với các đại từ nghi vấn như what/ where/ who để diễn tả sự ngạc nhiên, thường dùng với "But".
I was thinking of going to see John when who should appear but John himself.
(Tôi đang tính là đến thăm John thì người xuất hiện lại chính là anh ấy)
What should I find but an enormous spider
(Cái mà tôi nhìn thấy lại chính là một con nhện khổng lồ)

17. Tính từ và phó từ

17.1 Tính từ

Tính từ là từ chỉ tính chất, mức độ, phạm vi, ... của một người hoặc vật. Nó bổ nghĩa cho danh từ, đại từ hoặc liên từ (linking verb). Nó trả lời cho câu hỏi What kind? Tính từ luôn đứng trước danh từ được bổ nghĩa:
That is my new red car.
Trừ trường hợp galore (nhiều, phong phú, dồi dào) và general trong tên các cơ quan, các chức vụ lớn là hai tính từ đứng sau danh từ được bổ nghĩa:
There were errors galore in your final test;
UN Secretary General (Tổng thư ký Liên hợp quốc).
Tính từ đứng sau các đại từ phiếm chỉ (something, anything, anybody...)
It’s something strange.
He is somebody quite unknown.

Tính từ được chia làm 2 loại là tính từ mô tả (descriptive adjective) và tính từ giới hạn (limiting adjective). Tính từ mô tả là các tính từ chỉ màu sắc, kích cỡ, chất lượng của một vật hay người. Tính từ giới hạn là tính từ chỉ số lượng, khoảng cách, tính chất sở hữu, ... Tính từ không thay đổi theo ngôi và số của danh từ mà nó bổ nghĩa, trừ trường hợp của these và those.

TÍNH TỪ MÔ TẢ

TÍNH TỪ GIỚI HẠN

beautiful
large
red
interesting
important
colorful

one, two
first, second
my, your, his
this, that, these, those
few, many, much

số đếm
số thứ tự
tính chất sử hữu
đại từ chỉ định
số lượng

Khi tính từ mô tả bổ nghĩa cho một danh từ đếm được số ít, nó thường có mạo từ a, an hoặc the đứng trước.
a pretty girl, an interesting book, the red dress.

Tính từ đi trước danh từ nhưng đi sau liên từ (linking verb – xem phần sau). Tính từ chỉ bổ nghĩa cho danh từ, đại từ và liên từ.
Nếu trong một cụm từ có nhiều tính từ cùng bổ nghĩa cho một danh từ thì thứ tự các tính từ sẽ như sau: tính từ sở hữu hoặc mạo từ, opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, purpose. Chú ý rằng tính từ sở hữu (my, your, our...) hoặc mạo từ (a, an, the) nếu có thì luôn đi trước các tính từ khác. Nếu đã dùng mạo từ thì không dùng tính từ sở hữu và ngược lại. Ví dụ về thứ tự sắp xếp các tính từ:
a silly young English man
the huge round metal bowl
my small red sleeping bag

art/poss

opinion

size

age

shape

color

origin

material

purpose

noun

a

silly

young

English

man

the

huge

round

metal

bowl

my

small

red

sleeping

bag

17.2 Phó từ

Phó từ bổ nghĩa cho động từ, cho một tính từ hoặc cho một phó từ khác. Nó trả lời cho câu hỏi How?

Rita drank too much. (How much did Rita drink?)
I don't play tenis very well. (How well do I play?)
He was driving carelessly. (How was he driving?)
John is reading carefully. (How is John reading?)
She speaks Spanish fluently. (How does she speak Spanish?)

Thông thường, các tính từ mô tả có thể biến đổi thành phó từ bằng cách thêm đuôi -ly vào tính từ.
He is a careful driver. He always drives carefully.

TÍNH TỪ

PHÓ TỪ

bright
careful
quiet

brightly
carefully
quietly

Tuy nhiên, có một số tính từ không theo quy tắc trên:

1) Một số tính từ đặc biệt: good => well; hard => hard; fast => fast; ...
She is a good singer. She sings very well.

2) Một số tính từ cũng có tận cùng là đuôi ly (lovely, friendly) nên để thay thế cho phó từ của các tính từ này, người ta dùng: in a + Adj + way/ manner
He is a friendly man. He behaved me in a friendly way.

Các từ sau cũng là phó từ: so, very, almost, soon, often, fast, rather, well, there, too. Các phó từ được chia làm 6 loại sau:

ADVERB OF

EXAMPLE

TELL US

manner

happily, bitterly

how something happens

degree

totally, completely

how much ST happens, often go with an adjective

frequency

never, often

how often ST happens

time

recently, just

when things happen

place

here, there

where things happen

disjunctive

hopefully, frankly

opinion about things happen

Các phó từ thường đóng vai trò trạng ngữ (modifier – xem phần 1) trong câu. Ngoài ra các ngữ giới từ cũng đóng vai trò trạng ngữ như phó từ, chúng bao gồm một giới từ mở đầu và danh từ đi sau để chỉ: địa điểm (at home), thời gian (at 5 pm), phương tiện (by train), tình huống, hành động (in a very difficult situation). Các cụm từ này đều có chức năng và cách sử dụng như phó từ, cũng có thể coi là phó từ.

Về thứ tự, các phó từ cùng bổ nghĩa cho một động từ thường xuất hiện theo thứ tự: manner, palce, time. Nói chung, phó từ chỉ cách thức của hành động (manner - cho biết hành động diễn ra như thế nào) thường liên hệ chặt chẽ hơn với động từ so với phó từ chỉ địa điểm (place) và phó từ chỉ địa điểm lại liên kết với động từ chặt chẽ hơn phó từ chỉ thời gian (time).

The old woman sits quietly by the fire for hours.

Về vị trí, các phó từ hầu như có thể xuất hiện bất cứ chỗ nào trong câu, nhưng cũng vì thế, nó là vấn đề khá phức tạp. Vị trí của phó từ có thể làm thay đổi phần nào ý nghĩa của câu. Chúng ta sẽ xem xét từng loại phó từ:

17.2.1 Adverb of manner:

Các phó từ và cụm phó từ chỉ phương thức của hành động có thể đứng đầu câu, cuối câu hoặc giữa câu (thông dụng hơn). Ví dụ:

He angrily slammed the door.
He slammed the door angrily.
Angrily he slammed the door.

Khi đứng giữa câu, phó từ đứng giữa chủ ngữ và động từ chính, nhưng đứng sau trợ động từ hoặc động từ be nếu có.

Ina had carefully placed the vase on the table.
Ina had been carefully arranging the flowers.

Vị trí của phó từ có thể làm thay đổi ý nghĩa của câu. Xét các câu sau:

She answered the question immediately.
She immediately answered the question.
She answered the question foolishly.
She foolishly answered the question.

Trong hai câu đầu, ý nghĩa của câu không bị ảnh hưởng bởi vị trí của phó từ, nhưng ở hai câu sau thì có sự khác nhau. Câu 3 cho biết câu trả lời của cô ta là ngốc ngếch, còn câu 4 có nghĩa “Cô ấy thật ngốc ngếch khi trả lời câu hỏi”. Phó từ foolishly khi đứng ở cuối câu thì chỉ bổ nghĩa cho động từ answered the question, nhưng khi được đặt giữa câu lại có liên hệ với chủ ngữ nhiều hơn là với động từ. Hiện tượng này cũng xảy ra với các loại phó từ khác. Nghiên cứu thêm các ví dụ sau:

John was able to solve this problem without any help.
(John có thể giải được bài toán này mà không cần sự trợ giúp nào)
Even John was able to solve this problem without any help.
(Ngay cả John cũng có thể giải được bài toán này mà ...)
John was even able to solve this problem without any help.
(John có thể thậm chí giải được bài toán này mà ...)
John was able to solve even this problem without any help.
(John có thể giải được ngay cả bài toán này mà không cần ...)
John was able to solve this problem even without any help.
(John có thể giải được bài toán này mà thậm chí không cần tới sự trợ giúp nào)
He completely failed to agree with me.
(Anh ta hoàn toàn không đồng ý với tôi)
He failed to agree completely with me.
(Anh ta không đồng ý hoàn toàn với tôi)

Phó từ chỉ cách thức của hành động thường chỉ đứng giữa câu khi nó là từ đơn (với đuôi –ly). Phần lớn các phó từ thuộc dạng này. Nhưng cũng có một số phó từ là một cụm từ, thường bắt đầu bằng with. Khi đó phải đặt nó ở cuối câu:
She was looking through the notes with great interest.
Tương tự như vậy, khi hai phó từ ghép song song với nhau, chúng cũng phải ở cuối câu.
She angrily called him an idiot.
She called him an idiot angrily and loudly.

17.2.2 Adverb of place:

Phó từ chỉ nơi chốn là loại dễ nhớ nhất. Nó luôn xuất hiện cuối câu.
I had lunch in the canteen.
Trong một số mẫu câu đảo vị trí của chủ ngữ và động từ, nó có thể đứng đầu câu:
Here is your homework.

17.2.3 Adverb of time:

Phó từ chỉ thời gian lại được phân làm 2 loại. Loại chỉ thời gian tuyệt đối (yesterday, tonight, on Sunday, in December...) và loại chỉ thời gian tương đối (recently, already,...). Đối với loại chỉ thời gian tương đối, vị trí của chúng giống như đối với phó từ chỉ cách thức của hành động. Ta chỉ nói đến ở đây loại chỉ thời gian tuyệt đối. Nó có liên kết yếu nhất với động từ trong câu nên có thể xuất hiện bất cứ vị trí nào trong câu, miễn sao không đứng giữa động từ và các trợ động từ. Tuy nhiên, nó thường đứng đầu câu hoặc cuối câu.
I didn't go cycling yesterday.
In 1987 she was working for a bank in Manchester.

17.2.4 Adverb of frequency:

Phó từ chỉ tần xuất cũng phân làm 2 loại: tần suất tuyệt đối (once a week, twice a month, ...) và tần xuất tương đối (always, nearly always, usually, often, quite often, sometimes, occasionally, hardly ever, never). Tần xuất tuyệt đối được dùng giống như phó từ chỉ thời gian, thường đứng đầu câu hoặc cuối câu. Tần xuất tương đối lại thường đứng giữa câu, sau chủ ngữ và trước động từ chính (nhưng sau động từ be)
Sally always gets here on time.
Fred is sometimes late for class.
Các phó từ chỉ tần xuất như: occasionally, sometimes, often... có thể đứng đầu câu hoặc cuối câu:
Things get complicated sometimes.
Often I forget where I put things.

17.2.5 Disjunctive adverb:

Phó từ chỉ quan điểm, tình cảm của người nói thường xuất hiện ở đầu câu hoặc cuối câu sau dấu phảy.

Thankfully we still had some time to spare.
Clearly we will have to think about this again.
Frankly my dear, I don't give a damn.
We still had some time to spare, thankfully.

18. Liên từ (linking verb)

Có một nhóm các động từ đặc biệt có chức năng nối giữa chủ ngữ và vị ngữ tính từ. Không giống các động từ khác, chúng không thể hiện hành động. Do vậy chúng được bổ nghĩa bởi tính từ chứ không phải phó từ. Người ta gọi chúng là liên từ (linking verb). Đó là những động từ ở bảng sau:

be
appear
feel

become
seem
look

remain
sound
smell

stay
taste

Mary feels bad about her test grade.
Children become tired quite easily.
Lucy looks radiant in her new dress.
They were sorry to see us leave.
The flower smell sweet.
The soup taste good.

Liên từ có các tính chất:

- Không diễn đạt hành động mà diễn đạt trạng thái hoặc bản chất sự việc.

- Đằng sau chúng phải là tính từ chứ không phải là phó từ.

- Không được chia ở thể tiếp diễn dù dưới bất cứ thời nào.

Be, become, remain còn có thể đứng trước một cụm danh từ chứ không chỉ tính từ:

They remained sad even though I tried to cheer them up. (adjective)
He remained chairman of the board despite the opposition. (noun)
Children often become bored at the meetings. (adjective)
She become class president after a long campaign. (noun)
Mary will be happy when she hears the good news. (adjective)
Ted will be a bridegroom this year. (noun)

Feel, look, smell và taste cũng có thể là ngoại động từ khi nó có tân ngữ trự tiếp. Trong trường hợp đó, nó trở thành một động từ mô tả hành động thực sự chứ không còn là một linking verb và do đó nó được bổ nghĩa bởi phó từ chứ không phải tính từ. Chúng được phép chia ở thì tiếp diễn. Nghiên cứu các ví dụ sau:

19. Các dạng so sánh của tính từ và phó từ

19.1 So sánh ngang bằng

Cấu trúc sử dụng là as .... as

S + V + as + {adj/ adv} + as + {noun/ pronoun}

My book is as interesting as yours.
His car runs as fast as a race car.
John sings as well as his sister.
Their house is as big as that one.
His job is not as difficult as mine.
They are as lucky as we.

Nếu là câu phủ định, as thứ nhất có thể thay bằng so.

He is not as tall as his father.
He is not so tall as his father.

Sau as phải là một đại từ nhân xưng chủ ngữ, không được là một đại từ tân ngữ.

Peter is as tall as I. (ĐÚNG)
Peter is as tall as me. (SAI)

Danh từ cũng có thể được dùng để so sánh, nhưng nên nhớ trước khi so sánh phải đảm bảo rằng danh từ đó phải có các tính từ tương đương.

adjectives

nouns

heavy, light

weight

wide, narrow

width

deep, shallow

depth

long, short

length

big, small

size

Khi so sánh bằng danh từ, sử dụng cấu trúc sau:

S + V + the same + (noun) + as + {noun/ pronoun}

My house is as high as his.
My house is the same height as his.

Chú ý rằng ngược nghĩa với the same...as là different from... Không bao giờ dùng different than. Sau đây là một số ví dụ khác về so sánh bằng danh từ.

These trees are the same as those.
He speaks the same language as she.
Her address is the same as Rita’s.
Their teacher is different from ours.
She takes the same course as her husband.

19.2 So sánh hơn kém

Trong loại so sánh này người ta chia làm hai dạng: tính từ và phó từ ngắn (chỉ có một hoặc hai âm tiết khi phát âm) và tính từ, phó từ dài (3 âm tiết trở lên). Khi so sánh không ngang bằng:

•         Đối với tính từ và phó từ ngắn chỉ cần cộng đuôi -er. (thick – thicker; cold-colder; quiet-quieter)

•         Đối với tính từ ngắn có một phụ âm tận cùng (trừ w,x,z) và trước đó là một nguyên âm, phải gấp đôi phụ âm cuối. (big-bigger; red-redder; hot-hotter)

•         Đối với tính từ, phó từ dài, thêm more hoặc less trước tính từ hoặc phó từ đó (more beautiful; more important; more believable).

•         Đối với tính từ tận cùng là phụ âm+y, phải đổi y thành -ier (happy-happier; dry-drier; pretty-prettier).

•         Đối với các tính từ có hậu tố -ed, -ful, -ing, -ish, -ous cũng biến đổi bằng cách thêm more cho dù chúng là tính từ dài hay ngắn (more useful, more boring, more cautious)

•         Trường hợp đặc biệt: strong-stronger; friendly-friendlier than = more friendly than.

•         Chú ý khi đã dùng more thì không dùng hậu tố -er và ngược lại. Các ví dụ sau là SAI: more prettier, more faster, more better

Chú ý:

1. Chỉ một số phó từ là có đuôi –er, bao gồm: faster, quicker, sooner, latter.
2. Nhớ dùng dạng thức chủ ngữ của đại từ sau than, không được dùng dạng tân ngữ.
Ví dụ về so sánh không ngang bằng:

John’s grades are higher than his sister’s.
Today is hotter than yesterday.
This chair is more comfortable than the other.
He speaks Spanish more fluently than I. (không dùng than me)
He visits his family less frequently than she does.
This year’s exhibit is less impressive than last year’s.

