f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Biographical Report on Thomas Fitzsimons 4.TXT
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A Biographical Report on 
Thomas Fitzsimons


	Thomas Fitzsimons, or Fitzsimmons as his last name was
sometimes spelled, was born during 1741 and died on August 26, 1811. 
Originally from Ireland, as young man he immigrated to Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania to start a career as a merchant.  On November 23, 1761,
he married Catharine Meade.  A few months later, with his brother-in-
law, he formed an extensive mercantile and commercial business which
traded chiefly with the West India Islands.  In 1782 Fitzsimons was
elected to the congress created by the Articles of Confederation.

	In 1787, Fitzsimons served as a member to the Constitutional
Convention, where he took an active role.  While there he argued for a
strong national government, stiff restrictions on voting qualifications
and office-holding, against slavery, giving Congress the power to tax
imports and exports, and granting the House of Representatives and
the Senate equal power in making treaties.  He was elected, in 1789, to
the first national House of Representatives for the state of
Pennsylvania.  Fitzsimons is counted among the ranks of Alexander
Hamilton's Federalists.  Fitzsimons was a congress man until his defeat in
1794, after which he returned to private life. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Biographical Report on Thomas Fitzsimons.TXT
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A Biographical Report on 
Thomas Fitzsimons


	Thomas Fitzsimons, or Fitzsimmons as his last name was
sometimes spelled, was born during 1741 and died on August 26, 1811. 
Originally from Ireland, as young man he immigrated to Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania to start a career as a merchant.  On November 23, 1761,
he married Catharine Meade.  A few months later, with his brother-in-
law, he formed an extensive mercantile and commercial business which
traded chiefly with the West India Islands.  In 1782 Fitzsimons was
elected to the congress created by the Articles of Confederation.

	In 1787, Fitzsimons served as a member to the Constitutional
Convention, where he took an active role.  While there he argued for a
strong national government, stiff restrictions on voting qualifications
and office-holding, against slavery, giving Congress the power to tax
imports and exports, and granting the House of Representatives and
the Senate equal power in making treaties.  He was elected, in 1789, to
the first national House of Representatives for the state of
Pennsylvania.  Fitzsimons is counted among the ranks of Alexander
Hamilton's Federalists.  Fitzsimons was a congress man until his defeat in
1794, after which he returned to private life. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A biography of George Lucas.TXT
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George Lucas is one of the most influential film makers in Hollywood history.  He is also the guiding force behind Star Wars and its sequels.  The Star Wars movies tell the story of the rebels Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, and Han Solo as they battle the evil imperial forces of Darth Vader.  These films became some the most popular motion pictures in history.
Lucas was born in Modesto, California, and educated at Modesto Junior College and the University of Southern California, graduating from the university in 1966.  His first love was auto-racing, but a near fatal accident forced him out of the sport and into film making.  His career began with his prize-winning student film THX-1138, a science fiction story that he reworked as his feature-directing debut in 1971. The film was produced by American Zoetrope.  In 1971, Lucas formed his own film company, Lucasfilm Ltd., in San Rafael, California.  With the backing of American film producer Francis Ford Coppola, Lucas then made American Graffiti which returned $50 for every dollar spent on production and distribution, a staggering ration in the movie business.  The film is considered one of the biggest successes of low-budget film making.  It made George Lucas a millionaire before the age of thirty.  It also launched the film careers of Richard Dreyfuss, Ron Howard, and Harrison Ford.  The film won the Golden globe, the New York Film Critics' and National Society of Film Critics' awards, and also won five Academy Award nominations and over grossed $145 million dollars.  Lucas was now a major Hollywood director, and was given support for his next project because of it.
Lucas's next film, Star Wars, revolutionized the commercial film industry.  Lucas wrote and directed the science-fiction adventure that almost every studio in Hollywood had turned down, Star Wars took popular culture by storm and redefined the nature of the movies.  The film was a gigantic, unprecedented undertaking, and though he tried to maintain fath that it would be at least a modest success, he went through times of terrible doubt.  Shooting took months of eighteen-hour days, with Lucas overseeing the tiniest details until, at one point, he was hospitalized for hypertension.  Lucas thought that the film would bomb at the box office, but a friend called him and told him what a success it was.  People got out of the movie, and then got in line again.  Star Wars grossed over $400 million dollars on it's initial run alone.  It also created a giant merchandise business.  The stress of directing Star Wars led Lucas to hire Irvin Kershner to direct the sequel, The Empire Strikes Back.  After Star Wars, Lucas retired from directing and instead focused on producing films and overseeing Industrial Light & Magic, a company he founded in 1975 to create special audio and visual effects for movies and television.  He served as Exec. Producer for the Star Wars sequels The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi.
In 1980, he was the executive producer of Raiders of the Lost Ark, directed by Steven Spielberg, which won five Academy Awards.  He was also the co-executive producer and creator of the story for Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom.  The film, released in 1984, earned two Academy Award nominations and won an Oscar for its visual effects.
Lucas' next project was the adventure-fantasy film Willow. Based on an original story by Lucas, the film was directed by Ron Howard and executive-produced by Lucas.  Willow was released in 1988 and received three Academy Award nominations.
Also in 1988, Lucas executive-produced Tucker: The Man and His Dream.  The film, directed b Francis Coppola, got three Academy Award nominations.  In the following year, Lucas served as executive-producer for Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.  The film was nominated for two Academy Awards, earned an Oscar for Best Sound Design, and became the number one worldwide box office hit for 1989.
Lucas also created and produced films and series for television, including The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles series.  In 1995, his novel Shadow Moon was published, intended as the first installment in a trilogy called Chronicles of the Shadow War.  In 1996, he formed Lucas Learning Ltd., a multimedia publishing company focusing on releasing education CD-ROM's.
In 1997, Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi were rereleased.  The new versions featured new, digitally enhanced special effects and new scenes that had proved too difficult to include in the original releases.  In 1999, Lucas released Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace, the prequel to the Star Wars movies.  The Phantom Menace tells the story of Anakin Skywalker, Luke Skywalker's father.
Lucasfilm, has today evolved into five Lucas companies.  The Lucas group of companies include Lucasfilm Ltd., LucasArts Entertainment Company LLC, Lucas Digital Ltd. LLC, Lucas Licensing Ltd. and Lucas Learning Ltd.  Lucasfilm includes all of Lucas' feature film and televison productions as well as the business activities of the THX group which is dedicated to ensuring excellent film presentation quality in theaters and homes through a series of specialized services.
Lucas is living proof that a film maker can grab a large audience with life-affirming material.  In 1992, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences gave Lucas the Irving G. Thalberg Award for maintaining an exceptionally high standard of film making.  "I've always tried to be aware of what I say in my films," he said in his acceptance speech, "because all of us who make motion pictures are teachers; teachers with very loud voices."



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Biography of Henry Ford.TXT
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A Biography of Henry Ford


	Henry Ford was an American industrialist, best known for his pioneering
achievements in the automobile industry.  From humble beginnings he was able to
create a company that would rank as one of the giants of American and World
industry long after his death.  There is no doubt that Henry Ford was a
successful business man.  The Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford's legacy, has left
its mark on every continent in the world.  However, Ford didn't gain his success
solely on his innovation in the automobile industry.  He was a friend to the
middle class public as well as the workers in his factories.  For this he was
rewarded with financial success by the same people he looked out for.  Moreover,
he repeatedly gave back to society through donations, philanthropic foundations,
and the creation of organizations that would help to educate and benefit the
people. Henry Ford was a man who gained world-wide business success through his
innovative ideas, brilliant management skills, and down-to-earth tactics.

	Henry Ford was born on a farm near Dearborn, Michigan, on July 30, 1863,
and educated in district schools. He became a machinist's apprentice in Detroit
at the age of 16. From 1888 to 1899 he was a mechanical engineer, and later
chief engineer, with the Edison Illuminating Company. In 1893, after
experimenting for several years in his leisure hours, he completed the
construction of his first gasoline engine.  His first automobile was completed
in 1896.  The body was a small crude wooden box, it had a single seat, a
steering tiller, bicycle wheels, and an electric bell on the front.  In 1903 he
founded the Ford Motor Company.

	At first, like his competitors, he made cars that only the wealthy could
afford.  But later he came to believe that every man, no matter what his income,
should own a car.  This resulted in the inexpensive "Model T" in 1908.  It
brought great financial success to his company.  The Model T was in production
until 1927 when it was discontinued in favor of a more up-to-date model.  While
in production the company sold over 15 million cars. In 1913 Ford began using
standardized interchangeable parts and assembly-line techniques in his plant.
Although Ford neither originated nor was the first to employ such practices, he
was chiefly responsible for their general adoption and for the consequent great
expansion of American industry and the raising of the American standard of
living. By early 1914 this innovation, although greatly increasing productivity,
had resulted in a monthly labor turnover of 40 to 60 percent in his factory,
largely because of the unpleasant monotony of assembly-line work and repeated
increases in the production quotas assigned to workers.  Ford met this
difficulty by doubling the daily wage then standard in the industry, raising it
from about $2.50 to $5. The net result was increased stability in his labor
force and a substantial reduction in operating costs.  These factors, coupled
with the enormous increase in output made possible by new technological methods,
led to an increase in company profits from $30 million in 1914 to $60 million in
1916.

	Ford believed that most of the profits should be used to increase the
size of the company's factories.  This was an unusual practice at the time. The
other stockholders wanted to split the profits among themselves in the form of
dividends. Ford  didn't like opposition in his company so he bought out all the
other stockholders in 1919.  Within the ensuing few years, however, Ford's
preeminence as the largest producer and seller of automobiles in the nation was
gradually lost to his competitors, largely because he was slow to adopt the
practice of introducing a new model of automobile each year, which had become
standard in the industry. During the 1930s Ford adopted the policy of the yearly
changeover, but his company was unable to regain the position it had formerly
held.

	In the period from 1937 to 1941, the Ford company became the only major
manufacturer of automobiles in the Detroit area that had not recognized any
labor union as the collective bargaining representative of employees. At
hearings before the National Labor Relations Board, Henry Ford was found guilty
of repeated violations of the National Labor Relations Act. The findings against
him were upheld on appeal to the federal courts. Ford was constrained to
negotiate a standard labor contract after a successful strike by the workers at
his main plant at River Rouge, Michigan, in April 1941.

	Early in 1941 Ford was granted government contracts whereby he was, at
first, to manufacture parts for bombers and, later, the entire airplane. He
thereupon launched the construction of a huge plant at Willow Run, Michigan,
where production was begun in May 1942.  It was said the plant could produce a
bomber an hour. Despite certain technical difficulties, by the end of World War
II (1945) this plant had manufactured more than 8000 B-24 Liberator Bombers and
other military planes.

	Ford was active in several other fields besides those of automobile and
airplane manufacturing.  He was nominated for the office of U.S. senator from
Michigan in 1918 but was defeated in the election. In the following year he
erected the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit at a cost of $7.5 million. He
established the Greenfield Village which is a group of American Historical
buildings and landmarks and he created the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn which
exhibits man's progress in many fields.  Also, he donated large amounts of money
to the philanthropic Ford Foundation which is currently one of the world's
largest.  In 1919 he became the publisher of the Dearborn Independent, a weekly
journal, which at first published anti-Semitic material. After considerable
public protest, Ford directed that publication of such articles be discontinued
and that a public apology be made to the Jewish people.

	Advancing age obliged Ford to retire from the active direction of his
gigantic enterprises in 1945. He died on April 7, 1947, in Dearborn, Michigan.
Ford left a personal fortune estimated at $500 to $700 million, bequeathing the
largest share of his holdings in the Ford Motor Company to the Ford Foundation.
Ford revolutionized American and consequently World industry with his pioneering
use of the assembly line production method.  He turned a small local car company
into one of the world's largest industrial companies.  Henry Ford was a great
businessman and a great human being.  He proved that success cannot simply be
attained with a good product.  He accomplished what many aspire to, but few
actually achieve.  He was able to combine his technological know-how, and
innovative ideas with brilliant managerial practices and respect for his workers
and customers.  Adding in his philanthropic tendencies, it is obvious that Henry
Ford is a perfect model of how to be successful in business and in life.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Book Report on Anne Sullivan Macy.TXT
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	The book I chose to read is called The Touch of Magic written by Lorena A. Hickok.  The story was about Anne Sullivan Macy, Helen Keller's  wonderful teacher.  I had never heard of Anne before I read this book, but while looking in the library my mom explained to me who she was and she seemed like she would be an interesting person to do it on.  I was right.
	Anne Sullivan Macy was born on April 14, 1866 in Feeding Hills, Massachusetts.  At the age of nine she was taken to the outskirts of Tewksbury, Massachusetts with her three year old brother Jimmie.  There, they were sent to the Massachusetts State Infirmary.  Not because they were mentally sick or anything, but because they had nowhere else to go.
	Their mother had died of tuberculosis and their father had left them.  None of their relatives wanted them because Annie was nearly blind and Jimmie had something wrong with his hip and had to walk with a crutch.  Annie's one year old sister was taken right away by her aunt and uncle because she was darling.  Nobody knew where to send them so that's how she ended up at the infirmary.
	A few months after they had arrived, Jimmie got deathly ill.  The doctor's couldn't do anything for him and unfortunately he past away.  Annie took this unbelievably hard for she had realized that Jimmie was the only thing she had ever loved.  
	Annie's attitude then worsened even more because she felt she had nothing left.  She would throw hissy fits at the nurses and kick and scream.  Believe it or not, this is one of the character traits that I most admire about Miss Macy.  She was aggressive and didn't let anyone tell her what to do.  Even though she could hardly see, she lived her own life in her own little world.
	Another trait that I admire about her is that she was a dreamer.  I know I am a big dreamer and can get lost in my thoughts sometimes, but her dreams weren't like mine.  Annie dreamt of being able to see, but most often dreamt of going to school.  Annie wanted to learn but had no one to teach her.
	One day, about a year after Jimmie's death, the State Board of Charities came by to look around.  Annie was so excited because she heard they might be able to send her to school.  When they were leaving she jumped in front of them and yelled out that she wanted to go to school.  The men asked her what was wrong with her and she explained to them that she was nearly blind.
	A few days later, after Annie thought she had blown her chance of ever going to school, a girl from the ward came saying that Annie was to go to school.  Annie was ecstatic and couldn't wait to go.  This is the first major event that I think led to Annie's success.
	The day finally came and Annie arrived at the Perkins Institution for the Blind in South Boston around noon.  She didn't like it at first but later became quite popular.  While the other girls stayed in nice cottages, Annie stayed in an old cottage with fifty year old Laura Bridgman.  Laura was blind, deaf, and dumb.
	Laura Bridgman had gone to that school forty some years earlier and was taught the manual alphabet.  This is where you communicate by spelling words on each other's palms and then feel an object to know that the word spelled is the word felt.
	Annie was simply fascinated with this way of communicating that she learned the manual alphabet. That's why I think Laura was the person who had the greatest influence on Annie.  Annie would spend hours "talking" with Laura.  She would tell Laura what was going on in school and things around them and Laura would share her thoughts and feelings back to Annie.
	Annie was good in school and her teachers saw that.  She had a hard time with Braille but after a lot of hard work, she got it.  I think that is another admirable trait about Annie.  Her eagerness and willingness to learn.  an education was what she wanted all her life and her dream finally came true.  After she learned Braille, Annie would search the library for books.  She loved to read.
	Summer quickly came and all the girls, even Laura, left for home.  The teachers refused to send Annie back to Tewksbury so one of them was able to find her a job doing little work at a rooming house.
	One of the roomers, a young man, really took to Annie and felt sorry for her.  One day he told her that he thought he knew of someone who could help her eyes.  Annie agreed to go see Dr. Bradford at the Carney Catholic Hospital.  He insisted on operating even though she explained to him that she had already had two unsuccessful operations.  He convinced her and started work later that summer.
	He first cut away the scabs on the insides of her eyelids.  This would stop the scabs from scratching her eyeballs.  He said that he would treat her for a few months and then in a year operate again.
	A year passed and Annie, now sixteen, was back.  Dr. Bradford felt good and hopeful that the operation would be successful.  After many days of being bandaged up, the bandages were removed.  Afraid to open her eyes, Annie finally did and was able to see.  Not one hundred percent mind you, but she could see detail and the doctor was smiling.  Being able to see is another thing I think that led up to Annie's success.
	Now that Annie could see she had no reason to go back to school.  She had nowhere to go, so the teachers let her stay and help with the younger kids.  She still attended classes and became so popular that she was voted Valedictorian in her sixth and final year of school.
	The day was so special, but all Annie could think about was what she would do after school.  Annie had no idea what she wanted, but a couple of teachers said that they might be able to find her a job.  Annie didn't want to think about it so left for the summer.
	During a summer day, a letter came for Annie.  It was from her principal asking her to read the enclosed letter.  The letter was from a man from Alabama asking the Perkins Institute if they could recommend a good teacher for his six year old daughter.  She was deaf, blind, and dumb, her name was Helen Keller.
	Twenty year old Annie decided to go.  On March 5, 1887 Annie headed out to Alabama.  This, I think would have to be the third event that led up to Annie's success.
	At first Annie thought she could get through to Helen, but later found that it wouldn't be that easy.  Helen was a dangerous child, like an animal, but what do you expect if you can't hear or see?  After a few days Annie tried to get through to her by being gentle, but during one of Helen's rages she knocked out Annie's two front teeth.
	Annie decided to take the initiative and tried disciplining Helen.  Something of which her parents never did.  She thought it would be best if she could be alone with Helen so they moved into their own little cottage a few minutes away from Helen's parents.
	Annie started teaching Helen the manual alphabet that she had learned from Laura Bridgman.  Helen was able spell things back, but still they had no meaning to her.  About a month after Annie's arrival, Helen finally figured out that the word Annie was spelling was 
the word of the object she held in her hand.  Soon after this Helen starting writing in Braille.  A lot of it didn't make sense, but as she was learning sentences it got better.
	After about a year of working with Helen, Annie decided to take her to Boston.  They didn't spend long there, but Helen soon became a celebrity.  Everyone was interested in Helen, who wouldn't be?
	During their long time of fame, Helen and Annie met a lot of neat, interesting people including a very nice young man named John Macy.  He worked for a magazine and was one of the greatest supporters Helen and Annie ever had.  When Helen grew up, John decided that he would ask Annie to marry him.  Annie at first wasn't sure because he was eleven years younger than her.  She finally said yes and they were married on May 2, 1905.  Annie was now thirty-nine and John was twenty-eight.
	The marriage only lasted eight years before John decided to sail to Europe.  It wasn't a divorce, but more of a separation.  Annie knew that she could count on him if she needed anything, so it wasn't like they hated each other, it just didn't work out.
	Annie and Helen spent the rest of their lives together touring the United States and parts of Canada, talking to people and doing presentations.  Annie off and on during these years, got sick.  Sometimes really bad and sometimes just little colds.  On October 19, 1936, it was different.  A couple of days before, Annie had seemed happy and was laughing and smiling just like her old self.  On that night though, she slipped into a coma 
and never woke up again.  She had quietly past away, but lived a good, long life of seventy years.  Helen was fifty-six.
	I really enjoyed reading this book and would definitely recommend it to anyone who likes an interesting true story.  The book taught me a lot about the blind and deaf and how they cope with their unfortunate handicap.  It taught me that even though you might have a handicap nothing is impossible.  As long as you put your mind to it you can do anything.  Anyone who likes an inspirational novel would love this book.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Man and His Gun.TXT
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A Man and His Guns 
      The Colt six shooter will always be a legend to many fighting men.  Whether you
know it as an accurate, cowboy, Texas Ranger, gun-slinging, out West, corral gun, or as a
little protection, the Peacemaker by Samuel Colt  and Samuel Colt will never be forgotten.  
              
   Samuel Colt is known as the inventor of the first revolving firearm. Colt was born in
1814 to a family were money was not the pressing issue.  His father ,Christopher, was a
man that owned his own silk mill in the town where Colt was born, Hartford, Connecticut. 
Colt's mother died when he was six and his father's business started to fail. When Colt Colt
was seven, he was fascinated by guns.  He took apart his father's gun in a field and was
able to successfully rebuild it.  At the age of ten Colt was an apprentice in his fathers mill,
mostly dying clothes. Science, adventures of an active life, and mechanics were all the
favorite passions of young  Colt. The adventures eventually led Colt into trouble.  At the
age of seventeen Colt was expelled form a preparatory school in Amherst, MA.

      During the years of 1830 - 1831 Colt voyaged to India..  It was during these 
years that Colt first conceived the idea of a revolving firearm.  Some think it may have
come from watching the revolving wheel of the ship, turning and locking.  While on board
ship,  Colt must have seen other revolving firearms in London or  India.  He carved a
wooden model of his ideal gun while he was at sea.  None of what Colt may have
previously seen on revolving guns could have led to his invention. His ideas were not
copied from any source, even though the revolving idea was not unique.

      When Colt arrived  home from sea, he showed  the  wooden model to his father and a
family friend.  This friend was Henry Ellsworth, Commissioner of the United States Patent 
Office. Both Colt's father and Mr. Ellsworth were greatly impressed by the model.   They
encouraged Colt to file for a patent for his revolving firearm. In the year 1831 Colt hired a
man to create the first working model.  In 1836 Colt began the production of the first
revolver after his petition for the patent. Between these years Colt presented lectures on
chemistry and did practical demonstrations of laughing gas.

      On February of the 25, in the year 1835, the first United States patent was granted for 
Colt revolver. The patent that Colt received covered eight basic  features.  First, the
application of caps at the end of the gun cylinder.  Second, the application of a partition
between the caps, as well as other basic ideas. The other areas of the patent cover the
application of certain parts of the gun,  the principle of locking and turning the cylinder ,
and all of the basic revolver parts. 

      In 1848, the new pocket model revolver was introduced. Colt devised an alternative
means of loading the gun - removing the barrel and cylinder, and either switching an
empty cylinder for a loaded one or using the axis pin as a ramrod. This gun was
nicknamed the "Baby Dragoon" because it resembled the bigger Dragoon.  The pocket-
sized pistols had a larger span of appeal to the public.  Even Colt Houston of Texas
ordered a Baby Dragoon from his friend  Colt.  

	In 1847 the US Army contracted Colt to build his Walker revolver for military use.
This was the first truly practical revolving cylinder firearm.  The main feature of this
firearm was a ratchet of the cylinder to revolve the cylinder.  The revolving was initiated
by the hammer; the motion it made was called "cocking" the hammer.  The way that the
new revolver was described as working Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics was:

"Colt improvements in firearms , patent 1849, consist in
certain improvements upon that construction of guns and
pistols which has cylindrical revolving breech piece,
provided with a series of parrallel chambers for containing a
series of charges, by revolution of the breech upon it's shaft,
may be brought into line with the bore of the barrel, and be
severally discharged through the same."

What was meant by this is that a cylinder, round piece of metal, contained several charges
(at this time black powder is still being used), that revolved around a center point that
aligned the charge to be able to be fired ou the barrel of the weapon. In 1873 Colt revised
the Colt revised the current design and created the Single Action Army revolver.  This
revolver is commonly called the Peacemaker. In 1896 with the advent of smokeless gun
powder the SAA, or the Peacemaker, was updated and mass produced using Eli Whitney's
mass production ideas.  
	
Houston told Colt, "(If) you have a small pistol, or will soon have one made of choice
quality, I wish you to bring it with you as I wish to purchase one.  I did not know (of
them) until a few days since-  I then saw one for the first time and was greatly pleased
with it."  The type seen be Houston was an  actual Baby Dragoon with a square-back
trigger guard and a Texas Ranger scene on the cylinder.  This particular scene was of a
Texas Ranger and an Indian in a fight scene.  
       
        The Colt revolver served a great purpose for the Texas Rangers.  This pocket-sized
gun could be casually carried around and easily reloaded.  The beauty of the gun was its
six consecutive shots and its precise accuracy.   The Texas Rangers and other Texas
gunslingers know  Colt as the "cream of the crop" in gun making, supreme revolving
techniques and great precision make Colt the number one gun for Texans.





   Bibliography:

1. The Handbook of Texas, p 382
   The Texas Historical Association
2. Colt : An American Legend, all pages
   Wilson Publishing ; Robert Lawrence Wilson
3. How It Works, p 3240
   H.S. Stuttman Inc. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Portrait of Duke Ellington By Tracy Frech.TXT
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A Portrait of Duke Ellington By Tracy Frech


Duke Ellington is considered to be one of the greatest figures in the history of
American music. Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington was born in Washington D.C. on
April 29, 1899. His parents were James Edward and Daisy Kennedy Ellington. They
raised Duke as an only child, until his sister, Ruth, was born when Duke was
sixteen years old. Duke, even as a teenager, had a great talent for music. In
the beginning of his musical life, Duke began to take a promising interest in a
new type of music that would later be called jazz. Choosing to base his career
on a new idea may not have been smart, but Duke did take this chance and in turn
became one of the most famous musicians in America.

     Duke's first job was at a government office. He was a clerk who received
the minimum wage and was barely getting by. He would arrange dance bands for
weddings and parties for extra money. His mother taught him how to play the
piano. Sometimes he put this knowledge to use and played at a few of the
dance parties and weddings. After Duke's first job, he became more interested
in painting and the arts. For a few years he painted public posters. Duke
then decided to put together his own band.

     At this point in his life things started to change for the better for Duke,
but not for long. In those days, this new music was just beginning to develop and
would later be given the name of jazz. In that time it was considered to be low
and vulgar because it was music that grew directly out of the Black culture. In
those early years, segregation was at one of its all time worst points in
history. I think that is why Duke Ellington was one of the most
important individuals to the growth and development of jazz. During Duke's long
career, the new music slowly spread out of bars and saloons, to dance and night
clubs and then eventually onto the concert stage. In time, jazz became a
universally recognized form of art and has been said that it is the only real
form that has originated from the American soul. By the 1960's Duke traveled the
globe so many times that he became known as the unofficial ambassador to the
United States. Duke's band had played in Russia, Japan, Latin America, the Far
East, the Middle East, and Africa. Duke, himself, was an elegant man. When the
white people looked down on the black man and his music, Duke managed to bring
dignity to every one of his performances.

     Once, the jazz historian Leonard Feather described Duke as, "an inch
over six feet tall, sturdily built, he had an innate grandeur that would have
enabled him to step with unquenched dignity out of a mud puddle." Duke's
private life was something of an enigma. Although he had many friends he
never really told them everything about himself. He would often guard his
privacy probably because he had so little of it. When he was alone though, he
would almost always be arranging the next tune for the band to play, and was
always thinking or  preparing something for the band to do in the
next performance. Duke attracted some of the greatest musicians to join his band.
Because of this it has been said that many of Duke's pieces are almost
impossible to exactly duplicate without the personal style of the original
musicians. One of the strange things that was known about Duke was that his
school music teacher, Mrs. Clinkscales, who played the piano, was always the
inspiration for him to just sit down and start tinkering around with a few notes
that usually became big hits. In his band the two, probably most famous
musicians were the trumpeter Whetsol and the saxophonist Hodges. As the band
became more and more popular, saxophonist Hodges became the highest paid
performer in the United States.

     The 1920's became known as "the Jazz Age" because jazz had hit its first
great burst of popularity. At that time Duke then added a young drummer named
Sonny Greer.  A few years after Greer was hired, Duke's band hit a very
rough spot. They were often stuck in the street with no money and nowhere
to go. Duke and his band often were stuck doing crude recordings just for
a few dollars to buy a meal. In the Autumn of 1927, luck had crossed paths
with Duke again. The manager of Duke's band, Irving Mills, had heard that
the prestigious cotton club was looking for a new band and immediately Irving
began campaigning for Duke. Duke and his band opened on December 4, 1927 to
meet a mad rush of spectators who eagerly awaited to hear Dukes newest
pieces. Duke's band became very prosperous and they had their own spot on
the Cotton Club floor with special lighting and accommodations. At the
year of 1928 the band consisted of Bubber Miley, Freddy Jenkins, and Arthur
Whetsol on trumpet, joined with Tricky Sam Nanton, and Juan Tizol on trombone.
Johnny Hodges, now on alto sax, with Barney Bigard doubled on tenor sax and
clarinet, and finally Harry Carney  at seventeen years old joined on bari sax.
Carney was known as one of the first people in a band ever to use the bari sax
as a solo instrument. While Duke's band was performing at the Cotton Club, his
band participated in more than sixty-four recording sessions.

     In 1931 Duke grew so tired of the show-business routines that he decided
to try his luck again on his own. When he arrived in New York his band grew
to almost three times what it originally had been at the Cotton Club.
Duke feared that this would become a very serious problem considering how
the stock market crashed in late 1929 and millions of people across
the United States were out of work. Somehow, though, most of the entertainment
business survived the economic hardships. Ellington's band had appeared on
Broadway and had even gone to Hollywood to make a movie.

     Duke's band was having a hard time performing in the south because of the
segregation laws not allowing blacks to eat in white restaurants or finding
accommodations that would allow blacks and whites to stay together in a half-
decent room. In 1932 Duke added a trombonist named Lawrence Brown. In the same
year, most of the other big bands were adding vocalists to their ensemble and
thus Duke felt pressured to do so too. Duke then hired a woman named Ivie
Anderson and quickly proved that he had done the right thing.

     Then in 1933 his band got a chance to play in Europe. At first Duke
was very skeptical of how his music would be reacted to just because jazz
had it's roots in America and the Europeans had a very contrasting style of
music. The band managed to talk Duke into believing the idea was a good one.
The band's first stop was England. The band was amazed at how well informed
they were about their entire past. Even the Prince of Wales came to hear
the band play. At the time the prince was an amateur drummer and Sonny
Greer Showed the prince how to work the drum set and they played together
and in the end were calling each other "Sonny" and "The Wale". All the
concerts held in England were sellouts. The band then moved on to Scotland,
and then Paris, France where their music was greeted with open arms.

     When Duke's band returned to America the band really began feeling the
hardship and sorrow of traveling on the road, being separated from loved
ones. Also, many of the band members, including Duke, began developing
drinking problems and started making some of the musicians lives miserable.
What made things worse was the fact that Duke's mother, Daisy, died in May
of 1935 that set Duke into a deep depression and he used to sit and stare
into space while he talked to himself. Fortunately though, those long pep-
talks with himself seem to snap Duke out of his depression. But despite
everything the band survived and in 1946 a saxophonist/clarinetist named
Russell Procope joined the band and brought everyone up to a new point of
view about traveling on the road. Around the time that Procope joined the
band Duke invented a new song called "Reminiscing in Tempo" and was not
looked upon favorably by critics but it did seem to sum everything up that
was written by Ellington from 1931 to 1939 in a combination of gladness,
sadness, triumph, and tragedy. But then Duke's friend Arthur Whetsol became
and had to leave the band. Then the future of the band seemed uncertain as
the depression continued and millions of people were still out of work.

     Until around 1935 when the "Swing Era" hit the U.S. Irving Mills had then
formed his own record company in 1936 that boomed with popularity as the demand
for big bands playing this new swing music was in intense demand. Later on Duke
hired a lyrical writer named Billy Strayhorn that led a premature death in 1967.
But when Strayhorn was with the band he wrote many compositions that often went
into the band's book of music. Then in 1942 Duke hired one of the best tenor
saxophonists ever and let him play the first tenor sax solo ever arranged by
Duke Ellington.