So sánh không ngang bằng có thể được nhấn mạnh bằng cách thêm much hoặc far trước cụm từ so sánh.

A waterlemon is much sweeter than a a lemon.
His car is far better than yours.

Henry’s watch is far more expensive than mine.
That movie we saw last night was much more interesting than the one on TV.
She dances much more artistically than her predecessor.
He speaks English much more rapidly than he does Spanish.

Danh từ cũng được dùng để diễn đạt phép so sánh ngang bằng hoặc hơn/kém. Chú ý dùng tính từ bổ nghĩa đúng với danh từ đếm được hoặc không đếm được.

He earns as much money as his brother.
They have as few classes as we.
Before payday, I have as little money as my brother.

I have more books than she.
February has fewer days than March.
Their job allows them less fredom than ours does.

Khi so sánh một người/ một vật với tất cả những người hoặc vật khác phải thêm else sau anything/anybody...

He is smarter than anybody else in the class.

Lưu ý:

•         Đằng sau as và than của các mệnh đề so sánh có thể loại bỏ chủ ngữ nếu nó trùng hợp với chủ ngữ thứ nhất, đặc biệt là khi động từ sau than và as ở dạng bị động. Lúc này than và as còn có thêm chức năng của một đại từ quan hệ thay thế.
Their marriage was as stormy as had been expected
(Incorrect: as it had been expected).
He worries more than was good for him.
(Incorrect: than it/what was good for him).

•         Các tân ngữ cũng có thể bị loại bỏ sau các động từ ở mệnh đề sau THAN và AS:
Don’t lose your passport, as I did last year.
(Incorrect: as I did it last year).
They sent more than I had ordered.
(Incorrect: than I had ordered it).
She gets her meat from the same butcher as I go to.
(Incorrect: as I go to him).

19.3 Phép so sánh không hợp lý

Khi dùng câu so sánh nên nhớ các đối tượng dùng để so sánh phải tương đương nhau: người với người, vật với vật. Các lỗi thường mắc phải khi sử dụng câu so sánh không hợp lý được chia làm 3 loại: sở hữu cách, that of và those of.

19.3.1 Sở hữu cách:

Incorrect: His drawings are as perfect as his instructor.
(Câu này so sánh các bức tranh với người chỉ dẫn)
Correct: His drawings are as perfect as his instructor’s.
(instructor's = instructor's drawings)

19.3.2 Dùng thêm that of cho danh từ số ít:

Incorrect: The salary of a professor is higher than a secretary.
(Câu này so sánh salary với secretary)
Correct: The salary of a professor is higher than that of a secretary.
(that of = the salary of)

19.3.3 Dùng thêm those of cho các danh từ số nhiều:

Incorrect: The duties of a policeman are more dangerous than a teacher .
(Câu này so sánh duties với teacher)
Correct: The duties of a policeman are more dangerous than those of a teacher
(those of = the duties of)

19.4 Các tính từ và phó từ đặc biệt

Một số ít tính từ và phó từ có dạng thức so sánh đặc biệt. Chúng không theo các quy tắc nêu trên. Nghiên cứu bảng sau:

Tính từ hoặc trạng từ

So sánh hơn kém

So sánh nhất

far

farther
further

farthest
furthest

little
few

less

least

much
many

more

most

good
well

better

best

bad
badly

worse

worst

I feel much better today than I did last week.
He has less time now than he had before.
This magainze is better than that one.
He acts worse now than ever before.

Lưu ý: farther dùng cho khoảng cách; further dùng cho thông tin hoặc các trường hợp trừu tượng khác.

The distance from your house to school is farther than that of mine.
If you want further information, please call to the agent.
Next year he will come to the U.S for his further education.

19.5 So sánh bội số

So sánh bội số là so sánh: bằng nửa (half), gấp đôi (twice), gấp ba (three times),...

Không được sử dụng so sánh hơn kém mà sử dụng so sánh bằng, khi so sánh phải xác định danh từ là đếm được hay không đếm được, vì đằng trước chúng có many/much

This encyclopedy costs twice as much as the other one.
Jerome has half as many records now as I had last year.
At the clambake last week, Fred ate three times as many oysters as Bob.

Các lối nói: twice that many/twice that much = gấp đôi ngần ấy... chỉ được dùng trong khẩu ngữ, không được dùng trong văn viết.

We have expected 80 people at that rally, but twice that many showned up. (twice as many as that number).

19.6 So sánh kép

Là loại so sánh với cấu trúc: Càng... càng... Các Adj/Adv so sánh phải đứng ở đầu câu, trước chúng phải có The. Dùng một trong hai mẫu câu sau đây để so sánh kép:

The + comparative + S + V + the + comparative + S + V

The hotter it is, the more miserable I feel.
(Trời càng nóng, tôi càng thấy khó chịu)
The sooner you take your medicince, the better you will feel.
(Anh càng uống thuốc sớm bao nhiêu, anh càng cảm thấy dễ chịu bấy nhiêu)
The bigger they are, the faster they fall.
(Chúng càng to bao nhiêu thì càng rơi nhanh bấy nhiêu)

The more + S + V + the + comparative + S + V

The more you study, the smarter you will become.
(Càng học, anh càng thông minh hơn)
The more I look into your eyes, the more I love you.
(Càng nhìn vào mắt em, anh càng yêu em hơn)

Sau The more ở vế thứ nhất có thể thêm that nhưng không mẫu câu này không phổ biến.

The more (that) you study, the smarter you will become.

Trong trường hợp nếu cả hai vế đều có chủ ngữ giả it is thì có thể bỏ chúng đi

The shorter (it is), the better (it is).

Hoặc nếu cả hai vế đều dùng to be thì bỏ đi

The closer to the Earth’s pole (is), the greater the gravitational force (is).

Các cách nói: all the better (càng tốt hơn), all the more (càng... hơn), not... any the more... (chẳng... hơn... tí nào), none the more... (chẳng chút nào) dùng để nhấn mạnh cho các tính từ hoặc phó từ được đem ra so sánh. Nó chỉ được dùng với các tính từ trừu tượng và dùng trong văn nói:

Sunday mornings were nice. I enjoyed them all the more because Sue used to come round to breakfast.
He didn’t seem to be any the worse for his experience.
He explained it all carefully, but I was still none the wiser.

Cấu trúc này không dùng cho các tính từ cụ thể:

Those pills have made him all the slimmer. (SAI)

19.7 Cấu trúc No sooner... than (Vừa mới ... thì đã...)

Chỉ dùng cho thời quá khứ và thời hiện tại, không dùng cho thời tương lai. No sooner đứng ở đầu một mệnh đề, theo sau nó là một trợ động từ đảo lên trước chủ ngữ để nhấn mạnh, than đứng ở đầu mệnh đề còn lại:

No sooner + auxiliary + S + V + than + S + V

No sooner had we started out for California than it started to rain.

Một ví dụ ở thời hiện tại (will được lấy sang dùng cho hiện tại)

No sooner will he arrive than he will want to leave.

Lưu ý: No longer có nghĩa là not anymore. Không dùng cấu trúc not longer cho các câu có ý nghĩa không còn ... nữa.

He no longer studies at the university.
(He does not study at the university anymore.)

S + no longer + Positive Verb

19.8 So sánh hơn kém không dùng than (giữa 2 đối tượng)

Khi so sánh hơn kém giữa 2 người hoặc 2 vật mà không dùng than, muốn nói đối tượng nào đó là tốt hơn, giỏi hơn, đẹp hơn,... thì trước adj và adv so sánh phải có the. Chú ý phân biệt trường hợp này với trường hợp so sánh bậc nhất dưới đây (khi có 3 đối tượng trở lên). Trong câu thường có cụm từ of the two + noun, nó có thể đứng đầu hoặc cuối câu.

Harvey is the smarter of the two boys.
Of the two shirts, this one is the prettier.
Pealse give me the smaller of the two cakes.
Of the two books, this one is the more interesting.

19.9 So sánh bậc nhất (từ 3 đối tượng trở lên)

Dùng khi so sánh 3 người hoặc 3 vật trở lên, một trong số đó là ưu việt nhất so với các đối tượng còn lại về một mặt nào đó. Để biến tính từ và phó từ thành dạng so sánh bậc nhất, áp dụng quy tắc sau:

•         Đối với tính từ và phó từ ngắn: thêm đuôi -est.

•         Đối với tính từ và phó từ dài: dùng most hoặc least.

•         Trước tính từ hoặc phó từ so sánh phải có the.

•         Dùng giới từ in với danh từ số ít đếm được.

•         Dùng giới từ of với danh từ số nhiều đếm được.

John is the tallest boy in the family.
Deana is the shortest of the three sisters.
These shoes are the least expensive of all.
Of the three shirts, this one is the prettiest.

Sau cụm từ One of the + so sánh bậc nhất + noun phải đảm bảo chắc chắn rằng noun phải là số nhiều, và động từ phải chia ở số ít.

One of the greatest tennis players in the world is Johnson.
Kuwait is one of the biggest oil producers in the world.

Các phó từ thường không có các hậu tố -er hoặc –est. Chúng được chuyển sang dạng so sánh tương đối bằng cách thêm more hoặc less; sang dạng so sánh tuyệt đối bằng cách thêm most hoặc least phía trước chúng.

Sal drove more cautiously than Bob.
Joe dances more gracefully than his partner.
That child behaves most carelessly of all.

Một số các tính từ hoặc phó từ mang tính tuyệt đối thì không được dùng so sánh bậc nhất, hạn chế dùng so sánh hơn kém, nếu buộc phải dùng thì bỏ more, chúng gồm: unique/ extreme/ perfect/ supreme/ top/ absolute/prime/ primary

His drawings are perfect than mine.

20. Danh từ dùng làm tính từ

Trong tiếng Anh có nhiều trường hợp một danh từ đứng trước một danh từ khác làm nhiệm vụ của một tính từ (a wool coat, a gold watch, a history teacher). Danh từ đi trước có vai trò của một tính từ, bổ nghĩa cho danh từ đi sau. Các danh từ đóng vai trò của tính từ luôn luôn ở dạng số ít, cho dù danh từ được chúng bổ nghĩa có thể ở dạng số nhiều (trừ một vài trường hợp cá biệt: a sports car, small-claims court, a no-frills store...). Các liên kết số đếm – danh từ (number-noun) luôn được ngăn cách bởi dấu gạch nối.

We took a five-week tour.
(We took a tour that lasted five weeks)
He has a two-year subscription to that magazine.
(His subscription to that magazine is for two years)
These are twenty-dollar shoes.
(These shoes cost twenty dollars.)

20.1 Khi nào dùng danh từ làm tính từ, khi nào dùng tính từ của danh từ đó?

Trong một số trường hợp nếu dùng danh từ làm tính từ thì nó mang nghĩa đen:
A gold watch = a watch made of gold.
Nhưng nếu dùng tính từ thì nó mang nghĩa bóng:
A golden opportunity = a chance that it is very rare and precious (quí giá).
Không được dùng tính từ để bổ nghĩa cho danh từ khi nó chỉ tính chất nghề nghiệp hoặc nội dung, khi đó phải dùng danh từ để đóng vai trò tính từ:
a mathematics teacher, a biology book

21. Cách dùng Enough

Enough thay đổi vị trí theo từ loại của từ mà nó bổ nghĩa. Nó luôn đứng sau tính từ và phó từ:
Are those french fries good enough for you?
She speak Spanish well enough to be an interpreter.
It is not cold enough now to wear a heavy jacket.
Nhưng lại đứng trước danh từ:
Do you have enough sugar for the cake?
He does not have enough money to attend the concert.

Nếu danh từ đã được nhắc đến trước đó, thì ở dưới có thể dùng enough như một đại từ thay cho danh từ
I forgot money. Do you have enough?

22. Much, many, a lot of và lots of – trong một số trường hợp khác

22.1 Much & many

Many hoặc much thường đứng trước danh từ. Many đi với danh từ đếm được và much đi với danh từ không đếm được:

She didn’t eat much breakfast.
(Cô ta không ăn sáng nhiều)
There aren’t many large glasses left.
(Không còn lại nhiều cốc lớn)

Tuy nhiên much of có thể đi với tên người và tên địa danh:

I have seen too much of Howard recently.
(Gần đây tôi hay gặp Howard)
Not much of Denmark is hilly.
(Đan mạch không có mấy đồi núi)

Many/much of + determiner (a, the, this, my... ) + noun.

You can’t see much of a country in a week.
(Anh không thể biết nhiều về một nước trong vòng một tuần đâu.)
I won’t pass the exam. I have missed many of my lessons.
(Tôi sẽ không thoát được kỳ thi này mất, tôi bỏ quá nhiều bài.)

Many và much dùng nhiều trong câu phủ định và câu nghi vấn, trong câu khẳng định có thể dùng các loại từ khác như plenty of, a lot, lots of... để thay thế.

How much money have you got? I’ve got plenty.
He got lots of men friends, but he doesn’t know many women.

Tuy vậy trong tiếng Anh, much và many vẫn được dùng bình thường trong câu khẳng định.

Much has been written about the causes of unemployment in the opinion of many economists.

Much dùng như một phó từ (much đứng trước động từ nhưng đứng sau very và sau cấu trúc phủ định của câu):

I don’t travel much these days. (much = very often)
I much appreciate your help. (much=highly)
We very much prefer the country to the town.
Janet much enjoyed her stay with your family.

Much too much / many so many (để nhấn mạnh) dùng độc lập sau mệnh đề chính, trước danh từ mà nó bổ ngữ.

The cost of a thirty-second commercial advertisement on a television show is $300,000, much too much for most business.

Many a + singular noun + singular verb: Biết bao nhiêu.

Many a strong man has disheartened before such a challenge.
(Biết bao chàng trai tráng kiện đã nản lòng trước một thử thách như vậy)
I have been to the top of the Effeil tower many a time.

Many’s the + {smt that / sbody who} + singular verb

Many’s the student who couldn’t follow the post-graduate courses at universities and colleges under the pressure of money.
(Biết bao nhiêu sinh viên đã không thể theo học các trường ĐH và CĐ do thiếu tiền)
Many’s the promise that has been broken.
(Biết bao nhiêu lời hứa đã bị phản bội)

22.2 Phân biệt alot/ lots of/ plenty/ a great deal với many/ much

Các thành ngữ trên đều có nghĩa tương đương với much/ many (nhiều) và most (đa phần). A lot of/ lots of (informal) = a great deal/ a large number of/ much/ many (formal).

•         Không có khác nhau gì mấy giữa a lot of và lots of. Chủ ngữ chính sau hai thành ngữ này sẽ quyết định việc chia động từ.

a lot of
lots of

|   uncountable noun + singular verb
|   plural noun + plural verb

A lot of time is needed to learn a language.
Lots of us think it’s time for an election.

•         Plenty of được dùng phổ biến trong informal English.
Don’t rush, there’s plenty of time.
Plenty of shops take checks.

•         A large a mount of = a great deal of + non-count noun (formal English)
I have thrown a large amount of old clothing.
Mr Lucas has spent a great deal of time in the Far East.

•         A lot và a great deal có thể được dùng làm phó từ và vị trí của nó là ở cuối câu.
On holiday we walk and swim a lot.
The gorvernment seems to change its mind a great deal.

22.3 More & most

•         More + noun/noun phrase: dùng như một định ngữ
We need more time.
More university students are having to borrow money these day.

•         More + of + personal/geographic names
It would be nice to see more of Ray and Barbara.
(Rất hay khi được gặp Ray và Barbara thường xuyên hơn.)
Five hundred years ago, much more of Britain was covered with trees.
(500 năm trước đây, đa phần nước Anh phủ nhiều rừng hơn bây giờ nhiều)

•         More of + determiner/pronoun (a/ the/ my/ this/ him/ them...)
He is more of a fool than I thought.
(Nó là một thằng ngu hơn tôi tưởng nhiều)
Three more of the missing climbers have been found.
Could I have some more of that smoked fish.
I don’t think any more of them want to come.

•         One more/ two more... + noun/ noun phrase
There is just one more river to cross.

•         Nhưng phải dùng cardinal number (số đếm) + noun + more (Five dollars more) nếu more mang nghĩa thêm nữa.
He has contributed $50, and now he wants to contribute $50 more.

•         Most + noun = Đa phần, đa số
Most cheese is made from cow’s milk.
Most Swiss people understand French.

•         Most + determiner/ pronoun (a, the, this, my, him...) = Hầu hết...
He has eaten 2 pizzas and most of a cold chicken.
Most of my friends live abroad.
She has eaten most of that cake.
Most of us thought he was wrong.

•         Most cũng được dùng thay cho một danh từ, nếu ở trên, danh từ hoặc chủ ngữ đó đã được nhắc đến.
Some people had difficulty with the lecture, but most understood.
Ann and Robby found a lot of blackberries, but Susan found the most.

•         Most + adjective khi mang nghĩa very (không phổ biến)
That is most kind of you.
Thank you for a most interesting afternoon.

22.4 Long & (for) a long time

•         Long được dùng trong câu hỏi và câu phủ định.
Have you been waiting long?
It does not take long to get to her house.
She seldom stays long.

•         (for) a long time dùng trong câu khẳng định
I waited for a long time, but she didn’t arrive.
It takes a long time to get to her house.

•         Long cũng được dùng trong câu khẳng định khi đi với: too, enough, as, so
The meeting went on much too long.
I have been working here long enough. It’s time to get a new job.
You can stay as long as you want.
Sorry! I took so long.

•         Long before (lâu trước khi)/ long after (mãi sau khi)/ long ago (cách đây đã lâu)
We used to live in Paris, but that was long before you were born.
Long after the accident he used to dream that he was dying.
Long ago, in a distant country, there lived a beautiful princess.

•         Long mang vai trò phó từ phải đặt sau trợ động từ, trước động từ chính:
This is a problem that has long been recognized.

•         All (day/ night/ week/ year) long = suốt cả...
She sits dreaming all day long
(Cô ta ngồi mơ mộng suốt cả ngày).

- Before + long = Ngay bây giờ, chẳng bao lâu nữa
I will be back before long
(Tôi sẽ quay lại ngay bây giờ).

•         Trong câu phủ định for a long time (đã lâu, trong một thời gian dài) khác với for long (ngắn, không dài, chốc lát)
She didn’t speak for long.
(She only spoke for a short time)
She didn’t speak for a long time.
(She was silent for a long time)

23. Các cụm từ nối mang tính quan hệ nhân quả

23.1 Because, Because of

Sau because phải một mệnh đề hoàn chỉnh (có cả S và V) nhưng sau because of phải là một danh từ hoặc ngữ danh từ.

Jan was worried because it had started to rain.
Jan was worried because of the rain.
We arrived late because there was a traffic jam.
We arrived late because of a traffic jam.

Có thể dùng because of thay cho on account of và due to và ngược lại. Nhưng thường dùng due to sau động từ to be.

The accident was due to the heavy rain.

Dùng as a result of để nhấn mạnh hậu quả của hành động hoặc sự vật, sự việc.

He was blinded as a result of a terrible accident.

Có thể đưa mệnh đề nguyên nhân lên đầu câu:

Because of the rain, we have cancelled the party.

23.2 So that

Trong cấu trúc này người ta dùng so that với nghĩa sao cho, để cho. Sau so that phải là một mệnh đề hoàn chỉnh có cả S và V. Động từ ở mệnh đề sau so that phải lùi một thời so với thời của động từ ở mệnh đề chính.

He studied very hard so that he could pass the test.
She is sending the package early so that it will arrive in the time for her sister’s birthday.
Susan drove to Miami instead of flying so that she could save money.

Chú ý:

•         Phải phân biệt so that trong cấu trúc này với so that mang nghĩa do đó (therefore). Cách phân biệt là ở thời của động từ đằng sau so that mang nghĩa “do đó” diễn biến bình thường so với thời của động từ ở mệnh đề đằng trước.
We heard nothing from him so that we wondered if he moved away.

•         Cũng cần phân biệt với cấu trúc so + adj/adv + that nêu ở phần sau.
Trong tiếng Anh nói có thể bỏ that trong cụm so that nhưng trong tiếng Anh viết không được bỏ that. Đây là bẫy mà bài thi TOEFL thường nêu ra.

23.3 So và such.

Người ta dùng cấu trúc so/such .... that (đến nỗi mà) theo nhiều cách sử dụng.

23.3.1 Dùng với tính từ và phó từ:

Terry ran so fast that he broke the previous speed record.
Judy worked so diligently that she received an increase in salary.
She is so beautiful that anyone sees her once will never forget her.
The little boy looks so unhappy that we all feel sorry for him

23.3.2 Dùng với danh từ đếm được số nhiều:

Cấu trúc vẫn là so ... that nhưng phải dùng many hoặc few trước danh từ đó.

I had so few job offers that it wasn't difficult to select one.
The Smiths had so many children that they form their own baseball team.

23.3.3  Dùng với danh từ không đếm được:

Cấu trúc là so ... that nhưng phải dùng much hoặc little trước danh từ đó.

He has invested so much money in the project that he can't abandon it now.
The grass received so little water that it turned brown in the heat.

23.3.4  Dùng với danh từ đếm được số ít:

S + V + such + a + adjective + singular count noun + that + S + V

HOẶC

S + V + so + adjective + a + singular count noun + that + S + V

It was such a hot day that we decided to stay indoors.
It was so hot a day that we decided to stay indoors.
It was such an interesting book that he couldn’t put it down.
It was so interesting a book that he couldn’t put it down.

23.3.5 Dùng such trước tính từ + danh từ:

They are such beautiful pictures that everybody will want one.
This is such difficult homework that I will never finish it.

Lưu ý: KHÔNG được dùng so trong trường hợp này.

23.4 Một số cụm từ nối khác:

23.4.1 Even if + negative verb: cho dù.

You must go tomorrow even if you aren't ready.

23.4.2 Whether or not + positive verb: dù có hay không.

You must go tomorrow whether or not you are ready.

23.4.3 Các từ nghi vấn đứng đầu câu dùng làm từ nối

Động từ theo sau mệnh đề mở đầu phải chia ở ngôi thứ 3 số ít.
Whether he goes out tonight depends on his girldfriend.
Why these pupils can not solve this problems makes the teachers confused.

23.4.4 Một số các từ nối có quy luật riêng

And moreover
And in addtion

And thus
or otherwise

And furthermore
And therefore

But nevertheless
But ... anyway

+ Nếu nối giữa hai mệnh đề, đằng trước chúng phải có dấu phẩy
He was exhausted, and therefore his judgement was not very good.
+ Nhưng nếu nối giữa hai từ đơn thì không
The missing piece is small but nevertheless significant.

23.4.5 Unless + positive = if ... not: Trừ phi, nếu không.

You will be late unless you start at once.

23.4.6 But for that + unreal condition: Nếu không thì

Mệnh đề sau nó phải lùi một thời.
+ Hiện tại
My father pays my fee, but for that I couldn't be here.
+ Quá khứ
My car broke down, but for that we would have been here in time.

23.4.7 Otherwise + real condition: Kẻo, nếu không thì.

We must be back before midnight otherwise I will be locked out.

23.4.8 Otherwise + unreal condition: Kẻo, nếu không thì.

Sau nó phải là điều kiện không thể thực hiện được, mệnh đề sau nó lùi một thời.
+ Hiện tại
Her father supports her finance otherwise she couldn't conduct these experiments (But she can with her father's support).
+ Quá khứ:
I used a computer, otherwise I would have taken longer with these calculations (But he didn't take any longer).
*Lưu ý: Trong tiếng Anh thông tục (colloquial English) người ta dùng or else để thay thế cho otherwise.

23.4.9 Provided/Providing that: Với điều kiện là, miễn là ( = as long as)

You can camp here providing that you leave no mess.

23.4.10 Suppose/Supposing = What ... if : Giả sử .... thì sao, Nếu ..... thì sao.

Suppose the plane is late? = What (will happen) if the plane is late?
Lưu ý:
* Suppose còn có thể được dùng để đưa ra lời gợi ý.
Suppose you ask him = Why don't you ask him.
* Lưu ý thành ngữ: What if I am?: Tao thế thì đã sao nào? (mang tính thách thức)

23.4.11 If only + S + simple present/will + verb = hope that: hi vọng rằng

If only he comes in time.
If only he will learn harder for the test next month.

23.4.12 If only + S + simple past/past perfect = wish that (Câu đ/k không thực = giá mà)

If only he came in time now.
If only she had studied harder for that test

23.4.13 If only + S + would + V:

+ Diễn đạt một hành động không thể xảy ra ở hiện tại
If only he would drive more slowly = we wish he drove more slowly.
+ Diễn đạt một ước muốn vô vọng về tương lai:
If only it would stop raining.

23.4.14 Immediately = as soon as = the moment (that) = the instant that = directly: ngay lập tức/ ngay khi mà

Tell me immediatly (=as soon as) you have any news.
Phone me the moment that you get the results.
I love you the instant (that) I saw you.
Directly I walked in the door I smelt smoke.

24. Câu bị động (passive voice)

Trong tiếng Anh, người ta rất hay dùng câu bị động. Khác với ở câu chủ động chủ ngữ thực hiện hành động, trong câu bị động chủ ngữ nhận tác động của hành động. Câu bị động được dùng khi muốn nhấn mạnh đến đối tượng chịu tác động của hành động hơn là bản thân hành động đó. Thời của động từ ở câu bị động phải tuân theo thời của động từ ở câu chủ động.

Nếu là loại động từ có 2 tân ngữ, muốn nhấn mạnh vào tân ngữ nào người ta đưa tân ngữ đó lên làm chủ ngữ nhưng thông thường chủ ngữ hợp lý của câu bị động là tân ngữ gián tiếp.

I gave him a book = I gave a book to him = He was given a book (by me).

Đặt by + tân ngữ mới đằng sau tất cả các tân ngữ khác. Nếu sau by là một đại từ vô nhân xưng mang nghĩa người ta: by people, by sb thì bỏ hẳn nó đi.

Hiện tại thường hoặc Quá khứ thường

am
is
are
was
were

+ [verb in past participle]

Active: Hurricanes destroy a great deal of property each year.
Passive: A great deal of property is destroyed by hurricanes each year.

Hiện tại tiếp diễn hoặc Quá khứ tiếp diễn

am
is
are
was
were

+ being + [verb in past participle]

Active: The committee is considering several new proposals.
Passive: Several new proposals are being considered by the committee.

Hiện tại hoàn thành hoặc Quá khứ hoàn thành

has
have
had

+ been + [verb in past participle]

Active: The company has ordered some new equipment.
Passive: Some new equipment has been ordered by the company.

Trợ động từ

modal

+ be + [verb in past participle]

Active: The manager should sign these contracts today.
Passive: These contracts should be signed by the manager today.

Các nội động từ (Động từ không yêu cầu 1 tân ngữ nào) không được dùng ở bị động.
My leg hurts.
Đặc biệt khi chủ ngữ chịu trách nhiệm chính của hành động cũng không được chuyển thành câu bị động.
The US takes charge: Nước Mỹ nhận lãnh trách nhiệm
Nếu là người hoặc vật trực tiếp gây ra hành động thì dùng by nhưng nếu là vật gián tiếp gây ra hành động thì dùng with.
The bird was shot with the gun.
The bird was shot by the hunter.
Trong một số trường hợp to be/to get + P2 hoàn toàn không mang nghĩa bị động mà mang 2 nghĩa:

- Chỉ trạng thái, tình huống mà chủ ngữ đang gặp phải.
Could you please check my mailbox while I am gone.
He got lost in the maze of the town yesterday.

•         Chỉ việc chủ ngữ tự làm lấy
The little boy gets dressed very quickly.
- Could I give you a hand with these tires.
- No thanks, I will be done when I finish tightening these bolts.

Mọi sự biến đổi về thời và thể đều nhằm vào động từ to be, còn phân từ 2 giữ nguyên.

to be made of: Được làm bằng (Đề cập đến chất liệu làm nên vật)
This table is made of wood

to be made from: Được làm ra từ (đề cập đến việc nguyên vật liệu bị biến đổi khỏi trạng thái ban đầu để làm nên vật)
Paper is made from wood

to be made out of: Được làm bằng (đề cập đến quá trình làm ra vật)
This cake was made out of flour, butter, sugar, eggs and milk.

to be made with: Được làm với (đề cập đến chỉ một trong số nhiều chất liệu làm nên vật)
This soup tastes good because it was made with a lot of spices.

Phân biệt thêm về cách dùng marry và divorce trong 2 thể: chủ động và bị động. Khi không có tân ngữ thì người Anh ưa dùng get maried và get divorced trong dạng informal English.

Lulu and Joe got maried last week. (informal)
Lulu and Joe married last week. (formal)
After 3 very unhappy years they got divorced. (informal)
After 3 very unhappy years they dovorced. (formal)

Sau marry và divorce là một tân ngữ trực tiếp thì không có giới từ: To mary / divorce smb
She married a builder.
Andrew is going to divorce Carola
To be/ get married/ to smb (giới từ “to” là bắt buộc)
She got married to her childhood sweetheart.
He has been married to Louisa for 16 years and he still doesn’t understand her.

25. Một số cấu trúc cầu khiến (causative)

25.1 To have sb do sth = to get sb to do sth = Sai ai, khiến ai, bảo ai làm gì

I’ll have Peter fix my car.
I’ll get Peter to fix my car.

25.2 To have/to get sth done = làm một việc gì bằng cách thuê người khác

I have my hair cut. (Tôi đi cắt tóc - chứ không phải tôi tự cắt)
I have my car washed. (Tôi mang xe đi rửa ngoài dịch vụ - không phải tự rửa)

Theo khuynh hướng này động từ to want và would like cũng có thể dùng với mẫu câu như vậy: To want/ would like Sth done. (Ít dùng)
I want/ would like my car washed.
Câu hỏi dùng cho loại mẫu câu này là: What do you want done to Sth?
What do you want done to your car?

25.3 To make sb do sth = to force sb to do sth = Bắt buộc ai phải làm gì

The bank robbers made the manager give them all the money.
The bank robbers forced the manager to give them all the money.

Đằng sau tân ngữ của make còn có thể dùng 1 tính từ: To make sb/sth + adj

Wearing flowers made her more beautiful.
Chemical treatment will make this wood more durable

25.4.1 To make sb + P2 = làm cho ai bị làm sao

Working all night on Friday made me tired on Saturday.

25.4.2 To cause sth + P2 = làm cho cái gì bị làm sao

The big thunder storm caused many waterfront houses damaged.

Nếu tân ngữ của make là một động từ nguyên thể thì phải đặt it giữa make và tính từ, đặt động từ ra phía đằng sau: make it + adj + V as object.
The wire service made it possible to collect and distribute news faster and cheaper.

Tuy nhiên nếu tân ngữ của make là 1 danh từ hay 1 ngữ danh từ thì không được đặt it giữa make và tính từ: Make + adj + noun/ noun phrase.
The wire service made possible much speedier collection and distribution of news.