     In 1951 Saxophonist Johnny Hodges, trombonist Lawrence Brown,
and Sonny Greer left the band together and formed their own band but then in
1955 Sonny Greer returned to the band and stayed with Duke until his death in
1970. And then by the 1950's the Ellington band was carrying on almost alone. By
1972 the times and styles of the world no longer fit the old time style of Duke'
s band. The band was not known like it used to be and that could be the point in
time I suppose you could say that the band broke up. Duke Ellington's career
spanned the whole history of the birth of the music called jazz. And nowhere in
that glorious history is there a man who had more love for music, more respect
for his art, than the man they called the Duke.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Portrait Of Duke Ellington.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

A Portrait of Duke Ellington
By Tracy Frech

Duke Ellington is considered to be one of the greatest figures in the history of American music. Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington was born in Washington D.C. on April 29, 1899. 
His parents were James Edward and Daisy Kennedy Ellington. They raised Duke as an only child, until his sister, Ruth, was born when Duke was sixteen years old.
Duke, even as a teenager, had a great talent for music. In the beginning of his musical life, Duke began to take a promising interest in a new type of music that would later be called jazz. Choosing to base his career on a new idea may not have been smart, but Duke did take this chance and in turn became one of the most famous musicians in America.
Duke's first job was at a government office. He was a clerk who received the minimum wage and was barely getting by. He would arrange dance bands for weddings and parties for extra money. His mother taught him how to play the piano. Sometimes he put this knowledge to use and played at a few of the dance parties and weddings. 
After Duke's first job, he became more interested in painting and the arts. For a few years he painted public posters. Duke then decided to put together his own band. At this point in his life things started to change for the better for Duke, but not for long. In those days, this new music was just beginning to develop and would later be given the name of jazz. In that time it was considered to be low and vulgar because it was music that grew directly out of the Black culture. In those early years, segregation was at one of its all time worst points in history. I          think that is why Duke Ellington was one of the most important individuals to the growth and development of jazz.
During Duke's long career, the new music slowly spread out of bars and saloons, to dance and night clubs and then eventually onto the concert stage. 
In time, jazz became a universally recognized form of art and has been said that it is the only real form that has originated from the American soul.
By the 1960's Duke traveled the globe so many times that he became known as the unofficial ambassador to the United States. Duke's band had played in Russia, Japan, Latin America, the Far East, the Middle East, and Africa. 
Duke, himself, was an elegant man. When the white people looked down on the black man and his music, Duke managed to bring dignity to every one of his performances. Once, the jazz historian Leonard Feather described Duke as, "an inch over six feet tall, sturdily built, he had an innate grandeur that would have enabled him to step with unquenched dignity out of a mud puddle." 
Duke's private life was something of an enigma. Although he had many friends he never really told them everything about himself. He would often guard his privacy probably because he had so little of it. When he was alone though, he would almost always be arranging the next tune for the band to play, and was always thinking or  preparing something for the band to do in the next performance.
Duke attracted some of the greatest musicians to join his band. Because of this it has been said that many of Duke's pieces are almost impossible to exactly duplicate without the personal style of the original musicians. One of the strange things that was known about Duke was that his school music teacher, Mrs. Clinkscales, who played the piano, was always the inspiration for him to just sit down and start tinkering around with a few notes that usually became big hits.
In his band the two, probably most famous musicians were the trumpeter Whetsol and the saxophonist Hodges. As the band became more and more popular, saxophonist Hodges became the highest paid performer in the United States.
The 1920's became known as "the Jazz Age" because jazz had hit its first great burst of popularity. At that time Duke then added a young drummer named Sonny Greer.  A few years after Greer was hired, Duke's band hit a very rough spot. They were often stuck in the street with no money and nowhere to go. Duke and his band often were stuck doing crude recordings just for a few dollars to buy a meal. 
In the Autumn of 1927, luck had crossed paths with Duke again. The manager of Duke's band, Irving Mills, had heard that the prestigious cotton club was looking for a new band and immediately Irving began campaigning for Duke. Duke and his band opened on December 4, 1927 to meet a mad rush of spectators who eagerly awaited to hear Dukes newest pieces. Duke's band became very prosperous and they had their own spot on the Cotton Club floor with special lighting and accommodations.
At the year of 1928 the band consisted of Bubber Miley, Freddy Jenkins, and Arthur Whetsol on trumpet, joined with Tricky Sam Nanton, and Juan Tizol on trombone. Johnny Hodges, now on alto sax, with Barney Bigard doubled on tenor sax and clarinet, and finally Harry Carney  at seventeen years old joined on bari sax. Carney was known as one of the first people in a band ever to use the bari sax as a solo instrument. 
While Duke's band was performing at the Cotton Club, his band participated in more than sixty-four recording sessions.
In 1931 Duke grew so tired of the show-business routines that he decided to try his luck again on his own. When he arrived in New York his band grew to almost three times what it originally had been at the Cotton Club. Duke feared that this would become a very serious problem considering how the stock market crashed in late 1929 and millions of people across the United States were out of work. 
Somehow, though, most of the entertainment business survived the economic hardships. Ellington's band had appeared on Broadway and had even gone to Hollywood to make a movie. Duke's band was having a hard time performing in the south because of the segregation laws not allowing blacks to eat in white restaurants or finding accommodations that would allow blacks and whites to stay together in a half-decent room. 
In 1932 Duke added a trombonist named Lawrence Brown. In the same year, most of the other big bands were adding vocalists to their ensemble and thus Duke felt pressured to do so too. Duke then hired a woman named Ivie Anderson and quickly proved that he had done the right thing.
Then in 1933 his band got a chance to play in Europe. At first Duke was very skeptical of how his music would be reacted to just because jazz had it's roots in America and the Europeans had a very contrasting style of music. The band managed to talk Duke into believing the idea was a good one. The band's first stop was England. The band was amazed at how well informed they were about their entire past. Even the Prince of Wales came to hear the band play. At the time the prince was an amateur drummer and Sonny Greer Showed the prince how to work the drum set and they played together and in the end were calling each other "Sonny" and "The Wale". All the concerts held in England were sellouts. The band then moved on to Scotland, and then Paris, France where their music was greeted with open arms.
When Duke's band returned to America the band really began feeling the hardship and sorrow of traveling on the road, being separated from loved ones. Also, many of the band members, including Duke, began developing drinking problems and started making some of the musicians lives miserable. What made things worse was the fact that Duke's mother, Daisy, died in May of 1935 that set Duke into a deep depression and he used to sit and stare into space while he talked to himself. Fortunately though, those long pep-talks with himself seem to snap Duke out of his depression.
But despite everything the band survived and in 1946 a saxophonist/clarinetist named Russell Procope joined the band and brought everyone up to a new point of view about traveling on the road. Around the time that Procope joined the band Duke invented a new song called "Reminiscing in Tempo" and was not looked upon favorably by critics but it did seem to sum everything up that was written by Ellington from 1931 to 1939 in a combination of gladness, sadness, triumph, and tragedy. But then Duke's friend Arthur Whetsol became and had to leave the band.
Then the future of the band seemed uncertain as the depression continued and millions of people were still out of work. Until around 1935 when the "Swing Era" hit the U.S. Irving Mills had then formed his own record company in 1936 that boomed with popularity as the demand for big bands playing this new swing music was in intense demand.
Later on Duke hired a lyrical writer named Billy Strayhorn that led a premature death in 1967. But when Strayhorn was with the band he wrote many compositions that often went into the band's book of music. Then in 1942 Duke hired one of the best tenor saxophonists ever and let him play the first tenor sax solo ever arranged by Duke Ellington.
In 1951 Saxophonist Johnny Hodges, trombonist Lawrence Brown, and Sonny Greer left the band together and formed their own band but then in 1955 Sonny Greer returned to the band and stayed with Duke until his death in 1970. And then by the 1950's the Ellington band was carrying on almost alone. 
By 1972 the times and styles of the world no longer fit the old time style of Duke's band. The band was not known like it used to be and that could be the point in time I suppose you could say that the band broke up.
Duke Ellington's career spanned the whole history of the birth of the music called jazz. And nowhere in that glorious history is there a man who had more love for music, more respect for his art, than the man they called the Duke.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Queen Adore1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
A Queen Adored: England's Elizabeth II


	Countess of Longford, Elizabeth Pakenham, was born in London England in
1906.  She attended Lady Margaret Hall and Oxford University where she studied
classical history and philosophy.  She later married Oxford professor and
politician, the seventh Earl of Longford in 1931, with whom she had eight
children.  She worked as a tutor from 1930-36 in the Worker's Educational
Association, and was a member of the Paddington and St. Pomcras Rent Tribunal
from 1946-51.  She was also a Labour party candidate for Cheltenham, and later
for the City of Oxford.  After both campaigns proved unsuccessful, Longford
began her career as a writer in 1954, where she concentrated on the topic of
parenting.  She later turned her focus to British history, and became recognized
for her talent as a biographer.  She was awarded the James Tait Memorial Prize
for best biography in 1964 for Victoria R.I.   Longford claimed the Yorkshire
Post Book of the Year Award twice with Wellington,1969, and The Royal House of
Windsor, Winston Churchill in 1974.  It is with this same thoroughness and true
human interest that she captures the life of England's reigning monarch in The
Queen; The Life of Elizabeth II.
	Though surveys have revealed that at any one time between 15 and 30% of
the English people claim they would prefer a republic, the majority uphold the
traditional support of the monarchy, as has been the English custom for over a
thousand years.  Since 1952 the endeared Queen Elizabeth II has played this role
in her country's politics as an important aspect of  the modern nation's
identity.  As she has proved neither conservative nor liberal in her stance, she
has so come to symbolize a popular democracy.
	It was raining on the sunless April day in 1926 when Elizabeth Bowes-
Lyon announced to her husband of three years that it was time.  The Duke and
Duchess of York were anticipating the birth of their first child.  As the
doctors were soon to discover, this was not to be a routine delivery.  The child
was breech and as night fell the decision to perform a cesarean section was made
and thus commenced.  The operation a success, at 2:40 AM, Wednesday, April 21, a
princess was born.  As is characteristic of cesarean birth, the first
granddaughter of King GeorgeV and Queen Mary was particularly immaculate with a
shapely head, fair hair, and pink skin.  Her bright blue eyes were framed by
long dark lashes.  She was christened Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, after her mother,
great-grandmother, and grandmother the Queen.  Her delighted father wrote to his
royal parents to announce the new arrival and express his hope that they would
be as satisfied with the birth of a girl as were he and his wife.  As she was
born third in line of an unlikely succession, a granddaughter was a refreshing
delight.  As one more of sentiment, the ideal of a little Princess had an
immediate public appeal as well.
	In the same year of Elizabeth's birth, there were other significant
changes within the Commonwealth.  The white "colonies" had grown into self-
governing "dominions".  The Commonwealth would now be comprised of nation-states
which were to co-exist in absolute equality with one another and the "mother
country".   The king was to be the binding force for this partnership of nations
as he was to symbolize their common values of patriotism, history, and culture.
The Imperial Conference of 1926 would reaffirm these common beliefs of liberty,
equality, and unity in the Balfour Report.
	The English people were very taken with little Elizabeth.  Longford
writes, "part of [her] immense appeal was due to her vivacity and comic fervor
in doing what was expected of her".  Though Elizabeth's childhood was quite
sheltered, she found access to the rest of the world through the many nursery
toys her parents endowed her with.  Miniature delivery vans of bread and garden
supplies represented the everyday jobs of the people.  A Christmas present of a
dustpan and brush also symbolized work in the real world, and possibly served as
a tool in the development of a remarkable tidiness that followed her through
adulthood.  Her many ponies also served as a learning experience through the
necessity of their care in grooming, feeding, and watering.
	She was a very bright child as well.  Her mother began teaching her to
read at the age of five, the same age she had began to learn.  Much like her
mother, Elizabeth caught on very quickly.  This may be greatly attributed to the
amount of attention the Duchess was able to give the Princess.  She had put all
of her social engagements on hold due to her current disposition of pregnancy.
In 1930, on a day not unlike that of Elizabeth II's birth, the Duchess gave
birth to yet another daughter.  Named Margaret Rose, she was to be Elizabeth's
only sibling.  The new sister would also bring many new experiences into the
life of the future Queen.  Longford writes,"[had] the princess remained an only
child, her tranquil and responsive temperament might have lacked the stimulus of
confrontations, however affectionate, in childhood".  Margaret Rose was to be
yet another tool in the molding of England's present monarch.
	As the young Princess Elizabeth was meticulous, even to the point of
obsessiveness, she maintained a similar character in the classroom.  She was
found to be conscientious, reasonable, and attentive to detail.  She was self-
disciplined and well trained in what was considered proper behavior for a
princess.  To offset the risk of portraying her as too perfect a child, she was
also noted to have been somewhat wanting in the area of arithmetic (an area her
grandfather thought unnecessary for her to master) and a poor knitter as well.
One of her favorite pastimes was the devotion of her time to her horses (the two
sisters had eventually acquired over 30).
	In late January of 1936,(later recognized as the year of three
kings),the death of her grandfather King George V brought little Elizabeth's
first stage of youth to a close.   Under the opinion of the nursery and school-
room the King's favorite grandchild was advised not to attend the ceremonies.
However, intent on doing the proper thing, she did not heed this advice and went
along-side her parents.  Her father's older brother,     Edward VIII, would thus
assume the throne.  His reign would be short lived ,however, as he would meet an
American woman who had already divorced twice, and ask her hand in marriage.  As
this was not acceptable behavior for a king Edward was given the choice to break
off the engagement or abdication from the throne.  He choose abdication, leaving
her father, King George VI the acquisition of the crown, and Princess Elizabeth
of York heir presumptive.
	At the age of 13 the Princess met her third cousin, Prince Philip
Mountbatten of Greece who was then18.  Quite taken with him upon their first
meeting, Elizabeth watched as he showed off in a college tennis match.  About
four years later Prince Phillip, also having been love stricken, would return to
watch Elizabeth in her performance of Aladdin. The next four years were to lead
Elizabeth into womanhood.  Firstly, this development began with her Confirmation,
performed on March 1,1942 by the same Archbishop of Canterbury who had
christened her.  In1942 she registered in the Labour Exchange, and in1945 she
was finally called to serve as Second Subaltern Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Windsor
of the Auxiliary Transport Service where she was to learn to be a mechanic of
sorts.  In 1945 the war was brought to a close, and with the return of Prince
Philip, the two were engaged by the following year.   They were married on
November 20,1947.  Three months later she was to become pregnant.  Six days
before their first wedding anniversary, the Princess was to give birth to Prince
Charles Philip Arthur George at Buckingham Palace.  The whole countryside joined
in celebration.  The Princess felt she had finally achieved some form of the
cherished ordinary life as a wife and mother.  1950 brought even more of the
same with the birth of six pound Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise.  This
fairy-tale existence of an "ordinary" life was not to last for long.  King
George's health was failing because of cancer, though he was never given the
diagnoses.  Elizabeth's doting father died peacefully in his sleep during the
early hours of February 6, 1952.
	She was to be crowned Queen Elizabeth II, Head of the Commonwealth,
Defender of the Faith, just after the death of Queen Mary in March of 1953.  As
Head of the Commonwealth the Queen serves as an important aspect of the modern
nation's identity.  Unlike the President of the United States, she does not run
for office, and does not dominate her country's politics and policies.
Throughout her reign she has come to symbolize a popular democracy in which she
neither takes an extreme stance to the right or left, but holds firm on the
middle ground.  The two principal rights that the parliamentary body has
bestowed on her are the right to appoint a prime minister, and the right to
dissolve parliament before the end of its term.  She also holds three other
general rights, the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right
to warn.  She has consistently demonstrated her grace, temperament, and
competence under the possession of her crown. She has been as doting a mother to
her country as to her four children.  An untainted illustration of a lady, she
is an example and inspiration to both royalty and the common man alike.
	Elizabeth Longford's portrayal of the life of Queen Elizabeth II goes
unrefuted.  She has brought forth a vivid and candid portraiture of her subject.
She obviously displays great admiration for the reigning Queen, but has also
tried to capture her human side, in weaknesses and strengths alike to give a
true account of the life of  England's little Princess, Queen Elizabeth II.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Queen Adored Englands Elizabeth II.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
A QUEEN ADORED: ENGLAND'S ELIZABETH II

	Countess of Longford, Elizabeth Pakenham, was born in London England in 1906.  She attended Lady Margaret Hall and Oxford University where she studied classical history and philosophy.  She later married Oxford professor and politician, the seventh Earl of Longford in 1931, with whom she had eight children.  She worked as a tutor from 1930-36 in the Worker's Educational Association, and was a member of the Paddington and St. Pomcras Rent Tribunal from 1946-51.  She was also a Labour party candidate for Cheltenham, and later for the City of Oxford.  After both campaigns proved unsuccessful, Longford began her career as a writer in 1954, where she concentrated on the topic of parenting.  She later turned her focus to British history, and became recognized for her talent as a biographer.  She was awarded the James Tait Memorial Prize for best biography in 1964 for Victoria R.I.   Longford claimed the Yorkshire Post Book of the Year Award twice with Wellington,1969, and The Royal House of Windsor, Winston Churchill in 1974.  It is with this same thoroughness and true human interest that she captures the life of England's reigning monarch in The Queen; The Life of Elizabeth II.
	Though surveys have revealed that at any one time between 15 and 30% of the English people claim they would prefer a republic, the majority uphold the traditional support of the monarchy, as has been the English custom for over a thousand years.  Since 1952 the endeared Queen Elizabeth II has played this role in her country's politics as an important aspect of  the modern nation's identity.  As she has proved neither conservative nor liberal in her stance, she has so come to symbolize a popular democracy.  
	It was raining on the sunless April day in 1926 when Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon announced to her husband of three years that it was time.  The Duke and Duchess of York were anticipating the birth of their first child.  As the doctors were soon to discover, this was not to be a routine delivery.  The child was breech and as night fell the decision to perform a cesarean section was made and thus commenced.  The operation a success, at 2:40 AM, Wednesday, April 21, a princess was born.  As is characteristic of cesarean birth, the first granddaughter of King GeorgeV and Queen Mary was particularly immaculate with a shapely head, fair hair, and pink skin.  Her bright blue eyes were framed by long dark lashes.  She was christened Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, after her mother, great-grandmother, and grandmother the Queen.  Her delighted father wrote to his royal parents to announce the new arrival and express his hope that they would be as satisfied with the birth of a girl as were he and his wife.  As she was born third in line of an unlikely succession, a granddaughter was a refreshing delight.  As one more of sentiment, the ideal of a little Princess had an immediate public appeal as well.  
	In the same year of Elizabeth's birth, there were other significant changes within the Commonwealth.  The white "colonies" had grown into self-governing "dominions".  The Commonwealth would now be comprised of nation-states which were to co-exist in absolute equality with one another and the "mother country".   The king was to be the binding force for this partnership of nations as he was to symbolize their common values of patriotism, history, and culture.  The Imperial Conference of 1926 would reaffirm these common beliefs of liberty, equality, and unity in the Balfour Report.  
	The English people were very taken with little Elizabeth.  Longford writes, "part of [her] immense appeal was due to her vivacity and comic fervor in doing what was expected of her".  Though Elizabeth's childhood was quite sheltered, she found access to the rest of the world through the many nursery toys her parents endowed her with.  Miniature delivery vans of bread and garden supplies represented the everyday jobs of the people.  A Christmas present of a dustpan and brush also symbolized work in the real world, and possibly served as a tool in the development of a remarkable tidiness that followed her through adulthood.  Her many ponies also served as a learning experience through the necessity of their care in grooming, feeding, and watering.   
	She was a very bright child as well.  Her mother began teaching her to read at the age of five, the same age she had began to learn.  Much like her mother, Elizabeth caught on very quickly.  This may be greatly attributed to the amount of attention the Duchess was able to give the Princess.  She had put all of her social engagements on hold due to her current disposition of pregnancy.  In 1930, on a day not unlike that of Elizabeth II's birth, the Duchess gave birth to yet another daughter.  Named Margaret Rose, she was to be Elizabeth's only sibling.  The new sister would also bring many new experiences into the life of the future Queen.  Longford writes,"[had] the princess remained an only child, her tranquil and responsive temperament might have lacked the stimulus of confrontations, however affectionate, in childhood".  Margaret Rose was to be yet another tool in the molding of England's present monarch.    
	As the young Princess Elizabeth was meticulous, even to the point of obsessiveness, she maintained a similar character in the classroom.  She was found to be conscientious, reasonable, and attentive to detail.  She was self-disciplined and well trained in what was considered proper behavior for a princess.  To offset the risk of portraying her as too perfect a child, she was also noted to have been somewhat wanting in the area of arithmetic (an area her grandfather thought unnecessary for her to master) and a poor knitter as well.  One of her favorite pastimes was the devotion of her time to her horses (the two sisters had eventually acquired over 30).
	In late January of 1936,(later recognized as the year of three kings),the death of her grandfather King George V brought little Elizabeth's first stage of youth to a close.   Under the opinion of the nursery and school-room the King's favorite grandchild was advised not to attend the ceremonies.  However, intent on doing the proper thing, she did not heed this advice and went along-side her parents.  Her father's older brother,     Edward VIII, would thus assume the throne.  His reign would be short lived ,however, as he would meet an American woman who had already divorced twice, and ask her hand in marriage.  As this was not acceptable behavior for a king Edward was given the choice to break off the engagement or abdication from the throne.  He choose abdication, leaving her father, King George VI the acquisition of the crown, and Princess Elizabeth of York heir presumptive.      
	At the age of 13 the Princess met her third cousin, Prince Philip Mountbatten of Greece who was then18.  Quite taken with him upon their first meeting, Elizabeth watched as he showed off in a college tennis match.  About four years later Prince Phillip, also having been love stricken, would return to watch Elizabeth in her performance of Aladdin.  
The next four years were to lead Elizabeth into womanhood.  Firstly, this development began with her Confirmation, performed on March 1,1942 by the same Archbishop of Canterbury who had christened her.  In1942 she registered in the Labour Exchange, and in1945 she was finally called to serve as Second Subaltern Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Windsor of the Auxiliary Transport Service where she was to learn to be a mechanic of sorts.  In 1945 the war was brought to a close, and with the return of Prince Philip, the two were engaged by the following year.   They were married on November 20,1947.  Three months later she was to become pregnant.  Six days before their first wedding anniversary, the Princess was to give birth to Prince Charles Philip Arthur George at Buckingham Palace.  The whole countryside joined in celebration.  The Princess felt she had finally achieved some form of the cherished ordinary life as a wife and mother.  1950 brought even more of the same with the birth of six pound Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise.  This fairy-tale existence of an "ordinary" life was not to last for long.  King George's health was failing because of cancer, though he was never given the diagnoses.  Elizabeth's doting father died peacefully in his sleep during the early hours of February 6, 1952.  
	She was to be crowned Queen Elizabeth II, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith, just after the death of Queen Mary in March of 1953.  As Head of the Commonwealth the Queen serves as an important aspect of the modern nation's identity.  Unlike the President of the United States, she does not run for office, and does not dominate her country's politics and policies.  Throughout her reign she has come to symbolize a popular democracy in which she neither takes an extreme stance to the right or left, but holds firm on the middle ground.  The two principal rights that the parliamentary body has bestowed on her are the right to appoint a prime minister, and the right to dissolve parliament before the end of its term.  She also holds three other general rights, the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn.  She has consistently demonstrated her grace, temperament, and competence under the possession of her crown. 
She has been as doting a mother to her country as to her four children.  An untainted illustration of a lady, she is an example and inspiration to both royalty and the common man alike.
	Elizabeth Longford's portrayal of the life of Queen Elizabeth II goes unrefuted.   She has brought forth a vivid and candid portraiture of her subject.  She obviously displays great admiration for the reigning Queen, but has also tried to capture her human side, in weaknesses and strengths alike to give a true account of the life of  England's little Princess, Queen Elizabeth II.   





















































































































       








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\A Queen Adored.TXT
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A Queen Adored: England's Elizabeth II


	Countess of Longford, Elizabeth Pakenham, was born in London England in
1906.  She attended Lady Margaret Hall and Oxford University where she studied
classical history and philosophy.  She later married Oxford professor and
politician, the seventh Earl of Longford in 1931, with whom she had eight
children.  She worked as a tutor from 1930-36 in the Worker's Educational
Association, and was a member of the Paddington and St. Pomcras Rent Tribunal
from 1946-51.  She was also a Labour party candidate for Cheltenham, and later
for the City of Oxford.  After both campaigns proved unsuccessful, Longford
began her career as a writer in 1954, where she concentrated on the topic of
parenting.  She later turned her focus to British history, and became recognized
for her talent as a biographer.  She was awarded the James Tait Memorial Prize
for best biography in 1964 for Victoria R.I.   Longford claimed the Yorkshire
Post Book of the Year Award twice with Wellington,1969, and The Royal House of
Windsor, Winston Churchill in 1974.  It is with this same thoroughness and true
human interest that she captures the life of England's reigning monarch in The
Queen; The Life of Elizabeth II.
	Though surveys have revealed that at any one time between 15 and 30% of
the English people claim they would prefer a republic, the majority uphold the
traditional support of the monarchy, as has been the English custom for over a
thousand years.  Since 1952 the endeared Queen Elizabeth II has played this role
in her country's politics as an important aspect of  the modern nation's
identity.  As she has proved neither conservative nor liberal in her stance, she
has so come to symbolize a popular democracy.
	It was raining on the sunless April day in 1926 when Elizabeth Bowes-
Lyon announced to her husband of three years that it was time.  The Duke and
Duchess of York were anticipating the birth of their first child.  As the
doctors were soon to discover, this was not to be a routine delivery.  The child
was breech and as night fell the decision to perform a cesarean section was made
and thus commenced.  The operation a success, at 2:40 AM, Wednesday, April 21, a
princess was born.  As is characteristic of cesarean birth, the first
granddaughter of King GeorgeV and Queen Mary was particularly immaculate with a
shapely head, fair hair, and pink skin.  Her bright blue eyes were framed by
long dark lashes.  She was christened Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, after her mother,
great-grandmother, and grandmother the Queen.  Her delighted father wrote to his
royal parents to announce the new arrival and express his hope that they would
be as satisfied with the birth of a girl as were he and his wife.  As she was
born third in line of an unlikely succession, a granddaughter was a refreshing
delight.  As one more of sentiment, the ideal of a little Princess had an
immediate public appeal as well.
	In the same year of Elizabeth's birth, there were other significant
changes within the Commonwealth.  The white "colonies" had grown into self-
governing "dominions".  The Commonwealth would now be comprised of nation-states
which were to co-exist in absolute equality with one another and the "mother
country".   The king was to be the binding force for this partnership of nations
as he was to symbolize their common values of patriotism, history, and culture.
The Imperial Conference of 1926 would reaffirm these common beliefs of liberty,
equality, and unity in the Balfour Report.
	The English people were very taken with little Elizabeth.  Longford
writes, "part of [her] immense appeal was due to her vivacity and comic fervor
in doing what was expected of her".  Though Elizabeth's childhood was quite
sheltered, she found access to the rest of the world through the many nursery
toys her parents endowed her with.  Miniature delivery vans of bread and garden
supplies represented the everyday jobs of the people.  A Christmas present of a
dustpan and brush also symbolized work in the real world, and possibly served as
a tool in the development of a remarkable tidiness that followed her through
adulthood.  Her many ponies also served as a learning experience through the
necessity of their care in grooming, feeding, and watering.
	She was a very bright child as well.  Her mother began teaching her to
read at the age of five, the same age she had began to learn.  Much like her
mother, Elizabeth caught on very quickly.  This may be greatly attributed to the
amount of attention the Duchess was able to give the Princess.  She had put all
of her social engagements on hold due to her current disposition of pregnancy.
In 1930, on a day not unlike that of Elizabeth II's birth, the Duchess gave
birth to yet another daughter.  Named Margaret Rose, she was to be Elizabeth's
only sibling.  The new sister would also bring many new experiences into the
life of the future Queen.  Longford writes,"[had] the princess remained an only
child, her tranquil and responsive temperament might have lacked the stimulus of
confrontations, however affectionate, in childhood".  Margaret Rose was to be
yet another tool in the molding of England's present monarch.
	As the young Princess Elizabeth was meticulous, even to the point of
obsessiveness, she maintained a similar character in the classroom.  She was
found to be conscientious, reasonable, and attentive to detail.  She was self-
disciplined and well trained in what was considered proper behavior for a
princess.  To offset the risk of portraying her as too perfect a child, she was
also noted to have been somewhat wanting in the area of arithmetic (an area her
grandfather thought unnecessary for her to master) and a poor knitter as well.
One of her favorite pastimes was the devotion of her time to her horses (the two
sisters had eventually acquired over 30).
	In late January of 1936,(later recognized as the year of three
kings),the death of her grandfather King George V brought little Elizabeth's
first stage of youth to a close.   Under the opinion of the nursery and school-
room the King's favorite grandchild was advised not to attend the ceremonies.
However, intent on doing the proper thing, she did not heed this advice and went
along-side her parents.  Her father's older brother,     Edward VIII, would thus
assume the throne.  His reign would be short lived ,however, as he would meet an
American woman who had already divorced twice, and ask her hand in marriage.  As
this was not acceptable behavior for a king Edward was given the choice to break
off the engagement or abdication from the throne.  He choose abdication, leaving
her father, King George VI the acquisition of the crown, and Princess Elizabeth
of York heir presumptive.
	At the age of 13 the Princess met her third cousin, Prince Philip
Mountbatten of Greece who was then18.  Quite taken with him upon their first
meeting, Elizabeth watched as he showed off in a college tennis match.  About
four years later Prince Phillip, also having been love stricken, would return to
watch Elizabeth in her performance of Aladdin. The next four years were to lead
Elizabeth into womanhood.  Firstly, this development began with her Confirmation,
performed on March 1,1942 by the same Archbishop of Canterbury who had
christened her.  In1942 she registered in the Labour Exchange, and in1945 she
was finally called to serve as Second Subaltern Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Windsor
of the Auxiliary Transport Service where she was to learn to be a mechanic of
sorts.  In 1945 the war was brought to a close, and with the return of Prince
Philip, the two were engaged by the following year.   They were married on
November 20,1947.  Three months later she was to become pregnant.  Six days
before their first wedding anniversary, the Princess was to give birth to Prince
Charles Philip Arthur George at Buckingham Palace.  The whole countryside joined
in celebration.  The Princess felt she had finally achieved some form of the
cherished ordinary life as a wife and mother.  1950 brought even more of the
same with the birth of six pound Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise.  This
fairy-tale existence of an "ordinary" life was not to last for long.  King
George's health was failing because of cancer, though he was never given the
diagnoses.  Elizabeth's doting father died peacefully in his sleep during the
early hours of February 6, 1952.
	She was to be crowned Queen Elizabeth II, Head of the Commonwealth,
Defender of the Faith, just after the death of Queen Mary in March of 1953.  As
Head of the Commonwealth the Queen serves as an important aspect of the modern
nation's identity.  Unlike the President of the United States, she does not run
for office, and does not dominate her country's politics and policies.
Throughout her reign she has come to symbolize a popular democracy in which she
neither takes an extreme stance to the right or left, but holds firm on the
middle ground.  The two principal rights that the parliamentary body has
bestowed on her are the right to appoint a prime minister, and the right to
dissolve parliament before the end of its term.  She also holds three other
general rights, the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right
to warn.  She has consistently demonstrated her grace, temperament, and
competence under the possession of her crown. She has been as doting a mother to
her country as to her four children.  An untainted illustration of a lady, she
is an example and inspiration to both royalty and the common man alike.
	Elizabeth Longford's portrayal of the life of Queen Elizabeth II goes
unrefuted.  She has brought forth a vivid and candid portraiture of her subject.
She obviously displays great admiration for the reigning Queen, but has also
tried to capture her human side, in weaknesses and strengths alike to give a
true account of the life of  England's little Princess, Queen Elizabeth II.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abe Lincoln that bearded guy.TXT
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LincolAbraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States.  Born in a log cabin in the backwoods, Lincoln was almost entirely self-educated. In 1831 he settled in New Salem, Ill., and worked as a storekeeper, surveyor, and postmaster while studying law. The story of his brief love affair there with Anne Rutledge is now discredited. In 1834 he was elected to the state legislature, and in 1836 he became a lawyer. He served one term (1847-49) in Congress as a Whig; in 1855 he sought to become a senator but failed. In 1856 he joined the new Republican Party. He ran again in 1858 for the Senate against Stephen A. Douglas, and in a spirited campaign he and Douglas engaged in seven debates. Lincoln was not an abolitionist, but he regarded slavery as an evil and opposed its extension. Although he lost the election, he had by now made a name for himself, and in 1860 he was nominated by the Republicans for president. He ran against a divided Democratic party and was elected with a minority of the popular vote. To the South, Lincoln's election was a signal for secession. By Inauguration Day seven states had seceded, and four more seceded after he issued a summons to the militia. It is generally agreed that Lincoln handled the vast problems of the Civil War with skill and vigor. Besides conducting the war, he faced opposition in the North from radical abolitionists, who considered him too mild, and from conservatives, who were gloomy over the prospects of success in the war. His cabinet was rent by internal hatred, and the progress of the war went against the North at first. In 1863 he moved to free the slaves by issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, but preserving the Union remained his main war aim. His thoughts on the war were beautifully expressed in the Gettysburg Address (1863). In 1864 Lincoln ran for reelection against George B. McClellan and won, partly because of the favorable turn of military affairs after his appointment of General Ulysses Grant as commander-in-chief. Lincoln saw the end of the war but did not live to implement his plan for Reconstruction. On Apr. 14, 1865, while attending a play at Ford's Theater, in Washington, D.C., he was shot by the actor John Wilkes Booth.  He died the next morning. As time passed a full-blown "Lincoln legend" grew, and he became the object of adulation and a symbol of democracy.  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abigail Adam1.TXT
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Abigail Adams


     Abigail Adams was a unique women because she had an education and an
interest in politics.  She learned how to read and write and enjoyed poems most.
She was also very resourceful by helping her husband on difficult problems.

     Abigail was born on November 11 on the Julian calendar, or November 22 on
the modern Gregorian calendar.  Abigail had two sisters named Mary and Elizabeth
or Betsy.  She had one brother named William or Billy.  Abigail's name was
originally Abigail Smith.  Each baby was baptized on the first Sabbath of its
life and was recorded in their parish records.  Abigail live in a comfortable
house.  When Abigail was sixteen, her father added a wing that was bigger than
the original building to make room for the children, servants, and visitors.
When I say servants it means that they were probably slaves but were called
servants to avoid the dehumanizing effect that the word 'slave' can mean.  Their
house was a sight of luxury in the eyes of the common folk in the parish.
Though they lived well, the Smiths had no fortune.  Abigail's father often
worked with his own hands, planting corn and potatoes, gathering hay, sowing
barley, or making sure that his sheep received proper care.  Abigail, with the
help of her family grew a very religious bond between each other and a long
lasting friendship.