25.5 To let sb do sth = to permit/allow sb to do sth = để cho ai, cho phép ai làm gì

I let me go.
At first, she didn’t allow me to kiss her but...

25.6 To help sb to do sth/do sth = Giúp ai làm gì

Please help me to throw this table away.
She helps me open the door.

Nếu tân ngữ của help là một đại từ vô nhân xưng mang nghĩa người ta thì không cần phải nhắc đến tân ngữ đó và bỏ luôn cả to của động từ đằng sau.

This wonder drug will help (people to) recover more quickly.

Nếu tân ngữ của help và tân ngữ của động từ sau nó trùng hợp với nhau, người ta sẽ bỏ tân ngữ sau help và bỏ luôn cả to của động từ đằng sau.

The body fat of the bear will help (him to) keep him alive during hibernation.

25.7 Ba động từ đặc biệt: see, watch, hear

Đó là những động từ mà ngữ nghĩa của chúng sẽ thay đổi đôi chút khi động từ sau tân ngữ của chúng ở các dạng khác nhau.
+ To see/to watch/ to hear sb/sth do sth (hành động được chứng kiến từ đầu đến cuối)
I heard the telephone ring and then John answered it.
+ To see/to watch/ to hear sb/sth doing sth (hành động không được chứng kiến trọn vẹn mà chỉ ở một thời điểm)
I heard her singing at the time I came home.

26. Câu phức hợp và đại từ quan hệ

Tiếng Anh có 2 loại câu:
- Câu đơn giản: là câu có 1 thành phần và chỉ cần như vậy câu cũng đã đủ nghĩa.
- Câu phức hợp: là loại câu có 2 thành phần (2 mệnh đề) chính/phụ nối với nhau bằng một từ gọi là đại từ quan hệ.

26.1 That và which làm chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

Nó đứng đầu câu phụ, thay thế cho danh từ bất động vật đứng trước nó và đóng vai trò chủ ngữ của câu phụ. Trong trường hợp này không thể lược bỏ that hoặc which:

We bought the stereo that had been advertised at a reduced price.
(We bought the stereo. It had been advertised at a reduced price)

26.2 That và which làm tân ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

Nó thay thế cho danh từ bất động vật đứng trước nó, mở đầu câu phụ nhưng đóng vai trò tân ngữ trong câu phụ. Trong trường hợp này có thể lược bỏ that hoặc which:

George is going to buy the house (that) we have been thinking of buying.
(George is going to buy a house. We have been thinking of buying it.)

Người ta dùng that chứ không dùng which khi:
+ Đứng trước nó là một tính từ so sánh bậc nhất + danh từ
That is the best novel that has been written by this author.
+ Khi đằng trước nó là một số các đại từ phiếm chỉ như all, some, any, anything, everything, much, little, nothing v.v..
I want to see all that he possesses.
All the apples that fall are eaten by pig.

26.3 Who làm chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

Nó thay thế cho danh từ chỉ người hoặc động vật đứng trước nó và đóng vai trò chủ ngữ của câu phụ. Trong trường hợp này không thể lược bỏ who:

The man who is in this room is angry.

26.4 Whom làm tân ngữ của mệnh đề phụ

Nó thay thế cho danh từ chỉ người hoặc động vật (động vật nuôi trong nhà) đứng trước nó và đóng trò tân ngữ của câu phụ; nó có thể bỏ đi được.

The men (whom) I don't like are angry.

Nếu whom làm tân ngữ của một ngữ động từ bao gồm 1 Verb + 1 giới từ thì lối viết chuẩn nhất là đưa giới từ đó lên trước whom.

The man to whom you have just talked is the chairman of the company.

Tuy nhiên nếu whom là tân ngữ của một ngữ động từ bao gồm 1 động từ + 2 giới từ thì 2 giới từ đó vẫn phải đứng đằng sau động từ.

The man whom you are looking forward to is the chairman of the company.

Không được dùng who thay cho whom trong văn viết dù nó được chấp nhận trong văn nói.

26.5 Mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc và không bắt buộc.

26.5.1 Mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc.

Là loại mệnh đề bắt buộc phải có mặt ở trong câu, nếu bỏ đi câu sẽ mất ý nghĩa ban đầu. Nên dùng that làm chủ ngữ cho loại câu này mặc dù which vẫn được chấp nhận. Câu phụ thường đứng xen vào giữa câu chính hoặc nối liền với câu chính và không tách rời khỏi nó bởi bất cứ dấu phảy nào. Trong ví dụ sau nếu bỏ đi mệnh đề phụ được gạch chân thì câu sẽ mang ý nghĩa hoàn toàn khác:

Weeds that float to the surface should be removed before they decay.

26.5.2 Mệnh đề phụ không bắt buộc

Là loại mệnh đề mang thông tin phụ trong câu, nếu bỏ nó đi câu không mất nghĩa ban đầu. Không được dùng that làm chủ ngữ mà phải dùng which, cho dù which có là tân ngữ của mệnh đề phụ cũng không được phép bỏ nó đi. Câu phụ thường đứng chen vào giữa câu chính và bắt buộc phải tách khỏi câu chính bằng 2 dấu phẩy. Xét hai ví dụ sau:

My car, which is very large, uses too much gasoline.
This rum, which I bought in the Virgin Islands, is very smooth.

26.5.3 Tầm quan trọng của việc sử dụng dấu phẩy đối với mệnh đề phụ

Ở những mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc, khi không dùng dấu phẩy tức là mệnh đề phụ xác định một giới hạn đối với danh từ đằng trước trong mệnh đề chính

The travelers who knew about the flood took another road. (Những người biết về trận lũ đều chọn đường khác)
The wine that was stored in the cellar was ruined.

Đối với những mệnh đề phụ không bắt buộc, khi có dấu phẩy ngăn cách thì nó không xác định giới hạn đối với danh từ đứng trước nó.

The travelers, who knew about the flood, took another road. (Tất cả những người...)
The wine, which was stored in the cellar, was ruined.

Note: Các nguyên tắc trên đây chỉ dùng trong văn viết, không dùng trong văn nói. Lỗi ngữ pháp của TOEFL không tính đến mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc nhưng sẽ trừ điểm nếu phạm phải lỗi mệnh đề phụ không bắt buộc.

26.6 Cách sử dụng All, Both, Some, Several, Most, Few + Of + Whom/ Which

Her sons, both of whom are working abroad, call her every week. (không được nói both of them)
The buses, most of which were full of passengers, began to pull out.

Tuyệt đối không được dùng đại từ nhân xưng tân ngữ: them, us trong trường hợp này.

- What (the things that) có thể làm tân ngữ cho mệnh đề phụ cùng lúc làm chủ ngữ cho mệnh đề chính/ hoặc làm chủ ngữ của cả 2 mệnh đề chính, phụ:

What we have expected is the result of the test.
What happened to him yesterday might happen to us tomorrow.

- Whose (của người mà, của con mà) có thể thay thế cho danh từ chỉ người hoặc động vật ở trước nó và chỉ sự sở hữu của người hoặc động vật đó đối với danh từ đi sau.

James, whose father is the president of the company, has received a promotion.

Trong lối văn viết trang trọng nên dùng of which để thay thế cho danh từ bất động vật mặc dù whose vẫn được chấp nhận.

Savings account, of which  interest rate is quite hight, is very common now. (of which = whose)

Hoặc dùng with + noun/ noun phrase thay cho whose

A house whose walls were made of glass is easy to break = A house with glass walls is easyto break.

26.7 Cách loại bỏ đại từ quan hệ trong mệnh đề phụ

Đối với những mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc người ta có thể (không bắt buộc) loại bỏ đại từ quan hệ và động từ to be (cùng với các trợ động từ của nó) trong một số trường hợp sau:

•         Trước một mệnh đề phụ mà cấu trúc động từ ở thời bị động.
This is the value of X (which was) obtained from the areas under the normal curve.

•         Trước một mệnh đề phụ mà sau nó là một ngữ giới từ.
The beaker (that is) on the counter contains a solution.

•         Trước một cấu trúc động từ ở thể tiếp diễn.
The girl (who is) running down the street might be in trouble.

•         Ngoài ra trong một số trường hợp khi đại từ quan hệ trong mệnh đề phụ bắt buộc gắn liền với chủ ngữ đứng trước nó và mệnh đề phụ ấy diễn đạt qui luật của sự kiện, người ta có thể bỏ đại từ quan hệ và động từ chính để thay vào đó bằng một Verb-ing.
The travelers taking (who take) this bus on a daily basis buy their ticket in booking.

•         Trong những mệnh đề phụ không bắt buộc người ta cũng có thể loại bỏ đại từ quan hệ và động từ to be khi nó đứng trước một ngữ danh từ. Tuy nhiên phần ngữ danh từ còn lại vẫn phải đứng giữa 2 dấu phẩy.
Mr Jackson, (who is) a professor, is traveling in the Mideast this year.

•         Một trường hợp khác rất phổ biến là loại bỏ đại từ quan hệ và động từ chính, thay vào đó bằng một Verb-ing khi mệnh đề phụ này bổ nghĩa cho một tân ngữ.
The president made a speech for the famous man visiting (who visited) him.

27. Cách sử dụng một số cấu trúc P_1

•         Have sb/sth + doing: làm cho ai làm gì.
John had us laughing all through the meal.

•         S + won't have sb + doing = S + won't allow sb to do sth: không cho phép ai làm gì
I won't have him telling me what to do.

•         Các cụm phân từ: adding, pointing out, reminding, warning, reasoning that đều có thể mở đầu cho một mệnh đề phụ gián tiếp.
He told me to start early, reminding me that the road would be crowded.
Reasoning that he could only get to the lake, we followed that way.

•         To catch sb doing sth: bắt gặp ai đang làm gì (hàm ý bị phật lòng).
If she catches you reading her diary, she will be furious.

•         To find sb/sth doing sth: Thấy ai/ cái gì đang làm gì
I found him standing at the doorway
He found a tree lying across the road.

•         To leave sb doing sth: Để ai làm gì
I left Bob talking to the director after the introduction.

•         Go/come doing sth (dùng cho thể thao và mua sắm)
Go skiing/ go swimming/ go shopping/ come dancing

•         To spend time doing sth: Bỏ thời gian làm gì
He usually spends much time preparing his lessons.

•         To waste time doing: hao phí thời gian làm gì
She wasted all the afternoon having small talks with her friends.

•         To have a hard time/trouble doing sth: Gặp khó khăn khi làm gì
He has trouble listening to English. I had a hard time doing my homework.

•         To be worth doing sth: đáng để làm gì
This project is worth spending time and money on.

•         To be busy doing something: bận làm gì
She is busy packing now.

•         Be no/ not much/ any/ some good doing smt: Không có ích, ít khi có ích (làm gì)
It's no good my talking to him: Nói chuyện với anh ta tôi chả thấy có ích gì.
What good is it asking her: Hỏi cô ta thì có ích gì cơ chứ

•         P_1 được sử dụng để rút ngắn những câu dài:

o        Hai hành động xảy ra song song cùng một lúc thì hành động thứ hai ở dạng V-ing, hai hành động không tách rời khỏi nhau bởi bất kì dấu phảy nào.
He drives away and whistles = He drives away whistling.

o        Khi hành động thứ hai hoặc các hành động tiếp sau theo nó là một phần trong quá trình diễn biến của hành động thứ nhất thì hành động thứ hai hoặc các hành động tiếp theo sau nó ở dạng V-ing. Giữa hai hành động có ngăn cách nhau bởi dấu phẩy.
She went out and slammed the door = She went out, slamming the door.

o        Khi hành động thứ 2 hoặc các hành động sau nó là kết quả của hành động thứ nhất thì hành động thứ 2 và các hành động tiếp theo sẽ ở dạng V-ing. Nó sẽ ngăn cách với hành động chính bằng một dấu phẩy.
He fired two shots, killling a robber and wounding the other.

o        Hành động thứ 2 không cần chung chủ ngữ với hành động thứ nhất mà chỉ cần là kết quả của hành động thứ nhất cũng có thể ở dạng V-ing.
The plane crashed, its bombs exploding when it hit the ground.

28. Cách sử dụng một số cấu trúc P_2

•         Whould (should) like + to have + P2 : Diễn đạt một ước muốn không thành.
He would like to have seen the photos = He would have liked to see the photos (But he couldn't).

•         Dùng với một số động từ: to appear, to seem, to happen, to pretend
Nên nhớ rằng hành động của nguyên mẫu hoàn thành xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính.
He seems to have passed the exam = It seems that he has passed the exam.
She pretended to have read the material = She pretended that she had read the material.

•         Dùng với sorry, to be sorry + to have + P2: Hành động của nguyên mẫu hoàn thành xảy ra trước trạng thái sorry.
The girls were sorry to have missed the Rock Concert
(The girls were sorry that they had missed the Rock Concert.)

•         Dùng với một số các động từ sau đây ở thể bị động: to ackowledge. believe, consider, find, know, report, say, suppose, think, understand. Hành động của nguyên mẫu hoàn thành xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính.
He was believed to have gone out of the country.
(It was believed that he had gone out of the country.)

•         Dùng với một số các động từ khác như to claim, expect, hope, promise. Đặc biệt lưu ý rằng hành động của nguyên mẫu hoàn thành sẽ ở future perfect so với thời của động từ ở mệnh đề chính.
He expects to have graduated by June.
(He expects that he will have graduated by June.)
He promised to have told me the secret by the end of this week.
(He promised that he would have told me the secret by the end of this week.)

29. Những cách sử dụng khác của that

Ngoài việc sử dụng trong mệnh đề quan hệ, that còn được dùng trong một số trường hợp khác như dùng làm liên từ, dùng trong mệnh đề that.

29.1 That dùng với tư cách là một liên từ (rằng)

29.1.1 Trường hợp không bắt buộc phải có that

Đằng sau 4 động từ say, tell, think, believe thì that có thể bỏ đi được.
John said (that) he was leaving next week.

29.1.2 Trường hợp bắt buộc phải có that.

Đằng sau 4 động từ mention, declare, report, state thì that bắt buộc phải có mặt.
George mentioned that he was going to France next year.

That vẫn bắt buộc phải có mặt ở mệnh đề thứ 3 trong câu nếu mệnh đề chính sử dụng một trong 4 động từ trên.
The Major declared that on June the first he would announce the result of the search and that he would never overlook the crime punishment.

29.2 Mệnh đề that

Là loại mệnh đề có chứa that.

29.2.1 Dùng với chủ ngữ giả it và tính từ.

It + to be + adj + That + S + V = That + S + V ... to be + adj

It is well known that many residents of third world countries are dying.
That many residents of third world countries are dying is well known.

29.2.2 Dùng với động từ tạo thành một mệnh đề độc lập.

It + verb + complement + That + S + V = That + S + V + ... +V + complement

It surprises me that John would do such a thing
That John would do such a thing surprises me.

Người ta dùng chủ ngữ giả it trong văn nói để dễ nhận biết và that làm chủ ngữ thật trong văn viết. Trong một số trường hợp người ta đảo ngữ giới từ lên đầu câu, liên từ hoặc động từ tĩnh đảo lên trên THAT và sau đó mới là chủ ngữ thật. Công thức sử dụng như sau:

Prepositional phrase + link verb/stative verb + THAT + sentence as real subject, and THAT + sentence as real subject.

Among the surprising discoveries were that T.rex was a far sleeker but more powerful carnivore than previously thought, perhaps weighing less than 6.5 tons - no more than a bull elephant, and that T.rex habitat was forest, not swamp or plain as previously believed.

(Một trong số những phát hiện ngạc nhiên là ở chỗ loài khủng long bạo chúa là một loại ăn thịt có thân hình thon nhỏ hơn nhiều, song dũng mãnh hơn người ta đã từng nghĩ trước đây, có lẽ cân nặng chưa đến 6 tấn rưỡi - tức là không lớn hơn một con voi đực, và rằng môi trường sống của loài khủng long này là rừng chứ không phải là đầm lầy hay đồng bằng như người ta vẫn tưởng.)

The fact that + sentence
The fact remains that + sentence
The fact of the matter is that + sentence

The fact that Simon had not been home for 3 days didn’t seem to worry anybody.

30. Câu giả định (subjunctive)

Câu giả định hay còn gọi là câu cầu khiến là loại câu đối tượng thứ nhất muốn đối tượng thứ hai làm một việc gì. Câu giả định có tính chất cầu khiến chứ không mang tính ép buộc như câu mệnh lệnh. Trong câu giả định, người ta dùng dạng nguyên thể không có to của các động từ sau một số động từ chính mang tính cầu khiến. Thường có that trong câu giả định trừ một số trường hợp đặc biệt.

30.1 Dùng với would rather that

Ngữ pháp hiện đại ngày nay đặc biệt là ngữ pháp Mỹ cho phép dùng would rather mà không cần dùng that trong loại câu này.

We would rather (that) he not take this train.

30.2 Dùng với động từ.

Bảng sau là những động từ đòi hỏi mệnh đề sau nó phải ở dạng giả định và trong câu bắt buộc phải có that trong trường hợp đó.

advise
demand
prefer
require

ask
insist
propose
stipulate

command
move
recommend
suggest

decree
order
request
urge

Động từ sau chủ ngữ 2 ở dạng nguyên thể không chia bỏ to. Nếu muốn thành lập thể phủ định đặt not sau chủ ngữ 2 trước nguyên thể bỏ to.

Subject + verb + that + subject + [verb in simple form] + ...

The doctor suggested that his patient stop smoking.
The doctor suggested that his patient not stop smoking.

Nếu bỏ that đi thì chủ ngữ 2 sẽ trở về dạng tân ngữ và động từ sau nó trở về dạng nguyên thể có to, câu mất tính chất giả định, trở thành một dạng mệnh lệnh thức gián tiếp.

The doctor suggested his patient to stop smoking.
The doctor suggested his patient not to stop smoking.

Trong ngữ pháp Anh-Anh trước động từ ở mệnh đề 2 thường có should, người Anh chỉ bỏ should khi sau nó là động từ to be nhưng ngữ pháp Anh-Mỹ không dùng should cho toàn bộ động từỏơ mệnh đề 2.

30.3 Dùng với tính từ.

Bảng sau là một số các tính từ đòi hỏi mệnh đề sau nó phải ở dạng giả định, trong câu bắt buộc phải có that và động từ sau chủ ngữ 2 ở dạng nguyên thể bỏ to.

advised
necessary
recommended
urgent

important
obligatory
required
imperative

mandatory
proposed
suggested

Lưu ý rằng trong bảng này có một số tính từ là phân từ 2 cấu tạo từ các động từ ở bảng trên. Nếu muốn cấu tạo phủ định đặt not sau chủ ngữ 2 trước nguyên thể bỏ to.

It + be + adj + that + S + [verb in simple form]

It is necessary that he find the books.
It is necessary that he not find the books.
It has been proprosed that we change the topic.
It has been proprosed that we not change the topic.

Nếu bỏ that đi thì chủ ngữ 2 sẽ biến thành tân ngữ sau giới từ for, động từ trở về dạng nguyên thể có to và câu mất tính chất giả định trở thành dạng mệnh lệnh thức gián tiếp.

It is necessary for him to find the books.
It is necessary for him not to find the books.
It has been proprosed for us to change the topic.
It has been proprosed for us not to change the topic.

Lưu ý:

•         Câu giả định dùng với 2 loại trên thường được dùng trong các văn bản hoặc thư giao dịch diễn đạt lời đề nghị từ phía A -> B mà không có tính bắt buộc.

•         Không chỉ có động từ và tính từ mới được dùng theo dạng này, tất cả các danh từ xuất phát từ những động từ và tính từ trên đều buộc mệnh đề sau nó phải ở dạng giả định, nếu như nó diễn đạt các yếu tố trên.
There is suggestion from the doctor that the patient stop smoking.
It is recommendation that the vehicle owner be present at the court

30.4 Thể giả định trong một số trường hợp khác

•         Dùng để diễn đạt một ước muốn hoặc một lời nguyền rủa, thường bao hàm các thế lực siêu nhiên.
God be with you = Good bye.
Curse this toad: Chết tiệt cái con cóc này.

•         Dùng với động từ May trong một số trường hợp đặc biệt sau:

o        Come what may = Dù thế nào chăng nữa, dù bất cứ truyện gì.
Come what may we will stand by you.

o        May as well not do sth .... if .... = Có thể đừng..... nếu không.
You may as well not come if you can't be on time.
Các anh có thể đừng đến nếu không đến được đúng giờ.

o        May/Might (just) as well do smt = Chẳng mất gì mà lại không, mất gì của bọ.
Since nobody wants that job, we might (just) as well let him have it:
Vì không ai thích việc này, mình chẳng mất gì mà lại không cho hắn ta làm nó

o        May diễn đạt một lời đề nghị mà người nói cho rằng chưa chắc nó đã được thực hiện:
The sign on the lawn says clearly that people may not walk on the grass.
(không dùng should trong trường hợp này).

o        May + S + link verb + adj hoặc May + S + verb + complement (Cầu chúc cho).
May you both very happy: Chúc các bạn bách niên giai lão.
May the conference be successful: Chúc hội nghị thành công rực rỡ.
Long may she live to enjoy her good fortune: Chúc cho nàng sống lâu để hưởng vận may của nàng.

•         If need be = If necessary = Nếu cần
If need be, we can take another road.

•         Dùng với động từ to be, bỏ to sau if để chỉ một sự giả định chưa được phân định rõ ràng là đúng hay sai.
If that be right, then it would be no defence for this man to say he's innocent.

•         Let it be me: Giả sử đó là tôi, giá phải tay tôi.
- Husband: Let it be me.
- Wife (suddenly appearing) : If that be you, what would you do.

•         Be that as it may... = whether that is true or not... = Cho dù là phải thế hay không.
Be that as it may, you have to accept it.

•         Then so be it: Cứ phải vậy thôi.
If we have to pay $2,000, then so be it (thì cứ phải trả thôi)

•         Câu giả định dùng với it + to be + time

o        It's time (for sb) to do smt: đã đến lúc ai phải làm gì (Thời gian vừa vặn, không mang tính giả định).
It's time for me to get to the airport: Đã đến lúc tôi phải ra sân bay.

o        It's time (hightime/about time) (for sb) did smt: đã đến lúc mà (thời gian đã trễ, mang tính giả định)
It's time I got to the airport
It's hightime the city government did smt to stop the traffic jam.

31. Lối nói bao hàm (inclusive)

Đó là lối nói gộp hai ý trong câu làm một thông qua một số các cụm từ. Hai thành phần trong câu phải tương đương nhau về mặt từ loại: danh từ với danh từ, tính từ với tính từ, ...

31.1 Not only ..... but also (không những ... mà còn)

Robert is not only talented but also handsome. (adjective-adjective)
He writes not only correctly but also neatly. (adverb-adverb)
She can play not only the guitar but also the violin. (noun-noun)
She not only plays the piano but also composes music. (verb-verb)

Thành phần sau but also thường quyết định thành phần sau not only.

Incorrect: He is not only famous in Italy but also in Switzerland.
Correct: He is famous not only in Italy but also in Switzerland.

31.2 As well as (vừa ... vừa ...)

Cũng giống như cấu trúc trên, các thành phần đằng trước và đằng sau cụm từ này phải tương đương với nhau.

Robert is talented as well as handsome. (adjective-adjective)
He writes correctly as well as neatly. (adverb-adverb)
She plays the guitar as well as the violin. (noun-noun)
Paul plays the piano as well as composes music. (verb-verb)

Không được nhầm thành ngữ này với as well as của hiện tượng đồng chủ ngữ mang nghĩa cùng với.

The teacher, as well as her students, is going to the concert.
My cousins, as well as Tim, have a test tomorrow.

31.3 Both ..... and... (vừa ... vừa)

Công thức dùng giống hệt như Not only .... but also. Both chỉ được dùng với and, không được dùng với as well as.

Robert is both talented and handsome.
Paul both plays the piano and composes music.

32. to know, to know how.

•         Know how thường được dùng để thể hiện một người có kỹ năng hoặc có khả năng để làm một việc gì đó. Do đó nó thường được dùng trước một động từ ở dạng nguyên thể (có to).

S + know how + [verb in infinitive] ....

Bill know how to play tennis well.
Mai and her sisters know how to prepare Chinese food.
Do you know how to use this kind of ATM?

Đằng sau to know how cũng có thể dùng một mệnh đề để diễn đạt khả năng hoặc sự bắt buộc.
At a glance, she knew how she could solve this math problem.

•         Know, ngược lại, thường được dùng trước một danh từ, một ngữ giới từ hoặc một mệnh đề.

Jason knew the answer to the teacher's question. (a noun)
No one know about his accepting the new position. (a prepositional phrase)
I didn't know that you were going to France. (a sentence)

33. Mệnh đề thể hiện sự nhượng bộ

Đó là loại mệnh đề diễn đạt hai ý trái ngược trong cùng một câu.

33.1 Despite/Inspite of (bất chấp, cho dù, ...)

Đằng sau hai cụm từ này phải dùng một danh từ hoặc ngữ danh từ, không được dùng một câu hoàn chỉnh.

Despite his physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman.
In spite of his physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman.
Jane will be admitted to the university in spite of her bad grades.
Jane will be admitted to the university despite her bad grades.

33.2 Although/Even though/Though (mặc dầu)

Đằng sau 3 cụm từ này phải dùng một mệnh đề hoàn chỉnh (có cả chủ ngữ và động từ), không được dùng một danh từ.

Although he has a physical handicap, he has become a successful businessman.
Jane will be admitted to the university even though she has bad grades.

Nếu though đứng một mình, cuối câu, tách biệt khỏi câu chính bởi dấu phẩy thì nó mang nghĩa tuy nhiên.

He promised to call me, till now I haven't received any call from him, though.

33.3 However + adj + S + linkverb = dù có .... đi chăng nữa thì ....

However strong you are, you can't move this rock.

33.4 Although/ Albeit + Adjective/ Adverb/ Averbial Modifier

Her appointment was a significant, althought/ albeit temporary success.
Việc bà ấy được bổ nhiệm là một thành công quan trọng, nhưng dẫu sao cũng chỉ là nhất thời)

Her performed the task well, althought/ albeit slowly
Anh ta thực hiện nhiệm vụ đó khá tốt, tuy rằng chậm.

34. Những động từ dễ gây nhầm lẫn

Những động từ ở bảng sau rất dễ gây nhầm lẫn về mặt ngữ nghĩa, chính tả hoặc phát âm.

Nội động từ

Nguyên thể

Quá khứ (P1)

Quá khứ phân từ (P2)

Verb-ing

rise

lie

sit

rose

lay

sat

risen

lain

sat

rising

lying

sitting

Ngoại động từ

Nguyên thể

Quá khứ (P1)

Quá khứ phân từ (P2)

Verb-ing

raise

lay

set

raised

laid

set

raised

laid

set

raising

laying

setting

•         To rise : Dâng lên, tự nâng lên, tự tăng lên.
The sun rises early in the summer.
Prices have risen more than 10% this year.
He rose early so that he could play golf before the others.
When oil and water mix, oil rises to the top.

•         To raise smt/sb: Nâng ai, cái gì lên.
The students raise their hands in class.
OPEC countries have raised the price of oil.

•         To lie: Nằm, ở, tại.
To lie in: ở tại
To lie down: nằm xuống.
To lie on: nằm trên.
The university lies in the western section of town.
Don't disturb Mary, she has laid down for a rest.
* Lưu ý: Cần phân biệt động từ này với to lie (nói dối) trong mẫu câu to lie to sb about smt (nói dối ai về cái gì):
He is lying to you about the test.

•         To lay smt: đặt, để cái gì vào vị trí nào đó
To lay smt on: đặt trên
To lay smt in: đặt vào
To lay smt down: đặt xuống.
Don't lay your clothes on the bed.
The enemy soldiers laid down their weapons and surrendered.

* Lưu ý: Thời hiện tại của động từ này rất dễ ngây nhầm lẫn với quá khứ đơn giản của động từ to lie. Cần phải phân biệt bằng ngữ cảnh cụ thể.

•         To sit: ngồi
To sit in: ngồi tại, ngồi trong.
To sit on: ngồi trên (đã ngồi sẵn).
To set = to put, to lay: đặt, để.
We are going to sit in the fifth row at the opera.
After swimming, she sat on the beach to dty off.
Nobody has sat through as many boring lectures as Petes has.

* Lưu ý: Phát âm hiện tại đơn giản của động từ này rất dễ lẫn với Simple past của to sit.

•         To set smt: đặt cái gì, bày cái gì, để cái gì
The little girl help her father set the table every night.
The botanist set his plants in the sun so that they would grow.

•         Một số các thành ngữ dùng với các động từ trên:

o        to set the table for: bầy bàn để.
My mother has set the table for the family dinner.

o        to lay off (workers. employees): cho thôi việc, giãn thợ.
The company had to lay off twenty-five employees because of a production slowdown.

o        to set (broken bone) in: bó những cái xương gẫy vào.
Dr.Jacobs has set many broken bones in plaster casts.

o        to set one's alarm for: Đặt đồng hồ báo thức vào lúc.
John set his alarm for six o'clock.

o        to set fire to: làm cháy
While playing with matches, the children set fire to the sofa.

o        to raise (animals, plants) for a living: trồng cái gì, nuôi con gì bán để lấy tiền.
That farmer raises chickens for a living.

35. Một số các động từ đặc biệt khác

Đó là những động từ ở trong các mẫu câu khác nhau sẽ có ý nghĩa khác nhau.

•         agree to do smt: đồng ý làm gì
He agreed to leave early tomorrow morning.

•         agree to one's doing smt: đồng ý với việc ai làm gì.
He agreed to my leaving early tomorrow morning.

•         Mean to do smt: định làm gì.
I mean to get to the top of the hill before sunrise.

•         If it + mean + verb-ing: cho dù cả việc, bao hàm cả việc.
My neighbour was determined to get a ticket for Saturday's game if it meant standing in line all night.

•         Propose to do smt: có ý định làm gì.
I propose to start tomorrow.

•         Propose doing smt: Đề nghị làm gì
I propose waiting till the police came.

•         Go on doing smt/smt: tiếp tục làm gì, cái gì (một việc đang bị bỏ dở)
He went on writing after a break

•         Go on to do smt: Quay sang tiếp tục làm gì (vẫn về cùng một vấn đề nhưng chuyển sang khía cạnh khác)
He showed the island on the map then went on to tell about its climate.

•         Try to do smt: cố gắng làm gì
He try to solve this math problem.

•         Try doing smt: Thử làm gì
I try sending her flowers, writing her letter, giving her presents, but she still wouldn’t speak to me.

36. Sự phù hợp về thời giưa hai vế của một câu

Trong một câu tiếng Anh có 2 vế (hai mệnh đề) thì thời của động từ ở hai thành phần đó phải phù hợp với nhau. Thời của động từ ở mệnh đề chính sẽ quyết định thời của động từ ở mệnh đề phụ.

MỆNH ĐỀ CHÍNH

MỆNH ĐỀ PHỤ

Simple present

Present progressive

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra cùng lúc với hành động của mệnh đề chính
I see that Hung is writing a letter.
Do you know who is riding the horse?