     Abigail never went to a real school because of poor health.  So, she
learned at home. Her father's library was not big, but she still went to it to
read books.  Abigail's favorite books were novels by Samuel Richardson.
Abigail's father knew John Adams by working with him and she grew rather close
to him starting a wedding.  This now made her name Abigail Adams.  Their wedding
was held on October 25, 1764, a month before her twentieth birthday.  John was a
lawyer and very often was not at home due to court cases he had to attend to.
When Abigail was pregnant with her first son, John was only at home for eight
out of the nine months.  The baby was born on a hot day on the morning of July
14, 1765.  The baby's name was 'Abigail', but was called Nabby.  She was with
her parents when she had the baby. Shortly after, she was again pregnant.  July
11, 1767, she delivered a healthy boy named John Quincy.  John Adams soon moved
his family to Boston to be closer to his important clients and the center of
political action.  In Boston, Abigail had two more children.  one named Susanna,
who died thirteen months later, and Charles who was born healthy at the end of
May 1770.  John Adams sent everyone in his enlarged family back to there old
house because of the recent Boston Massacre happening.  While Abigail was there,
She had her last son named Thomas.  John soon bought a brick house back in
Boston and moved everyone back in.  Abigail started teaching the children to
read and write.

     John told Abigail almost everything that he knew and went to her for
political problems.  He understood what she could understand and trusted her.
Abigail became the most informed woman on public affairs in the nation.  On
August 10, 1774, Abigail parted with John as he left to attend the Congress
called at Philadelphia to try and unite the colonies against Great Britain's
plan to punish Boston and Massachusetts.  Though her sons would not be of
military age for another decade, Abigail dreaded war, in which only God knew
what would happen.  When the shots at Lexington and Concorde were fired, John
was again off to the Congress and cautioned Abigail that she should 'fly to the
woods' with the children if the British attacked Boston. Abigail prayed for the
war and on June 17 John Quincy and Abigail went to Bunker Hill and watched the
roar of the cannons and saw the flames of burning Charleston atop of Penn's Hill
near where they lived.  Soon they learned of the British losses and how greater
they were, but Abigail knew someone named Dr. Warren who died.  He helped John
Quincy from the loss of his finger.  Abigail wrote many letters to her husband
and it became a way of life for her.  She was always keeping John up to date
with what's happening at the immediate point in time. Abigail sometimes called
herself 'Mrs. Delegate' because she was the wife of a Revolutionary leader.
Abigail continued to keep in tact with her husband throughout the war.  She also
was very political. Then later she led a very productive life.



 
















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f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\about all sharks.TXT
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ABOUT ALL SHAKES
BY. SHAUN LEVY


SHARK FAMILIES:
There are more then 350 know species of sharks today, which can all be placed under 8 scientific orders that contain 30 families.  They are placed into these categories by their shared characteristics, this is called taxonomy.  The more closeley related species are placed in another family in the order.
SQUAINIFORMES: The angel shark as they are commonly known are characterized by their RAY like flattened bodies.  This order has one family which is called  SQUATINDAE that contains about 13 species.  The maximum size that can be attained by any one of these species is 4-6 feet  in length.
PRISTIOPHORIFORMES: These shark are known as the saw shark.  This order has only has one family PHISTOPHORIFORMES which  contains five species.  These sharks are easy to recongnize due to the fact that they posses an ellongated blade like snout that is lined with sharp teeth along the edges, thus, the name saw sharks.
SQUALIFORMES: The order possesses three family which consist of about 82 species.  These sharks are characterized by their slender, cylinder-shaped bodies, long snouts with shortened mouths.
HEXANCHIFORMES: The Hexanchiformes or cow sharks, comprise of two families.  Recognized by their six or seven pairs of gill slits, there sharks can often be found in deep water.  The frilled shark (CHLAMYDISELACHUS ANGUINEUS) who's appearance is quite unmistakable due to it's "eel" like appearance, is perhaps one the strangest shark that exist today.  
 FOSSIL RECORD:
Shark fossil record is fargmentery at best.  Most fossils found so far consist of nothing but teeth in some cases a few vertebra  have been found.  This is rare due to the fact that sharks have bones instead, they have cartiladge which countrary common belief is rather solid.  In the rarest of cases complete fossil have been discovered.  Scientific data shows that following a period of great physiological changes.  There was not to many changes in the sharks fossil in the millions of  years, of studying the shark fossils.  
The Hybodonts who made their appearance some 320 million (years ago the age of the dinosaurs) where quite common through out both oceanic and fresh  water.  Due to reasons unknown to science both oceanic and fresh water hybodonts because exticnt at about the same time as the dinosaurs.  
The largest shark to ever swim the oceans is called the megalodon. Many  think that it's ancestor to the great white shark however  there is great controversy surrounding this matter.  The size of the shark is 40 to 50 feet in length it is safe to say that megalodon is still considered to be largest predatory fish to have ever existed.

 
THE PERFACT  PREDATOR:
The shark is considered by many to be the perfect predator.  It's perhaps the most perfectly adapted predator in it's environment.  The shark jaws another facinating development of evolution.  Each species jaws are perfectly adapted to that sharks eating habits some sharks have long pointed teeth for cathing fish others have teeth contains the most of the species of sharks are harmless botton dwellers, like catsharks or houndsharks.  However the most of those sharks are in danger of be coming extinct.



 
THE SHAPE OF SHARKS:

The sharks has all different kinds of shapes and sizes or sharks one can find in the ocean.  Sharks posse a richness of diversity and body  forms, ranging from the popular sharks. A good example of this is a Bizzare Goblin Shark. This sharks has a horn-like protrusion coming from it's head.  The body forms of sharks can be related to their way of life.  Some like the angel and wobbegong sharks the shape of these sharks of these sharks is perfectly adapted to their environment and their way of life.   All sharks swim by snaking their way through the water while using their pectoral fins for lift and direction.


 
 Shark attacks:

Most attacks take place within 100 feet of the shoreline.  However, it's not impossible to be stuck on open sea.  Sharks have been recorded following boats for many years.  Sailors used to consider this a bad omen and would throw one man overboard to please the shark.  If there is one drop of blood from a person a shark and sense 200 feet where the blood is coming from.  The people most at risk of shark attacks are men from a shipwreck just floating in the open ocean.  This is because there are usually large amounts of blood in the water.  The most know shipwrecks that involved with sharks in the U.S.S.  More then 500 people died by shark attacks.  The most common shark that attacks is the blue shark. 
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Clinton.TXT
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Abraham Lincoln
by 


	Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was very important to the past history of our country.  He helped to abolish slavery in this country and kept the American Union from splitting apart during the Civil War.
	At 22, he moved to New Salem, Illinois.  With his gift for swapping stories and making friends, he became quite popular and was elected to the Illinois legislature in 1834.  In his spare time, he taught himself law and became a lawyer.  In 1847, he was elected to the U.S. Congress, but returned to his law practice until 1858, when his concern about the spread of slavery prompted him to return to national politics and run for the U.S. Senate.
	Lincoln rose to greatness from a humble beginning.  Born in 1809 in a log cabin in Kentucky, Lincoln spent most of his childhood working on the family farm.  He had less than a year of school but managed to educate himself by studying and reading books on his own.
	He believed that slavery and democracy were fundamentally incompatible.  In an 1858 speech, he said:
What constitutes the bulwark of our own liberty and independance?  It is not our frowning battlements, our bristling sea coats, our army and our navy . . . Our defense is in the spirit which prized liberty as the heritage of all men, in all lands everywhere.  Destroy this spirit and you have planted the seeds of despotism at your own doors.   Familiarize yours 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Lincol1.TXT
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Abraham Lincoln


	Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was very
important to the past history of our country.  He helped to abolish slavery in
this country and kept the American Union from splitting apart during the Civil
War.
	At 22, he moved to New Salem, Illinois.  With his gift for swapping
stories and making friends, he became quite popular and was elected to the
Illinois legislature in 1834.  In his spare time, he taught himself law and
became a lawyer.  In 1847, he was elected to the U.S. Congress, but returned to
his law practice until 1858, when his concern about the spread of slavery
prompted him to return to national politics and run for the U.S. Senate.
	Lincoln rose to greatness from a humble beginning.  Born in 1809 in a
log cabin in Kentucky, Lincoln spent most of his childhood working on the family
farm.  He had less than a year of school but managed to educate himself by
studying and reading books on his own.
	He believed that slavery and democracy were fundamentally incompatible.
In an 1858 speech, he said: What constitutes the bulwark of our own liberty and
independance?  It is not our frowning battlements, our bristling sea coats, our
army and our navy . . . Our defense is in the spirit which prized liberty as the
heritage of all men, in all lands everywhere.  Destroy this spirit and you have
planted the seeds of despotism at your own doors.   Familiarize yours




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Lincol2.TXT
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Abraham Lincoln


      Full name:  Abraham Lincoln
      Birth:  February 12, 1809 near Hadgenville Kentucky
      Death:  Shot at Fords Theatre by John Wilkes on April 15, 1865
      Education:  He was educated formally at a one roomed school.
      Family:  He married Mary Tod on November 4, 1842 and had 4 kids:
    1. Robert Tod Lincoln (August 1, 1843)
    2. Edward Baker Lincoln (March 10, 1846)
    3. William Wallace Lincoln (December 21, 1850)
    4. Thomas Lincoln (April 4, 1853)

      Career:  Abraham Lincoln was elected to state legislature in the summer of
1834, 1836, 1838, and 1840.  In 1842 he left legislature to study law.  He was
elected to Congress as Whig on August 3, 1847.  On November 6 1860 he was
elected to president.  On November 8 1864 he was reelected.
      Claim to fame:  Abraham was famous because he was president, because he
was assassinated, and because he tried to prohibit slavery.
      Impact on life today:  He had an impact on life today because there no
longer is slavery.
      Impact on people around him:  Abe had an impact on people around him
because he was president for eight years straight.
	I think Abraham Lincoln is worth recalling in history because he fought
to stop slavery.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Lincol3.TXT
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Abraham Lincoln


Lincoln, Abraham (1809-65), 16th president of the United States (1861-65), who
steered the Union to victory in the American Civil War and abolished slavery.

Early Life

Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, near Hodgenville, Kentucky, the son of
Nancy Hanks and Thomas Lincoln, pioneer farmers. At the age of two he was taken
by his parents to nearby Knob Creek and at eight to Spencer County, Indiana. The
following year his mother died. In 1819 his father married Sarah Bush Johnston,
a kindly widow, who soon gained the boy's affection. Lincoln grew up a tall,
gangling youth, who could hold his own in physical contests and also showed
great intellectual promise, although he had little formal education. In 1831,
after moving with his family to Macon County, Illinois, he struck out on his own,
taking cargo on a flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana. He then returned to
Illinois and settled in New Salem, a short-lived community on the Sangamon River,
where he split rails and clerked in a store. He gained the respect of his fellow
townspeople, including the so-called Clary Grove boys, who had challenged him to
physical combat, and was elected captain of his company in the Black Hawk War
(1832). Returning from the war, he began an unsuccessful venture in shopkeeping
that ended when his partner died. In 1833 he was appointed postmaster but had to
supplement his income with surveying and various other jobs. At the same time he
began to study law. That he gradually paid off his and his deceased partner's
debts firmly established his reputation for honesty. The story of his romance
with Ann Rutledge, a local young woman whom he knew briefly before her untimely
death, is unsubstantiated.

Illinois Politician and Lawyer

Defeated in 1832 in a race for the state legislature, Lincoln was elected on the
Whig ticket two years later and served in the lower house from 1834 to 1841. He
quickly emerged as one of the leaders of the party and was one of the authors of
the removal of the capital to Springfield, where he settled in 1837. After his
admission to the bar (1836), he entered into successive partnerships with John T.
Stuart, Stephen T. Logan, and William Herndon, and soon won recognition as an
effective and resourceful attorney. In 1842 Lincoln married Mary Todd, the
daughter of a prominent Kentucky banker, and despite her somewhat difficult
disposition, the marriage seems to have been reasonably successful. The Lincolns
had four children, only one of whom reached adulthood. His birth in a slave
state notwithstanding, Lincoln had long opposed slavery. In the legislature he
voted against resolutions favorable to the "peculiar institution" and in 1837
was one of two members who signed a protest against it. Elected to Congress in
1846, he attracted attention because of his outspoken criticism of the war with
Mexico and formulated a plan for gradual emancipation in the District of
Columbia. He was not an abolitionist, however. Conceding the right of the states
to manage their own affairs, he merely sought to prevent the spread of human
bondage.

National Recognition Disappointed in a quest for federal office at the end of
his one term in Congress (1847-49), Lincoln returned to Springfield to pursue
his profession. In 1854, however, because of his alarm at Senator Stephen A.
Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Act, he became politically active again. Clearly
setting forth his opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, he argued
that the measure was wrong because slavery was wrong and that Congress should
keep the territories free for actual settlers (as opposed to those who traveled
there mainly to vote for or against slavery). The following year he ran for the
U.S. Senate, but seeing that he could not win, he yielded to Lyman Trumbull, a
Democrat who opposed Douglas's bill. He campaigned for the newly founded
Republican party in 1856, and in 1858 he became its senatorial candidate against
Douglas. In a speech to the party's state convention that year he warned that "a
house divided against itself cannot stand" and predicted the eventual triumph of
freedom. Meeting Douglas in a series of debates, he challenged his opponent in
effect to explain how he could reconcile his principles of popular sovereignty
with the Dred Scott decision (see Dred Scott Case). In his reply, Douglas
reaffirmed his belief in the practical ability of settlers to keep slavery out
of the territories despite the Supreme Court's denial of their right to do so.
Although Lincoln lost the election to Douglas, the debates won him national
recognition.

Election and Secession Crisis In 1860 the Republicans, anxious to attract as
many different factions as possible, nominated Lincoln for the presidency on a
platform of slavery restriction, internal improvements, homesteads, and tariff
reform. In a campaign against Douglas and John C. Breckinridge, two rival
Democrats, and John Bell, of the Constitutional Union party, Lincoln won a
majority of the electoral votes and was elected president. Immediately after the
election, South Carolina, followed by six other Southern states, took steps to
secede from the Union. Declaring that secession was illegal but that he had no
power to oppose it, President James Buchanan preferred to rely on Congress to
find a compromise. The success of this effort, however, depended on Lincoln, the
president-elect, who was open to concessions but refused to countenance any
possible extension of slavery. Thus, the Crittenden Compromise, the most
promising scheme of adjustment, failed, and a new Southern government was
inaugurated in February 1861. See Confederate States of America.

Lincoln as President When Lincoln took the oath of office on March 4, 1861, he
was confronted with a hostile Confederacy determined to expand and threatening
the remaining federal forts in the South, the most important of which was Fort
Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Anxious not to offend the
upper South, which had not yet seceded, Lincoln at first refused to take
decisive action. After the failure of an expedition to Fort Pickens, Florida,
however, he decided to relieve Fort Sumter and informed the governor of South
Carolina of his intention to send food to the beleaguered garrison. The
Confederates, unwilling to permit continued federal occupation of their soil,
opened fire to reduce the fort, thus starting the Civil War. When Lincoln
countered with a call for 75,000 volunteers, the North responded with enthusiasm,
but the upper South seceded.

Military Leadership As commander in chief, Lincoln encountered great
difficulties in the search for capable generals. After the defeat of Irvin
McDowell at the First Battle of Bull Run, the president appointed George B.
McClellan to lead the eastern army but found him excessively cautious. His
Peninsular campaign against Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, failed,
and Lincoln, whose own strategy had not succeeded in trapping Stonewall Jackson
in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, virtually superseded McClellan with John
Pope. When Pope was defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run, the president
turned once more to McClellan, only to be disappointed again. Despite his
victory at Antietam, Maryland, the general was so hesitant that Lincoln finally
had to remove him. The president's next choice, Ambrose Burnside, was also
unfortunate. Decisively beaten at Fredericksburg, Virginia, Burnside gave way to
Joseph Hooker, who in turn was routed at Chancellorsville, Virginia. Then
Lincoln appointed George G. Meade, who triumphed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,
but failed to follow up his victory. Persisting in his determination to discover
a general who could defeat the Confederates, the president in 1864 entrusted
overall command to Ulysses S. Grant, the victor at Fort Donelson, Tennessee,
Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee. This choice was a good one.
Grant, in a series of coordinated campaigns, finally brought the war to a
successful conclusion.

Emancipation

In dealing with the problem of emancipation, Lincoln proved himself a masterful
statesman. Carefully maneuvering to take advantage of radical pressure to move
forward and conservative entreaties to hold back, he was able to retain the
loyalty of the Democrats and the border states while still bringing about the
final abolition of slavery. Lincoln pleased the radicals in 1861, when he signed
the first Confiscation Act, freeing slaves used by the Confederates for military
purposes. He deferred to the conservatives when he countermanded emancipation
orders of the Union generals John C. Frémont and David Hunter, but again courted
the radicals by reverting to a cautious antislavery program. Thus, he exerted
pressure on the border states to inaugurate compensated emancipation, signed the
bill for abolition in the District of Columbia, and consented to the second
Confiscation Act. On July 22, 1862, in response to radical demands and
diplomatic necessity, he told his cabinet that he intended to issue an
emancipation proclamation but took care to soften the blow to the border states
by specifically exempting them. Advised to await some federal victory, he did
not make his proclamation public until September 22, following the Battle of
Antietam, when he announced that all slaves in areas still in rebellion within
100 days would be "then, thenceforward, and forever, free." The final
Emancipation Proclamation followed on January 1, 1863. Promulgated by the
president in his capacity as commander in chief in times of actual armed
rebellion, it freed slaves in regions held by the insurgents and authorized the
creation of black military units. Lincoln was determined to place emancipation
on a more permanent basis, however, and in 1864 he advocated the adoption of an
antislavery amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The amendment was passed after
Lincoln's reelection, when he made use of all the powers of his office to ensure
its success in the House of Representatives (January 31, 1865).

Political Skill A consummate politician, Lincoln sought to maintain harmony
among the disparate elements of his party by giving them representation in his
cabinet. Recognizing former Whigs by the appointment of William H. Seward as
secretary of state and Edward Bates as attorney general, he also extended
invitations to such former Democrats as Montgomery Blair, who became postmaster
general, and Gideon Welles, who became secretary of the navy. He honored local
factions by appointing Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania secretary of war and Caleb
B. Smith of Indiana secretary of the interior, while satisfying the border
states with Bates and Blair. At the same time, he offset the conservative Bates
with the radical Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase and later with
Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Although Lincoln was much closer to the
radicals and gradually moved toward ever more radical measures, he did not
needlessly offend the conservatives and often collaborated with them. His
careful handling of the slavery issue is a case in point, as is his appointment
of Democratic generals and his deference to the sensibilities of the border
states. In December 1862 he foiled critics demanding the dismissal of the
conservative Seward. Refusing to accept Seward's resignation and inducing the
radical Chase to offer to step down as well, he maintained the balance of his
cabinet by retaining both secretaries. Lincoln's political influence was
enhanced by his great gifts as an orator. Able to stress essentials in simple
terms, he effectively appealed to the nation in such classical short speeches as
the Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural address. Moreover, he was a
capable diplomat. Firmly rejecting Seward's proposal in April 1861 that the
country be united by means of a foreign war, he sought to maintain friendly
relations with the nations of Europe, used the Emancipation Proclamation to win
friends for the Union, and effectively countered Confederate efforts to gain
foreign recognition.

Reelection and Reconstruction In 1864 a number of disgruntled Republicans sought
to prevent Lincoln's renomination. Adroitly outmaneuvering his opponents,
especially the ambitious Chase, he succeeded in obtaining his party's
endorsement at Baltimore, Maryland, even though a few extremists nominated Fré
mont. Lincoln's renomination did not end his political problems, however.
Unhappy with his Proclamation of Amnesty (December 1863), which called for the
restoration of insurgent states if 10 percent of the electorate took an oath of
loyalty, Congress in July 1864 passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which provided for
more onerous conditions and their acceptance by 50 percent of the voters. When
Lincoln used the pocket veto to kill it, some radicals sought to displace him
and in the so-called Wade-Davis Manifesto passionately attacked the
administration. The president, nevertheless, prevailed again. His poor prospects
in August 1864 improved when the Democrats nominated General McClellan on a
peace platform. Subsequent federal victories and the withrawal of Frémont,
coupled with the resignation of the conservative Blair, reunited the party, and
in November 1864 Lincoln was triumphantly reelected. The president's success at
the polls enabled him to seek to establish his own Reconstruction policies. To
blunt conservative criticism, he met with leading Confederates at Hampton Roads,
Virginia, and demonstrated the impossibility of a negotiated peace. The radicals,
however, were also dissatisfied. Because of their demand for black suffrage,
Lincoln was unable to induce Congress to accept the members-elect of the free
state government of Louisiana, which he had organized. In addition, after the
fall of Richmond, he alarmed his critics by inviting the Confederate legislature
of Virginia to repeal the secession ordinance. His Reconstruction policies,
however, had been determined by military necessity. As soon as the Confederate
general Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln
withdrew the invitation to the Virginians. He again proved how close he was to
the radicals by endorsing a limited black franchise.

The Assassination At his second inaugural, Lincoln, attributing the war to the
evil consequences of slavery, summed up his attitude in the famous phrase "with
malice toward none, with charity for all." A few weeks later, he publicly
announced his support for limited black suffrage in Louisiana. This open
defiance of conservative opinion could only have strengthened the resolve of one
in his audience, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor who had long been
plotting against the president. Aroused by the prospect of votes for blacks, he
determined to carry out his assassination scheme and on April 14, 1865, shot
Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. The president died the next day.
The subject of numerous myths, Lincoln ranks with the greatest of American
statesmen. His humanitarian instincts, brilliant speeches, and unusual political
skill ensured his hold on the electorate and his success in saving the Union.
That he also gained fame as the Great Emancipator was due to a large degree to
his excellent sense of timing and his open-mindedness. Thus, he was able to
bring about the abolition of slavery and to advocate a policy of Reconstruction
that envisaged the gradual enfranchisement of the freedmen. It was a disaster
for the country that he did not live to carry it out.

Contributed by: Hans L. Trefousse



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Lincol4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Abraham Lincoln


	Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was very
important to the past history of our country.  He helped to abolish slavery in
this country and kept the American Union from splitting apart during the Civil
War.
	At 22, he moved to New Salem, Illinois.  With his gift for swapping
stories and making friends, he became quite popular and was elected to the
Illinois legislature in 1834.  In his spare time, he taught himself law and
became a lawyer.  In 1847, he was elected to the U.S. Congress, but returned to
his law practice until 1858, when his concern about the spread of slavery
prompted him to return to national politics and run for the U.S. Senate.
	Lincoln rose to greatness from a humble beginning.  Born in 1809 in a
log cabin in Kentucky, Lincoln spent most of his childhood working on the family
farm.  He had less than a year of school but managed to educate himself by
studying and reading books on his own.
	He believed that slavery and democracy were fundamentally incompatible.
In an 1858 speech, he said: What constitutes the bulwark of our own liberty and
independance?  It is not our frowning battlements, our bristling sea coats, our
army and our navy . . . Our defense is in the spirit which prized liberty as the
heritage of all men, in all lands everywhere.  Destroy this spirit and you have
planted the seeds of despotism at your own doors.   Familiarize yourself with
the chains of bondage and you prepare your own limbs to wear them (World Book
Encyclopedia).
	He lost his campaign for the Senate, but during the debates with his
opponent Stephen Douglas, he became well known for his opposotion to slavery.
The southern states, which believed they depended upon slavery to remain
prosperous in the cotton, tobacco, and rice industries, threatened to secede
from the nation if Lincoln won the election.  Lincoln was inaugurated on March 4,
1861, and by April 12, the southern states had formed the Confedrate States of
America and the Civil War began.
	It was during the Civil War that Lincoln proclaimed the slaves free in
the Confederate states.  This was his famous Emancipation Proclamation, issued
in 1863.
	But Lincoln knew that something else had to be done to insure liberty
for the slaves after the war.  So he worked hard to pass an antislavery
amendment to the Constitution.  The Thirteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in
1865, prohibited slavery in all states.  It was this important act, and the
Emancipation Proclamation, that won Lincoln his reputation as the Great
Emancipator.


   Josh Jenkins



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Abraham Lincoln 3.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Lincoln, Abraham (1809-65), 16th president of the United States (1861-65), who steered the Union to victory in the American Civil War and abolished slavery.

Early Life 


Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, near Hodgenville, Kentucky, the son of Nancy Hanks and Thomas Lincoln, pioneer farmers. At the age of two he was taken by his parents to nearby Knob Creek and at eight to Spencer County, Indiana. The following year his mother died. In 1819 his father married Sarah Bush Johnston, a kindly widow, who soon gained the boy's affection.
Lincoln grew up a tall, gangling youth, who could hold his own in physical contests and also showed great intellectual promise, although he had little formal education. In 1831, after moving with his family to Macon County, Illinois, he struck out on his own, taking cargo on a flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana. He then returned to Illinois and settled in New Salem, a short-lived community on the Sangamon River, where he split rails and clerked in a store. He gained the respect of his fellow townspeople, including the so-called Clary Grove boys, who had challenged him to physical combat, and was elected captain of his company in the Black Hawk War (1832). Returning from the war, he began an unsuccessful venture in shopkeeping that ended when his partner died. In 1833 he was appointed postmaster but had to supplement his income with surveying and various other jobs. At the same time he began to study law. That he gradually paid off his and his deceased partner's debts firmly established his reputation for honesty. The story of his romance with Ann Rutledge, a local young woman whom he knew briefly before her untimely death, is unsubstantiated.

Illinois Politician and Lawyer 



Defeated in 1832 in a race for the state legislature, Lincoln was elected on the Whig ticket two years later and served in the lower house from 1834 to 1841. He quickly emerged as one of the leaders of the party and was one of the authors of the removal of the capital to Springfield, where he settled in 1837. After his admission to the bar (1836), he entered into successive partnerships with John T. Stuart, Stephen T. Logan, and William Herndon, and soon won recognition as an effective and resourceful attorney.
In 1842 Lincoln married Mary Todd, the daughter of a prominent Kentucky banker, and despite her somewhat difficult disposition, the marriage seems to have been reasonably successful. The Lincolns had four children, only one of whom reached adulthood.
His birth in a slave state notwithstanding, Lincoln had long opposed slavery. In the legislature he voted against resolutions favorable to the "peculiar institution" and in 1837 was one of two members who signed a protest against it. Elected to Congress in 1846, he attracted attention because of his outspoken criticism of the war with Mexico and formulated a plan for gradual emancipation in the District of Columbia. He was not an abolitionist, however. Conceding the right of the states to manage their own affairs, he merely sought to prevent the spread of human bondage.

National Recognition 
Disappointed in a quest for federal office at the end of his one term in Congress (1847-49), Lincoln returned to Springfield to pursue his profession. In 1854, however, because of his alarm at Senator Stephen A. Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Act, he became politically active again. Clearly setting forth his opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, he argued that the measure was wrong because slavery was wrong and that Congress should keep the territories free for actual settlers (as opposed to those who traveled there mainly to vote for or against slavery). The following year he ran for the U.S. Senate, but seeing that he could not win, he yielded to Lyman Trumbull, a Democrat who opposed Douglas's bill. He campaigned for the newly founded Republican party in 1856, and in 1858 he became its senatorial candidate against Douglas. In a speech to the party's state convention that year he warned that "a house divided against itself cannot stand" and predicted the eventual triumph of freedom. Meeting Douglas in a series of debates, he challenged his opponent in effect to explain how he could reconcile his principles of popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision (see Dred Scott Case). In his reply, Douglas reaffirmed his belief in the practical ability of settlers to keep slavery out of the territories despite the Supreme Court's denial of their right to do so. Although Lincoln lost the election to Douglas, the debates won him national recognition.

Election and Secession Crisis 
In 1860 the Republicans, anxious to attract as many different factions as possible, nominated Lincoln for the presidency on a platform of slavery restriction, internal improvements, homesteads, and tariff reform. In a campaign against Douglas and John C. Breckinridge, two rival Democrats, and John Bell, of the Constitutional Union party, Lincoln won a majority of the electoral votes and was elected president.
Immediately after the election, South Carolina, followed by six other Southern states, took steps to secede from the Union. Declaring that secession was illegal but that he had no power to oppose it, President James Buchanan preferred to rely on Congress to find a compromise. The success of this effort, however, depended on Lincoln, the president-elect, who was open to concessions but refused to countenance any possible extension of slavery. Thus, the Crittenden Compromise, the most promising scheme of adjustment, failed, and a new Southern government was inaugurated in February 1861. See Confederate States of America.

Lincoln as President 
When Lincoln took the oath of office on March 4, 1861, he was confronted with a hostile Confederacy determined to expand and threatening the remaining federal forts in the South, the most important of which was Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Anxious not to offend the upper South, which had not yet seceded, Lincoln at first refused to take decisive action. After the failure of an expedition to Fort Pickens, Florida, however, he decided to relieve Fort Sumter and informed the governor of South Carolina of his intention to send food to the beleaguered garrison. The Confederates, unwilling to permit continued federal occupation of their soil, opened fire to reduce the fort, thus starting the Civil War. When Lincoln countered with a call for 75,000 volunteers, the North responded with enthusiasm, but the upper South seceded.

Military Leadership 
As commander in chief, Lincoln encountered great difficulties in the search for capable generals. After the defeat of Irvin McDowell at the First Battle of Bull Run, the president appointed George B. McClellan to lead the eastern army but found him excessively cautious. His Peninsular campaign against Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, failed, and Lincoln, whose own strategy had not succeeded in trapping Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, virtually superseded McClellan with John Pope. When Pope was defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run, the president turned once more to McClellan, only to be disappointed again. Despite his victory at Antietam, Maryland, the general was so hesitant that Lincoln finally had to remove him. The president's next choice, Ambrose Burnside, was also unfortunate. Decisively beaten at Fredericksburg, Virginia, Burnside gave way to Joseph Hooker, who in turn was routed at Chancellorsville, Virginia. Then Lincoln appointed George G. Meade, who triumphed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but failed to follow up his victory. Persisting in his determination to discover a general who could defeat the Confederates, the president in 1864 entrusted overall command to Ulysses S. Grant, the victor at Fort Donelson, Tennessee, Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee. This choice was a good one. Grant, in a series of coordinated campaigns, finally brought the war to a successful conclusion.

Emancipation 

In dealing with the problem of emancipation, Lincoln proved himself a masterful statesman. Carefully maneuvering to take advantage of radical pressure to move forward and conservative entreaties to hold back, he was able to retain the loyalty of the Democrats and the border states while still bringing about the final abolition of slavery. Lincoln pleased the radicals in 1861, when he signed the first Confiscation Act, freeing slaves used by the Confederates for military purposes. He deferred to the conservatives when he countermanded emancipation orders of the Union generals John C. Frémont and David Hunter, but again courted the radicals by reverting to a cautious antislavery program. Thus, he exerted pressure on the border states to inaugurate compensated emancipation, signed the bill for abolition in the District of Columbia, and consented to the second Confiscation Act.
On July 22, 1862, in response to radical demands and diplomatic necessity, he told his cabinet that he intended to issue an emancipation proclamation but took care to soften the blow to the border states by specifically exempting them. Advised to await some federal victory, he did not make his proclamation public until September 22, following the Battle of Antietam, when he announced that all slaves in areas still in rebellion within 100 days would be "then, thenceforward, and forever, free." The final Emancipation Proclamation followed on January 1, 1863. Promulgated by the president in his capacity as commander in chief in times of actual armed rebellion, it freed slaves in regions held by the insurgents and authorized the creation of black military units. Lincoln was determined to place emancipation on a more permanent basis, however, and in 1864 he advocated the adoption of an antislavery amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The amendment was passed after Lincoln's reelection, when he made use of all the powers of his office to ensure its success in the House of Representatives (January 31, 1865).

Political Skill 
A consummate politician, Lincoln sought to maintain harmony among the disparate elements of his party by giving them representation in his cabinet. Recognizing former Whigs by the appointment of William H. Seward as secretary of state and Edward Bates as attorney general, he also extended invitations to such former Democrats as Montgomery Blair, who became postmaster general, and Gideon Welles, who became secretary of the navy. He honored local factions by appointing Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania secretary of war and Caleb B. Smith of Indiana secretary of the interior, while satisfying the border states with Bates and Blair. At the same time, he offset the conservative Bates with the radical Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase and later with Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Although Lincoln was much closer to the radicals and gradually moved toward ever more radical measures, he did not needlessly offend the conservatives and often collaborated with them. His careful handling of the slavery issue is a case in point, as is his appointment of Democratic generals and his deference to the sensibilities of the border states. In December 1862 he foiled critics demanding the dismissal of the conservative Seward. Refusing to accept Seward's resignation and inducing the radical Chase to offer to step down as well, he maintained the balance of his cabinet by retaining both secretaries.
Lincoln's political influence was enhanced by his great gifts as an orator. Able to stress essentials in simple terms, he effectively appealed to the nation in such classical short speeches as the Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural address. Moreover, he was a capable diplomat. Firmly rejecting Seward's proposal in April 1861 that the country be united by means of a foreign war, he sought to maintain friendly relations with the nations of Europe, used the Emancipation Proclamation to win friends for the Union, and effectively countered Confederate efforts to gain foreign recognition.

Reelection and Reconstruction 
In 1864 a number of disgruntled Republicans sought to prevent Lincoln's renomination. Adroitly outmaneuvering his opponents, especially the ambitious Chase, he succeeded in obtaining his party's endorsement at Baltimore, Maryland, even though a few extremists nominated Frémont. Lincoln's renomination did not end his political problems, however. Unhappy with his Proclamation of Amnesty (December 1863), which called for the restoration of insurgent states if 10 percent of the electorate took an oath of loyalty, Congress in July 1864 passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which provided for more onerous conditions and their acceptance by 50 percent of the voters. When Lincoln used the pocket veto to kill it, some radicals sought to displace him and in the so-called Wade-Davis Manifesto passionately attacked the administration.
The president, nevertheless, prevailed again. His poor prospects in August 1864 improved when the Democrats nominated General McClellan on a peace platform. Subsequent federal victories and the withrawal of Frémont, coupled with the resignation of the conservative Blair, reunited the party, and in November 1864 Lincoln was triumphantly reelected.
The president's success at the polls enabled him to seek to establish his own Reconstruction policies. To blunt conservative criticism, he met with leading Confederates at Hampton Roads, Virginia, and demonstrated the impossibility of a negotiated peace. The radicals, however, were also dissatisfied. Because of their demand for black suffrage, Lincoln was unable to induce Congress to accept the members-elect of the free state government of Louisiana, which he had organized. In addition, after the fall of Richmond, he alarmed his critics by inviting the Confederate legislature of Virginia to repeal the secession ordinance. His Reconstruction policies, however, had been determined by military necessity. As soon as the Confederate general Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln withdrew the invitation to the Virginians. He again proved how close he was to the radicals by endorsing a limited black franchise.

The Assassination 
At his second inaugural, Lincoln, attributing the war to the evil consequences of slavery, summed up his attitude in the famous phrase "with malice toward none, with charity for all." A few weeks later, he publicly announced his support for limited black suffrage in Louisiana. This open defiance of conservative opinion could only have strengthened the resolve of one in his audience, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor who had long been plotting against the president. Aroused by the prospect of votes for blacks, he determined to carry out his assassination scheme and on April 14, 1865, shot Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. The president died the next day.
The subject of numerous myths, Lincoln ranks with the greatest of American statesmen. His humanitarian instincts, brilliant speeches, and unusual political skill ensured his hold on the electorate and his success in saving the Union. That he also gained fame as the Great Emancipator was due to a large degree to his excellent sense of timing and his open-mindedness. Thus, he was able to bring about the abolition of slavery and to advocate a policy of Reconstruction that envisaged the gradual enfranchisement of the freedmen. It was a disaster for the country that he did not live to carry it out.

Contributed by: 
Hans L. Trefousse

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\ABRAHAM LINCOLN.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Abraham Lincoln
by 


	Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, was very important to the past history of our country.  He helped to abolish slavery in this country and kept the American Union from splitting apart during the Civil War.
	At 22, he moved to New Salem, Illinois.  With his gift for swapping stories and making friends, he became quite popular and was elected to the Illinois legislature in 1834.  In his spare time, he taught himself law and became a lawyer.  In 1847, he was elected to the U.S. Congress, but returned to his law practice until 1858, when his concern about the spread of slavery prompted him to return to national politics and run for the U.S. Senate.
	Lincoln rose to greatness from a humble beginning.  Born in 1809 in a log cabin in Kentucky, Lincoln spent most of his childhood working on the family farm.  He had less than a year of school but managed to educate himself by studying and reading books on his own.
	He believed that slavery and democracy were fundamentally incompatible.  In an 1858 speech, he said:
What constitutes the bulwark of our own liberty and independance?  It is not our frowning battlements, our bristling sea coats, our army and our navy . . . Our defense is in the spirit which prized liberty as the heritage of all men, in all lands everywhere.  Destroy this spirit and you have planted the seeds of despotism at your own doors.   Familiarize yourself with the chains of bondage and you prepare your own limbs to wear them (World Book Encyclopedia).

	He lost his campaign for the Senate, but during the debates with his opponent Stephen Douglas, he became well known for his opposotion to slavery.  The southern states, which believed they depended upon slavery to remain prosperous in the cotton, tobacco, and rice industries, threatened to secede from the nation if Lincoln won the election.  Lincoln was inaugurated on March 4, 1861, and by April 12, the southern states had formed the Confedrate States of America and the Civil War began.
	It was during the Civil War that Lincoln proclaimed the slaves free in the Confederate states.  This was his famous Emancipation Proclamation, issued in 1863.
	But Lincoln knew that something else had to be done to insure liberty for the slaves after the war.  So he worked hard to pass an antislavery amendment to the Constitution.  The Thirteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in 1865, prohibited slavery in all states.  It was this important act, and the Emancipation Proclamation, that won Lincoln his reputation as the Great Emancipator.






                                                                                     Josh Jenkins
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Adolf Hitle1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Adolf Hitler


                          1. THE BEGINNING
     At half past six on the evening of April 20th, 1889 a child was born in the
small town of Branau, Austria.  The name of the child was Adolf Hitler.  He was
the son a Customs official Alois Hitler, and his third wife Klara.
     As a young boy Adolf attendated church regulary and sang in the local choir.
 One day he carved a symbol into the bench which resembled the Swastika he later
used as the symbol of the Nazi party.  He was a pretty good student.  He
received good marks in most of his classes.  However in his last year of school
he failed German and Mathematics, and only succeeded in Gym and Drawing.  He
drooped out of school at the age of 16, spending a total of 10 years in school.
From childhood one it was his dream to become an artist or architect.  He was
not a bad artist, as his surviving paintings and drawings show but he never
showed any originality or creative imagination.  To fullfil his dream he had
moved to Vienna the capital of Austria where the Academy of arts was located.
He failed the first time he tried to get admission and in the next year, 1907 he
tried again and was very sure of success.  To his surprise he failed again.  In
fact the Dean of the academy was not very impressed with his performance, and
gave him a really hard time and said to him "You will never be painter."  The
rejection really crushed him as he now reached a dead end.  He could not apply
to the school of architecture as he had no high-school diploma.  During the next
35 years of his live the young man never forgot the rejection he received in the
dean's office that day.       Many Historians like to speculate what would have
happened IF.... perhaps the small town boy would have had a bit more
talent....or IF the Dean had been a little less critical, the world might have
been spared the nightmare into which this boy was eventually to plunge it.

                         2. WORLD WAR I
     While living in Vienna Hitler he made his living by drawing small pictures
of famous landmarks which he sold as post cards. But he was always poor.  He was
also a regular reader of a small paper which claimed that the Araban race was
superior to all and was destined to rule the world.  The paper blamed Communists
and Jews for all their problems and hitler agreed to those views. Hitler agree
with most of the points made in the publication.  He continued to live a poor
live in Vienna and in 1913 decided to move to Munich.  Still living in Vienna
and being Austrain by birth, Hitler showed more loyalty to the Geramny.  He
thought that the Aryan race was destined to rule the world.  Many believe that
he tried to escape the draft but it was never proven.  His live in Munich was
not much better then before and he continued to be poor.  Then in 1914 World War
I broke out and Hitler saw this as a great opportunity to show his loyalty to
the "fatherland" by volunteering for the Imperial army.  He did not want to
fight in the Austrian Army.  Hitler was a good soldier. Many of political
opponents claimed that he was a coward but records clearly show that he was not.
He received to awards of bravery but never achieved a high Rank.
     In 1918 Germany surrendered and Hitler was very upset about the loss.  He
believed that it was the Jews and the Communists who betrayed the "fatherland"
and it was here that his disliking of the Jews most likely began.  Germany after
the war was in chaos.  With no real Government to control the country, many
groups tried to take control.  One day a big communist group staged a big riot
but another group of ex-soldiers including Hitler managed to hold them back.

                         3. THE NAZI PARTY
     Since there were not many chances for employment Hitler stayed in the army.
Hitler was assigned the job of going go to various meetings of groups which
sprang up like mushrooms and to report on them.  One day September 12, 1919 - a
fateful day in history, Hitler was sent to investigate a small group which
called itself the "German Workers Party".  Hitler was not to happy about his
assignment.  He thought it wouldn't be worth it to even go.  At the group mainly
talked about the Countries problem and how the Jews, communists and others where
threatening the master race and offered their own solutions.   Hitler was bored
by the meeting but when a man stood up and claimed that Bavaria should separate
from Germany, Hitler got up and argued that point.  He argued that Germany and
germans must unite into one to survive.  His natural ability to speak imprest
the leader of the group and at the end of the meeting he gave Hitler a pamphlet
and an initiation the next meeting.  He wasn't interested in attending but after
reading the hand out he accepted.  He later joined the German Workers Party and
was in charge of Propaganda.  The party was small at first but Hitler's great
skill at deliberating speeches attracted more and more listeners and it soon
became a major party with many followers. Eventually Adolf Hitler became it's
leader and the rest as they say....is history.

                       4. HITLER IN POWER
     While spending time in prison for trying to overthrow the government Adolf
Hitler wrote his famous book "Mein Kampf", in which he describes many problems
and where he states that the Jews and communists were responsible for those
problems.  He also decided on the "Final Solution" to the "Jewish Question".  It
was his goal to eliminate the Jewish race from the European continent.     It is
interesting to look and see how a small time boy from Austria with no education,
money or political background could become within a few years the leader of big
nation such as Germany.  Historians believe that Hitler saw a great opportunity
to get his views across to the German people who have lost all hope.  Of course
people did not start to support him right away. After he came into power, the
Nazi party took control over every aspect of every day life.  Hitler ordered the
creation of a special police force to make sure that all opponents would be
elimanted, the Gestapo.  He also gave orders to set up a special force which
would be used to transport and take care of all political prisioners and people
thought to be inferior.  The name of the force was the feared SS.  Mass
propaganda was used to persuade the German people that the "Fuhrer" would make
the country strong and powerful again.  They also used propaganda against the
Jews and other minority groups which were considered enemies.  Teachers had to
belong to the Nazi party, and children were taught that Jews very the source of
all their problems. Since the country was in chaos after the war, and was forced
to pay billions in damages, The Germans saw hope in Adolf Hitler. In the late
20's the depression hit which made the situation even worse.
     Hitler in his speeches blamed the Jews and Communists for their misfortunes
and many listed.  Unemployment was very high at that time standing at about 25%.
Hitler also spoke out against the unfairness of the Versailles treaty.  Germany
lost a lot of its territory.  The Empire was no more.  He believed the pure
Araban race is destined to rule the world and wanted to build an Empire that
would last a 1000 years.  He preached that all Germans must unite in order for
this goal to succeed.
     Hitler publicly stated his views on the Jews.  But the Jews of Germany
didn't see Hitler as a great threat at first.  However when Hitler became
chancellor and eventually took over totally they changed their mind.  The first
thing he did was to take the Jews their right to vote.  Soon they were not
allowed to marry with a pure german, they could not hold positions such as
teachers, doctors lawyers,..and so on.  Many Jews only then realized that he was
serious and many fled Germany.  Why did so many Germans follow Hitler?  When he
took power the economy was basically non existent.  Many looked for answers and
hope. Hitler was their answer.  He promised to rebuild the Glorious Germany of
the past.  First he started to build up the Wehrmacht. Germany was not allowed
to have more than 100,000 men, but Hitler broke the treaty and gave orders to
increase that number. Factories started putting out weapons and people now had
jobs. To the Germans this was a very good sign.  Mass rallies were held, where
Hitler continued to use his powers of speech on the German people.

                        5. THE ROAD TO WAR
     At first the allies did nothing about the fact that Hitler broke the Treaty.
He gave speeches in which he indicated that the German people needed living
space.  Later he Marched into the Reihnland, and area which Germany lost.  Next
He moved into Austria, his home country and annexed it without a shoot being
fired into the Reich.  Following Austria, he wanted control of the Sudetenland,
a part of Czechoslovakia which was mainly German speaking.  He also achieved
that goal.  The allies didn't want another war so they led Hitler do what he
wanted to, but when he Attacked Poland on September 1st, 1939 the allies no
longer stood by and watched.  Britain and France declared war on Germany a few
days after later, World War II began.

                         6. THE DARK SIDE
     After the Wehrmacht conquered and occupied a territory the SS quickly
followed.  They would round up Jews, Communists, Gypsies, Homosexuals and others
which were viewed as "Inferior" according to Nazi racial theory and enemies of
the German people and put on trains.  They were all sent to Concentration camps,
which were set up to implement the 'final solution'.  Camps such as Auschwitz,
Treblinka, Bergen Belsen were all equipped with gas chambers to make the killing
process quick and efectfull.  In those camps 6 million Jews and many others were
killed by the Nazis.  Hitler's army seemed unstoppable but in the end, the
allies managed to win many decisive battles.  Eventually on Aril 30th, 1945
Hitler committed suicide in his bunker by shooting himself in the mouth.  His
body was burned, but no ones knows what happened to the "Fuhrer's" ashes.  On
May 7th, 1945 Germany surrendered unconditionally.

                            7. THE MAN
     Hitler was one of the most, if not the most cruel man to ever walk the face
of the earth.  His believe of the superiorority of the "Aryan" race made him
hate all others.  He believed that the slaws to the east should be made work for
the German people.  He thought of blacks as being "Sub-human".  And Most of all
he hated the Jews.  So much that in early 1945, when equipment and manpower was
badly needed on the front Hitler insisited on man and equipment staying and
continuing to tranport Jews to the camps.  In his Testament he left his money to
his family.  And message to the Germany people "Above all I charge the leaders
of the nation and those under them to scrupulous observance of the laws of race
and to merciless opposition to the universal poisoner of all peoples,
international Jewry."
     The only people which would be spared where the Scandinavians to the north,
since they were closely related to the German race.  With Hitler's death the
Nazi party quickly fated.  But there is still a lot of tension in todays Germany.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Adolf Hitle2.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

The young years: Adoph Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 and lived in south Austria. He left for high school at the age of twelve and did poorly and never did finish. In 1903, his father died when Hitler was only fourteen years old. In 1907, Hitler decided to leave for Vienna to attend the Academy School of Fine Arts. Due to his unsatisfactory drawings, Hitler failed to be accepted. Soon after that, he received a letter from his sister informing him of his mother's illness, cancer. Hitler headed back home to stay with his mother until the end. His mother died in the year of 1907, and Hitler tried again at the Academy School of Fine Arts. He was, again, rejected due to severe competition of acceptance. Hitler sold his paintings on the streets in order to survive. In August 1914, Hitler volunteered for the army. Later in his army career he received two of the most honorable awards, the first class iron cross. A man told Hitler of a rumor stating the Bavarian government is going to break away from Germany and join Austria. Outraged, Hitler gave many persuasive speeches on why the government shouldn't break away. Later Hitler took over a group and renaming it NSADAP, which is infamously known as the Nazi party. Hitler tried taking over the Bavarian government by force. This invasion caused his imprisonment of five years, but he happened to be released after about six months. While in prison, he began writing his book Mein Kamph (My Struggle). When Hitler was released from prison, he quickly found out that the Nazi party membership has fallen drastically. The party was no longer allowed to have private and public meetings and Hitler could no longer speak in public. Hitler was determined to bring the Nazi party back together. The party began to grow slowly and in secret, and after the stock market crash hundreds and soon thousands joined each month due to the public rallies produced by Hitler. With his popularity growing at an outrageous speed, Hitler decided to take over the whole country. Before the elections, he launched a major propaganda campaign. He soon won a seat in the Reichstag, German congress. Hitler had a chance at becoming Chancellor, but was beat out by the previous Chancellor, Charles Bruning. Now the Nazi was official the second largest party in the country, next to the Communist. Hitler was disgusted with the Communist party, and had their meetings attacked. At this time Hitler was not a German citizen, and a day before he was officially appointed Chancellor he became a German citizen. Hitler continued having storm troopers attacking Communist meetings. A close friend claimed to have official documents saying that the Communists were planning a revolution. The Reichstag was later set on fire, and Hitler believed it was the beginning of the Communist Revolution. The Nazi party was growing extremely fast, beating out the Communist party. In the Third Reich, Hitler had total control. Hitler came to realize that he must combine the powers of the president and the Chancellor. Though after the death of the President, he held an election to combine the companies. He launched another propaganda company, and he won. Hitler had total control, and he had to answer to no one. The expansion of on Germany began in 1938, when Hitler's army marched into Austria, and later into Czechoslovakia. The invasion of Poland 1939 triggered World War II, a war that last almost five years and cost the lives of nearly fifty million people. Hitler's intense racism led to the infamous Holocaust, in which, the exterminating of million innocent people, especially Jewish. On April 29, 1945, Hitler heard of Mussolini's death, and decided that he too should die. Then, he and Eva Braun, his girlfriend, sat on a sofa. He shot himself in his right temple as she bit into a poison capsule.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Adolf Hitler 2.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

                                
                             ADOLF HITLER
                          1. THE BEGINNING
     At half past six on the evening of April 20th, 1889 a child
was born in the small town of Branau, Austria.  The name of the
child was Adolf Hitler.  He was the son a Customs official Alois
Hitler, and his third wife Klara.  
     As a young boy Adolf attendated church regulary and sang in
the local choir.  One day he carved a symbol into the bench which
resembled the Swastika he later used as the symbol of the Nazi
party.  He was a pretty good student.  He received good marks in
most of his classes.  However in his last year of school he
failed German and Mathematics, and only succeeded in Gym and
Drawing.  He drooped out of school at the age of 16, spending a
total of 10 years in school.  From childhood one it was his dream
to become an artist or architect.  He was not a bad artist, as
his surviving paintings and drawings show but he never showed any
originality or creative imagination.  To fullfil his dream he had
moved to Vienna the capital of Austria where the Academy of arts
was located.  He failed the first time he tried to get admission
and in the next year, 1907 he tried again and was very sure of
success.  To his surprise he failed again.  In fact the Dean of
the academy was not very impressed with his performance, and gave
him a really hard time and said to him "You will never be
painter."  The rejection really crushed him as he now reached a
dead end.  He could not apply to the school of architecture as he
had no high-school diploma.  During the next 35 years of his live
the young man never forgot the rejection he received in the
dean's office that day.       Many Historians like to speculate
what would have happened IF.... perhaps the small town boy would
have had a bit more talent....or IF the Dean had been a little
less critical, the world might have been spared the nightmare
into which this boy was eventually to plunge it.  
                         2. WORLD WAR I
     While living in Vienna Hitler he made his living by drawing
small pictures of famous landmarks which he sold as post cards. 
But he was always poor.  He was also a regular reader of a small
paper which claimed that the Araban race was superior to all and
was destined to rule the world.  The paper blamed Communists and
Jews for all their problems and hitler agreed to those views. 
Hitler agree with most of the points made in the publication.  He
continued to live a poor live in Vienna and in 1913 decided to
move to Munich.  Still living in Vienna and being Austrain by
birth, Hitler showed more loyalty to the Geramny.  He thought
that the Aryan race was destined to rule the world.  Many believe
that he tried to escape the draft but it was never proven.  His
live in Munich was not much better then before and he continued
to be poor.  Then in 1914 World War I broke out and Hitler saw
this as a great opportunity to show his loyalty to the
"fatherland" by volunteering for the Imperial army.  He did not
want to fight in the Austrian Army.  Hitler was a good soldier. 
Many of political opponents claimed that he was a coward but
records clearly show that he was not.  He received to awards of
bravery but never achieved a high Rank.
     In 1918 Germany surrendered and Hitler was very upset about
the loss.  He believed that it was the Jews and the Communists
who betrayed the "fatherland" and it was here that his disliking
of the Jews most likely began.  Germany after the war was in
chaos.  With no real Government to control the country, many
groups tried to take control.  One day a big communist group
staged a big riot but another group of ex-soldiers including
Hitler managed to hold them back.   
                         3. THE NAZI PARTY
     Since there were not many chances for employment Hitler
stayed in the army.  Hitler was assigned the job of going go to
various meetings of groups which sprang up like mushrooms and to
report on them.  One day September 12, 1919 - a fateful day in
history, Hitler was sent to investigate a small group which
called itself the "German Workers Party".  Hitler was not to
happy about his assignment.  He thought it wouldn't be worth it
to even go.  At the group mainly talked about the Countries
problem and how the Jews, communists and others where threatening
the master race and offered their own solutions.   Hitler was
bored by the meeting but when a man stood up and claimed that
Bavaria should separate from Germany, Hitler got up and argued
that point.  He argued that Germany and germans must unite into
one to survive.  His natural ability to speak imprest the leader
of the group and at the end of the meeting he gave Hitler a
pamphlet and an initiation the next meeting.  He wasn't
interested in attending but after reading the hand out he
accepted.  He later joined the German Workers Party and was in
charge of Propaganda.  The party was small at first but Hitler's
great skill at deliberating speeches attracted more and more
listeners and it soon became a major party with many followers. 
Eventually Adolf Hitler became it's leader and the rest as they
say....is history.
                       4. HITLER IN POWER
     While spending time in prison for trying to overthrow the
government Adolf Hitler wrote his famous book "Mein Kampf", in
which he describes many problems and where he states that the
Jews and communists were responsible for those problems.  He also
decided on the "Final Solution" to the "Jewish Question".  It was
his goal to eliminate the Jewish race from the European
continent.     It is interesting to look and see how a small time
boy from Austria with no education, money or political background
could become within a few years the leader of big nation such as
Germany.  Historians believe that Hitler saw a great opportunity
to get his views across to the German people who have lost all
hope.  Of course people did not start to support him right away. 
After he came into power, the Nazi party took control over every
aspect of every day life.  Hitler ordered the creation of a
special police force to make sure that all opponents would be
elimanted, the Gestapo.  He also gave orders to set up a special
force which would be used to transport and take care of all
political prisioners and people thought to be inferior.  The name
of the force was the feared SS.  Mass propaganda was used to
persuade the German people that the "Fuhrer" would make the
country strong and powerful again.  They also used propaganda
against the Jews and other minority groups which were considered
enemies.  Teachers had to belong to the Nazi party, and children
were taught that Jews very the source of all their problems. 
Since the country was in chaos after the war, and was forced to
pay billions in damages, The Germans saw hope in Adolf Hitler. 
In the late 20's the depression hit which made the situation even
worse.  
     Hitler in his speeches blamed the Jews and Communists for
their misfortunes and many listed.  Unemployment was very high at
that time standing at about 25%.  Hitler also spoke out against
the unfairness of the Versailles treaty.  Germany lost a lot of
its territory.  The Empire was no more.  He believed the pure
Araban race is destined to rule the world and wanted to build an
Empire that would last a 1000 years.  He preached that all
Germans must unite in order for this goal to succeed.  
     Hitler publicly stated his views on the Jews.  But the Jews
of Germany didn't see Hitler as a great threat at first.  However
when Hitler became chancellor and eventually took over totally
they changed their mind.  The first thing he did was to take the
Jews their right to vote.  Soon they were not allowed to marry
with a pure german, they could not hold positions such as
teachers, doctors lawyers,..and so on.  Many Jews only then
realized that he was serious and many fled Germany.  Why did so
many Germans follow Hitler?  When he took power the economy was
basically non existent.  Many looked for answers and hope. 
Hitler was their answer.  He promised to rebuild the Glorious
Germany of the past.  First he started to build up the Wehrmacht. 
Germany was not allowed to have more than 100,000 men, but Hitler
broke the treaty and gave orders to increase that number. 
Factories started putting out weapons and people now had jobs. 
To the Germans this was a very good sign.  Mass rallies were
held, where Hitler continued to use his powers of speech on the
German people.
                        5. THE ROAD TO WAR
     At first the allies did nothing about the fact that Hitler
broke the Treaty.  He gave speeches in which he indicated that
the German people needed living space.  Later he Marched into the
Reihnland, and area which Germany lost.  Next He moved into
Austria, his home country and annexed it without a shoot being
fired into the Reich.  Following Austria, he wanted control of
the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia which was mainly German
speaking.  He also achieved that goal.  The allies didn't want
another war so they led Hitler do what he wanted to, but when he
Attacked Poland on September 1st, 1939 the allies no longer stood
by and watched.  Britain and France declared war on Germany a few
days after later, World War II began.
                         6. THE DARK SIDE
     After the Wehrmacht conquered and occupied a territory the
SS quickly followed.  They would round up Jews, Communists,
Gypsies, Homosexuals and others which were viewed as "Inferior"
according to Nazi racial theory and enemies of the German people
and put on trains.  They were all sent to Concentration camps,
which were set up to implement the 'final solution'.  Camps such
as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Bergen Belsen were all equipped with gas
chambers to make the killing process quick and efectfull.  In
those camps 6 million Jews and many others were killed by the
Nazis.  Hitler's army seemed unstoppable but in the end, the
allies managed to win many decisive battles.  Eventually on Aril
30th, 1945 Hitler committed suicide in his bunker by shooting
himself in the mouth.  His body was burned, but no ones knows
what happened to the "Fuhrer's" ashes.  On May 7th, 1945 Germany
surrendered unconditionally.  
                            7. THE MAN
     Hitler was one of the most, if not the most cruel man to
ever walk the face of the earth.  His believe of the
superiorority of the "Aryan" race made him hate all others.  He
believed that the slaws to the east should be made work for the
German people.  He thought of blacks as being "Sub-human".  And
Most of all he hated the Jews.  So much that in early 1945, when
equipment and manpower was badly needed on the front Hitler
insisited on man and equipment staying and continuing to tranport
Jews to the camps.  In his Testament he left his money to his
family.  And message to the Germany people "Above all I charge
the leaders of the nation and those under them to scrupulous
observance of the laws of race and to merciless opposition to the
universal poisoner of all peoples, international Jewry."  
     The only people which would be spared where the
Scandinavians to the north, since they were closely related to
the German race.  With Hitler's death the Nazi party quickly
fated.  But there is still a lot of tension in todays Germany.
----------------
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Adolf Hitler 4.TXT
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Adolf Hitler

       Adolf Hitler was born on April 20,1889. This was the beginning with horrible plans for power and control of other people.Some of the things that Hitler did throughout his life were very cruel things; first of all, he was a man who loved war and fighting. Second, he was in charge of putting all of the innocent Jews into Concentration Camps and killing them. Third, he wanted one dominate race of all the same kind of people. Fourth, he had a life long obsession with danger.  Fifth, he blamed the Jews for the war debt and sentenced them all to die. So as you can see already Hitler was a very cruel person.
	 The fact that he wanted one dominate race was unbelievably true. First of all, the fact he would kill everyone one way or 
another that didn't have blond hair and blue eye and was of 
German descent, was a frightening fact. The idea of this gives me quite a scare my self, because I have brown hair, and brown eyes and would I have been killed just because I did not Hitlers physical standards.  Also Hitler himself did not have blond hair and blue 
eyes. Next, I don't think that you should judge anyone by the way 
they look or what they do; that is very wrong. Hitler's idea of one 
dominate race was a very bad one.
	Adolf Hitler was born in an Austrian town known as Braunau 
am Inn. Hitler was the son of a man named Alois. Alois Hitler's 
father was a Custom official's, and his mother was named Klara. Alois was illegitimate, first of all he used his mother's name, 
Schicklgruber until 1876, when he adopted the name Hitler.  
Adolf's father was very strict with him, and ignored him most of the 
time because Adolf liked to dream. As you can see Adolf did not 
idealize his father very much, and his death in 1903 actually came as a relief to Adolf.  Adolf really idealized his mother, whose death in 1907 had a traumatic effect on him. So as you can see Adolf lead a very mixed up childhood.
	As Hitler grew up, he failed as a student in the classical secondary schools. This led Hitler to new opportunities, for instance his desire to become an artist.  Adolf tried to pursue this dream but, was unable to attain admission to the Academy of Fine Arts.  Since he was unable to do anything, he lead a shadowy, alienated existence in multicultural Vienna until 1913. Hitler was described as living his life in melancholy, aimlessness, and racial hatred.  Also in Vienna he established his life long obsession with danger. Hitler was a failure at virtually everything he tried in his early years as you can see.
	In 1913 Hitler went to Munich, partly to evade being drafted into the Austrian army.  There he answered the call to colors at the outbreak of World War I and Served in the Bavarian Sixteenth Regiment on the Western Front. This turned Hitler's life around, for example, he distinguished himself for bravery and was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class. For the first time in Hitler's life, he had found a home. He glorified, for example, the "raw majesty of life under fire, the beauty of comradeship, and the nobility of the warrior." His soldiery dreams of victory and fulfillment were shattered, however, by German defeat.  He became convinced that Germany had been "stabbed in the back" by Jews and Marxists. So now you can see that this started his extreme hatred if the Jewish people and the realization he needed to become involved in this problem. 
	After the war, Hitler returned to Munich and joined a small National group called the German Workers Party. In 1920, this group changed it's name to the National Socialist German Workers Party, which became known as the Nazi party.  Some of the things t Nazi's called for were the creation of a strong central government, and the cancellation of the Versailles Treaty. So in conclusion Hitler became very involved in this new party.
	Hitler was a skillful schemer, politician, and organizer. For example, he became leader of the Nazi party and built up membership fast. This came partly from his ability to stir street crowds with his speeches. Hitler had too much control over the Nazi party; for example he attacked the government and assured that the Nazi party would assure jobs for workers and greatness for Germany. So in concusion Hitler was proving to be a good organizer and politician.
	Hitler organized a private army of hoodlums who became known as storm troopers. They fought Communist and others who tried to break up the Nazi party. Hitler established many of these. For example, in October 1923, he had 15,000 Nazi party members with machine guns and rifles. Next, to identify these men as special Nazi party members, he gave them brown shirts with swastikas on them to distinguish them as part of the Nazi party.
	In 1923 Germany was deep in trouble; first it's money had lost almost all of it's value because of severe economic problems. Second, France and Belgium had sent troops to occupy the Rhur valley of Germany.  Third, the Bavarian state government in Munich was open to conflict with the national government in Berlin. Hitler regarded this quarrel as a chance to take over both the Bavarian and the national German governments. So as you can see Hitler was starting to get himself into trouble.
	On November 8, 1923, at a rally in a Munich beer hall, Hitler proclaimed a Nazi revolution. The next day he tried to seize the Bavarian government in what became known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler led more than 2,000 Storm Troopers in a march against the government. This led to the police opening fire and killing 16 Nazis the plot failed. Hitler was arrested and sent to jail for 5 years in prison for treason. Asa result the revolution failed.
	Because some Germans agreed with his ideas, Hitler was freed after only nine months. Great changes had taken place in Germany since his imprisonment. For example, most of the people had begun to get homes, jobs, and had hope for the future. Once Hitler was released, he reformed the Nazi party. They had been banned and many of the members had gone to other political parties. Hitler said that he would not let the Nazi group would not do anymore illegal acts, and the government made them reform.  Hitler also made up a private army of elite guards, after his release, the Schutzstaffel, known as the SS. The SS was a battle ready army. In final conclusion after the release of Hitler he had reformed a plan to refine the party further.
	In 1930 a worldwide depression hit Germany. This first of all caused people to face unemployment and hunger again. This depression started the same year that Germany agreed to pay the Young Plan which it had agreed to follow to pay off the war debt.
Hitler's opposition to the plan made him known throughout the country. First, he led protest marches. Second, he organized mass meetings. Third, he made many speeches. In conclusion you can see Hitler was looking for someone to pay for what happened to Germany in the World War I. The war debt had to be paid.
	Hitler added his old arguments to the question of the war debt payment plan. First of all he blamed Jews, and Communist, for Germany's defeat in World War I. He thought that now the Jews were plotting to cheat "true" Germans by destroying the fruit of their years of struggle. Because of this Hitler promised to rid Germany of the Germans and the Communist, and reunite the parts of Europe in which German was spoken. As you can see Hitler  already started to rise to great power, and bring about the expulsion of all Jews. 
	In Conclusion you can now understand that the rise of Adolf Hitler marks a violent chapter in German history. He and his Nazi party still have fallowers today, hopefully not to the same end.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Adolf Hitler 5.TXT
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Adolf Hitler, to some, was a great ruler, but to others he was a murderer. Hitler was the leader of the Nazi party and was the dictator of Germany. He ordered to have millions of Jews murdered or thrown in prisons. Adolf Hitler was born April 20, 1889, in a small town in Australia called Branuan. His dad's name was Alios Hitler and was a customs official. He was 51 years old when Adolf was born. Klara Polz, Adolf's mother, was a farm girl and was 28 when Adolf was born. Klara and Alios had 6 children , but only Adolf and his sister Paula survived childhood. Adolf was a good student in elementary and got good grades. When he reached high school his studies dropped, and he dropped out of school when he was just 16 years old. In 1903 his father, Alios, died. Four years later, Hitler went to Vienna to study art, while he was away his mother, Klara, died. Hitler's hate for Jews and Slavs grew and became fiercely nationalistic. In 1913 he moved to Munich, Germany to become part of the Australian Army. The army found him physically unfit to be in the service. World War I began August 1914 and Hitler immediately signed for the Germany Army and was accepted. He served as a messenger and was decorated twice for bravery after two near death experiences. He was promoted to corporal. While recovering from an battle injury that caused temporary blindness, Germany surrendered to her enemies in November 1918. Hitler was angered and felt compelled to save Germany. In the Autumn of 1919, Hitler attended meetings of the "Germany Workers Party." After joining the group and they decided to change their name to "National Socialist German Workers." This party was soon known as the Nazi party. Hitler was chosen as the leader because he was a skillful politician and organizer. In 1923 German workers went on strike against the government. Germany's money value decreased to about nothing. Hitler proclaimed a Nazi revolution or a "putch." While Hitler and 2,000 troops were protesting, the police shot into the crowd, killing 16 troops. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in jail. While Hitler was in jail he wrote the Mein Kamph which means "My Struggle." The book revealed his beliefs and ideas for Germany's government and his plans on taking over Europe. He believed that Germans were superior humanity and Hitler wanted to keep Germany "pure." He said Jews and Slavs were the evils of the world. In December 1924, Hitler was released after serving only nine months. The economy's recovery was very slow, but now most people had work, homes, food, and hopes for the future. After the revolt, the government decided to outlaw the Nazi party. Hitler argued against the government to lift the law. The government later decided to lift the law. The depression hit Germany in 1930. Hitler spoke many speeches promising to get rid of the communists and other "enemies." In 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany. There were two other Nazi in the cabinet, Goering and Wilhelm Frick. Through Wilhelm Frick leadership the Nazis had control of the police. Groering organized a big army and ordered them to shoot any "enemies" on any encounter. When the dictator, Hindenburg, died, Hitler became dictator and received full power of Germany. Hitler preferred the name Fuhrer und Reichskanzer meaning "leader." With the Nazi party controlling Germany, Jews were ordered around frequently. In 1935 the Jews in Germany were declared to have lesser rights than any other citizens. Thousands of Jews decided to leave their homes. The Jews who stayed were forced into concentration camps and needed official permission to accept work, move, or even travel. Hitler set up organizations to train children military discipline and loyalty to the country. The boys organizations was called "Hitler's Youth." The girls organization was called "Society of Germany Maidens." The kids were taught to spy on their families and report on anti-Nazi criticism. Hitler began to build the army so it was ready to fight. In 1938 Hitler took over Australia and made is part of Germany. In March 1939 he took over Czechoslovakia. Later on September 1, 1939 Germany invaded Poland starting World War 2. Britain and France declared war two days later. Hitler took over Poland in a few weeks. By spring 1940 Hitler conquered Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, and France. In June Benito Mussolini, Italy's dictator, declared war on Germany. A year later, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. The U.S. sent supplies to support the Soviet Union. Totally about 2/3 of the Jews in Europe, six million, were murdered. Hitler's victims also included Gypsies, Poles, Slavs, Jahova witnesses, priests, and ministers. People were trying to overthrow Hitler since 1938. Hitler almost died when he found a bomb in a briefing room June 1944. In 1945 Hitler married Eva Braun. One day later Hitler and Eva both killed themselves on April 29, 1945. Seven days later Germany surrendered. In conclusion, Adolf Hitler, and man filled with an intense anger, killed millions of Jews, who in his eyes were an inferior race. Hitler desired to create a "pure" race, white skin, blonde hair and blue eyes. It is sad that he organized followers to destroy so many innocent lives to design what is not possible. Bibliography "Adolf Hitler." Microsoft Encarta 2000. 2000 Ed. "Adolf Hitler." World Book. 1999 Ed. The Rise of Adolf Hitler [online]. Available: www.history.com/worldwar2/riseofhitler.htm [1999,Oct.21].
