Simple present

Will/ Can/ May + Verb (hoặc Near future)

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra sau hành động của mệnh đề chính trong một tương lai không được xác định hoặc tương lai gần.
He says that he will look for a job.
I know that she is going to win that prize.
She says that she can play the piano.

Simple present

Simple past

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính trong một quá khứ được xác định cụ thể về mặt thời gian.
I hope he arrived safely.
They think he was here last night.

Simple present

Present perfect (progressive)

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính trong một quá khứ không được xác định cụ thể về mặt thời gian.
He tells us that he has been to Saigon before.
We know that you have spoken with Mike about the party.

Simple past

Past progressive/ Simple past

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra cùng lúc với hành động của mệnh đề chính trong quá khứ.
I gave the package to my sister when she visited us last week.
Mike visited us while he was staying in Hanoi.

Simple past

Would/ Could/ Might + Verb

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra sau hành động của mệnh đề chính trong một tương lai trong quá khứ.
He said that he would look for a job.
Mary said that she could play the piano.

Simple past

Past perfect

Hành động của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính, lùi sâu về trong quá khứ.
I hoped he had arrived safely.
They thought he had been here last night.

Lưu ý: Những nguyên tắc trên đây chỉ được áp dụng khi các mệnh đề trong câu có liên hệ với nhau về mặt thời gian nhưng nếu các mệnh đề trong câu có thời gian riêng biệt thì động từ phải tuân theo thời gian của chính mệnh đề đó.
He promised to tell me, till now I haven't received any call from him, though.

37. Cách sử dụng to say, to tell

Hai  động từ này có nghĩa giống nhau nhưng cách dùng khác nhau. Nếu sau chủ ngữ không có một tân ngữ gián tiếp nào (tức là ta không đề cập đến đối tượng nào nghe trong câu) thì phải dùng to say, ngược lại thì dùng to tell.

S + say + (that) + S + V...

He says that he is busy today.
Henry says that he has already done his homework.

Nhưng nếu sau chủ ngữ có một tân ngữ gián tiếp (có đề cập đến người nghe) rồi mới đến liên từ that thì phải dùng to tell.

S + tell + indirect object + (that) + S +V...

He told us a story last night.
He tells me to stay here, waiting for him.

To tell cũng thường có tân ngữ trực tiếp. Luôn dùng to tell khi nói đến các danh từ sau đây, cho dù có tân ngữ gián tiếp hay không:

Tell

a story
ajoke
asecret
a lie
the truth
(the) time

Never tell a secret to a person who spreads gossip.
The little boy was punished because he told his mother a lie.

38. One và You

Cả hai đại từ này trong một số trường hợp đều mang nghĩa "một người" hoặc "anh ta", "chị ta", tuy nhiên ngữ pháp sử dụng có khác nhau.

38.1 One

Nếu ở đầu câu đã sử dụng đại từ one thì các đại từ tương ứng tiếp theo ở mệnh đề dưới phải là one, one's, he, his.

If one takes this exam without studying, one is likely to fail.
(Nếu một người không học bài mà đi thi thì anh ta rất dễ bị trượt)
If one takes this exam without studying, he is likely to fail.
One should always do one's homework.
One should always do his homework.

Lưu ý một số người do cẩn thận muốn tránh phân biệt nam/ nữ đã dùng he or she, his or her nhưng điều đó là không cần thiết. Các đại từ đó chỉ được sử dụng khi nào ở phía trên có những danh từ chung chung như the side, the party.

The judge will ask the defendant party (bên bị cáo- danh từ chung) if he or she admits the allegations.

38.2 You

Nếu đại từ ở đầu câu là you thì các đại từ tương ứng tiếp theo ở dưới sẽ là you hoặc your.

If you take this exam without studying, you are likely to fail.
You should always do your homework.

Tuyệt đối không dùng lẫn one và you trong cùng một câu hoặc dùng they thay thế cho hai đại từ này.

39. Đi trước đại từ phải có một danh từ tương ứng với nó

Trong một câu tiếng Anh có 2 mệnh đề, nếu mệnh đề thứ hai có dùng đến đại từ nhân xưng thì ở mệnh đề đầu phải có một danh từ để đại từ đó đại diện. Danh từ đi trước, giới thiệu đại từ phải tương đương với đại từ đó về giống và số.

Incorrect:
Henry was denied admission to graduate school because they did not believe that he could handle the work load.
(Đại từ they không có danh từ nào đi trước nó để nó làm đại diện. "graduate school" là một đơn vị số ít nên không thể được đại diện bởi they.)

Correct:
1. The members of the admissions committee denied Henry admission to graduate school because they did not believe that he could handle the work load.

2. Henry was denied admission to graduate school because the members of the admissions committee did not believe that he could handle the work load.

Incorrect:
George dislikes politics because he believes that they are corrupt.
George không thích chính trị bởi vì anh cho rằng họ tham nhũng. Đại từ they cũng không có danh từ tương ứng đi trước. Politics là một danh từ số ít nên không thể được đại diện bởi they

Correct:
1. George dislikes politicians because he believes that they are corrupt. (các chính khách)
2. George dislikes politics because he believes that politicians are corrupt.

Ngược lại với việc thiếu danh từ đi trước đại từ, nếu có quá nhiều (từ hai trở lên) danh từ cùng tương ứng với một đại từ thì cũng sẽ gây nhầm lẫn. Xem ví dụ sau:

Incorrect 1:
Mr. Brown told Mr. Adams that he would have to work all night in order to finish the report.
(Không rõ đại từ he đại diện cho Mr. Brown hay Mr. Adams)

Correct 1:
1.     According to Mr. Brown, Mr. Adams will have to work all night in order to finish the report.
2.     Mr. Brown said that, in order to finish the report, Mr. Adams would have to work all night.

Incorrect 2:
Janet visited her friend every day while she was on vacation.
(Không rõ đại từ she đại diện cho Janet hay her friend)

Correct 2:
While Janet was on vacation, she visited her friend every day.

40. Sử dụng V-ing, to + verb để mở đầu một câu

40.1 Sử dụng Verb-ing

Một V-ing có thể được dùng để nối hai câu có cùng chủ ngữ trở thành một câu bằng cách biến động từ của câu thứ nhất thành dạng V-ing, bỏ chủ ngữ và nối với câu thứ hai bằng dấu phảy. Ví dụ:

The man jumped out of the boat. He was bitten by a shark.
=> After jumping out of the boat, the man was bitten by a shark.

Khi sử dụng loại câu này cần hết sức lưu ý rằng chủ ngữ của mệnh đề chính bắt buộc phải là chủ ngữ hợp lý của mệnh đề phụ. Khi hai mệnh đề không có cùng chủ ngữ, người ta gọi đó là trường hợp chủ ngữ phân từ bất hợp lệ.

SAI:     After jumping out of the boat, the shark bit the man.
(Chúng ta ngầm hiểu là chủ ngữ thật sử của hành động nhảy khỏi thuyền là the man chứ không phải the shark)

Để đảm bảo không nhầm lẫn, ngay sau mệnh đề verb-ing ta nên đề cập ngay đến danh từ làm chủ ngữ cho cả hai mệnh đề.

Thông thường có 6 giới từ đứng trước một V-ing mở đầu cho mệnh đề phụ, đó là: By (bằng cách, bởi), upon, after (sau khi), before (trước khi), while (trong khi), when (khi).

By working a ten-hour day for four days, we can have a long weekend.
After preparing the dinner, Pat will read a book.
While reviewing for the test, Mary realized that she had forgotten to study the use of participial phrases.

Lưu ý rằng: on + động từ trạng thái hoặc in + động từ hành động thì có thể tương đương với when hoặc while:

On finding the door ajar, I aroused suspicion. (= when finding)
(Khi thấy cửa hé mở, tôi nảy sinh mối nghi ngờ)
In searching for underground deposits of oil, geologist often rely on magnometers. (= while searching)
(Trong khi tìm các mỏ dầu trong lòng đất, các nhà địa chất thường dựa vào từ kế.)

Nếu không có giới từ đi trước, chỉ có V-ing xuất hiện trong mệnh đề phụ thì thời của câu do thời của động từ ở mệnh đề chính quyết định; 2 hành động trong hai mệnh đề thường xảy ra song song cùng lúc:

Present:

Practicing her swing every day, Trica hopes to get a job as a golf instructor.

Past:

Having a terrible toothache, Henry called the dentist for an appointment.

Future:

Finishing the letter later tonight, Sally will mail it tomorrow morning.

Dạng thức hoàn thành [having + P2] được dùng để diễn đạt trường hợp động từ của mệnh đề phụ xảy ra trước hành động của mệnh đề chính:

Having finished their supper, the boys went out to play.
(After the boys had finished their supper...)
Having written his composition, Louie handed it to his teacher.
(After Louie had written ...)
Not having read the book, she could not answer the question.
(Because she had not read...)

Dạng thức bị động [having been + P2] cũng thường được sử dụng để mở đầu một mệnh đề phụ:

Having been notified by the court, Mary reported for jury duty.
(After Mary had been notified ...)
Having been delayed by the snowstorm, Jame and I missed our connecting flight.
(After we had been delayed ...)
Not having been notified of the change in the meeting time, George arrived late.
(Because he had not been notified ...)

Trong nhiều trường hợp, cụm từ being hoặc having been của thể bị động có thể được lược bỏ, khi đó chủ ngữ của mệnh đề chính vẫn phải phù hợp với chủ ngữ của mệnh đề phụ:

Incorrect: Found in Tanzania by Mary Leaky, some archeologists estimated that the three - million - year - old fossils were the oldest human remains that were discovered. (Being found ...)

Correct: Found in Tanzania by Mary Leaky, the three-million-year-old fossils were estimated by some archeologists to be the oldest human remains that had ever been discovered.

Xét thêm các ví dụ sau về chủ ngữ phân từ bất hợp lệ:

SAI:      Having apprehended the hijackers, they were whisked off to FBI headquarters by the security guards.
ĐÚNG: Having apprehended the hijackers, the security guards whisked them off to FBI headquarters.
ĐÚNG: Having been apprehended, the hijackers were whisked off to FBI headquarters by the security guards.

SAI:      Before singing the school song, a poem was recited.
ĐÚNG: Before singing the school song, the students recited a poem.

SAI:      Guiding us through the museum, a special explanation was given by the director.
ĐÚNG: Guiding us through the museum, the director gave us a special explanation.

40.2 Động từ nguyên thể (to + verb) mở đầu câu

Động từ nguyên thể cũng được dùng để mở đầu một câu giống như trong trường hợp V-ing. Mệnh đề phụ đứng đầu câu sử dụng động từ nguyên thể thường diễn tả mục đích của mệnh đề chính.

To get up early, Jim never stay up late.

Cũng giống như trường hợp sử dụng V-ing nêu trên, chủ ngữ của mệnh đề thứ hai cũng phải là chủ ngữ hợp lý của mệnh đề phụ đứng trước nó.

Incorrect: To prevent cavities, dental floss should be used daily after brushing one's teeth.
Correct:   To prevent cavities, one should use dental floss daily after brushing one’s teeth.

41. Động từ (V-ing, V-ed) dùng làm tính từ

Thông thường, khi một động từ không có dạng thức tính từ tương ứng với nó thì phân từ 1 (V-ing) hoặc phân từ 2 (P2) của động từ đó được sử dụng làm tính từ. Đôi khi người học tiếng Anh không biết nên dùng tính từ ở dạng thức nào: V-ing hay Verb-ed hay Verb-en.

- Tính từ dạng V-ing thường được dùng khi danh từ mà nó bổ nghĩa thực hiện hoặc chịu trách nhiệm về hành động. Động từ thường là nội động từ (không có tân ngữ) và thời của động từ là thời tiếp diễn:
The crying baby woke Mr.Binion. (The baby was crying)
The blooming flowers in the meadow created a rainbow of colors. (The flowers were blooming)
The purring kitten snuggled close to the fireplace. (The kitten was purring)

•         Phân từ 2 (V-ed) được dùng làm tính từ khi danh từ mà nó bổ nghĩa là đối tượng nhận sự tác động của hành động. Câu có tính từ ở dạng P2 thường có nguồn gốc từ những câu bị động.
The sorted mail was delivered to the offices before noon. (The mail had been sorted).
Frozen food is often easier to prepare than fresh food. (The food had been frozen)
The imprisoned men were unhappy with their living conditions. (The men had been imprisoned)

Lưu ý: Một số các động từ như to interest, to bore, to excite, to frighten khi sử dụng làm tính từ thường khó xác định nên dùng loại nào (phân từ 1 hay phân từ 2). Nguyên tắc áp dụng cũng giống như đã nêu trên: Nếu chủ ngữ gây ra hành động thì dùng P1, nếu chủ ngữ nhận tác động của hành động thì dùng P2. Xét thêm các ví dụ sau:

The boring professor put the students to sleep.
The boring lecture put the students to sleep.
The bored students went to sleep during the boring lecture.
The child saw a frightening movie.
The frightened child began to cry.

42. Thông tin thừa (redundancy)

Khi thông tin trong câu bị lặp đi lặp lại không cần thiết thì nó bị gọi là thông tin thừa, cần phải loại bỏ phần thừa đó. Ví dụ: Người Anh không dùng the time when mà chỉ dùng một trong hai.
It is (the time/ when) I got home.
Người Anh không dùng the place where mà chỉ dùng một trong hai.
It is (the place/ where) I was born.

Không dùng song song cả 2 từ dưới đây trong cùng một câu:

advance forward
proceed forward
progress forward

Cả 3 từ advance, proceed, progress đều có nghĩa tiến lên, tiến về phía trước: "to move in a forward direction". Vì vậy forward là thừa.

return back
revert back

Cả 2 từ return, revert đều có nghĩa: "to go back, to send back". Vì vậy back là thừa.

sufficient enought

Hai từ này nghĩa như nhau

compete together

compete = đua tranh, cạnh tranh với nhau "to take part in a contest against others"

reason... because

Hai từ này có nghĩa như nhau. Mẫu đúng phải là "reason... that"

join together

join có nghĩa "to bring together", "to put together", "to become a part or a member of..."

repeat again

repeat có nghĩa "to say again"

new innovation

innovation có nghĩa là một ý tưởng mới "a new idea"

matinee performance

matinee = buổi biểu diễn chiều

same identical

hai từ này nghĩa giống nhau

two twins

twins = two brothers or sisters

the time / when

Hai từ này nghĩa giống nhau

the place / where

Hai từ này nghĩa giống nhau

43. Cấu trúc song song trong câu

Khi thông tin trong một câu được đưa ra dưới dạng liệt kê thì các thành phần được liệt kê phải tương ứng với nhau về mặt từ loại (noun - noun, adjective - adjective, ...). Ví dụ:

SAI

ĐÚNG

Mr. Henry is a lawyer, a politician, and he teaches.

Mr. Henry is a lawyer, a politician, and a teacher.

Peter is rich, handsome, and many people like him.

Peter is rich, handsome, and popular.

The cat approached the mouse slowly and silent.

The cat approached the mouse slowly and silently.

She like to fish, swim and surfing.

She like to fish, to swim and to surf.
She like fishing, swimming and surfing.

When teenagers finish highschool, they have several choices: going to college, getting a job, or the army.

When teenagers finish highschool, they have several choices: going to college, getting a job, or joining the army.

Tim entered the room, sat down, and is opening his book.

Tim entered the room, sat down, and opened his book.

Tuy nhiên nếu thời gian trong các mệnh đề khác nhau của câu là khác nhau thì động từ cũng phải tuân theo qui luật thời gian. Lúc đó cấu trúc câu song song về thời của các động từ (như ví dụ ở dòng cuối bảng trên) không được áp dụng. Ví dụ:
She is a senior, studies every day, and will graduate a semester early.