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Adolf Hitler

       Adolf Hitler was born on April 20,1889. This was the beginning with horrible plans for power and control of other people.Some of the things that Hitler did throughout his life were very cruel things; first of all, he was a man who loved war and fighting. Second, he was in charge of putting all of the innocent Jews into Concentration Camps and killing them. Third, he wanted one dominate race of all the same kind of people. Fourth, he had a life long obsession with danger.  Fifth, he blamed the Jews for the war debt and sentenced them all to die. So as you can see already Hitler was a very cruel person.
	 The fact that he wanted one dominate race was unbelievably true. First of all, the fact he would kill everyone one way or 
another that didn't have blond hair and blue eye and was of 
German descent, was a frightening fact. The idea of this gives me quite a scare my self, because I have brown hair, and brown eyes and would I have been killed just because I did not Hitlers physical standards.  Also Hitler himself did not have blond hair and blue 
eyes. Next, I don't think that you should judge anyone by the way 
they look or what they do; that is very wrong. Hitler's idea of one 
dominate race was a very bad one.
	Adolf Hitler was born in an Austrian town known as Braunau 
am Inn. Hitler was the son of a man named Alois. Alois Hitler's 
father was a Custom official's, and his mother was named Klara. Alois was illegitimate, first of all he used his mother's name, 
Schicklgruber until 1876, when he adopted the name Hitler.  
Adolf's father was very strict with him, and ignored him most of the 
time because Adolf liked to dream. As you can see Adolf did not 
idealize his father very much, and his death in 1903 actually came as a relief to Adolf.  Adolf really idealized his mother, whose death in 1907 had a traumatic effect on him. So as you can see Adolf lead a very mixed up childhood.
	As Hitler grew up, he failed as a student in the classical secondary schools. This led Hitler to new opportunities, for instance his desire to become an artist.  Adolf tried to pursue this dream but, was unable to attain admission to the Academy of Fine Arts.  Since he was unable to do anything, he lead a shadowy, alienated existence in multicultural Vienna until 1913. Hitler was described as living his life in melancholy, aimlessness, and racial hatred.  Also in Vienna he established his life long obsession with danger. Hitler was a failure at virtually everything he tried in his early years as you can see.
	In 1913 Hitler went to Munich, partly to evade being drafted into the Austrian army.  There he answered the call to colors at the outbreak of World War I and Served in the Bavarian Sixteenth Regiment on the Western Front. This turned Hitler's life around, for example, he distinguished himself for bravery and was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class. For the first time in Hitler's life, he had found a home. He glorified, for example, the "raw majesty of life under fire, the beauty of comradeship, and the nobility of the warrior." His soldiery dreams of victory and fulfillment were shattered, however, by German defeat.  He became convinced that Germany had been "stabbed in the back" by Jews and Marxists. So now you can see that this started his extreme hatred if the Jewish people and the realization he needed to become involved in this problem. 
	After the war, Hitler returned to Munich and joined a small National group called the German Workers Party. In 1920, this group changed it's name to the National Socialist German Workers Party, which became known as the Nazi party.  Some of the things t Nazi's called for were the creation of a strong central government, and the cancellation of the Versailles Treaty. So in conclusion Hitler became very involved in this new party.
	Hitler was a skillful schemer, politician, and organizer. For example, he became leader of the Nazi party and built up membership fast. This came partly from his ability to stir street crowds with his speeches. Hitler had too much control over the Nazi party; for example he attacked the government and assured that the Nazi party would assure jobs for workers and greatness for Germany. So in concusion Hitler was proving to be a good organizer and politician.
	Hitler organized a private army of hoodlums who became known as storm troopers. They fought Communist and others who tried to break up the Nazi party. Hitler established many of these. For example, in October 1923, he had 15,000 Nazi party members with machine guns and rifles. Next, to identify these men as special Nazi party members, he gave them brown shirts with swastikas on them to distinguish them as part of the Nazi party.
	In 1923 Germany was deep in trouble; first it's money had lost almost all of it's value because of severe economic problems. Second, France and Belgium had sent troops to occupy the Rhur valley of Germany.  Third, the Bavarian state government in Munich was open to conflict with the national government in Berlin. Hitler regarded this quarrel as a chance to take over both the Bavarian and the national German governments. So as you can see Hitler was starting to get himself into trouble.
	On November 8, 1923, at a rally in a Munich beer hall, Hitler proclaimed a Nazi revolution. The next day he tried to seize the Bavarian government in what became known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler led more than 2,000 Storm Troopers in a march against the government. This led to the police opening fire and killing 16 Nazis the plot failed. Hitler was arrested and sent to jail for 5 years in prison for treason. Asa result the revolution failed.
	Because some Germans agreed with his ideas, Hitler was freed after only nine months. Great changes had taken place in Germany since his imprisonment. For example, most of the people had begun to get homes, jobs, and had hope for the future. Once Hitler was released, he reformed the Nazi party. They had been banned and many of the members had gone to other political parties. Hitler said that he would not let the Nazi group would not do anymore illegal acts, and the government made them reform.  Hitler also made up a private army of elite guards, after his release, the Schutzstaffel, known as the SS. The SS was a battle ready army. In final conclusion after the release of Hitler he had reformed a plan to refine the party further.
	In 1930 a worldwide depression hit Germany. This first of all caused people to face unemployment and hunger again. This depression started the same year that Germany agreed to pay the Young Plan which it had agreed to follow to pay off the war debt.
Hitler's opposition to the plan made him known throughout the country. First, he led protest marches. Second, he organized mass meetings. Third, he made many speeches. In conclusion you can see Hitler was looking for someone to pay for what happened to Germany in the World War I. The war debt had to be paid.
	Hitler added his old arguments to the question of the war debt payment plan. First of all he blamed Jews, and Communist, for Germany's defeat in World War I. He thought that now the Jews were plotting to cheat "true" Germans by destroying the fruit of their years of struggle. Because of this Hitler promised to rid Germany of the Germans and the Communist, and reunite the parts of Europe in which German was spoken. As you can see Hitler  already started to rise to great power, and bring about the expulsion of all Jews. 
	In Conclusion you can now understand that the rise of Adolf Hitler marks a violent chapter in German history. He and his Nazi party still have fallowers today, hopefully not to the same end.
 




















































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1666
Mr. Maclay United States History II- CP 8 May 1999 Al Capone in the 1920's Organized crime was not so organized up until the 1920s. When the 1920s arrived, the American lifestyle changed dramatically. People started investing money in home appliances and automobiles, women's skirts became higher and drinking became very popular. Also, organized crime came to a rise in the 1920's. And in the high ranks of organized crime was Al Capone. Al Capone ran many illegal businesses including bootlegging, gambling, prostitution, and murders. There were many gangs in the world of organized crime and Al Capone's was at the top. Al Capone was the most infamous gangster in the 1920's. Being a big time gangster was big business. Money was made fast and very easily. Bootlegging alcohol was by far the most profitable in the 1920's, this was because of the prohibition. Gambling was another business that paid off. Gambling stations were set up all over cities. Prostitution and Murders were also crimes that made gangsters money. Alphonse Capone was the biggest force in organized crime. He started his career of crime in Boston, as an apprentice to Johnny Torrio. That is where he earned the unforgettable nickname "Scarface." It was in a bar when Capone made some rude comments about a woman. Minutes later, the woman's brother sliced Capone in the face. D. VanGorder 2 This man was a friend of Charles "Lucky" Luciano. Al Capone was punished and forced to apologize. Al Capone did not become a leader until he went to Chicago. At the time he was still an apprentice to Johnny Torrio. In the midst of the gang violence and bootlegging was Chicago. Chicago was a great place to start a ring of organized crime. The government was very weak which made it easier to do crime. Capone entered the city of Chicago in 1920. At the time, "Big Jim" Colosimo ran things. He made about 50,000 dollars a month. Torrio and Capone started their business with four gambling joints/whore houses in Chicago. These underground places were known as deuces. In Chicago Capone met a man who would be his friend for life, Jack Guzik. Guzik was Jewish. His family lived off prostitution. Al Capone never worried about racial issues, his wife was even Irish. After Jack Guzick was roughed up by a Joe Howard, Capone let out his temper. It did not help when Howard called Capone some rude names. Soon after, Capone shot him down. There was no conviction, it was clear that Capone was becoming more and more powerful. He had to have connections in the law to not be convicted. Al Capone finally got a taste of leadership after a few years of partnership with Torrio. Torrio left Capone in control of their areas to take his sick mother back to Italy. Capone was at the top of a Chicago suburb known as Cicero. At the age of 25, Capone was one of the most powerful men in Chicago, but being such a force also made him a target for rival gangs. D. VanGorder 3 In New York, Arnold Rothstein was "the man." He was a bootlegger, he also sold narcotics, and he started off many big names in crime such as Charles "Lucky" Luciano, Frank Costello and Dutch Shultz. Rothstein made friends with as many bootleggers and gamblers as he could. He never wanted anything to go wrong. He was sort of paranoid but Rothstein was a very powerful man. The most incredible act ever made by a thug just may have been the fixing of the 1919 World Series between the Reds and the White Sox. Many of the White Sox star players wanted higher wages, owners of the club refused. But Rothstien changed that. It was said that he paid off eight of the White Sox players 10,000 dollars each. The Red's would have lost but with a little help from Rothstein the White Sox did lose and Rothstein got back all of his money winning bets. Charles "Lucky" Luciano was another one of the most successful gangsters during the 1920s. His place of crime was New York. Luciano started under a man named Maranzano as Capone started under Johnny Torrio. Luciano was one of Maranzano's top men. After being under him, Charles Luciano became tired of it, he wanted more power, and the only way he could do that was to kill Maranzano. He organized a meeting with several top gangsters including one of Capones representatives. They discussed the elimination of Maranzano. Lucianos plan to murder him was approved. When "Lucky" returned to New York he gunned down Maranzano and took over his businesses. In Chicago, Capone was stronger than ever. He was the most feared man in Chicago, but he didn't earn it bootlegging, pimping, or gambling. Al Capone had to kill D. VanGorder 4 men that got in his way. That is how Al Capone became the most powerful gangster ever. One of Al Capone's rivals was the gardener Dion O'Banion. Dion was a rival bootlegger whom behavior had to be controlled. He killed men whenever and wherever he wanted. O'Banion even went as far as tricking Torrio which sent him to jail. Something he did wrong was bragging about it. Days later, O'Banion was taken out by Three of Capone's men in his own flower shop. Capone and Torrio then took over the excellent bootlegging business that was Dion's. After the Murder of Dion O'Banion, Al Capone and Johnny torrio began to fear for their lives. O'Banion's gang did not give up, at one point they struck in mid daylight. Capone's headquarters was the Hawthorne Hotel, the plan was precise. There were two cars packed with thugs, the first car drove by shooting blank rounds to draw out Capone's men, the next car was to spray the hotel lobby and other surrounding buildings with thousands of bullets. The plan did not work, Capone survived and so did many others, the deaths suprisingly scarce. Since 2 years after O'bannons murder, 12 attempts to assassinate Capone were made. And when Torrio returned, he was almost shot to death. The man who had been giving Capone the most trouble was George "bugs" Moran. Moran Took over Obanion's gang after the murder of Dion. Capone planned an assassination for Moran. To keep himself out of trouble, Capone laid back in Florida and left "Machine gun" Mcgurn in charge of the hit. On February 14, 1929, two of Capone's men including Mcgurn entered a garage where Moran and some of his guys were said to D. VanGorder 5 be located, The team was dressed in police uniforms and armed with machine guns and sawed off shotguns. They shot down 7 of Moran's men but Moran was never there. The police and all the people of Chicago all knew the murders were ordered by Capone. But with no evidence, Capone could not be arrested. The St. Valentines Day Massacre's publicity was the most any gang event had ever received. Of all the murders, the cause of many may lie in the hands of the prohibition act. The act started on January 16, 1920. It stated that liqueur that is a beverage can not be manufactured, nor sold, nor be hauled on the face of the earth, but there were many people against this, a lot of those people were gangsters and other thugs. But they didn't just talk about it, many men became bootleggers and racketeerers. The profits made by this were enormous. Bootlegging led to a tremendous rivalry between a lot of gangs. Al Capone was in constant danger because he was one of the top bootleggers. Richard "peg leg" Lonergan was one of Al Capone's rival bootleggers. Al Capone was invited to Frankie Yale's 1925 Christmas party. Yale was tipped off that Lonergan and some of his boys were going to crash the party. The party was going to be canceled but Capone refused. The party happened and Lonergan and his boys showed up around 3:00, Capone had a surprise of his own. When Capone gave the signal "peg leg" didn't know what to expect. The thing is, Yales Christmas party was held in New York, and by murdering these men Capone was showing his superiority. As Alva Johnston said in the New Yorker D. VanGorder 6 "Chicago is the imperial city of the gang world and New York a remote provincial place." The incident was known as The Adonis club massacre. Prohibition may have caused the highest crime rate ever in organized crime. Frankie yale was a longtime friend of Al Capone and Johnny Torrio. He was used in various hits including the murders of Dion O'banion and "Big Jim" Colosimo. In 1928 Capone found out that Yale had been hijacking many of his "booze" trucks. Soon after, Yale was shot down. No other single gangster could be as infamous as Al Capone. Al Capone was the most powerful gangster to ever live. No one could stop his reign of crime, and anyone that got in his way, he would take out, Even when it came to his friends. He was never convicted for any of the hundreds of crimes he committed, this is one of the most important facts that showed how many connections Capone had. It was until the 1930's when Capone was convicted of Tax invasion. While serving his jail time Alphonse Capone became a victim of the deadly disease Syphilis. Al Capone died but his crime legacy will always live on.
















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Albert E

March 14 1879 - April 18 1955
Born Ulm, Germany. Died Princeton, USA.


Albert Einstein was a very famous Scientist, he was mostly famous for his theory of Relativity.                                 
In 1894 Einstein's family moved to Milan and Einstein decided officially to relinquish his German citizenship in favor of Swiss. In 1895 Einstein failed an examination that would have allowed him to study for a diploma as an electrical engineer at Zurich. After attending secondary school at Aarau,Einstein returned (1896) to the Zurich Polytechnic, graduating (1900) as a secondary school teacher of mathematics and physics.


	He worked at the patent office in Bern from 1902 to 1909 and while there he completed an
astonishing range of theoretical physics publications, written in his spare time without the benefit of
close contact with scientific literature or colleagues. Einstein earned a doctorate from the University
of Zurich in 1905. In 1908 he became a lecturer at the University of Bern, the following year
becoming professor of physics at the University of Zurich.


	By 1909 Einstein was recognized as a leading scientific thinker. After holding chairs in Prague and Zurich he advanced (1914) to a prestigious post at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft in Berlin. From
this time he never taught a university courses. Einstein remained on the staff at Berlin until 1933, from
which time until his death he held a research position at the Institute for Advanced Study in
Princeton.


	In the first of three papers (1905) Einstein examined the phenomenon discovered by Max Planck,
according to which electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating objects in discrete
quantities. The energy of these quanta was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
This seemed at odds with the classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell's equations and
the laws of thermodynamics which assumed that electromagnetic energy consisted of waves which
could contain any small amount of energy. Einstein used Planck's quantum hypothesis to describe the
electromagnetic radiation of light.
 

	Einstein's second 1905 paper proposed what is today called the special theory of relativity. He
based his new theory on a reinterpretation of the classical principle of relativity, namely that the laws
of physics had to have the same form in any frame of reference. As a second fundamental
hypothesis, Einstein assumed that the speed of light remained constant in all frames of reference, as
required by Maxwell's theory.
 

	Later in 1905 Einstein showed how mass and energy were equivalent. Einstein was not the first to propose all the components of special theory of relativity. His contribution is unifying important parts
of classical mechanics and Maxwell's electrodynamics.


	The third of Einstein's papers of 1905 concerned statistical mechanics, a field of that had been
studied by Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Gibbs. 


	After 1905 Einstein continued working in the areas described above. He made important
contributions to quantum theory, but he sought to extend the special theory of relativity to
phenomena involving acceleration. The key appeared in 1907 with the principle of equivalence, in
which gravitational acceleration was held to be indistinguishable from acceleration caused by
mechanical forces. Gravitational mass was therefore identical with inertial mass.


	By 1911 Einstein was able to make preliminary predictions about how a ray of light from a distant star, passing near the Sun, would appear to be bent slightly, in the direction of the Sun.


About 1912, Einstein began a new phase of his gravitational research, with the help of his
mathematician friend Marcel Grossmann, by expressing his work in terms of the tensor calculus of
Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro. Einstein called his new work the general theory of
relativity. After a number of false starts he published, late in 1915, the definitive version of general
theory.
 

When British eclipse expeditions in 1919 confirmed his predictions, Einstein was idolised by the
popular press. Einstein returned to Germany in 1914 but did not reapply for German citizenship.
Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 but not for relativity rather for his 1905 work on the
photoelectric effect
. 

He worked at Princeton on work which attempted to unify the laws of physics.
 




















































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Albert Einstein


           Albert Einstein was born on March 14,1879 in Ulm, Wurttemberg,
Germany.He died April 18 1955 in Princeton,NJ.When Einstein was five years
old his father showed him a compass.He was very impressed by the behavior
of the needle of the compass,which kept pointing in the same direction no
matter which way the compass was turned.He later said he felt that "Something
deeply hidden had to be behind things".
           After public school in Munich and in Aarau,Switzerland,Einstein
studied mathematics and physics at the Swiss Polytechnic Institute in Zurich.He
graduated in 1900.From 1902 to 1909 he worked as an examiner at the Swiss Patent
office in Bern.This job as patent examiner gave him a lot of free time,which he
spent doing scientific investigations.He became a Swiss citizen in 1905.Einstein
liked music also.He listened to classical music and played the violin.He
supported zionism and was asked to be the president of Israel when president
Chain Weizmann died in 1952.He decided not to except,saying that he wasn't right
for that position.Einstein was never concerned about money.Publishers from all
parts of the world offered him huge amounts of money for an autobiography.He
never accepted any of their offers.Einstein was married twice.He was seperated
from his first wife after he arrived in Berlin.During World War I he married his
first cousin,Elsa.She shared his life with him until she died in Princeton in
1936.He had two sons from his first marriage.He also had two stepdaughters from
his second marriage.In 1933 while Einstein was visiting England and the United
States the Nazi government of Germany took his property and deprived him of his
positions and his citizenship.Even before this happened he had been asked to
direct the school of mathematics in the Institute for Advanced Study in
Princeton,New Jersey.He accepted this position and he directed the school for
the rest of his life.Einstein became an American citizen in 1940.After he took
the job he moved into a two-story house at 112 Mercer St. in Princeton.He lived
and worked there until he died.
         Albert Einstein is best known for his theory of relativity,which he
first advanced in 1905 when he was 26 years old.Einsteins theory revolutionized
scientific thought with new conceptions of time,space,mass,motion,and
gravitation.Einstein laid the basis for splitting the atom by treating mass and
energy as exchangable and not distinct.Einsteins famous equation E=mc2 {energy
equals mass times the velocity of light squarred} became a important foundation
in the development of atomic energy.Einstein arrived at his theory by means of
highly involved mathematical calculations and equations.Einsteins theories were
used in making the atomic bomb.He helped in it's making in another way also.On
August 2,1939 he wrote a letter to president Franklin D. Roosevelt,warning him
that Germany was working on nuclear fission.As a result the U.S. government
started a long hard work that led to the achievement of nuclear fission on
December 2,1942.This led to the making of the first atomic bomb in 1945.
    Another one of Einsteins theories was his unified field theory,which he
first announced in 1929.In this theory he wanted to combine gravitational and
electromagnetic equations in a single theory.He published revisions of his
theory in 1950 and again in 1953.In 1949 he published his "Generalized theory of
gravitation".Einstein spent the last 25 years of his life working on the unified
field theory.In 1957 two men named Charles W.Misner and John A.Wheeler claimed
that Einsteins lastest equations demonstrated the unified field theory.
    In 1905 Einstein wrote three papers for the Annals of physics.In one paper
he used the quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect.He said that
"this effect takes place when light hits certain substances,particularly metals
with sufficient force to release electrons".The second paper related mass to
energy and yielded the famous equation E=mc2 which was used to work out some of
the simple problems of atomic energy.The third paper named "The Electrodynamics
of Moving Bodies" set forth the theory of relativity.A manuscrpit of this paper
was sold for 6 million dollars at a war bond rally in Kansas City in 1944 and
was later desposited with the Library of Congress in Washington,D.C.In 1909 he
became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich in
Switzerland.In 1911 and 1912 he occupied the same position at the German
University in Praque.He returned in 1912 to a similar job at the Federal
Institute of Technology in Zurich.Einstein was elected to the Prussian Academy
of Sciences in Berlin in 1913.



 
















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Albert Einstein


     Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
there is one whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of
these do not understand this man's work, everyone knows that its impact on
the world of science is astonishing. Yes, many have heard of Albert
Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the intriguing
life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest
single achievement of human thought."

     Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first
birthday, his family had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann
Einstein, and uncle set up a small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate
to have an excellent family with which he held a strong relationship. Albert's
mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for music and literature,
and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he found
much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister,
Maja, and they could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the
countryside near Munich.

     As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A
favorite toy of his was his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his
uncle's explanations of algebra. Although young Albert was intrigued by
certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow learner. His failure
to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers to
believe he was disabled.

     Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he
was ten. It was here that he first encountered the German spirit through the
school's strict disciplinary policy. His disapproval of this method of
teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was probably these differences
that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began not with
science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but
this religious fervor soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science
and math. To him, these seemed much more realistic than ancient stories. With
this new knowledge he disliked class even more, and was eventually expelled
from Luitpold Gymnasium being considered a disruptive influence.

     Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein
moved to Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted
to enroll at the Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam.
This forced him to study locally for one year until he finally passed the
school's evaluation. The Institute allowed Einstein to meet many other students
that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his studies turned mainly to
Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally agreed on
major principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were
attempting to disprove outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers
ignored these new ideas, he was again forced to explore on his own. In 1900
he graduated from the Institute and then achieved citizenship to Switzerland.

     Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had
little to do with physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring
out how new inventions worked.  The most important part of Einstein's
occupation was that it allowed him enough time to pursue his own line of
research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in specialist
journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to
attract a large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he
tutored quickly transformed into a social club that shared a love of nature,
music, and of course, science. In 1903 he married Mileva Meric, a
mathematician friend.

     In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals
of Physics. The first was immediately acknowledged, and the University of
Zurich awarded Einstein an additional degree. The other papers helped to
develop modern physics and earned him the reputation of an artist. Many
scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an imaginative spirit
that was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules,
and how their motion affected temperature, but he is most well known for his
Special Theory of Relativity which tackled motion and the speed of light.
Perhaps the most important part of his discoveries was the equation: E= mc2.

     After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He
remained at the Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming
too big among the scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party
time at the University of Berne, and the following year, at the age of thirty,
he became employed full time by Zurich University. Einstein was now able to
move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. Finally,
after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family were able to
enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it
allowed Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended
his theory and discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he
chose to accept a job placing him in high authority at the Federal Institute
of Technology, where he had originally studied. It was not until 1914 that
Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research director of the
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics.

     World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany
supported the army, he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new
weapons of war which attempted to mass slaughter people caused him to devote
much of his life toward creating peace. Toward the end of the war Einstein
joined a political party that worked to end the war, and return peace to
Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and Einstein was
seen as a traitor.

     In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity,
This result of ten years work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that
the universe had to be thought of as curved, and told how light was affected
by this. The next year, Einstein published another paper that added that the
universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self.

     After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his
wife, who had been living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and
married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal.  This led to a renewed interest in his
Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of Zionism. Since anti-
Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of prejudice.
There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he
began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when
scientist who studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct.

     In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds
for Zionism and lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites
of the war, and urged that Europe renew scientific and cultural links. He
promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive education, believing that it would
prevent war from happening in the future.  He also believed that socialism
would help the world achieve peace.

     Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the
money to his ex-wife and children to help with their lives and education.
After another lecture tour, he visited Palestine for the opening the Hebrew
University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the possibilities that
Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a
calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

     While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in
Germany.  Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his
house was broken into, and he was publicly considered an enemy of the nation.
It was obvious that he could not return to Germany, and for the second time
he renounced his German citizenship. During these early years in America he
did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of significance.

     In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument
during this time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an
atomic bomb. Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster
that could occur if the Nazi's developed it first. Einstein did not
participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea did stem from his
equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development, he also
knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan
Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this
terrible weapon.

     The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war
ended, he declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many
articles and made many speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at
this point, was legendary. People from all over would write to him for advice,
and he would often answer them.  He also continued his scientific research
until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is no doubt that he
was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of existence
that he strove for all his life.

Bibliography

Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing,
     1971.

Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side,
     Princeton: University Press, 1979.

Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza
     Books, 1954.

"Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990
     edition.

Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New
     York and Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969.



 
















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Albert Einstein


March 14 1879 - April 18 1955 Born Ulm, Germany. Died Princeton, USA.

     Albert Einstein was a very famous Scientist, he was mostly famous for his
theory of Relativity. In 1894 Einstein's family moved to Milan and Einstein
decided officially to relinquish his German citizenship in favor of Swiss. In
1895 Einstein failed an examination that would have allowed him to study for
a diploma as an electrical engineer at Zurich. After attending secondary
school at Aarau, Einstein returned (1896) to the Zurich Polytechnic,
graduating (1900) as a secondary school teacher of mathematics and physics.

	He worked at the patent office in Bern from 1902 to 1909 and while there
he completed an astonishing range of theoretical physics publications, written
in his spare time without the benefit of close contact with scientific
literature or colleagues. Einstein earned a doctorate from the University of
Zurich in 1905. In 1908 he became a lecturer at the University of Bern, the
following year becoming professor of physics at the University of Zurich.

	By 1909 Einstein was recognized as a leading scientific thinker. After
holding chairs in Prague and Zurich he advanced (1914) to a prestigious post at
the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft in Berlin. From this time he never taught a
university courses. Einstein remained on the staff at Berlin until 1933, from
which time until his death he held a research position at the Institute for
Advanced Study in Princeton.

	In the first of three papers (1905) Einstein examined the phenomenon
discovered by Max Planck, according to which electromagnetic energy seemed to be
emitted from radiating objects in discrete quantities. The energy of these
quanta was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. This seemed
at odds with the classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell's equations
and the laws of thermodynamics which assumed that electromagnetic energy
consisted of waves which could contain any small amount of energy. Einstein used
Planck's quantum hypothesis to describe the electromagnetic radiation of light.


	Einstein's second 1905 paper proposed what is today called the special
theory of relativity. He based his new theory on a reinterpretation of the
classical principle of relativity, namely that the laws of physics had to have
the same form in any frame of reference. As a second fundamental hypothesis,
Einstein assumed that the speed of light remained constant in all frames of
reference, as required by Maxwell's theory.

	Later in 1905 Einstein showed how mass and energy were equivalent.
Einstein was not the first to propose all the components of special theory of
relativity. His contribution is unifying important parts of classical mechanics
and Maxwell's electrodynamics.

	The third of Einstein's papers of 1905 concerned statistical mechanics,
a field of that had been studied by Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Gibbs.

	After 1905 Einstein continued working in the areas described above. He
made important contributions to quantum theory, but he sought to extend the
special theory of relativity to phenomena involving acceleration. The key
appeared in 1907 with the principle of equivalence, in which gravitational
acceleration was held to be indistinguishable from acceleration caused by
mechanical forces. Gravitational mass was therefore identical with inertial mass.


	By 1911 Einstein was able to make preliminary predictions about how a
ray of light from a distant star, passing near the Sun, would appear to be bent
slightly, in the direction of the Sun.

     About 1912, Einstein began a new phase of his gravitational research, with
the help of his mathematician friend Marcel Grossmann, by expressing his work
in terms of the tensor calculus of Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-
Curbastro.  Einstein called his new work the general theory of relativity.
After a number of false starts he published, late in 1915, the definitive
version of general theory.

     When British eclipse expeditions in 1919 confirmed his predictions,
Einstein was idolised by the popular press. Einstein returned to Germany in
1914 but did not reapply for German citizenship. Einstein received the Nobel
Prize in 1921 but not for relativity rather for his 1905 work on the
photoelectric effect .

He worked at Princeton on work which attempted to unify the laws of physics.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstei4.TXT
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Albert Einstein


	Albert Einstein was an important person who changed the world of science.
People referred to him as a genius, and as one of the smartest people in the
world.  Einstein devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world, and he
changed the way science is looked at today.
	Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany.    Albert's
speech was late in development; he didn't start talking until he was about three.
Since he started talking late, his parents thought he was retarded.  "His
explanation was that he consciously skipped baby babbling, waiting until he
could speak in complete sentences"(Brian 1). Einstein had a very bad temper when
he was young; he got mad and hit his sister Maja in the head with a garden hoe
and cracked her skull.  When he was in school, his teachers thought he was
mentally retarded because he ignored whatever bored him and attacked anything he
had interest in.
	Einstein was twenty-one years old when he got married. His marriage
almost didn't take place because Mileva, his fiance, thought he had an affair.
	Einstein decided to go to America to tell other scientists about his
theory of relativity.  He brought his wife and several  freinds with him.  When
they got there, they were stormed with reporters and camera-men who wanted to
know about his theories.  He went around to different areas and gave speeches
and lectures.  When he appeared at Union Station to lecture, there was almost a
riot because so many people wanted to see him.
	Einstein's most famous theory was the theory of relativity.  "Einstein
started his theory of relativity at the age of sixteen" (Encyclopedia 511).  He
received the Nobel prize for his famous theory.  Another famous scientific
theory he discovered was E=MC2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light
squared).  That theory made the atomic bomb possible. "At dawn on July 16, the
atomic structure of the world was revealed when Einstein's famous equation E=MC2
came to life with a bang"(Brian 344).  He was famous for his philosophies too.
besides the theory of relativity, he discovered the theory of motion.  "The
motions of bodies included in a given (vehicle) are the same among themselves
whether that (vehicle) is at rest or in uniform motion" (Hoffman 63).  When
Einstein was a kid, he devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the world.
	On April 18, 1955, Einstein died in his sleep.  On his desk lay his last
complete statement, written to honor Isreali Independence day.  It read in part:
"What I seek to accomplish is simply to serve with my feeble capacity truth and
justice at the risk of pleasing no	one." (Encyclopedia 513).
	Albert Einstein was smart as a child, but no one understood him, and he
was punished for it.  Albert Einstein discovered the theories of relativity, and
motion as well as the atomic bomb. Einstein was one of the most important people
in science, and he dedicated his life to changing the world.

Works Cited

Brian, Dennis.  Einstein a Life.  New York: John Whiley and Sons,
	Inc., 1996.

"Einstein, Albert." Encyclopedia Britannica.  Vol.6.  15th
	edition.

Hoffmann, Banesh.  Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel.  New
     York:  Penguin Books, 1972.




















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein .TXT
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Inventor Project
April 1, 1996
Albert Einstein 
	My name is Albert Einstein.  I was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm,
Germany.  I was not an inventor in the conventional sense.  I was a physicist
and theorist.  My inventions were not tangible things, but ideas I put on paper
and may later on have led to inventions.  I was not a good student in school.  I
did not pay attention to teachers because I found their lectures and teachings
boring.  Often I would skip class to go study physics on my own.  By the age
of twelve I had taught myself Euclidean Geometry, and slowly beginning to
develope my own theories in physics.
	My first theoretical paper was on Brownian motion.  The paper
discussed the significant predictions I made about particles that are randomly
distributed in a fluid.  My next paper was on the photoelectric effect, which
contained a revolutionary hypothesis on the nature of light.  I proposed that
under certain circumstances light can be considered as consisting of particles,
and I also hypothesized that energy carried by any light particle, called a
photon, is proportional to the frequency of the radiation.  The formula for this
is E=hv, where E is the radiation, h is a universal constant known as Planck's
constant, and v is the frequency of the radiation.  This proposal, that the
energy contained within a light beam is transferred by individual units, or
quanta, contradicted the hundred year old tradition of considering light as a
manifestation of continuous processes.  
	My third and most impotant paper, "On the Electrodynamics of
Moving Bodies", contained what has become known as the special theory of
relativity.  Since the time of  Sir Issac Newton, scientists had been trying to
understand the nature of matter and radiation, and how they interacted in
some unified world picture.  The position that mechanical laws are
fundamental has become known as the mechanical world view, and the
position that electrical laws are fundamental has become known as the
electromagnetic world view.  Neither approach, however, is capable of
providing a consistent explanation for the way radiation and matter interact
when viewed from different inertial frames of reference, that is, an interaction
viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest and an observer moving at
unifrom speed.
	In the Spring of 1905 after considering these problems for ten years, I
realized that the crux of the problem lay not in a theory of matter but in a
theory of measuerment.  At the heart of my special theory of relativity was the
realization thet all measurements of time and space depend on judgments as
to whether two distant events occur simultaneously.  This led me to develope
a theory based on two postulates: the principle of relativity, that physical laws
are the same in all inertial reference systems, and the principal of the
invariance of the speed of light, that the speed of light in a vacuum is a
universal constant.  I was thus able to provide a consistent and correct
description of physical events in different inertial frames of reference without
making special assumptions about the nature of matter or radiation, or how
they interact.  This theory is best summed up in the equation E=mc2.  Where
E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light squared.
	My final work was a failed attempt at trying to understand all physical
interactions, including electromagnetic interactions and weak and strong
inetractions.  This has come to be known as the Unified Field Theory.  Today
this theory has still not been proven by modern scientists.
	Probably the most noticable invention to come from my work was born
from necessity.  During World War II, it was believed here in the United
States that Nazi Germany was attempting to create an atomic bomb.  As a
result of this believed, and startlingly real, threat the U.S. put forth a major
effort at construction of an atomic bomb.  Even though I myself had no part in
the actual creation of the bomb, many of my theories where used.
	This invention that came from my ideas does not help society in any
way, but it does hinder it considerably.  Because of my invention we live in a
world that may cease to exist at the touch of a button by a power hungry
dictator.  My invention is one of the most serious threats to existance of
mankind in today's world.




Bibliography
Microsoft Encarta 95. Microsoft. IBM PC CD-ROM. 1995

Relativity: The Special and General Theory. Shelley Marion Publishing.   
New York. 1975.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein 3 4.TXT
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Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one whose
     name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand this man's
     work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes, many
     have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the
     intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single
     achievement of human thought."

     Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family
     had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a
     small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he
     held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for music
     and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he found
     much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and they
     could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near Munich. 

     As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was
     his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although
     young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow
     learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers
     to believe he was disabled.

     Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was
     here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary policy.
     His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was probably
     these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began not with
     science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this religious fervor
     soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To him, these seemed
     much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he disliked class even
     more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being considered a disruptive
     influence.

     Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to
     Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted to enroll at the
     Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam. This forced him to study locally
     for one year until he finally passed the school's evaluation. The Institute allowed Einstein to
     meet many other students that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his studies turned
     mainly to Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally agreed on major
     principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were attempting to disprove
     outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers ignored these new ideas, he was again
     forced to explore on his own. In 1900 he graduated from the Institute and then achieved
     citizenship to Switzerland. 

     Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had little to do with
     physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring out how new inventions worked.
     The most important part of Einstein's occupation was that it allowed him enough time to
     pursue his own line of research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in
     specialist journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to attract a
     large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he tutored quickly transformed
     into a social club that shared a love of nature, music, and of course, science. In 1903 he
     married Mileva Meric, a mathematician friend.

     In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals of Physics. The first
     was immediately acknowledged, and the University of Zurich awarded Einstein an additional
     degree. The other papers helped to develop modern physics and earned him the reputation
     of an artist. Many scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an imaginative spirit that
     was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules, and how their motion
     affected temperature, but he is most well known for his Special Theory of Relativity which
     tackled motion and the speed of light. Perhaps the most important part of his discoveries
     was the equation: E= mc2.

     After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He remained at the
     Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming too big among the
     scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party time at the University of Berne,
     and the following year, at the age of thirty, he became employed full time by Zurich
     University. Einstein was now able to move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans
     Albert and Eduard. Finally, after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family were
     able to enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it allowed
     Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended his theory and
     discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he chose to accept a job placing
     him in high authority at the Federal Institute of Technology, where he had originally studied.
     It was not until 1914 that Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research
     director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. 

     World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany supported the army,
     he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new weapons of war which attempted
     to mass slaughter people caused him to devote much of his life toward creating peace.
     Toward the end of the war Einstein joined a political party that worked to end the war, and
     return peace to Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and Einstein
     was seen as a traitor. 

     In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity, This result of ten years
     work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that the universe had to be thought of as
     curved, and told how light was affected by this. The next year, Einstein published another
     paper that added that the universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self. 

     After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his wife, who had been
     living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal.
     This led to a renewed interest in his Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of
     Zionism. Since anti-Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of
     prejudice. There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he
     began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when scientist who
     studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct. 

     In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds for Zionism and
     lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites of the war, and urged that Europe
     renew scientific and cultural links. He promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive education,
     believing that it would prevent war from happening in the future. He also believed that
     socialism would help the world achieve peace. 

     Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the money to his ex-wife
     and children to help with their lives and education. After another lecture tour, he visited
     Palestine for the opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the
     possibilities that Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a
     calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

     While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in Germany.
     Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his house was broken into, and he
     was publicly considered an enemy of the nation. It was obvious that he could not return to
     Germany, and for the second time he renounced his German citizenship. During these early
     years in America he did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of
     significance.

     In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument during this
     time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an atomic bomb. Einstein
     wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster that could occur if the Nazi's
     developed it first. Einstein did not participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea
     did stem from his equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development,
     he also knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan
     Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this terrible weapon. 

     The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war ended, he
     declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many articles and made many
     speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at this point, was legendary. People from
     all over would write to him for advice, and he would often answer them. He also continued
     his scientific research until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is no doubt
     that he was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of existence that he
     strove for all his life.

     Bibliography

     Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing, 1971.

     Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

     Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton:
     University Press, 1979. 

     Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza Books, 1954.

     "Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990 edition.

     Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

     Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New York and
     Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein 3.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one whose
     name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand this man's
     work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes, many
     have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the
     intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single
     achievement of human thought."

     Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family
     had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a
     small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he
     held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for music
     and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he found
     much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and they
     could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near Munich. 

     As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was
     his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although
     young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow
     learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers
     to believe he was disabled.

     Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was
     here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary policy.
     His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was probably
     these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began not with
     science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this religious fervor
     soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To him, these seemed
     much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he disliked class even
     more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being considered a disruptive
     influence.

     Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to
     Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted to enroll at the
     Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam. This forced him to study locally
     for one year until he finally passed the school's evaluation. The Institute allowed Einstein to
     meet many other students that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his studies turned
     mainly to Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally agreed on major
     principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were attempting to disprove
     outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers ignored these new ideas, he was again
     forced to explore on his own. In 1900 he graduated from the Institute and then achieved
     citizenship to Switzerland. 

     Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had little to do with
     physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring out how new inventions worked.
     The most important part of Einstein's occupation was that it allowed him enough time to
     pursue his own line of research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in
     specialist journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to attract a
     large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he tutored quickly transformed
     into a social club that shared a love of nature, music, and of course, science. In 1903 he
     married Mileva Meric, a mathematician friend.

     In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals of Physics. The first
     was immediately acknowledged, and the University of Zurich awarded Einstein an additional
     degree. The other papers helped to develop modern physics and earned him the reputation
     of an artist. Many scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an imaginative spirit that
     was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules, and how their motion
     affected temperature, but he is most well known for his Special Theory of Relativity which
     tackled motion and the speed of light. Perhaps the most important part of his discoveries
     was the equation: E= mc2.

     After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He remained at the
     Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming too big among the
     scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party time at the University of Berne,
     and the following year, at the age of thirty, he became employed full time by Zurich
     University. Einstein was now able to move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans
     Albert and Eduard. Finally, after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family were
     able to enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it allowed
     Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended his theory and
     discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he chose to accept a job placing
     him in high authority at the Federal Institute of Technology, where he had originally studied.
     It was not until 1914 that Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research
     director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. 

     World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany supported the army,
     he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new weapons of war which attempted
     to mass slaughter people caused him to devote much of his life toward creating peace.
     Toward the end of the war Einstein joined a political party that worked to end the war, and
     return peace to Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and Einstein
     was seen as a traitor. 

     In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity, This result of ten years
     work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that the universe had to be thought of as
     curved, and told how light was affected by this. The next year, Einstein published another
     paper that added that the universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self. 

     After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his wife, who had been
     living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal.
     This led to a renewed interest in his Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of
     Zionism. Since anti-Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of
     prejudice. There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he
     began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when scientist who
     studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct. 

     In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds for Zionism and
     lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites of the war, and urged that Europe
     renew scientific and cultural links. He promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive education,
     believing that it would prevent war from happening in the future. He also believed that
     socialism would help the world achieve peace. 

     Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the money to his ex-wife
     and children to help with their lives and education. After another lecture tour, he visited
     Palestine for the opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the
     possibilities that Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a
     calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

     While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in Germany.
     Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his house was broken into, and he
     was publicly considered an enemy of the nation. It was obvious that he could not return to
     Germany, and for the second time he renounced his German citizenship. During these early
     years in America he did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of
     significance.

     In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument during this
     time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an atomic bomb. Einstein
     wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster that could occur if the Nazi's
     developed it first. Einstein did not participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea
     did stem from his equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development,
     he also knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan
     Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this terrible weapon. 

     The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war ended, he
     declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many articles and made many
     speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at this point, was legendary. People from
     all over would write to him for advice, and he would often answer them. He also continued
     his scientific research until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is no doubt
     that he was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of existence that he
     strove for all his life.

     Bibliography

     Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing, 1971.

     Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

     Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton:
     University Press, 1979. 

     Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza Books, 1954.

     "Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990 edition.

     Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

     Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New York and
     Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein 4.TXT
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                                          Albert Einstein
         
                Albert Einstein was born on March 14,1879 in Ulm,Wurttemberg,Germany.He died April 18 1955 in Princeton,NJ.When Einstein was five years old his father showed him a compass.He was very impressed by the behavior of the needle of the compass,which kept pointing in the same direction no matter which way the compass was turned.He later said he felt that "Something deeply hidden had to be behind things".
           After public school in Munich and in Aarau,Switzerland,Einstein studied mathematics and physics at the Swiss Polytechnic Institute in Zurich.He graduated in 1900.From 1902 to 1909 he worked as an examiner at the Swiss Patent office in Bern.This job as patent examiner gave him a lot of free time,which he spent doing scientific investigations.He became a Swiss citizen in 1905.Einstein liked music also.He listened to classical music and played the violin.He supported zionism and was asked to be the president of Israel when president Chain Weizmann died in 1952.He decided not to except,saying that he wasn't right for that position.Einstein was never concerned about money.Publishers from all parts of the world offered him huge amounts of money for an autobiography.He never accepted any of their offers.Einstein was married twice.He was seperated from his first wife after he arrived in Berlin.During World War I he married his first cousin,Elsa.She shared his life with him until she died in Princeton in 1936.He had two sons from his first marriage.He also had two stepdaughters from his second marriage.In 1933 while Einstein was visiting England and the United States the Nazi government of Germany took his property and deprived him of his positions and his citizenship.Even before this happened he had been asked to direct the school of mathematics in the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton,New Jersey.He accepted this position and he directed the school for the rest of his life.Einstein became an American citizen in 1940.After he took the job he moved into a two-story house at 112 Mercer St. in Princeton.He lived and worked there until he died.


         Albert Einstein is best known for his theory of relativity,which he first advanced in 1905 when he was 26 years old.Einsteins theory revolutionized scientific thought with new conceptions of time,space,mass,motion,and gravitation.Einstein laid the basis for splitting the atom by treating mass and energy as exchangable and not distinct.Einsteins famous equation E=mc2 {energy equals mass times the velocity of light squarred} became a important foundation in the development of atomic energy.Einstein arrived at his theory by means of highly involved mathematical calculations and equations.Einsteins theories were used in making the atomic bomb.He helped in it's making in another way also.On August 2,1939 he wrote a letter to president Franklin D. Roosevelt,warning him that Germany was working on nuclear fission.As a result the U.S. government started a long hard work that led to the achievement of nuclear fission on December 2,1942.This led to the making of the first atomic bomb in 1945.
    Another one of Einsteins theories was his unified field theory,which he first announced in 1929.In this theory he wanted to combine gravitational and electromagnetic equations in a single theory.He published revisions of his theory in 1950 and again in 1953.In 1949 he published his "Generalized theory of gravitation".Einstein spent the last 25 years of his life working on the unified field theory.In 1957 two men named Charles W.Misner and John A.Wheeler claimed that Einsteins lastest equations demonstrated the unified field theory.
    In 1905 Einstein wrote three papers for the Annals of physics.In one paper he used the quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect.He said that "this effect takes place when light hits certain substances,particularly metals with sufficient force to release electrons".The second paper related mass to energy and yielded the famous equation E=mc2 which was used to work out some of the simple problems of atomic energy.The third paper named "The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" set forth the theory of relativity.A manuscrpit of this paper was sold for 6 million dollars at a war bond rally in Kansas City in 1944 and was later desposited with the Library of Congress in Washington,D.C.In 1909 he became a professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich in Switzerland.In 1911 and 1912 he occupied the same position at the German University in Praque.He returned in 1912 to a similar job at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich.Einstein was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin in 1913.
       




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein 5.TXT
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     Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one
     whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand
     this man's work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes,
     many have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the
     intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single
     achievement of human thought."

     Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family
     had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a
     small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he
     held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for
     music and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he
     found much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and
     they could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near
     Munich. 

     As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was
     his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although
     young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow
     learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers
     to believe he was disabled.

     Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was
     here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary
     policy. His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was
     probably these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began
     not with science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this
     religious fervor soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To
     him, these seemed much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he
     disliked class even more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being
     considered a disruptive influence.

     Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to
     Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted to enroll at the
     Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam. This forced him to study
     locally for one year until he finally passed the school's evaluation. The Institute allowed
     Einstein to meet many other students that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his
     studies turned mainly to Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally
     agreed on major principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were attempting to
     disprove outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers ignored these new ideas, he
     was again forced to explore on his own. In 1900 he graduated from the Institute and then
     achieved citizenship to Switzerland. 

     Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had little to do with
     physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring out how new inventions worked.
     The most important part of Einstein's occupation was that it allowed him enough time to
     pursue his own line of research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in
     specialist journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to attract a
     large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he tutored quickly transformed
     into a social club that shared a love of nature, music, and of course, science. In 1903 he
     married Mileva Meric, a mathematician friend.

     In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals of Physics. The
     first was immediately acknowledged, and the University of Zurich awarded Einstein an
     additional degree. The other papers helped to develop modern physics and earned him the
     reputation of an artist. Many scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an
     imaginative spirit that was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules,
     and how their motion affected temperature, but he is most well known for his Special
     Theory of Relativity which tackled motion and the speed of light. Perhaps the most
     important part of his discoveries was the equation: E= mc2.

     After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He remained at the
     Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming too big among the
     scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party time at the University of Berne,
     and the following year, at the age of thirty, he became employed full time by Zurich
     University. Einstein was now able to move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans
     Albert and Eduard. Finally, after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family
     were able to enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it
     allowed Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended his theory and
     discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he chose to accept a job placing
     him in high authority at the Federal Institute of Technology, where he had originally studied.
     It was not until 1914 that Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research
     director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. 

     World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany supported the
     army, he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new weapons of war which
     attempted to mass slaughter people caused him to devote much of his life toward creating
     peace. Toward the end of the war Einstein joined a political party that worked to end the
     war, and return peace to Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and
     Einstein was seen as a traitor. 

     In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity, This result of ten years
     work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that the universe had to be thought of as
     curved, and told how light was affected by this. The next year, Einstein published another
     paper that added that the universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self. 

     After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his wife, who had been
     living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal.
     This led to a renewed interest in his Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of
     Zionism. Since anti-Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of
     prejudice. There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he
     began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when scientist who
     studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct. 

     In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds for Zionism and
     lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites of the war, and urged that
     Europe renew scientific and cultural links. He promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive
     education, believing that it would prevent war from happening in the future. He also
     believed that socialism would help the world achieve peace. 

     Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the money to his ex-wife
     and children to help with their lives and education. After another lecture tour, he visited
     Palestine for the opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the
     possibilities that Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a
     calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

     While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in Germany.
     Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his house was broken into, and
     he was publicly considered an enemy of the nation. It was obvious that he could not return
     to Germany, and for the second time he renounced his German citizenship. During these
     early years in America he did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of
     significance.

     In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument during this
     time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an atomic bomb. Einstein
     wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster that could occur if the Nazi's
     developed it first. Einstein did not participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea
     did stem from his equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development,
     he also knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan
     Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this terrible weapon. 

     The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war ended, he
     declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many articles and made many
     speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at this point, was legendary. People
     from all over would write to him for advice, and he would often answer them. He also
     continued his scientific research until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is
     no doubt that he was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of
     existence that he strove for all his life.

     Bibliography

     Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing, 1971.

     Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

     Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton:
     University Press, 1979. 

     Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza Books, 1954.

     "Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990 edition.

     Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

     Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New York and
     Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Albert Einstein.TXT
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ALBERT EINSTEIN


Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14, 1879.As
a kid he had trouble learning to speak.  His parents thought that
he might be mentally retarded.  He was not smart in school.  He
suffered under the learning methods that they used in the
schools of Germany at that time so he was never able to finish
his studies.  In 1894 his father's business had failed and the
family moved to Milan, Italy.  Einstein who had grown interested
in science, went to Zurich, Switzerland, to enter a famous
technical school.  There his ability in mathematics and physics
began to show.
When Einstein was graduated in 1900 he was unable to get a
teaching appointment at a university.  Instead he got a clerical
job in the patent office at Bern, Switzerland.  It was not what
he wanted but it would give him leisure for studying and
thinking.  While over there he wrote scientific papers.  Einstein
submitted one of his scientific papers to the University of Zurich
to obtain a Ph.D. degree in 1905.  In 1908 he sent a second
paper to the University of Bern and became lecturer there.  The
next year Einstein received a regular appointment as associate
professor of physics at the University of Zurich. By 1909,
Einstein was recognized throughout Europe as a leading
scientific thinker.  In 1909 the fame that resulted from his
theories got Einstein a job at the University of Prague, and in
1913 he was appointed director of a new research institution
opened in Berlin, the Kaiser Wilhelm Physics Institute.
	In 1915, during World War 1, Einstein published a paper
that extended his theories.  He put forth new views on the
nature of gravitation.  Newton's theories he said were not
accurate enough.  Einstein's theories seemed to explain the slow
rotation of the entire orbit of the planet Mercury, which
Newton's theories did not explain. Einstein's theories also
predicted that light rays passing near the sun would be bent out
of a straight line.  When this was verified at the eclipse of 1919,
Einstein was instantly accepted as the great scientific thinker
since Newton.
	By now Germany had fallen in the hands of Adolf Hitler and
his Nazis.  Albert Einstein was Jewish.  In 1933  when the Nazis
came to power, Einstein happened to be in California.  He did
not return to Germany. He went to Belgium instead.  The Nazis
confiscated his possessions, publicly burned his writings, and
expelled him from all German scientific societies.  Einstein came
back to the United States and became a citizen.  
	The atomic bomb is an explosive device that depends upon
the release of energy in a nuclear reaction known as FISSION,
which is the splitting of atomic nuclei.  Einstein sent a letter to   
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out that atomic bombs
are possible and that enemy nations must be allowed to make
them first.
	Roosevelt agreed with Einstein and funded the Manhattan
Project.
	On April 18, 1955, Albert Einstein died.  To his dying day,
he urged the world to come to some agreement that would
make nuclear wars forever impossible.

			

             




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alcohol and society.TXT
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Alcohol and Society
Jean Toomer Jean Toomer's family was not typical of migrating African Americans settling in the North, or fleeing the South. Each of his maternal grandparents were born of a caucasian father. But a "speck of Black makes you Black." Thus, Toomer's grandfather, Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback, was a free born black, a Union officer in the Civil War and was elected to the office of Lieutenant Governor and later Acting Governor of Louisiana during Reconstruction. The Pinchback's retired north and settled in the Negro community of the capitol. Thus, Toomer was born, as Nathan Pinchback Toomer into an upper class Negro family in Washington D.C. on December 26, 1894. Shortly after Toomer's birth, his caucasion father deserted his wife and son, and in 1996 Toomer's mother, Nina Toomer, gave him the name Nathan Eugene (which he later shortened to Jean). At the age of ten he was stricken with severe stomach ailments which he survived with a greatly altered life. He showed strength early - when faced with adversity, rather than wring his hands and retreat further into himself, Toomer searched for a plan of action, an intellectual scheme and method to cope with a personal crisis. Toomer writes in Wayward and Seeking, "I had an attitude towards myself that I was superior to wrong-doing and above criticism and reproach ... I seemed to induce, in the grownups, an attitude which made them keep their hands off me; keep, as it were, a respectable distance." Eugene and Nina and a new husband moved to New York in 1906; however, upon Nina's death in 1909, Nathan moved back to Washington and his grandparents. When Jean Toomer graduated from high school he began traveling. He studied at five places of higher education in a period of less than four years. At the University of Wisconsin, he enrolled in the agriculture program. Half a year later, however, he determined that Wisconsin was an atmosphere not meant for him, and he thus moved to Massachusetts to study at the Massachusetts College of Agriculture. During his period of transition between the two colleges, Toomer found an interest in physical fitness. Before officially enrolling at Massachusetts, he changed his mind, opting instead to begin taking classes at the American College of Physical Training in Chicago. Five months later, in January of 1916, he moved to Chicago to begin his studies. By the fall of 1916 he also began supplementing his education with studies at the University of Chicago. "I have lived by turn in Washington, New York, Chicago, and Sparta (Georgia)... I have worked, it seems to me, at everything: selling papers, delivery boy, soda clerk, salesman, shipyard worker, librarian-assistant, physical director, school teacher, grocery clerk, and God knows what all. Neither the universities of Wisconsin or New York gave me what I wanted, so I quit them." It was in Chicago that Toomer began to broaden his interest in literature. Although evidence shows that, in addition to Dante's Inferno , Toomer was affected by Herman Melville's Moby Dick to such a degree that he actually compared himself to Ishmael by having "mentally turned failure to triumph." One of the most prominent literary characters with whom he became enthralled was Victor Hugo's character Jean Valjean; Toomer His southern sojourn as a school principal in Sparta, Georgia (1922) found in him the belief that he had located his ancestral roots (from Toomer's experience and influence, Sparta was popularized as an ancestral root source by many of the Harlem Renaissance intelligensia; e.g., Zora Neal Hurston and Langston Hughes both traveled there in the summer of 1927). Thus, he began to write poems, stories, and sketches, especially about southern women whose stretch towards self-realization forced them into conflict with American societal moral attitudes. Upon return to Washington, he repeated his efforts, this time focusing on inhibited Negroes in the North. He made friends with Waldo Frank published in the most important journals. The result, for Toomer, was a book, Cane. In 1923 Cane was published together with Waldo Frank's Holiday . Frank was a mentor for Toomer, reading much of his work before publication. Toomer edited the manuscript of and actually wrote all the dialogue in Holiday. A few "important" white people thought Cane was an extraordinary work. At a time when the best (or popular) novelists, poets, and publishers had fame not unlike the movie and rock stars of today, Waldo Frank, said, "[Cane ] is a harbinger of the South's literary maturity... And, as the initial work of a man of 27, it is a harbinger of a literary force of whose incalculable future I believe no reader of this book will be in doubt." One wonders what Hemmingway and Faulkner thought of this! Though Cane survived only two small printings (1923 and 1927) while Toomer was alive, William Stanley Braithewaite, a black critic, exclaimed "Jean Toomer, ...artist of the race, ...can write about the Negro without the surrender or the compromise of the artist's vision.... He would write just as well ... about the peasants of Russia or ... Ireland, has experience given him the knowledge of their existence. Cane is a book of gold...and Jean Toomer is a bright morning star of a new day of the race in literature." Thus, Cane forecast, by several years, what is now called the Harlem Renaissance and inspired an entire generation of African American writers, beginning with his contemporaries Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Zora Neal Hurston. In spite of Toomer's success with Cane , recent African American historians have given, at best, perhaps with misinterpretation, reluctant support of Toomer. Toni Morrison writes, of Toomer and Cane, "In spite of Jean Toomer's yearning for racelessness, his horror of 'dark blood,' what is astonishing is how eloquent he was about the drop that bedeviled him: how moving he was about those who shared it. What would have been no more than an after dinner story in France or Russia became an opus in this country where, racially speaking, the difference between one snowflake and an avalanche does not exit." Many critics only see Cane, while those who don't consider the remainder of Toomer's work as unrelated. However, biographer Rudolph Byrd writes that Cane was the first born in a family of works joined together by a common sense.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alexander Graham Bel1.TXT
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Alexander Graham Bell


Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847.  As a child He took after his
grandfather who was an actor who entertained people with his voice.  Alexanders
mother, who was deaf,  would have people talk to her through her ear tube, which
amplifies speech by talking through a object that looked like a horn.  Alexander
choose to talk to his mother by speaking in low tones very close to her
forehead.  Alexander thought that his mother would be able to "hear" him by the
vibrations his voice put on her forehead.  Alexander at about the age of 14 and
his brother, Melville, created a contraption that had a fake mouth, tongue, and
lungs that you could force air out of.  This contraption could make human-like
sounds.  After this Alexander manipulated his dogs vocal cords and mouth to
change growls to words.  By the time Alexander was sixteen he was teaching music
at a boys boarding school.

Alexander Bell meet Thomas Watson at an electrical machine shop, Watson and
Alexander formed a friendship after Alexander told him of his idea about
transmitting speech over a wire.  On June 2,1875, when working in the
transmitting room Watson produced a twang when trying to loosen up a wire. 
Alexander working on the transmitter was able to send sounds that resembled that
of a human voice.  Next, Alexander discovered that a wire vibrated by speech
when placed in a conducting liquid, like mercury and would produce a current. 
Basically speech could be transmitted by wire.  On March 10,1876 Alexander and
Watson were working on the machine when Alexander knocked over battery acid.  He
shouted, "Mr. Watson, come here. I need you!"  and Watson working in the
receiver room heard his voice coming through the wire.

Later,  the Bell Company was formed, which is now AT&T.  Before Alexander died
in 1922, he had invented an electric probe for locating metal objects in bodies,
and the artificial respirator.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alexander Graham Bell.TXT
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Alexander Graham Bell


	Alexander Graham Bell is a name of great significance in American
history today.  A skillful inventor and generous philanthropist, he astounded
the world with his intuitive ideas that proved to be both innovative and
extremely practical in the latter half of the 19th century.  Most notable, of
course, are Bell's work in developing the telephone and his venerable life-long
endeavor to educate the deaf.  Originally, his only wish was to help deaf people
overcome their difficulty in learning verbal communication, and later was pushed
into researching the possibility of a device that could transmit the human voice
electronically over a distance.  After building his first working telephone
model, Bell's fame spread quickly as people in America and around the world
began to realize the awesome potential this wonderfully fascinating new device
held in store for society (Brinkley 481).  His telephone an instant success and
already a burgeoning industry, A. G. Bell decided to turn his attention back to
assisting the deaf and following other creative ideas including the development
of a metal detector, an electric probe which was used by many surgeons before
the X ray was invented, a device having the same purpose as today's iron lung,
and also a method of locating icebergs by detecting echoes from them.  With his
many inventions (especially the insanely popular and universally applied
telephone), his efforts to educate the deaf, and the founding and financing of
the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf (now
called the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf),  Alexander Graham
Bell has become a very important historical figure indeed (Berstein 9).
     Perhaps a key factor in Bell's successful life was his invigorating
background.  His family and his education definitely had a deep influence on his
career.  Born in Scotland, his mother was a painter and an accomplished musician,
his father a teacher of the deaf and speech textbook writer.  His father
invented "Visible Speech," a code of symbols which indicated the position of the
throat, tongue, and lips in making sounds.  These symbols helped guide the deaf
in learning to speak.  His grandfather, also named Alexander Bell, had similarly
specialized in good speech.  He acted for several years and later gave dramatic
readings from Shakespeare.   Young Alexander Graham Bell had a great talent for
music.  He played by ear from infancy, and received a musical education.  Later,
Bell and his two brothers assisted their father in public demonstrations in
Visible Speech, beginning in 1862.  He also enrolled as a student-teacher at
Weston House, a boys' school, where he taught music and speech in exchange for
instructions in other subjects.  Bell became a full-time teacher after studying
for a year at the University of Edinburgh.  He also studied at the University of
London and used Visible Speech to teach a class of deaf children.  Growing up in
a healthy environment where creativity and new ideas were embraced with vigor
was to certainly contribute to Alexander Graham Bell's genius later on in life
(Winefield 12).
	Young Bell carried out in 1866 a series of experiments to determine how
vowel sounds are produced.  A book, describing experiments in combing the notes
of electrically driven tuning forks to make vowel sounds, gave him the idea of
"telegraphing" speech, though he had no idea about doing it.  However, this was
the start of his interest in electricity.
     Bell took charge of his father's work while the latter lectured in
America in 1968.  Bell became his father's partner in London in the following
year.  He specialized in the anatomy of the vocal apparatus at University
College in London at the same time.  In 1872, Alexander opened his own school
for teachers of the deaf in Boston.  The following year, he became a professor
at Boston University.
	Bell won the friendship of Gardiner Green Hubbard, a Boston attorney at
this time.  Hubbard's daughter, Mabel, had been left deaf by scarlet fever when
she was 4.  Hubbard had Bell tutor her and in no time they were in love,
although Mabel's first memories of Alexander were not all positive. I both did
not, and did like him.  He was so interesting that I was forced to like to
listen to him, but he himself I disliked.  He dressed carelessly and in a
horrible, shiny [hat]-expensive but fashionable-and which made his jet-black
hair look shiny.  Altogether I did not think him exactly a gentleman (Winefield
17). Miss Hubbard became Bell's wife in 1877.  Another friendship developed when
Thomas Sanders, a successful merchant, brought his son to Bell as a private
pupil.  Both Hubbard and Sanders learned in 1873 of electrical experiments Bell
carried on at night and offered to pay the cost.
	Bell did not attempt to transmit speech electrically at this time.  He
tried instead to send several telegraph messages over a single wire at the same
time.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alexander Gram Bell.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Alexander Graham Bell 

Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847.  As a child He took after his grandfather who was an actor who entertained people with his voice.  Alexanders mother, who was deaf,  would have people talk to her through her ear tube, which amplifies speech by talking through a object that looked like a horn.  Alexander choose to talk to his mother by speaking in low tones very close to her forehead.  Alexander thought that his mother would be able to "hear" him by the vibrations his voice put on her forehead.  Alexander at about the age of 14 and his brother, Melville, created a contraption that had a fake mouth, tongue, and lungs that you could force air out of.  This contraption could make human-like sounds.  After this Alexander manipulated his dogs vocal cords and mouth to change growls to words.  By the time Alexander was sixteen he was teaching music at a boys boarding school. 



Alexander Bell meet Thomas Watson at an electrical machine shop, Watson and Alexander formed a friendship after Alexander told him of his idea about transmitting speech over a wire.  On June 2,1875, when working in the transmitting room Watson produced a twang when trying to loosen up a wire.  Alexander working on the transmitter was able to send sounds that resembled that of a human voice.  Next, Alexander discovered that a wire vibrated by speech when placed in a conducting liquid, like mercury and would produce a current.  Basically speech could be transmitted by wire.  On March 10,1876 Alexander and Watson were working on the machine when Alexander knocked over battery acid.  He shouted, "Mr. Watson, come here. I need you!"  and Watson working in the receiver room heard his voice coming through the wire. 