44. Chuyển đổi vị trí tân ngữ trực tiếp và gián tiếp

Có hai cách sử dụng tân ngữ của một ngoại động từ mà ý nghĩa của câu không thay đổi. Tân ngữ gián tiếp (indirect object) là tân ngữ chỉ đồ vật hoặc người mà hành động xảy ra đối với (hoặc dành cho) đồ vật hoặc người đó. Tân ngữ trực tiếp (direct object) là người hoặc vật đầu tiên nhận tác động của hành động. Tân ngữ gián tiếp có thể đứng sau tân ngữ trực tiếp, ngăn cách bởi một giới từ hoặc cũng có thể đứng trước tân ngữ trực tiếp (mà không có giới từ). Giới từ thường dùng ở đây là for và to. Ví dụ:

I gave the book to Jim.

The book là tân ngữ trực tiếp và hành động đầu tiên là hành động cầm lấy quyển sách trong tay và hành động thứ hai (gián tiếp) là đưa nó cho Jim.

Khi muốn đổi vị trí giữa tân ngữ trực tiếp và tân ngữ gián tiếp, ta sử dụng một trong hai công thức sau:

Subject + verb + direct object + [for / to] + indirect object

I gave the book to Jim.
The little boy brought some flowers for his grandmother.
He lent his car to his brother

Subject + verb + indirect object + direct object

I gave Jim the book.
The little boy brought his grandmother some flowers.
He lent his brother his car.

Không phải động từ nào cũng cho phép đổi vị trí tân ngữ trực tiếp và gián tiếp. Bảng sau là một số động từ cho phép đổi:

bring
build
buy
cut
draw
feed

find
get
give
hand
leave
lend

make
offer
own
paint
pass
pay

promise
read
sell
send
show
teach

tell
write

Một số trong các từ trên có thể dùng được cả với for và to, một số khác chỉ dùng với một trong 2 giới từ. Chú ý rằng trong công thức thứ hai nêu trên, khi tân ngữ gián tiếp đứng trước tân ngữ trực tiếp thì không dùng giới từ giữa chúng:

Đúng:     The director's secretary sent them the menuscript last night.
Sai:        The director's secretary sent to them the menuscript last night.

Nếu cả tân ngữ trực tiếp và gián tiếp đều là đại từ thì chỉ được dùng công thức thứ nhất, không dùng công thức 2:

Đúng:     They gave it to us.
Sai:        They gave us it.

Chú ý: Hai động từ introduce (giới thiệu ai với ai) và mention (đề cập đến cái gì trước mặt ai) luôn dùng cùng với giới từ to nên chúng không cho phép chuyển đổi vị trí hai tân ngữ trực tiếp và gián tiếp.

I introduce John to Dr. Tim.
I introduce Dr. Tim to John.
He mentions the party to me.

45. Câu trực tiếp và câu gián tiếp

Trong câu trực tiếp thông tin đi từ người thứ nhất đến thẳng người thứ hai (người thứ nhất nói trực tiếp với người thứ hai).

He said "I bought a new motorbike for myself yesterday".

Trong câu gián tiếp thông tin đi từ người thứ nhất qua người thứ hai đến với người thứ ba. Khi đó câu có biến đổi về mặt ngữ pháp.

He said he had bought a new motorbike for himself the day before.

Để biến đổi một câu trực tiếp sang câu gián tiếp cần:
1. Đổi chủ ngữ và các đại từ nhân xưng khác trong câu trực tiếp theo chủ ngữ của thành phần thứ nhất.
2. Lùi động từ ở vế thứ 2 xuống một cấp so với lúc ban đầu.
3. Biến đổi các đại từ chỉ thị, phó từ chỉ thời gian và địa điểm theo bảng qui định.

Bảng đổi động từ

Direct speech

Indirect speech

Simple present
Present progressive
Present perfect (Progressive)
Simple past
Will/Shall
Can/May

Simple past
Past progressive
Past perfect (Progressive)
Past perfect
Would/ Should
Could/ Might

Bảng đổi các đại từ chỉ thị, phó từ chỉ địa điểm và thời gian

Today
Yesterday
The day before yesterday
Tomorrow
The day after tomorrow
Next + Time
Last + Time
Time + ago
This, these
Here, Overhere

That day
The day before
Two days before
The next/ the following day
In two days' time
The following + Time
The previous + Time
Time + before
That, those
There, Overthere

Nếu lời nói và hành động xảy ra cùng ngày thì không cần phải đổi thời gian.

At breakfast this morning he said "I will be busy today".
At breakfast this morning he said he would be busy today.

Các suy luận logic về mặt thời gian tất nhiên là cần thiết khi lời nói được thuật lại sau đó một hoặc hai ngày.

(On Monday) He said " I'll be leaving on Wednesday "
(On Tuesday) He said he would be leaving tomorrow.
(On Wednesday) He said he would be leaving today.

46. Khi phó từ đứng đầu câu để nhấn mạnh, phải đảo cấu trúc câu

Trong một số trường hợp các phó từ không đứng ở vị trí bình thường của nó mà đảo lên đứng ở đầu câu nhằm nhấn mạnh vào hành động của chủ ngữ. Trong trường hợp đó ngữ pháp sẽ thay đổi, đằng sau phó từ đứng đầu câu là trợ động từ rồi mới đến chủ ngữ và động từ chính:

John hardly remembers the accident that took his sister's life.
Hardly does John remember the accident that took his sister's life.

Never have so many people been unemployed as today.
(So many people have never been unemployed as today)
Hardly had he fallen asleep when he began to dream of far-way lands.
(He had hardly fallen asleep when he began to dream of far-way lands.)
Rarely have we seen such an effective actor as he has proven himself to be.
(We have rarely seen such an effective actor as he has proven himself to be.)
Seldom does class let out early.
(Class seldom lets out early.)
Only by hard work will we be able to accomplish this great task.
(We will be able to accomplish this great task only by hard work.)

Một số các trạng từ đặc biệt khác cũng thường đứng ở đầu câu, phải đảo cấu trúc câu như trên:

•         In/ Under no circumstances: Dù trong bất cứ hoàn cảnh nào cũng không.
Under no circumstances should you lend him the money.

•         On no account: Dù bất cứ lý do gì cũng không
On no accout must this switch be touched.

•         Only in this way: Chỉ bằng cách này
Only in this way could the problem be solved

•         In no way: Không sao có thể
In no way could I agree with you.

•         By no means: Hoàn toàn không
By no means does he intend to criticize your idea.

•         Negative ..., nor + auxiliary + S + V
He had no money, nor did he know anybody from whom he could borrow.

•         Khi một mệnh đề mở đầu bằng các thành ngữ chỉ nơi chốn hoặc trật tự thì động từ chính có thể đảo lên chủ ngữ nhưng tuyệt đối không được sử dụng trợ động từ trong trường hợp này.
Clause of place/ order + main verb + S (no auxiliary)
In front of the museum is a statue.
First came the ambulance, then came the police.
( Thoạt đầu là xe cứu thương chạy đến, tiếp sau là cảnh sát.)

•         Khi một ngữ giới từ làm phó từ chỉ địa điểm hoặc phương hướng đứng ở đầu câu, các nội động từ đặt lên trước chủ ngữ nhưng tuyệt đối không được sử dụng trợ động từ trong loại câu này. Nó rất phổ biến trong văn mô tả khi muốn diễn đạt một chủ ngữ không xác định:
Under the tree was lying one of the biggest men I had ever seen.
Directly in front of them stood a great castle.
On the grass sat an enormous frog.
Along the road came a strange procession.

•         Tính từ cũng có thể đảo lên trên đầu câu để nhấn mạnh và sau đó là liên từ nhưng tuyệt đối không được sử dụng trợ động từ.
So determined was she to take the university course that she taught school and gave music lesson for her tuition fees.

•         Trong một số trường hợp người ta cũng có thể đảo toàn bộ động từ chính lên trên chủ ngữ để nhấn mạnh, những động từ được đảo lên trên trong trường hợp này phần lớn đều mang sắc thái bị động nhưng hoàn toàn không có nghĩa bị động.
Lost, however, are the secrets of the Mayan astronomers and the Inca builders as well as many medicinal practices.
(Mất đi vĩnh viễn, tuy vậy, lại là những bí mật của những nhà thiên văn thuộc nền văn minh Mayan, ...)

•         Các phó từ away ( = off ), down, in, off, out, over, round, up... có thể theo sau là một động từ chuyển động và sau đó là một danh từ làm chủ ngữ:
+ Away/down/in/off/out/over/round/up...+ motion verb + noun/noun phrase as a subject.
Away went the runners/ Down fell a dozen of apples...
+ Nhưng nếu một đại từ nhân xưng làm chủ ngữ thì động từ phải để sau chủ ngữ:
Away they went/ Round and round it flew.
+ Trong tiếng Anh viết (written English) các ngữ giới từ mở đầu bằng các giới từ down, from, in, on, over, out of, round, up... có thể được theo sau ngay bởi động từ chỉ vị trí (crouch, hang, lie, sit, stand...) hoặc các dạng động từ chỉ chuyển động, các động từ như be born/ die/ live và một số dạng động từ khác.
From the rafters hung strings of onions.
In the doorway stood a man with a gun.
On a perch beside him sat a blue parrot.
Over the wall came a shower of stones.

*Lưu ý: 3 ví dụ đầu của các ví dụ trên có thể diễn đạt bằng một VERB-ING mở đầu cho câu và động từ BE đảo lên trên chủ ngữ:
Hanging from the rafters were strings of onion.
Standing in the doorway was a man with a gun.
Sitting on a perch beside him was a blue parrot.
Hiện tượng này còn xảy ra khi chủ ngữ sau các phó từ so sánh as/than quá dài:
She was very religious, as were most of her friends.
City dwellers have a higher death rate than do country people.

•         Tân ngữ mang tính nhấn mạnh cũng có thể đảo lên đầu câu:
Not a single word did he say.

•         Here/There hoặc một số các phó từ đi kết hợp với động từ đứng đầu câu cũng phải đảo động từ lên trên chủ ngữ là một danh từ, nhưng nếu chủ ngữ là một đại từ thì không được đảo động từ:
Here comes Freddy.
Incorrect: Here comes he
Off we go
Incorrect: Off go we
There goes your brother
I stopped the car, and up walked a policeman.

Cách làm bài trắc nghiệm ngữ pháp

Thường thì trong bài thi trắc nghiệm ngữ pháp, bạn sẽ không thể trả lời ngay bằng cách chỉ áp dụng một quy tắc ngữ pháp nhất định nào đó mà phải kết hợp hai hay nhiều quy tắc khác nhau để loại trừ phương án sai. Áp dụng lần lượt các bước sau:

(1) Kiểm tra các lỗi ngữ pháp cơ bản bao gồm
(a) Sự hoà hợp giữa chủ ngữ và vị ngữ
(b) Cách sử dụng Adj và Adv
(c) Vị trí và thứ tự của các Adv.
(d) Sự phù hợp giữa các thời động từ.
(e) Đại từ có danh từ duy nhất để nó đại diện hay không.
(f) Cấu trúc câu song song.

(2) Loại bỏ những câu trả lời rườm rà, câu càng ngắn gọn và dễ hiểu càng tốt:
(a) Tránh các đáp án dài dòng như:
John read the letter in a thoughtful manner. (can be replaced by thoughtfully)
(b) Tránh các đáp án có 2 từ nghĩa giống nhau.

(3) Loại bỏ những đáp án có từ vựng không rõ nghĩa:
(a) Phải chắc chắn rằng tất cả các từ đều có nghĩa trong câu.
(b) Phải đảm bảo những động từ có 2 từ phải được nối với nhau bằng một giới từ phù hợp (xem phần sau)

(4) Tránh dùng các từ lóng, tiếng lóng. Từ lóng chỉ dùng trong văn nói, không dùng trong văn viết. Ví dụ
really khi dùng với nghĩa very
bunch khi dùng với nghĩa many
any noun + wise khi dùng với nghĩa in relation to ...

Ví dụ:

1. Before we can decide on the future uses of this drug, ________
(A) many more informations must be reviewed.
(B) is necessary to review more information.
(C) we must review much more information.
(D) another information must to be reviewed.

Phân tích:

(A) có 2 chỗ sai: không dùng many với information là danh từ không đếm được và không được viết là informations.
(B) có 1 chỗ sai vì thiếu chủ ngữ.
(C) đúng
(D) có 2 chỗ sai: không dùng another với danh từ không đếm được và sau trợ động từ must là động từ nguyên thể không có to.

2. In this country, a growing concern about the possible hazardous effects ofchemical wastes ________
(A) have resulted in a bunch of new laws.
(B) has resulted in several new laws.
(C) is causing the results of numerous new laws.
(D) result in news laws.

Phân tích:

(A) có 2 chỗ sai: không dùng động từ ở số nhiều have với chủ ngữ số ít a growing concern và không được dùng từ lóng (slang) bunch of.
(B) đúng.
(C) rườm rà. Causing the result of là quá dài dòng.
(D) có 2 chỗ sai: không dùng result (động từ số nhiều) với chủ ngữ là danh từ số ít và không được dùng dạng thức số nhiều của tính từ (viết đúng phải là new laws).

Những từ dễ gây nhầm lẫn

Đó là những từ rất dễ gây nhầm lẫn về cách viết, ngữ nghĩa, chính tả hoặc phát âm:

•         angel (N) = thiên thần

•         angle (N) = góc (trong hình học)

•         cite (V) = trích dẫn

•         site (N) = địa điểm, khu đất ( để xây dựng).

•         sight (N) = khe ngắm, tầm ngắm; (V) = quang cảnh, cảnh tượng; (V) = quan sát, nhìn thấy

•         dessert (N) = món tráng miệng

•         desert (N) = sa mạc; desert (V) = bỏ, bỏ mặc, đào ngũ

•         later (ADV) = sau đó, rồi thì (thường dùng với động từ thời tương lai)

•         latter (ADJ) = cái thứ 2, người thứ 2, cái sau, người sau. >< the former = cái trước, người trước.

•         principal (N) = hiệu trưởng (trường phổ thông); (Adj) = chính, chủ yếu.

•         principle (N) = nguyên tắc, luật lệ

•         affect (V) = tác động đến

•         effect (N) = ảnh hưởng, hiệu quả; (V) = thực hiện, đem lại

•         already (Adv) = đã

•         all ready = tất cả đã sẵn sàng.

•         among (prep) trong số (dùng cho 3 người, 3 vật trở lên)

•         between...and giữa...và (chỉ dùng cho 2 người/vật)
Lưu ý: between...and cũng còn được dùng để chỉ vị trí chính xác của một quốc gia nằm giữa những quốc gia khác cho dù là > 2
Vietnam lies between China, Laos and Cambodia.
Between còn được dùng cho các quãng cách giữa các vật và các giới hạn về mặt thời gian.
Difference + between (not among)
What are the differences between crows, rooks, and jackdaws.
Between each + noun (-and the next) (more formal)
We need 2 meters between each window.
There seems to be less and less time between each birthday (and the next).
Devide + between (not among)
He devided his money between his wife, his daughter, and his sister.
Share + between/among
He shared the food between/among all my friend.