Later,  the Bell Company was formed, which is now AT&T.  Before Alexander died in 1922, he had invented an electric probe for locating metal objects in bodies, and the artificial respirator. 
  
  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alexis de Tocqueville.TXT
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Alexis Charles-Henri-Maurice Clérel de Tocqueville

En 1831 deux jeunes Français sont arrivé aux États-Unis, sur un projet gouvernemental pour étudier le système pénal du pays. Tous les deux étaient membres de la nobilité française, de bons amis et tous parails. L'un etait Alexis de Tocqueville, et l'autre Gustave de Beaumont. La visite a produit le raport sur les prisons - un effort collabore. D'une maniere plus importante, cette visite a rendue un des meillures contes au sujet des premières années des États-Unis et la nature et la characteur de la démocratie. C'était intitulé "De la démocratie en Amerique" de Tocqueville. Il était publié en deux parties. La première traitait surtout de la structure de la nation en 1835, et la deuxième sur les éffets de la démocratie sur la societé et ses membres, cinq ans plus tard. La livre était un success et a gagner pour l'auteur plusieurs honeurs: le "Legion of Honor" en 1837, il est devenu membre de "Academy of Moral and Political Sciences" et de "L'Academie Française en 1841.
Alexis Charles-Henri-Maurice Clérel de Tocqueville est né à Paris, le 29 Juillet 1805. Il était un vrai Norman. Tocqueville, l'endroit de château qu'il a hérité et amélioré est à quelques miles de la côte de la Normandie. Il était d'une feuille célèbre: un descendant du frère de la St. Jeanne d'Arc, un parent de l'écrivain Romantique et voyageur Chateaubriand, et l'arrière-petit0fils de Chrétien de Malesherbes, conseilleur des rois Louis XV et Louis XVI. Il a passé son enfance à Verneuil, prèt de paris, puisque la Normandie étant prefet et pair de la France. Alexis a suivi une carrière en les services publique comme son père. Il a prévu la France devenant plus liberal en gouvernement et a poursuive les études du development politique de l'Angleterre, qu'il a visité. En peu de temps il est dévenu ami avec plusieurs de ses chefs. Sa visite aux États-Unis et ses écritures de se pays ont aussi servis un but politique, puisque ses études là-bas étaient dirigée vers l'apprentissage de la démocratie en France. La visite avait une autre but politique. La Revolution de Juillet 1830, qui a mit en pouvoir le group Orléanist de Louis-Phlippe, a chassé du pouvoir les Bourbons, avec qui les Tocquevilles étaient associés; cesi a vendu prudent la necessité pour Alexis de ses l'éloigner de la scène politique immédiate. Le système politieuq français de cette époque0la était hectique se non chaotique.
Né peu après le terreur de la revolution, il a passé son adolescence pendant les aventures de napoleon et a vu la restoration de la monarchie sous les Bourbons, Louis XVIII et Charles X et leur renversement par l'Orléanist Louis-Philippe. C'était suivi de la revolution de 1848 et l'établissement de la Deuxième Republique avec president Louis-Napoleon jusqu'a, par le coup d'état de 1851, il s'est nomme Napoleon III. Tocqueville a commencé sa carrière politique à son retour en France de L'Amerique. Elle a duré de 1839 sous la monarchie constitutionelle de Louis-Philippe et le leadership de l'historian François Guizot jusqu'au coup d'état de Louis-Napoleon. Tocqueville a échoué dans son première éssai d'être élu a la Chambre des Députies, parce-qu'il a réfusé de s'allié au parti gouvernant. Mais il a gagner quand il a essayé une deuxième fois. Dans la Chambre, il n'était pas un député populaire. Il était petit et n'avait pas de bon style oratoire et il était trop indépendant pour se mêler aux compromis du gouvernement parlementaire, bien qu'il était un excellent membre de comité sur les issues comme l'ésclavage, le reformation des prisons et la politique colonial.
Il n'était pas d'accord avec la revolution populaire de 1841 qu'il avait predit. Les années 1840 ont vu le commencement des pensées socialist dans les oeuvres de Charles Fourier et de Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Tocqueville a vu les demandes populaires pour le bien-être social et economique de gouvernement comme cause le dépendance sur l'état et la mors de l'independance economique et de la liberté politique. Il a appuyé l'emploit des soldats pour controller le rebellion. Sa position politiquement s'est améliorée. Il a était élu a l'Assemblée par une plus grande majorité qu'avant. Il était membre du comité qui a écrit la constitution de la Deuxième République et a servi comme vice-president de la Chambre. En 1849 il a gagner sa plus haute position politique - ministre des Affaires Étrangères de Juin à Octobre. Ça na pas duré long-temps, parce-que Louis-Napoleon l'a démis de ses fonctions. Il est tombé très malade. Après son guérison il a travaillé avec le comité pour la revision constitutionelle, espérant avertir le confrontation final entre le presidence et la legislature, ces efforts ont échoué quand le president a saisi du pouvoir pour lui même, et a arrêté 70 membres de l'opposition politique. Louis-Napoleon a demandé fidélité au membres de l'opposition; Tocqueville a refusé, et a été dépourvu de toutes offices politiques, et était même emprisonné pendant quelque temps. De ce temps à sa mort, il vivait sous les années autoritaires de la règne impériale. Empêché de tenir une office politique - L'Ancien Régime et la revolution. Ce livre exprimait les pensées qu la situation avant apès la revolution était presque la même. Tocqueville a gagner de la nouvelle célébrité a cause de se livre et rencontré le Prince Consort britannique en 1857.
Le livre de L'Ancien Régime était seulement un d'une séries sur la revolution qu'il ecrivait quand il est mort à cannes le 16, avril 1859.
La réputation de Tocqueville pour son travaille était plus haute pendant sa vie et dans la déccenie immédiatement après sa mort. Après ç en a fait peut d'attention à son travaille, parce-que se prédictions du dévelopment de le démocratie ne se réalisaient pas. Deux geurres mondiales, et la grande Depression du 20th ciècle ont restoré l'appreciation pour son ouevre pour son analyse politique et sociale.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Binet 4.TXT
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Alfred Binet



The following essay offers both a short biography of Psychologist Alfred Binet and a present day practical application using the theory from which Binet developed his Intelligence test.

Alfred Binet, born in Nice, France, on the eleventh of July, whose mother was an artist and whose father was a physician, became one of the most prominent psychologists in French history.



Having received his formal education in both Nice and later, in Paris, at the renowned Lycee Louis -le-Grand, Binet went on to become a lawyer. This profession, however, was not suited to him, and he found himself immersed in the works of J.S. Mill, Bain and Sully at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. He identified strongly with the associationism theory in following that his mentor was J.S. Mill.



Binet began working with Charcot and Fere at the Salpetriere, a famous Parisian hospital, where he absorbed the theories of his teachers in regards to hypnosis, hysteria and abnormal psychology. During the following seven years, he continuously demonstrated his loyalty in defending Charcot's doctrines on hypnotic transfer and polarization until he was forced to accept the counterattacks of Delboeuf and the Nancy School, which eventually caused a split between student and teacher.



Having been married in 1884 to Laure Balbiani, whose father was E.G. Balbiani, an embryologist at the College de France, Binet was given the opportunity to work in his lab where his interest in 'comparative psychology' was piqued and in which he eventually wrote his thesis for his doctorate in natural science, focusing his research on the "the behavior, physiology, histology and anatomy of insects"(Wolfe, p.7). It was while working in Dr. Balbiani's lab, that Binet wrote 'Animal Magnetism', an obvious breaking away from associationism, showing Binet's ability to adapt and learn with every opportunity.



Binet's next area of interest could be considered a precursor to some of Piaget's work with child psychology and began with the systematic observation of his two daughters, to whom he devoted much of his time, studying and writing about. It was at this point, that Binet "came to realize that individual differences had to be systematically explored before one could determine laws which would apply to all people"(Pollack,p.xii).



Soon after, Binet was nominated co-director and one year later, became director of the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne. He and Beaunis, also co-director, initiated and edited the first French psychological journal 'L'Annee Psychologique', which remains in press today.



Although never having attained a professorship in his own country (a bitter disappointment for the proud nationalist) Binet did spend one spring in Bucharest where his knowledge in experimental psychology was fully appreciated as he taught to auditoriums filled to capacity, and was thus offered a chair in psychophysiology. Binet refused, unable to remain away from Paris.



The 'Society Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant', was established in 1900 by Binet and Ferdinand Buisson. This organization's concerns dealt with practical problems in the school setting. Binet, after having proven himself through his work here, was appointed to a commission which was to adorn Binet with his most famous contribution in Psychology...the 'Methodes Nouvelles pour le Diagnostic du Niveau Intellectuel des Anormaux', a series of tests developed by he and his partner, Theodore Simone, allowing the differentiaion of normal from retarded children in the school system, thus allowing the slower children to be separated for remedial help. Although never used extensively in France, this of course, was the precursor (although used for different and opposable reasons than were initially intended by Binet) of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.



Alfred Binet "attempted to penetrate the human mind, to analyze its wellspring, to understand [it as] a complete whole"(Wolfe, p. 327). His work was diverse, covering areas such as systematic introspection, suggestibility, research with abnormals, mental fatigue, psychology of legal testimony, experimental study of children and experimental pedigogy.



Binet died in Paris in 1911. As a French Psychologist, he was never appreciated, specifically by the French, to the extent that his work and dedication merited him to be. Binet's work was diverse, showing interest in the person as a whole and therefore, trying to understand all facets comprising man. His work, although contributing much in the sense that it was often the precursor of more detailed, profound research, was never detailed enough to formulate any firm theories in any one area.



Binet's crownig glory was the formulation of the first intelligence test. The development of this test is explained fully in the 'The Psychological Testing Enterprise, An Introduction' pages 191 to 208.



Binet's theory which argues that "the best way to predict success in school was to measure success in school"(Rogers, p.653), can equally be applied in other situations. In breaking up the whole into a series of minitasks which allow the demonstration of ability, one can properly assess and place the learner in a learning situation which will best benefit that individual.



The following example deals with the sport of hockey. As it stands, children are separated into age divisions regardless of physical development, experience, etc.. In following Binet's theory, we shall take the game of hockey and divide it into minitasks such as: 

1) Skating 

forward
backward 

2) Stopping 

spontaneously
on command
stopping and starting 

3) Agility 

switching directions quickly
switching directions quickly on command 

4) Stick handling 

while still
while skating
while playing 

5) Puck handling 

alone
with others
passing accurately
receiving 

6) Plays 

remembering
executing 

7) Anticipating opponents
Although I'm sure there are many more minitasks into which this complex game can be sub-divided, this provides a starting point from which to work and is the first step in our process.



Start testing all children in the norm group in all tasks. Some of the children will perform many of the subtests well, but others will not. There will be a natural division due to the abilities of the children.



Start with the easiest subtests and gradually increase difficulty.



The subtests in each scale will be determined by the percentage of children who can do this subtest well.



Sixty-five to seventy-five per cent of children in each level should be able to pass the subtests of that specific scale. Each scale would therefore, be determined following the natural separation of subtests by the different abilities of the participants.



Most of the children in the level below, should not be able to perform the subtests in this specific scale; most of the children in the level above should be able to perform the subtests well.



Therefore, if the lowest 65% of the children can skate forward, stop spontaneously and switch directions, but cannot perform the other tasks well, these three subtasks will become one scale. The next scale would consist of the following tasks which are performed at a consistent level by the next lowest 65% of the players.



Each level will thus contain a scale of subtests which the children will work at mastering during the session. The levels should range from basic scales, concentrating on the easiest subtests to levels which are comprised of scales needing great skill in order to master the subtests.



In this manner, children would be separated on the basis of skill level and would thus receive the attention that they needed. They would play more and see more ice time, because they would be playing with their equals and they would thereby be provided with the optimal opportunity for skill development. Advancement would be based on the acquiring of the skills of the next level: Children would not be moved automatically to the next level with this same group. They would advance when they demonstrate that they can perform 80% of the subtests of the scale they are presently in and would therefore always be playing at a level which would be most beneficial to the development of their individual potential. 
----------




Work Cited

Pollack, B., The Experimental Psychology of Alfred Binet, Selected Papers. Springer Publishing Co., Inc., New York City, @ 1995.

Robinson, D.N., Significant Contributions to the History of Psychology 1750-1920 - Bine Psychometrics and Educational Psychology. University Publications of America, Inc., Washington, D.C., @ 1977



Rogers, T.B., The Psychological Testing Enterprise, An Introduction. Books/Cole Publishing Co., Pacific Grove, California, @ 1995.



Wolf, T.H., Alfred Binet. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, @ 1973.



 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Binet.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Alfred Binet



The following essay offers both a short biography of Psychologist Alfred Binet and a present day practical application using the theory from which Binet developed his Intelligence test.

Alfred Binet, born in Nice, France, on the eleventh of July, whose mother was an artist and whose father was a physician, became one of the most prominent psychologists in French history.



Having received his formal education in both Nice and later, in Paris, at the renowned Lycee Louis -le-Grand, Binet went on to become a lawyer. This profession, however, was not suited to him, and he found himself immersed in the works of J.S. Mill, Bain and Sully at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. He identified strongly with the associationism theory in following that his mentor was J.S. Mill.



Binet began working with Charcot and Fere at the Salpetriere, a famous Parisian hospital, where he absorbed the theories of his teachers in regards to hypnosis, hysteria and abnormal psychology. During the following seven years, he continuously demonstrated his loyalty in defending Charcot's doctrines on hypnotic transfer and polarization until he was forced to accept the counterattacks of Delboeuf and the Nancy School, which eventually caused a split between student and teacher.



Having been married in 1884 to Laure Balbiani, whose father was E.G. Balbiani, an embryologist at the College de France, Binet was given the opportunity to work in his lab where his interest in 'comparative psychology' was piqued and in which he eventually wrote his thesis for his doctorate in natural science, focusing his research on the "the behavior, physiology, histology and anatomy of insects"(Wolfe, p.7). It was while working in Dr. Balbiani's lab, that Binet wrote 'Animal Magnetism', an obvious breaking away from associationism, showing Binet's ability to adapt and learn with every opportunity.



Binet's next area of interest could be considered a precursor to some of Piaget's work with child psychology and began with the systematic observation of his two daughters, to whom he devoted much of his time, studying and writing about. It was at this point, that Binet "came to realize that individual differences had to be systematically explored before one could determine laws which would apply to all people"(Pollack,p.xii).



Soon after, Binet was nominated co-director and one year later, became director of the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne. He and Beaunis, also co-director, initiated and edited the first French psychological journal 'L'Annee Psychologique', which remains in press today.



Although never having attained a professorship in his own country (a bitter disappointment for the proud nationalist) Binet did spend one spring in Bucharest where his knowledge in experimental psychology was fully appreciated as he taught to auditoriums filled to capacity, and was thus offered a chair in psychophysiology. Binet refused, unable to remain away from Paris.



The 'Society Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant', was established in 1900 by Binet and Ferdinand Buisson. This organization's concerns dealt with practical problems in the school setting. Binet, after having proven himself through his work here, was appointed to a commission which was to adorn Binet with his most famous contribution in Psychology...the 'Methodes Nouvelles pour le Diagnostic du Niveau Intellectuel des Anormaux', a series of tests developed by he and his partner, Theodore Simone, allowing the differentiaion of normal from retarded children in the school system, thus allowing the slower children to be separated for remedial help. Although never used extensively in France, this of course, was the precursor (although used for different and opposable reasons than were initially intended by Binet) of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.



Alfred Binet "attempted to penetrate the human mind, to analyze its wellspring, to understand [it as] a complete whole"(Wolfe, p. 327). His work was diverse, covering areas such as systematic introspection, suggestibility, research with abnormals, mental fatigue, psychology of legal testimony, experimental study of children and experimental pedigogy.



Binet died in Paris in 1911. As a French Psychologist, he was never appreciated, specifically by the French, to the extent that his work and dedication merited him to be. Binet's work was diverse, showing interest in the person as a whole and therefore, trying to understand all facets comprising man. His work, although contributing much in the sense that it was often the precursor of more detailed, profound research, was never detailed enough to formulate any firm theories in any one area.



Binet's crownig glory was the formulation of the first intelligence test. The development of this test is explained fully in the 'The Psychological Testing Enterprise, An Introduction' pages 191 to 208.



Binet's theory which argues that "the best way to predict success in school was to measure success in school"(Rogers, p.653), can equally be applied in other situations. In breaking up the whole into a series of minitasks which allow the demonstration of ability, one can properly assess and place the learner in a learning situation which will best benefit that individual.



The following example deals with the sport of hockey. As it stands, children are separated into age divisions regardless of physical development, experience, etc.. In following Binet's theory, we shall take the game of hockey and divide it into minitasks such as: 

1) Skating 

forward
backward 

2) Stopping 

spontaneously
on command
stopping and starting 

3) Agility 

switching directions quickly
switching directions quickly on command 

4) Stick handling 

while still
while skating
while playing 

5) Puck handling 

alone
with others
passing accurately
receiving 

6) Plays 

remembering
executing 

7) Anticipating opponents
Although I'm sure there are many more minitasks into which this complex game can be sub-divided, this provides a starting point from which to work and is the first step in our process.



Start testing all children in the norm group in all tasks. Some of the children will perform many of the subtests well, but others will not. There will be a natural division due to the abilities of the children.



Start with the easiest subtests and gradually increase difficulty.



The subtests in each scale will be determined by the percentage of children who can do this subtest well.



Sixty-five to seventy-five per cent of children in each level should be able to pass the subtests of that specific scale. Each scale would therefore, be determined following the natural separation of subtests by the different abilities of the participants.



Most of the children in the level below, should not be able to perform the subtests in this specific scale; most of the children in the level above should be able to perform the subtests well.



Therefore, if the lowest 65% of the children can skate forward, stop spontaneously and switch directions, but cannot perform the other tasks well, these three subtasks will become one scale. The next scale would consist of the following tasks which are performed at a consistent level by the next lowest 65% of the players.



Each level will thus contain a scale of subtests which the children will work at mastering during the session. The levels should range from basic scales, concentrating on the easiest subtests to levels which are comprised of scales needing great skill in order to master the subtests.



In this manner, children would be separated on the basis of skill level and would thus receive the attention that they needed. They would play more and see more ice time, because they would be playing with their equals and they would thereby be provided with the optimal opportunity for skill development. Advancement would be based on the acquiring of the skills of the next level: Children would not be moved automatically to the next level with this same group. They would advance when they demonstrate that they can perform 80% of the subtests of the scale they are presently in and would therefore always be playing at a level which would be most beneficial to the development of their individual potential. 
----------




Work Cited

Pollack, B., The Experimental Psychology of Alfred Binet, Selected Papers. Springer Publishing Co., Inc., New York City, @ 1995.

Robinson, D.N., Significant Contributions to the History of Psychology 1750-1920 - Bine Psychometrics and Educational Psychology. University Publications of America, Inc., Washington, D.C., @ 1977



Rogers, T.B., The Psychological Testing Enterprise, An Introduction. Books/Cole Publishing Co., Pacific Grove, California, @ 1995.



Wolf, T.H., Alfred Binet. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, @ 1973.



 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Nobe1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Alfred Nobel


Born in Stockholm in 1833 of Swedish parents, Alfred Nobel moved with his family
to St. Petersburg, then the capital of Russia, at the age of nine. There his
energetic and inventive father soon acquired a strong and respected position as
an inventor and industrialist. Nobel subsequently lived in several countries and
ultimately came to regard himself as a citizen of the world. Even so, he never
gave up his Swedish citizenship.

By virtue of the education he received in many countries, Nobel read, spoke and
wrote fluently in five European languages: Swedish, Russian, English, French and
German. His numerous handwritten letters demonstrate his remarkable proficiency
in all of them. He perfected his French when sent to Paris by his father in his
late teens to study chemistry. His letters in French are particularly elegant.
Those in English sometimes bear traces of the early nineteenth-century style
generally associated with Byron and Shelley (his two favourite poets) and are
remarkably free of grammatical and idiomatic errors. To his mother he always
wrote in Swedish, which is also the language of the will he composed in Paris.
The fields embraced by the prizes stipulated by the will reflect Nobel's
personal interests. While he provided no prizes for architects, artists,
composers or social scientists, he was generous to those working in physics,
chemistry, physiology and medicine-the subjects he knew best himself, and in
which he expected the greatest advances.

Throughout his life he suffered from poor health and often took cures at
watering places, "less to drink the water than to rest." But he expected great
improvements in medicine, and the profession has since realized many of them.
Once he employed a young Swedish physiologist in Paris to test his own theories
on blood transfusions. Although these efforts were not successful, problems
related to transfusions were later solved by an Austrian, Karl Landsteiner, who
won the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

The Nobel Prize in Literature, too, reflects the donor's personal predilections.
From his early youth he had been a writer as well as an avid reader, but he
later destroyed many of his adolescent poems written in Swedish. He did, however,
save a long autobiographical poem in English and occasionally gave copies of it
to intimate friends. He was always an omnivorous reader of books in all the
languages he knew. What he meant by the stipulation in his will of an "
idealistic tendency" is shown by the books and authors he liked best. At the
very time he composed his final will in 1895, he wrote enthusiastic letters
about authors, among them Sweden's Selma Lagerlöf, who in 1909 was to become the
first woman to receive the Prize in Literature.

Nobel's award for peace workers was just as personally motivated. His special
recommendation of "organizers and promoters of peace congresses" shows that he
had in mind his friend Baroness Bertha von Suttner of Austria, whose peace
congresses in Rome and Berne he had supported financially. While he had been
concerned about the peace problem long before he met her, she undoubtedly
stimulated his interest in it still further. In 1905 Baroness von Suttner won
the Peace Prize.

A question often asked is, "Why was Norway picked to award the Peace Prize?"
Nobel himself gave no reason. It should be remembered, however, that during his
lifetime, Sweden and Norway were still joined in a union; this was peacefully
dissolved in 1905. When Nobel drew up his will, it may have been only natural
for him to divide the prize- awarding responsibilities between the two parts of
his homeland. A contributing reason may also have been his admiration for the
great Norwegian writer and patriot Bjørnstierne Bjørnson, winner of the Prize in
Literature in 1903.

The selection of Peace Prize winners was entrusted to a committee appointed by
the Storting, or Norwegian Parliament. As a member of the Royal Swedish Academy
of Sciences in Stockholm, Nobel thought this the appropriate body for the
selection of laureates in physics and chemistry. Selection of winners of the
Prize in Physiology or Medicine was delegated to the Karolinska Institute in
Stockholm, of which he had heard good reports. As for the Swedish Academy, which
he put in charge of the Prize in Literature, Nobel may not have been so familiar
with it, but he undoubtedly assumed that as a counterpart of the French Academy
it was best qualified for the difficult task of selecting the laureates in
literature.

Nobel's fortune Alfred Nobel's great wealth can be attributed to his ability to
combine the qualities of astute scientist and inventor with those of the far-
sighted and dynamic industrialist.

Alfred Nobel's fortune was founded on his inventions. At his death in 1896 he
held 355 patents, and it was around these that he had established companies in
some ninety locations in twenty countries. Most of Nobel's capital came from his
industrial activities in Great Britain, France, Germany, Sweden and Russia.

In his will, Nobel stipulated that the major part of his estate was to be
converted into a foundation and invested in "safe" securities. Accordingly, SEK
31.5 million (corresponding to some SEK 1.5 billion today) was used to establish
the Nobel Foundation. The value of Nobel's original capital has increased in
real terms, its market value in 1995 being some SEK 2.3 billion. The Foundation
is not connected with the companies around the world which still today bear
Nobel's name.

The Nobel Prizes Experience had taught Alfred Nobel to dislike and distrust
lawyers, and late in 1895 he made out his final will without any professional
advice or assistance. This will, which replaced two previous ones made in 1889
and 1893, stipulated that the income from his estate, which on his death in 1896
amounted to SEK 33.2 million, should be divided annually into five equal parts
and distributed "in the form of prizes to those who during the preceding year
have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind." He prescribed that the prizes
should be distributed as follows:

"One part to the person or persons who shall have made the most important
discovery or invention in the field of physics; one part to the person who shall
have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement; one part to the
person who shall have made the most important discovery in the domain of
physiology or medicine; one part to the person who shall have produced in the
field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency, and one
part to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity
between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for
holding and promoting peace congresses." His will also prescribes that in the
distribution of the prizes "no consideration whatever shall be given to the
nationality of the candidates, but that the most worthy shall receive the prize,
whether he is a Scandinavian or not."

Legally, however, the will did not actually bequeath the estate itself to anyone,
and when it was read in January 1897, it was strongly contested by some of his
relatives. Furthermore, Nobel had not approached the different institutions
concerned to ascertain if they were willing to assume responsibility for
awarding the prizes. Politicians criticized the idea on the whole, and King
Oskar II of Sweden and Norway was sceptical of it for various reasons. More than
three years elapsed before the matter was finally settled, and it was then
decided to organize the Nobel Foundation as legatee and administrator of the
Nobel fund capital, while the various bodies named in the will agreed to
undertake the responsibility of awarding the prizes. A decisive role in securing
the final victory by the establishing in 1900 of the Nobel Foundation was played
by Nobel's young collaborator, Ragnar Sohlman, who was named by Nobel Executor
of the Will. Sohlman later became the Executive Director of the Foundation.

The Nobel institutions There are five special Nobel Committees attached to the
prize-awarding bodies. Each of these Committees has five members, and each
Committee may call upon outside experts for additional advice.

The joint administrative body is the Nobel Foundation in Stockholm. The
principal task of its Board of Directors is to administer the funds and other
properties deriving from Alfred Nobel's estate.

The Prize in Economic Sciences The Bank of Sweden, at its tercentenary in 1968,
instituted the Sveriges Riksbank (Bank of Sweden) Prize in Economic Sciences in
Memory of Alfred Nobel, pledging an annual amount to the Nobel Foundation equal
to one of the regular Nobel Prizes. The winner of the Prize in Economic Sciences
is to be chosen each year by the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences. Nobel Prize
rules are followed regarding nomination of candidates, prize adjudication and
decision, and prize presentation.

The process of selection Those qualified to propose candidates for prizes are:
previous Nobel Laureates in their respective fields; members of the prize-
awarding bodies and of the Nobel Committees in the relevant spheres; professors
in the various fields either at specific universities or those selected through
special invitation by the respective prize-awarding bodies; chairmen of
representative authors' organizations (literature); members of certain
international parliamentary or legal organizations (peace); members of
parliaments and governments (peace). Anyone proposing himself for a Nobel Prize
is automatically disqualified. It should be observed that only individuals
belonging to these bodies have the right to propose a candidate-not the
organization as such. Since neither the Swedish nor the Norwegian authorities
have any influence whatsoever on the prize decisions, no official representation
or support in favor of a certain candidate is of any avail.

The Committees examine the proposals which have to be at their disposal before
February 1, and by early autumn their reports are submitted to the respective
prize-awarding bodies. After the merits of the candidates have been discussed,
the bodies announce their final decisions in mid-October. All proceedings of the
prize-awarding bodies are secret.

The presentation ceremonies The Nobel Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology
or Medicine, Literature and the Prize in Economic Sciences are presented to the
laureates by H.M. the King at a ceremony generally held in the Stockholm Concert
Hall on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death in 1896 at Sanremo,
Italy. The Peace Prize presentation takes place on the same day at the Oslo City
Hall. Each laureate receives a Nobel Gold Medal and a Nobel Diploma. The prize
money, which varies according to the net income of the fund capital, is
transferred after December 10 according to the laureate's wishes. In 1995, the
value of the Nobel Prizes was some SEK 7.2 million per prize.

The awards are widely recognized as the world's highest civic honors. Besides
spurring recipients and possible candidates to new efforts, they have served to
make scientific and literary achievements, as well as humanitarian contributions,
much more widely known than would otherwise have been the case.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Nobel 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden on October 21, 1833.(Encarta) His father Immanuel Nobel was an engineer and inventor who built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. In connection with his construction work Immanuel Nobel also experimented with different techniques of blasting rock.  Alfred's mother, Andrietta Ahlsell came from a wealthy family. Due to misfortunes in the construction work caused by the loss of some barges of building material, Immanuel Nobel was forced into bankruptcy the same year Alfred Nobel was born.  In 1837,  Immanuel Nobel left Stockholm and his family to start a new career in Finland and in Russia. To support the family, Andrietta Nobel started a grocery store which provided a modest income. Meanwhile Immanuel Nobel was successful in his new enterprise in St. Petersburg, Russia. He started a mechanical workshop which provided equipment for the Russian army and he also convinced the Tsar and his generals that naval mines could be used to block enemy naval ships from threatening the city.  The naval mines designed by Immanuel Nobel were simple devices consisting of submerged wooden casks filled with gun powder. Anchored below the surface of the Gulf of Finland they effectively deterred the British Royal  Navy from moving into firing range of St. Petersburg during the Crimean war (1853-1856).

 Immanuel Nobel was also a pioneer in arms manufacture and in designing steam engines. Successful in his industrial and business ventures, Immanuel Nobel was able, in 1842, to bring his family to St. Petersburg. 
There, his sons were given a first class education by private teachers. The training included natural sciences, languages and literature. By the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was fluent in Swedish, Russian, French, English and German. His primary interests were in English literature and poetry as well as in chemistry and physics. Alfred's father, who wanted his sons to join his enterprise as engineers, disliked Alfred's interest in poetry and found his son rather introverted. In order to widen Alfred's horizons his father sent him abroad for further training in chemical engineering. During a two year period,  Alfred Nobel visited Sweden, Germany, France and the United States.(Schuck p. 113)  In Paris,  the city he came to like best, he worked in the private laboratory of Professor T.J. Pelouze, a famous chemist. There he met the young Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero who,  three years earlier, had invented nitroglycerin, a highly explosive liquid. Nitroglycerin was produced by mixing glycerin with sulfuric and nitric acid. It was considered too dangerous to be of any practical use.(Schuck p. 87) Although its explosive power greatly exceeded that of gun powder, the liquid would explode in a very unpredictable manner if subjected to heat and pressure. 

Alfred Nobel became very interested in nitroglycerin and how it could be put to practical use in construction work. He also realized that the safety problems had to be solved and a method had to be developed for the controlled detonation of nitroglycerin. In the United States he visited John Ericsson, the Swedish-American engineer who had developed the screw propeller for ships. In 1852, Alfred Nobel was asked to come back and work in the family enterprise which was booming because of its deliveries to the Russian army. Together with his father he performed experiments to develop nitroglycerin as a commercially and technically useful explosive. As the war ended and conditions changed,  Immanuel Nobel was again forced into bankruptcy. Immanuel and two of his sons, Alfred and Emil, left St. Petersburg together and returned to Stockholm. His other two sons, Robert and Ludvig, remained in St. Petersburg. With some difficulties they managed to salvage the family enterprise and then went on to develop the oil industry in the southern part of the Russian empire. They were very successful and became some of the wealthiest persons of their time. (Compton's)

After his return to Sweden in 1863, Alfred Nobel concentrated on developing nitroglycerin as an explosive. Several explosions, including one (1864) in which his brother Emil and several other  persons were killed, convinced the authorities that nitroglycerin production was exceedingly dangerous. They forbade further experimentation with nitroglycerin within the Stockholm city limits and Alfred Nobel had to move his experimentation to a barge anchored on Lake Mälaren. Alfred was not discouraged and in 1864 he was able to start mass production of nitroglycerin. To make the handling of nitroglycerin safer Alfred Nobel experimented with different additives. He soon found that mixing nitroglycerin with silica would turn the liquid into a paste which could be shaped into rods of a size and form suitable for insertion into drilling holes.(Internet Site)  In 1867 he patented this material under the name of dynamite. To be able to detonate the dynamite rods he also invented a detonator (blasting cap) which could be ignited by lighting a fuse. These inventions were made at the same time as the diamond drilling crown and the pneumatic drill came into general use. Together these inventions drastically reduced the cost of blasting rock, drilling tunnels, building canals and many other forms of construction work.  The market for dynamite and detonating caps grew very rapidly and Alfred Nobel also proved himself to be a very skillful entrepreneur and business man. 

By 1865 his factory in Krümmel near Hamburg, Germany, was exporting nitroglycerin explosives to other countries in Europe, America and Australia. Over the years he founded factories and laboratories in some 90 different places in more than 20 countries.(Encarta) Although he lived in Paris much of his life he was constantly traveling. Victor Hugo at one time described him as "Europe's richest vagabond."  When he was not traveling or engaging in business activities Nobel himself worked intensively in his various laboratories, first in Stockholm and later in Hamburg (Germany), Ardeer (Scotland), Paris (France), Karlskoga (Sweden) and San Remo (Italy). He focused on the development of explosives technology as well as other chemical inventions, including such materials as synthetic rubber and leather, artificial silk etc. By the time of his death in 1896 he had 355 patents.(Compton's) 

Intensive work and travel did not leave much time for a private life. At the age of 43 he was feeling like an old man. At this time he advertised in a newspaper "Wealthy, highly educated elderly gentleman seeks lady of mature age, versed in 
languages, as secretary and supervisor of  household." The most qualified applicant turned out to be an Austrian woman, Countess Bertha Kinsky. After working for Nobel for about two months she decided to return to Austria to marry Count Arthur on Suture. In spite of this Alfred Nobel and Bertha von Suttner remained friends and kept writing letters to each other for decades. Over the years Bertha von Suttner became increasingly critical of the arms race. She wrote a famous book, titled,   "Lay Down Arms"  and became a prominent figure in the peace movement. No doubt this influenced Alfred Nobel when he wrote his final will which was to include a Prize for persons or organizations who promoted peace. Several years after the death of Alfred Nobel, the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) decided to award the 1905 Nobel Peace Prize to Bertha von Suttner. 