•         consecutive (Adj) liên tục (không có tính đứt quãng)

•         successive (Adj) liên tục (có tính cách quãng)

•         emigrant (N) người di cư,  (V) -> emigrate from

•         immigrant (N) người nhập cư; (V) immigrate into

•         formerly (Adv) trước kia

•         formally (Adv) chỉnh tề (ăn mặc); (Adv) chính thức

•         historic (Adj) nổi tiếng, quan trọng trong lịch sử
The historic spot on which the early English settlers landed in North America
(Adj) mang tính lịch sử.
historic times

•         historical (Adj) thuộc về lịch sử
Historical reseach, historical magazine
(Adj) có thật trong lịch sử
Historical people, historical events

•         hepless (Adj) vô vọng, tuyệt vọng

•         useless (Adj) vô dụng

•         imaginary = (Adj) không có thật, tưởng tượng

•         imaginative = (Adj) phong phú, bay bổng về trí tưởng tượng

- Classic (adj) chất lượng cao: a classic novel (một cuốn tiểu thuyết hay); a classic football match (một trận bóng đá hay).
đặc thù/đặc trưng/tiêu biểu: a classic example (một ví dụ tiêu biểu, điển hình).

•         Classic (noun): văn nghệ sĩ, tác phẩm lưu danh.
This novel may well become a classic
(Tác phẩm này có thể được lưu danh).

•         Classical: cổ điển, kinh điển.

•         Politic: nhận thức đúng/ khôn ngoan/ trang trọng.
I don’t think it would be politic to ask for loan just now.
(Tôi cho rằng sẽ không là khôn ngoan nếu hỏi vay một khoản ngay lúc này.)

•         Political: thuộc về chính trị.
A political career  (một sự nghiệp chính trị).

•         Continual: liên tục lặp đi lặp lại (hành động có tính cách quãng)
Please stop your continual questions  (Xin hãy thôi hỏi lặp đi lặp lại mãi như thế).

•         Continous: liên miên/suốt (hành động không có tính cách quãng)
A continous flow of traffic  (Dòng xe cộ chạy liên miên bất tận).

•         As (liên từ) = Như + Subject + verb.
When in Roma, do as Romans do  (Nhập gia tùy tục).

•         Like (tính từ dùng như một giới từ) + noun/noun phrase
He fought like a mad man  (Anh ta chiến đấu như điên như dại).

•         Alike (adj.): giống nhau, tương tự
Although they are brother, they don’t look alike.

•         Alike (adverb): như nhau
The climate here is always hot, summer and winter alike.

•         As: như/ với tư cách là (dùng trong so sánh khi bản thân chủ ngữ có chức năng như vật/người được so sánh)
Let me speak to you as a father  (Hãy để tôi nói với cậu như một người cha)

•         Like: như là (dùng trong so sánh khi bản thân chủ ngữ và cái/người so sánh không phải là một hoặc không có chức năng đồng nhất)
Let me speak to you like a man above (Hãy để tôi nói với anh như một người bề trên).

•         Before: trước đây/trước đó (dùng khi so sánh một thứ với tất cả các thứ khác cùng loại)
She has never seen such a beautiful picture before  (Cô ta chưa bao giờ nhìn thấy một bức tranh đẹp như thế trước đây).

Before: Trước (chỉ một sự việc xảy ra trước một sự việc khác trong quá khứ, thường dùng với Past Perfect)
He lived in France in 1912, he had lived in England 4 years before.

•         Ago: trước (tính từ hiện tại trở ngược về quá khứ, thường dùng với Simple Past)
I went to England 3 years ago.

•         Certain: chắc chắn (biết sự thực)
Certainly/ I’m certain that he didn’t steal it  (Tôi chắc chắn rằng hắn ta không lấy cái đó).

•         Sure: tin rằng (không biết chắc, nói theo cảm nhận, nghĩa là yếu hơn certain)
Surely/ I am sure that he did not steal it  (Tôi tin rằng hắn không lấy thứ đó).

•         Indeed:  Very+indeed (sau một tính từ hoặc một phó từ)
Thank you very much indeed.
I was very pleased indeed to hear from you.
Indeed dùng sau to be hoặc một trợ động từ nhằm xác nhận hoặc nhấn mạnh cho sự đồng ý (thường dùng trong câu trả lời ngắn).
It is cold / - It is indeed.
Henny made a fool of himself / - He did indeed.

•         Ill (British English) = Sick (American English) = ốm
George didn’t come in last week because he was ill (=he was sick)

•         Sick + Noun = ốm yếu/ bệnh tật
He spent 20 years looking after his sick father  (Người cha bệnh tật)

•         Be sick = Fell sick = Nôn/ buồn nôn/ say (tàu, xe...)
I was sick 3 times in the night  (tôi nôn 3 lần trong đêm)
I feel sick. Where’s the bath room?  (tôi thấy buồn nôn, phòng tắm ở đâu?)
She is never sea-sick  (Cô ấy chẳng bao giờ say sóng cả)

•         Welcome (adjective) = được mong đợi/ được chờ đợi từ lâu/ thú vị
A welcome guest  (Khách quí/ khách bấy lâu mong đợi)
A welcome gift  (Món quà thú vị được chờ đợi từ lâu)

•         Welcome to + noun = Có quyền, được phép sử dụng.
You are welcome to any book in my library (Anh có quyền lấy bất kỳ quyển sách nào trong thư viện của tôi)

•         Welcoming (phân từ 1 cấu tạo từ động từ welcome dùng làm tính từ) Chào đón/ đón tiếp ân cần
This country have given me a welcoming feeling. (Xứ sở này đã dành cho tôi một tình cảm chào đón ân cần)
Hoan nghênh/ Tán đồng (ý kiến)
To show a welcoming idea  (Bộc lộ một ý kiến tán đồng)

•         Be certain/ sure of + verb-ing: chắc chắn là (đề cập đến tình cảm của người đang được nói đến)
Before the game she felt certain of winning, but after a few minutes she realized it wasn’t going to be easy.
You seem very sure of passing the exam, I hope you are right.

•         Be certain/ sure + to + verb: chắc chắn sẽ phải (đề cập đến tình cảm của chính người nói hoặc viết câu đó):
The repairs are certain to cost more than you think.
Elaine is sure to win-the other girl hasn’t got a chance.

•         Be interested + to + verb: Thấy thích khi...:
I’m interested to read in the paper that scientists have found out how to talk to whales.
(Tôi thấy thích/ thú vị khi...)

•         Be interested in + verb-ing/ Be interested + to + verb:Muốn biết/ muốn phát hiện ra/ muốn tìm ra...:
I’m interested in finding out/ to find out what she did with all that money.
(Tôi muốn biết cô ta đã làm gì với ngần ấy tiền).

•         Be interested in + verb-ing: Thấy thích/ thích/ muốn...
I’m interested in learning higher education in the U.S.

47. Cách sử dụng giới từ

•         During = trong suốt (hoạt động diễn ra liên tục)

•         From = từ >< to = đến
From ... to ...= từ ... đến... (dùng cho thời gian và nơi chốn)
From time to time = đôi khi, thỉnh thoảng

•         Out of=ra khỏi><into=vào trong
Out of + noun = hết, không còn
Out of town = đi vắng
Out of date=cũ, lạc hậu >< up to date = mới, cập nhật
Out of work = thất nghiệp, mất việc
Out of the question = không thể
Out of order = hỏng, không hoạt động

•         By:
động từ chỉ chuyển động + by = đi ngang qua (walk by the library)
động từ tĩnh + by = ở gần (your books are by the window)
by + thời gian cụ thể = trước lúc, cho đến lúc (hành động cho đến lúc đó phải xảy ra)
by + phương tiện giao thông = đi bằng
by then = cho đến lúc đó (dùng cho cả QK và TL)
by way of= theo đường... = via
by the way = một cách tình cờ, ngẫu nhiên
by the way = by the by = nhân đây, nhân tiện
by far + so sánh (thường là so sánh bậc nhất)=>dùng để nhấn mạnh
by accident = by mistake = tình cờ, ngẫu nhiên >< on purose

•         In = bên trong
In + month/year
In time for = In good time for = Đúng giờ (thường kịp làm gì, hơi sớm hơn giờ đã định một chút)
In the street = dưới lòng đường
In the morning/ afternoon/ evening
In the past/future = trước kia, trong quá khứ/ trong tương lai
In future = from now on = từ nay trở đi
In the begining/ end = at first/ last = thoạt đầu/ rốt cuộc
In the way = đỗ ngang lối, chắn lối
Once in a while = đôi khi, thỉnh thoảng
In no time at all = trong nháy mắt, một thoáng
In the mean time = meanwhile = cùng lúc
In the middle of (địa điểm)= ở giữa
In the army/ airforce/ navy
In + the + STT + row = hàng thứ...
In the event that = trong trường hợp mà
In case = để phòng khi, ngộ nhỡ
Get/ be in touch/ contact with Sb = liên lạc, tiếp xúc với ai

•         On = trên bề mặt:
On + thứ trong tuần/ ngày trong tháng
On + a/the + phương tiện giao thông = trên chuyến/ đã lên chuyến...
On + phố = địa chỉ... (như B.E : in + phố)
On the + STT + floor = ở tầng thứ...
On time = vừa đúng giờ (bất chấp điều kiện bên ngoài, nghĩa mạnh hơn in time)
On the corner of = ở góc phố (giữa hai phố)
Chú ý:
In the corner = ở góc trong
At the corner = ở góc ngoài/ tại góc phố
On the sidewalk = pavement = trên vỉa hè
Chú ý:
On the pavement (A.E.)= trên mặt đường nhựa
(Don’t brake quickly on the pavement or you can slice into another car)
On the way to: trên đường đến >< on the way back to: trên đường trở về
On the right/left
On T.V./ on the radio
On the phone/ telephone = gọi điện thoại, nói chuyện điện thoại
On the phone = nhà có mắc điện thoại (Are you on the phone?)
On the whole= nói chung, về đại thể
On the other hand = tuy nhiên= however
Chú ý:
On the one hand = một mặt thì
on the other hand = mặt khác thì
(On the one hand, we must learn the basic grammar, and on the other hand, we must combine it with listening comprehension)
on sale = for sale = có bán, để bán
on sale (A.E.)= bán hạ giá = at a discount (B.E)
on foot = đi bộ

•         At = ở tại
At + số nhà
At + thời gian cụ thể
At home/ school/ work
At night/noon (A.E : at noon = at twelve = giữa trưa (she was invited to the party at noon, but she was 15 minutes late))
At least = chí ít, tối thiểu >< at most = tối đa
At once =ngay lập tức
At present/ the moment = now
Chú ý: 2 thành ngữ trên tương đương với presently nhưng presently se khác nhau về nghĩa nếu nó đứng ở các vị trí khác nhau trong câu:
Sentence + presently (= soon): ngay tức thì ( She will be here presently/soon)
Presently + sentence (= Afterward/ and then) : ngay sau đó (Presently, I heard her leave the room)
S + to be + presently + Ving = at present/ at the moment ( He is presently working toward his Ph.D. degree)
At times = đôi khi, thỉnh thoảng
At first = thoạt đầu >< at last = cuối cùng
At the beginning of / at the end of... = ở đầu/ ở cuối (dùng cho thời gian và địa điểm).
At + tên các ngày lễ : at Christmas, at Thanks Giving...
Nhưng on + tên các ngày lễ + day = on Christmas day ...
Trong dạng informal E., on trước các thứ trong tuần đôi khi bị lược bỏ: She is going to see her boss (on) Sun. morning.
At/in/on thường được không dùng trong các thành ngữ chỉ thời gian khi có mặt: next, last, this, that, one, any, each, every, some, all
At + địa điểm : at the center of the building
At + những địa điểm lớn (khi xem nó như một nơi trung chuyển hoặc gặp gỡ): The plane stopped 1 hour at Washington D.C. before continuing on to Atlanta.
At + tên các toà nhà lớn (khi xem như 1 hành động sẽ xảy ra ở đó chứ không đề cập đến toà nhà) : There is a good movie at the Center Theater.
At + tên riêng các tổ chức: She works at Legal & General Insurence.
At + tên riêng nơi các trường sở hoặc khu vực đại học: She is studying at the London school of Economics.
At + tên các hoạt động qui tụ thành nhóm: at a party/ lecture...

•         Một số các thành ngữ dùng với giới từ
On the beach: trên bờ biển
Along the beach: dọc theo bờ biển
In place of = Instead of: thay cho, thay vì.
For the most part: chính là, chủ yếu là = mainly.
In hope of + V-ing = Hoping to + V = Hoping that + sentence = với hi vọng là.
off and on: dai dẳng, tái hồi
all of a sudden= suddenly = bỗng nhiên
for good = forever: vĩnh viễn, mãi mãi.

48. Một số ngữ động từ thường gặp

Đó là những động từ kết hợp với 1, 2 hoặc đôi khi 3 giới từ, khi kết hợp ở dạng như vậy ngữ nghĩa của chúng thay đổi hẳn so với nghĩa ban đầu.

•         To break off: chấm dứt, cắt đứt, đoạn tuyệt.

•         To bring up: nêu ra, đưa lên một vấn đề

•         To call on: yêu cầu / đến thăm

•         To care for: thích / trông nom, săn sóc (look after)

•         To check out (of/from) a library: mượn sách ở thư viện về

•         To check out: điều tra, xem xét.

•         To check out (of): làm thủ tục để ra (khách sạn, sân bay) <> check in.

•         To check (up) on: điều tra, xem xét.

•         To close in (on): tiến lại gần, chạy lại gần

•         To come along with: đi cùng với

•         To count on = depend on = rely on

•         To come down with: mắc phải một căn bệnh

•         Do away with = get rid of: tống khứ, loại bỏ, trừ khử

•         To daw up = to draft: soạn thảo (một kế hoạch, một hợp đồng)

•         To drop out of = to withdraw from: bỏ (đặc biệt là bỏ học giữa chừng)

•         To figure out: Hình dung ra được, hiểu được.

•         To find out: khám phá ra, phát hiện ra.

•         To get by: Lần hồi qua ngày, sống sót qua được

•         To get through with: kết thúc

•         To get through to: thông tin được cho ai, gọi được cho (điện thoại), tìm cách làm cho hiểu

•         To get up: dậy/ tổ chức.

•         To give up: bỏ, từ bỏ

•         To go along with: đồng ý với

•         To hold on to: vẫn giữ vững, duy trì

•         To hold up: cướp / vẫn giữ vững, vẫn duy trì, vẫn sống bình thường, vẫn dùng được (bất chấp sức ép bên ngoài hoặc sử dụng lâu)

•         To keep on doing smt: vẫn tiếp tục không ngừng làm gì

•         To look after: trông nom, săn sóc

•         To look into: điều tra, xem xét

•         To pass out = to faint: ngất (nội động từ, không dùng bị động)

•         To pick out: chọn ra, lựa ra, nhặt ra

•         To point out: chỉ ra, vạch ra

•         To put off: trì hoãn, đình hoãn

•         To run across: khám phá, phát hiện ra (tình cờ)

•         To run into sb: gặp ai bất ngờ

•         To see about to: lo lắng, săn sóc, chạy vạy

•         To take off: cất cánh <> to land

•         To take over for: thay thế cho

•         to talk over: bàn soạn, thảo luận về

•         to try out: thử nghiệm, dùng thử (sản phẩm)

•         to try out for: thử vai, thử giọng (1 vở kịch, buổi biểu diễn)

•         To turn in: giao nộp, đệ trình / đi ngủ

•         To watch out for: cảnh giác, để mắt, trông chừng (cả nghĩa đen lẫn nghĩa bóng)

Bảng các động từ bất quy tắc

Present

Past

Past Participle

be

was, were

been

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

build

built

built

burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

come

came

come

cut

cut

cut

deal

dealt

dealt

do

did

done

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

gotten

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

leave

left

left

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

meet

met

met

pay

paid

paid

quit

quit

quit

read

read

read

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

shake

shook

shaken

shine

shone

shone

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

speak

spoke

spoken

spend

spent

spent

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

steal

stole

stolen

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

understand

understood

understood

wake

woke (waked)

woken (waked)

wear

wore

worn

win

won

won

write

wrote

written