Alfred Nobel's greatness lay in his ability to combine the penetrating mind of the scientist and inventor with the forward-looking dynamism of the industrialist. Nobel was very interested in social and peace-related issues and held what were considered radical views in his era. He had a great interest in literature and wrote his own poetry and dramatic works. The Nobel Prizes became an extension and a fulfillment of his lifetime interests. 

Many of the companies founded by Nobel have developed into industrial enterprises that still play a prominent role in the world economy, for example Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Great Britain, Société Centrale de Dynamite, France, and Dyno Industries in Norway. Toward the end of his life, he acquired the company AB Bofors in Karlskoga, where Björkborn Manor became his Swedish home. 

Alfred Nobel died in San Remo, Italy, on December 10, 1896. When his will was opened it came as a surprise that his fortune was to be used for Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace. The executors of his will were two young engineers, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist. They set about forming the Nobel Foundation as an organization to take care of the financial assets left by Nobel for this purpose and to coordinate the work of the Prize-Awarding Institutions. This was not without its difficulties since the will was contested by relatives and questioned by authorities in various countries.

But as we all know, the legacy of Alfred Nobel lives on today. The prizes named after him are still the most coveted prizes for the recipients in their respective fields. Everyone will remember Alfred Nobel as a daring pioneer who knew no limits. 

Many of the new advanced scientific discoveries made in the last century were surely helped out by the work of Nobel. His Nobel prizes reward people of science and enable them to keep churning out new ways of accomplishing new feats that have never been attempted before
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Nobel.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden on October 21, 1833.(Encarta) His father Immanuel Nobel was an engineer and inventor who built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. In connection with his construction work Immanuel Nobel also experimented with different techniques of blasting rock.  Alfred's mother, Andrietta Ahlsell came from a wealthy family. Due to misfortunes in the construction work caused by the loss of some barges of building material, Immanuel Nobel was forced into bankruptcy the same year Alfred Nobel was born.  In 1837,  Immanuel Nobel left Stockholm and his family to start a new career in Finland and in Russia. To support the family, Andrietta Nobel started a grocery store which provided a modest income. Meanwhile Immanuel Nobel was successful in his new enterprise in St. Petersburg, Russia. He started a mechanical workshop which provided equipment for the Russian army and he also convinced the Tsar and his generals that naval mines could be used to block enemy naval ships from threatening the city.  The naval mines designed by Immanuel Nobel were simple devices consisting of submerged wooden casks filled with gun powder. Anchored below the surface of the Gulf of Finland they effectively deterred the British Royal  Navy from moving into firing range of St. Petersburg during the Crimean war (1853-1856).

 Immanuel Nobel was also a pioneer in arms manufacture and in designing steam engines. Successful in his industrial and business ventures, Immanuel Nobel was able, in 1842, to bring his family to St. Petersburg. 
There, his sons were given a first class education by private teachers. The training included natural sciences, languages and literature. By the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was fluent in Swedish, Russian, French, English and German. His primary interests were in English literature and poetry as well as in chemistry and physics. Alfred's father, who wanted his sons to join his enterprise as engineers, disliked Alfred's interest in poetry and found his son rather introverted. In order to widen Alfred's horizons his father sent him abroad for further training in chemical engineering. During a two year period,  Alfred Nobel visited Sweden, Germany, France and the United States.(Schuck p. 113)  In Paris,  the city he came to like best, he worked in the private laboratory of Professor T.J. Pelouze, a famous chemist. There he met the young Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero who,  three years earlier, had invented nitroglycerin, a highly explosive liquid. Nitroglycerin was produced by mixing glycerin with sulfuric and nitric acid. It was considered too dangerous to be of any practical use.(Schuck p. 87) Although its explosive power greatly exceeded that of gun powder, the liquid would explode in a very unpredictable manner if subjected to heat and pressure. 

Alfred Nobel became very interested in nitroglycerin and how it could be put to practical use in construction work. He also realized that the safety problems had to be solved and a method had to be developed for the controlled detonation of nitroglycerin. In the United States he visited John Ericsson, the Swedish-American engineer who had developed the screw propeller for ships. In 1852, Alfred Nobel was asked to come back and work in the family enterprise which was booming because of its deliveries to the Russian army. Together with his father he performed experiments to develop nitroglycerin as a commercially and technically useful explosive. As the war ended and conditions changed,  Immanuel Nobel was again forced into bankruptcy. Immanuel and two of his sons, Alfred and Emil, left St. Petersburg together and returned to Stockholm. His other two sons, Robert and Ludvig, remained in St. Petersburg. With some difficulties they managed to salvage the family enterprise and then went on to develop the oil industry in the southern part of the Russian empire. They were very successful and became some of the wealthiest persons of their time. (Compton's)

After his return to Sweden in 1863, Alfred Nobel concentrated on developing nitroglycerin as an explosive. Several explosions, including one (1864) in which his brother Emil and several other  persons were killed, convinced the authorities that nitroglycerin production was exceedingly dangerous. They forbade further experimentation with nitroglycerin within the Stockholm city limits and Alfred Nobel had to move his experimentation to a barge anchored on Lake Mälaren. Alfred was not discouraged and in 1864 he was able to start mass production of nitroglycerin. To make the handling of nitroglycerin safer Alfred Nobel experimented with different additives. He soon found that mixing nitroglycerin with silica would turn the liquid into a paste which could be shaped into rods of a size and form suitable for insertion into drilling holes.(Internet Site)  In 1867 he patented this material under the name of dynamite. To be able to detonate the dynamite rods he also invented a detonator (blasting cap) which could be ignited by lighting a fuse. These inventions were made at the same time as the diamond drilling crown and the pneumatic drill came into general use. Together these inventions drastically reduced the cost of blasting rock, drilling tunnels, building canals and many other forms of construction work.  The market for dynamite and detonating caps grew very rapidly and Alfred Nobel also proved himself to be a very skillful entrepreneur and business man. 

By 1865 his factory in Krümmel near Hamburg, Germany, was exporting nitroglycerin explosives to other countries in Europe, America and Australia. Over the years he founded factories and laboratories in some 90 different places in more than 20 countries.(Encarta) Although he lived in Paris much of his life he was constantly traveling. Victor Hugo at one time described him as "Europe's richest vagabond."  When he was not traveling or engaging in business activities Nobel himself worked intensively in his various laboratories, first in Stockholm and later in Hamburg (Germany), Ardeer (Scotland), Paris (France), Karlskoga (Sweden) and San Remo (Italy). He focused on the development of explosives technology as well as other chemical inventions, including such materials as synthetic rubber and leather, artificial silk etc. By the time of his death in 1896 he had 355 patents.(Compton's) 

Intensive work and travel did not leave much time for a private life. At the age of 43 he was feeling like an old man. At this time he advertised in a newspaper "Wealthy, highly educated elderly gentleman seeks lady of mature age, versed in 
languages, as secretary and supervisor of  household." The most qualified applicant turned out to be an Austrian woman, Countess Bertha Kinsky. After working for Nobel for about two months she decided to return to Austria to marry Count Arthur on Suture. In spite of this Alfred Nobel and Bertha von Suttner remained friends and kept writing letters to each other for decades. Over the years Bertha von Suttner became increasingly critical of the arms race. She wrote a famous book, titled,   "Lay Down Arms"  and became a prominent figure in the peace movement. No doubt this influenced Alfred Nobel when he wrote his final will which was to include a Prize for persons or organizations who promoted peace. Several years after the death of Alfred Nobel, the Norwegian Storting (Parliament) decided to award the 1905 Nobel Peace Prize to Bertha von Suttner. 

Alfred Nobel's greatness lay in his ability to combine the penetrating mind of the scientist and inventor with the forward-looking dynamism of the industrialist. Nobel was very interested in social and peace-related issues and held what were considered radical views in his era. He had a great interest in literature and wrote his own poetry and dramatic works. The Nobel Prizes became an extension and a fulfillment of his lifetime interests. 

Many of the companies founded by Nobel have developed into industrial enterprises that still play a prominent role in the world economy, for example Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Great Britain, Société Centrale de Dynamite, France, and Dyno Industries in Norway. Toward the end of his life, he acquired the company AB Bofors in Karlskoga, where Björkborn Manor became his Swedish home. 

Alfred Nobel died in San Remo, Italy, on December 10, 1896. When his will was opened it came as a surprise that his fortune was to be used for Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace. The executors of his will were two young engineers, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist. They set about forming the Nobel Foundation as an organization to take care of the financial assets left by Nobel for this purpose and to coordinate the work of the Prize-Awarding Institutions. This was not without its difficulties since the will was contested by relatives and questioned by authorities in various countries.

But as we all know, the legacy of Alfred Nobel lives on today. The prizes named after him are still the most coveted prizes for the recipients in their respective fields. Everyone will remember Alfred Nobel as a daring pioneer who knew no limits. 

Many of the new advanced scientific discoveries made in the last century were surely helped out by the work of Nobel. His Nobel prizes reward people of science and enable them to keep churning out new ways of accomplishing new feats that have never been attempted before
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alfred Tennyson.TXT
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Alfred Tennyson was born on August 6th, 1809, at Somersby, Lincolnshire, fourth of twelve children of George and Elizabeth Tennyson.  Tennyson, said to be the best poet of the Victorian era and his poetry will be discussed in this essay.
	Tennyson had a lifelong fear of mental illness, because several men in his family had a mild form of epilepsy, which then was thought of as a shameful disease.  His father and brother Arthur made their epilepsy worse by excessive drinking.  His brother Edward had to be put in a mental institution after 1833, and he spent a few weeks himself under doctor's care in 1843.  In the late twenties his father's physical and mental condition got worse, and he became paranoid, abusive, and violent.
	In 1827 Tennyson escaped his troubled home when he followed his two older brothers to Trinity College, Cambridge, where his teacher was William Whewell.  Because each of them had won university prizes for poetry the Tennyson brothers became well known at Cambridge.  In 1829 The Apostles, an undergraduate club, invited him to join.  The members of this group would remain Tennyson's friends all his life.
	Arthur Hallam was the most important of these friendships.  Hallam, a brilliant Victorian young man was recognized by his peers as having unusual promise.  He and Tennyson knew each other only four years, but their intense friendship had a major influence on the poet.  On a visit to Somersby, Hallam met and later became engaged to Emily Tennyson, and the two friends looked forward to a life-long companionship.  Hallam died from illness in 1833 at the age of 22 and shocked Tennyson profoundly.  His grief lead to most of his best poetry, including "In Memoriam", "The Passing of Arthur", "Ulysses", and "Tithonus".
	Since Tennyson was always sensitive to criticism, The bad reviews of his 1832 poems hurt him greatly.  Critics in those days took great joy in the harshness of their reviews.  John Wilson Croker's harsh criticisms of some of the poems he wrote kept Tennyson from publishing again for another nine years.
	The success of his 1842 poems made Tennyson a popular poet, and in 1845 he got a government pension of 200 pounds a year, which helped him with his financial difficulties.  The success of "The Princess" and "In Memoriam" and his appointment as Poet Laureate in 1850 finally established him as the most popular poet of the Victorian era.
	By now Tennyson, only 41, had written some of his greatest poetry, but he continued to write and to gain popularity.  Prince Albert admired his poetry so much that he would drop by unexpectedly to here some of Tennyson's poetry.  This helped solidify his position as the national poet, and Tennyson returned the favour by dedicating "The Idylls of the King" to his memory.
	Tennyson suffered from extreme short-sightedness so without a monocle he could not even see to eat.  This made for difficult reading and writing, and this is why he composed a lot of his poetry in his head.  Sometimes he would work on a single poem for many years.
	Every aspect of  the Victorian era were found in his poetry.  His poetry covered a large range of subjects such as moral and religious problems in his time.  His poems also discuss the events of his day - "The Charge of the Light Brigade" and "The Death of the Duke of Wellington" are two poems of this type that show the emotion of the nation.
	Tennyson's work is appreciated perhaps for the sheer beauty of his writing, his descriptions of the natural world and of the landscape-most often the Lincolnshire countryside which he grew up in:
               Calm and deep peace on this high wold,
And on these dews that drench the furze,
And all the silvery gossamers
That twinkle into green and gold
(Culler, A.  Dwight, pg. 39)
	The 'public' side of Tennyson's work is now valued less than his more personal poetry.  He writes about how reality destroys the ideal world as in "The Lady of Shalott".  Frequently, Tennyson's personal worries were  the same as those of the time.  For example, the way he describes Sir Bedivere's reaction to the death of King Arthur in "Morte D'Arthur".  Tennyson expresses Sir Bedivere's problem, caught in a changing world and with stable traditions disappearing fast.  "For now I see the true old times are dead..."(Culler, A.  Dwight, pg. 47):
               And I, the last, go forth companionless,
And the days darken round me, and the years,
Among new men, strange faces, other minds.
(Culler, A.  Dwight, pg. 48)
	Probably his greatest poem is "In Memoriam", published in 1850, though written over the previous seventeen years.  He started writing it after the youthful death of his best friend, Arthur Hallam.  His death led Tennyson to question the purpose of life and the importance of death.  "In Memoriam" is almost like a poetic diary since all events are linked to Hallam and to the question of death.  They say it's the uncertainty of the poem that makes it so good.  The twentieth century poet T. S. Eliot said of it, "Its faith is a very poor thing, but its doubt is a very intense experience."  The intensity, the doubt, the beauty: all are typical of Tennyson.
	Long-lived like most of his family, no matter how unhealthy they seemed to be, Alfred, Lord Tennyson died on October 6, 1892, at the age of 83.

Bibliography

1.  The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Knowledge (1978)
2.  Culler, A.  Dwight, The Poetry of Tennyson (1977)
3.  Nicolson, Harold, Tennyson: Aspects of His Life, Character, and Poetry (1972)
4.  Software Toolworks Multimedia Encyclopedia (1992) 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alice Paul.TXT
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Alice Paul
Alice Paul was born on January 11,1885, in Moorestown, New Jersey. Her father, who died when Alice was sixteen, was a businessman, banker, and property owner. The Pauls lived in the small Quaker community of Moorestown. One of the beliefs of the Quakers was equality of the sexes. As a young girl, Alice attended the Quaker suffrage meetings with her mother. Alice Pauls' father left them enough money so she could attend the exclusive Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania. She graduated in 1905 as a biology major, but after discovering politics in her senior year, she went on to attend the New York School of Philanthropy. She majored in sociology, and spent all of her spare time working for the woman suffrage in New York. In 1907, Paul earned a master's degree in sociolgy. She went to England to continue her work toward her doctorate degree. She was begin- ning to realize that she couldn't change the situation by social work alone, but needed to change the actual laws. Women had no voice in either England or America to change any law. The suffrage movement was different in England than in the States. British suffragists had begun wild women protests in 1905. They would sneak into male political meetings, and disrupt the meetings by shouting questions, wave banners and be arrested. As Alice Paul became more involved with the Women's Social and Political Union, she was warned of possible imprisonment. This threat did not prevent her from sneaking into political events. She was arrested ten times in England, three of which ended in prison time. While in prison, she continued to protest the government's refusal to let women vote or speak publicly, by not eating. She was force-fed for four weeks. She returned to America in 1910, where she continued her studies and her suffrage work. She brought back from England with her the same tactics used to get the attention of the newspapers and the government. She brought the wild suffragette movement back to the United States. She teamed up with Lucy Burns, who she spent prison time with in England. They went to the National American Women Suffrage Association and proposed forming a committee to lobby congressmen for a national suffrage ammendment. They were named president and vice president but were told they would have to raise their own funds. They began by organizing a volunteer network then decided to bid for national attention. Their first appearance as a committee was a celebration parade for the inauguration of President Woodrow Wilson. This would certainly be heard throughout the nation. In just a few weeks they had over 8,000 marchers representing states, colleges, and even some other nations. They included 26 floats depicting women's lives and hardships. This was the first procession of women in our nation for any cause. This parade caused so much excitement that it brought the women suffrage movement into the headlines. By that summer both houses of congress were discussing women suffrage. Alice Paul then began publishing a weekly newspaper, The Suffragist, in November of 1913. In the issues to follow they spoke of injustice and the laws affecting the interest of women. In April 1916, the National Women's Party was established as a political party. This party did not endorse any candidate but only woman suffrage. The Democrats and Republicans were beginning to realize the women's votes could definitely influence the election. For the first time in American politics, both parties included support for women in their campaign platforms. Woodrow Wilson was elected in spite of his demeaning behavior to women, so, on January 10, 1917, one day after his inauguration, Alice Paul and her organization began picketing the White House and continued for the next 18 months. On April 6,1917, America went to war. The picketers began to use the war to make their points. There were many arrests of the picketters to follow, the fines were larger and the prison terms longer and harsher. Alice Paul was arrested on October 20 and served seven months, which was the longest term ever served for women suffrage. The cells were unclean, with rotten food, parasites, and police brutality. She was put in a psychiatric ward, where she was questioned and awakened every hour by inspectors or insane inmates. But the truth began to reach the public. Released suffrage prisoners, wearing prison uniforms, travled on "The Prison Special" and told of terrible conditions. One week later Paul was released. President Wilson began urging members of the House and Senate to vote for the nineteenth amendment, but kept losing. Then in October 1918, he pleaded for woman suffrage as part of the war effort. The amendment was passed in 1920, giving women the rights of citizens, including the right to vote. She did not stop there. In 1922, she received her Law degree and in 1928 formed the World Party for Equal Rights for Women. Pauls equal rights amendment was "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." Living in Switzerland, she encouraged an Equal Rights Treaty and a World code of Law. Equality was then written into the United Nations Charter. Paul fought for equal rights the rest of her life, nationaly and internationally. In1977, at the age of 93, she died in her childhood town of Moorestown. Alice Paul was a remarkable, unstop- pable feminist and social reformer, who paved the road we now walk.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Alice Walker.TXT
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Alice Walker
Alice Walker is an African-American novelist and poet; born in Eatonton, Ga. Her parents, Minnie Lou Grant and Willie Lee Walker, were both sharecroppers. She was raised in a shack minutes from Flannery O'Conner's house, "Andalusia". Blinded in one eye from an accidental gunshot wound at the young age of eight, Walker fell into somewhat of a depression. She secluded herself from the other children, and as she explains, "I no longer felt like the little girl I was. I felt old, and because I felt I was unpleasant to look at, filled with shame. I retreated into solitude, and read stories and began to write poems."
Walker later won a Spelman College scholarship for disabled students. Her involvement in various civil rights demonstrations led to her dismissal. She then won another scholarship at the progressive Sarah Lawrence College. In 1964 she traveled to Uganda, Africa where she studied as an exchange student. Upon her return in 1965, she received her B.A. degree. She was then awarded a writing fellowship and was planning to spend it in Senegal, West Africa. Her plans changed, however, after working as a caseworker in the New York City welfare department. She, instead, decided to volunteer her time working at the voter registration drive in Mississippi in the summer of 1966, later claiming that her decision had been based on "the realization that I could never live happily in Africa-or anywhere else-until I could live freely in Mississippi"
In 1967, Walker married Mel Leventhal, a white activist civil rights lawyer, and one-year later Walker gave birth to their daughter Rebecca. It was not until she began teaching that her writing carrier began to take off. She started at Jackson State, then Tougaloo, and finally at Wellesley College. She was also a fellow at the Ratcliffe Institute from 1971 to 1973. In her last year there she published her first collection of stories, In Love & Trouble.
She uses her travel experience in Africa as well as her memories of the CIVIL-RIGHTS movement in an examination of the experiences of African Americans in the South. She was also influenced by a number of other prominent authors, including Flannery O'Conner and Zora Neale Hurston. She first became interested in O'Conner after visiting "Andalusia", where her first reaction was hatred. As Walker thought to herself upon arriving at O'Conners house, "What I felt at the moment of knocking is fury that someone is paid to take care of her house, though no one lives in it, and that her house still, in fact, stands, while mine-which of course we never owned anyway-is slowly rotting into dust. Her house becomes-in an instant-the symbol of my own disinheritance, and for that instance I hate her guts" She was a big influence nonetheless, as Walker claims, "Flannery O'Conner has also influenced my work. To me, she is the best of the white southern writers, including Faulkner. For one thing, she practiced economy. She also knew that the question of race was really just the first question on a long list. This is hard for just about everybody to accept, we've been trying to answer it for so long" Walker was also influenced by Zora Neale Hurston's works. Walker was quoted as saying; "My feeling is that Zora Neale Hurston is probably one of the most misunderstood, least appreciated writers of this century. Which is a pity. She is great. A writer of courage, and incredible humor, with poetry in every line."
Note: (She won the Pulitzer Prize in 1983 for her writing of the "Color Purple".)
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Allen Pinkerton.TXT
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Allen Pinkerton
Allan Pinkerton , born in Glasgow, Scotland in 1819, emigrated to Chicago. He was
America's first "private eye." A man of many contradictions, he was a conservative
who strongly opposed slavery, a very cautious man who risked his life capturing criminals,
a militant labor organizer who suppressed the labor movement, and fought for women's
rights to be detectives.
During his twenty-eight year career as a private detective, Allan Pinkerton and his
agency investigated over a thousand crimes. Pinkerton was involved in many dramas
of the nineteenth century. Work and the Underground Railroad became his life. The
Pinkerton's fed and sheltered fugitives in their own home. Pinkerton was a very moral
man and despised slavery. The crisis over slavery brought the nation to the brink of the
Civil War. The South demanded a guarantee that slavery would continue in the states
where it was already established and permitted to spread to the Midwest and West. The
South also wanted the North to return any slaves who fled there via the Underground
Railroad. The North wanted to stop the spread of slavery. In 1850 the Fugitive Slave Act
was passed, which made it a federal crime for slaves to run away and a crime for anyone
to assist them. Allan Pinkerton could be arrested and imprisoned for his involvement
in assisting the slaves.
When the war began, Allan Pinkerton would finally combine his detective skills with
his abolitionist beliefs. Allan Pinkerton protected Abraham Lincoln against southern
radicals, who demanded the Union be dissolved and the Southern states form an independent
government. They hated Lincoln because they feared he would abolish slavery. In 1861,
Pinkerton uncovered a plot to assassinate President Lincoln. Pinkerton , with his top agents,
posed as Southern sympathizers and found themselves within the conspirators. As a spy
in the their midst, the plot was uncovered. As President Lincoln changed trains in
Maryland on February 22, he would be shot. Some of the guards protecting the President
were also Southern radicals. At the same time there was another plot to blow up the train carrying Lincoln. Once the train was destroyed, they would cut the telegraph wires and blow up bridges and train tracks to prevent Northern troops entry into Baltimore.
If President Lincoln was killed, there would definitely be a civil war. Pinkerton acted
quickly and changed the original trip plans. They would leave immediately, two days
early. Although the President made it to Washington safely, Southern rebels in Baltimore
attacked the railroad. War was inevitalble. Washington was filled with spies and Pinkerton
approached the President, offering to create a secret service to uncover and arrest the
spies. Lincoln would not agree.
George McClellan, an old friend of Pinkerton's, wanted him to set up a military
intelligence operation and send agents into the South. Pinkerton assigned himself
and traveled as E.J.Allen, a Southern rebel. The information he gathered helped
McClellan win several minor battles in the Ohio Valley when war broke out. In 1861,
Pinkerton received devastating news. The Northern Army of the Potomac had been
defeated at Bull Run in the first major battle of the Civil War.
Pinkerton's most challenging opponents was Rose O'Neal Greenhow, the South's
most productive and effective spy. She concealed information that thwarted the attack by General George McDowell at Manassas, outside of Washington. Pinkerton
realized Rose Greenhow, "the Southern Rose," presented a great danger and had to be
arrested. A Union army captain was arrested leaving her home, carrying a vital military
map of gun ports. Pinkerton and his agents uncovered many military plans that she had
obtained to aid in the Southern war effort. She had a network of spies, including many
women. After her arrest and release from prison, she traveled abroad, raising money for military support. Returning from Europe, her boat capsized and she drowned.
Pinkerton used his own sons, sending them as spies into the South. Robert, fourteen,
was sent in an air balloon with agents to locate and count enemy troops. William, sixteen,
posed as a Confederate soldier behind enemy lines, carrying back information to his father.
Although Pinkerton excelled as a detective, he lacked military intelligence. He often
overestimated the strength of the enemy. Because of McClellan's trust in his friend, the
North lost many victories and the war continued.
McClellan's position as fighting general was terminated by the President, due to his
losses. When McClellan was relieved of his duty, he chose to run for President on the
Democratic ticket. Pinkerton quit his job as the head of the secret service and military
intelligence in support of his friend's campaign. Even though he was no longer with the
secret service, he still worked for the government by investigating merchants who were
cheating them by selling faulty military supplies.
When the war ended, Allan Pinkerton returned to Chicago to build up his private
investigation business. On April 14,1865, President Lincoln was assassinated. Allan
Pinkerton was not there to protect him.
The end of the Civil War did not bring peace to America. There were continuous outbursts
and gangs were formed to rob trains. Pinkerton and his agents pursued the outlaws with
vengeance, the most famous being the James brothers.
In 1869, Allan Pinkerton suffered a stroke, but fought the paralysis. A new battlefield
emerged in the 1870's in the coal mines, steel mills, and factories. The workers were
treated like slaves, and fought back. Pinkerton was employed to end these organizations,
to infiltrate, gather evidence, and convict them. A strike broke out in a steel plant, ending
in fatalities. Pinkerton's reputation was seriously damaged.
Allan Pinkerton died in 1884. He was a legend, gaining an international reputation for
crime solving and protection. When the F.B.I. was founded, it was modeled after
the Pinkerton's National Detective Agency.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andrew Jackson 4.TXT
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	Like any hall of fame, its inductees are the best in whatever they do, from baseball or football to something like being President.  If you are a member of any hall of fame (including the one for the Presidents), it means that you have done something special or have a certain quality about yourself that makes you worthy to be in a hall of fame.  My nominee for the Presidents hall of Fame is our seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson.  I'll go over his presidency, focusing on both the highs and the lows of his two terms in office, from 1829-1837.  The issues that I'll focus on are states' rights, nullification, the tariff, the spoils system, Indian removal and banking policies; these controversies brought forth strong rivalry over his years of president.  He was known for his iron will and fiery personality, and strong use of the powers of his office that made his years of presidency to be known as the 
"Age of Jackson."
	Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in a settlement on the border of North and South Carolina.  He was orphaned at age 14.  After studying law and becoming a member of the Bar in North Carolina later he moved to Nashville Tennessee.  Their he became a member of a powerful political faction led by William Blount.  He was married in 1791 to Rachel Donelson Robards, and later remarried to him due to a legal mistake in her prior divorce in 1794.
	Jackson served as delegate to Tenn. in the 1796 Constitutional convention and a congressman for a year (from 1796-97).  He was elected senator in 1797, but financial problems forced him to resign and return to Tennessee in less than a year.  Later he served as a Tennessee superior court judge for six years starting in 1798.  In 1804 he retired from the bench and moved to Nashville and devoted time to business ventures and his plantation.  At this time his political career looked over.
	In 1814 Jackson was a Major General in the Tennessee Militia, here he was ordered to march against the Creek Indians (who were pro-British in the war of 1812).  His goal was achieved at Horseshoe Bend in March of 1814.  Eventually he forced All Indians from the area.  His victory's impressed some people in Washington and Jackson was put in command of the defense of New Orleans.  This show of American strength made Americans feel proud after a war filled with military defeats.  Jackson was given the nickname "Old Hickory", and was treated as a national hero.
	In 1817 he was ordered against the Seminole Indians.  He pushed them back into Spanish Florida and executed two British subjects.  Jackson instead that his actions were with approval of the Monroe administration.  His actions helped to acquire the Florida territory, and he became a provisional governor of Florida that same year.
	In 1822 the Tennessee Legislature nominated him for president  and the following year he was elected the U.S. senate.  He also nearly won the presidential campaign of 1824 however as a result of the "corrupt bargain" with Henry Clay.  Over the next four years the current administration built a strong political machine with nationalistic policies and a lack of concern of states rights.  In 1828 through a campaign filled with mud slinging on both sides, Andrew Jackson became the seventh President to the United States.

	Instead of the normal cabinet made up by the president, he relied more on an informal group of newspaper writers and northern politicians who had worked for his election.  I believe that this made him more in contact with the people of the United States, more in contact with the public opinion and feelings toward national issues
	President Jackson developed the system of "rotation in office."  This was used to protect the American people from a development of a long-standing political group by removing long-term office holders.  His enemies accused him of corruption of civil service for political reasons.  However, I think that it was used to insure loyalty of the people in his administration.
	States rights played an important part in Jackson's policy's as president.  In the case of the Cherokee Indians vs. The State of Georgia, two Supreme Court decisions in 1831 and 1832 upholding the rights of the Cherokee nation over the State of Georgia who had wanted to destroy Cherokee jurisdiction on it's land because gold had been found on it, and the state seeing the Indians as tenants on state land decided to "kick them out".  Chief  Justice John Marshall ruled that Georgia had no jurisdiction to interfere with the rights of the Cherokee and removal of them would violate treaties between them and the U.S. Government.  However, Jackson, not liking these decisions was reported of saying "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."  It seems to me like a slap in Justice Marshall's face, that Jackson was and always will be an Indian fighter.  I think he just liked pushing around the Indians because he new that whatever resistance they had was no match for the U.S. army.  To emphasize his po
int, in 1838 (one year after Jackson left office), a unite of federal troops rounded up the 15,000 Cherokee who resisted relocation and remained in Georgia and during the cold and rain of winter forced them to march to their lands in the west, this was known as the "Trail of Tears" since about 25% of the people died in route of either disease, starvation, and exposure to the cold.  Even though Jackson wasn't in office at the time and is not a part of his presidency, his effluence still existed through his predecessor, Martin Van Burin.
	The question of the tariff was a major controversy in the United States around the years of his Presidency and his strong support for a unified nation oven states rights would hold the country together in this national crisis.  Jackson had promised the south a reduction in duties to levels established in 1828, which were acceptable to southerners as opposed to the higher rates since then.  In 1832 his administration only sliced away a little bit of the duties, not close to what the south expected he would do.  In retaliation of this insulting lack of concern of the South's voice in government, South Carolina acting on the doctrine of Nullification which stated that the union was made up of the states and that the states had the right to null or void a law if they didn't agree with it, declared the federal tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 invalid and prohibited collection of tariff's after February first of 1833.  Jackson's response to this came on his Nullification Proclamation on December 10, 1832.  He declared 
his intent to enforce the law and was willing to seek and agreement in a lowering of tariff's.  In 1833 congress passed a compromise bill which set a new tariff, when the other southern states accepted the new tariff the threat of S. Carolina breaking away form the union was brought to a "happy" end.
	The Second Bank of the United States was not made into an issue of his election in 1828 by Jackson.  However he decided the  bank, which is not a government bank, but chartered by it in 1826, had failed to provide a stable currency, and had favored the Northern states, and few loans were granted to the southern and western areas because they were a larger risk and the bank didn't see it in it's interest to make such a gamble with it's money.  And in his mind the bank was in violation on the Constitution.  Even though the bank's charter wasn't due to expire until 1836, Jackson's political enemies pushed a bill through congress granting the banks re-charter, Jackson vetoed the bill.  The "Bank" issue was a major item in his re-election in 1832.  In his second term Jackson decided to remove federal deposits from the bank into "pet banks" which virtually took away the power Nicholas Biddle's power as president of the Second National Bank, which left him and anti-Jackson people very upset with what they called the
 abuse of his powers.  The increase in loans from the state chartered caused a land boom and gave the federal government a surplus (which it split up amongst the states), the increase in loans brought on the use of paper currency that was issued by the state banks, Jackson prohibited the use of paper money to by federal land or pay federal debts.  This demand for coins called specie led to many bank failures in the Panic of 1837.  I don't think he knew what he got himself into when he did this, and could of handled the situation a little better, but not all the blame should fall on his shoulders, because it wasn't his fault the private state-chartered banks issued the paper money when they didn't have the specie to back it up.
	Jackson's foreign policy showed a strong interest in making the French to pay long-overdue spoliation claims and reopening the British West Indian Trade.  Even thought he personally agreed with the rebellion of Texas against Mexico.  He didn't recognize the Lone Star republic until the day before he left office in 1837, and left the problem of  Texas annexation to Martin Van Buren.

	Even though Jackson switched support form his successor Martin Van Buren to James K. Polk (probably due to Van Burins failed economic policy).  Jackson was a powerful voice in the Democratic party even after retired.  He died on June 8, 1845 on his plantation, the Hermitage, in Nashville Tennessee.
	Andrew Jackson was the first "peoples president."  This comes from his youth in a frontier territory and his "people qualities" which helped him to be more touch with the people of the United States, and therefore the people of the United States took a more active role in the Government.  He even went so far as to call himself the elected representative of all American people.  I think that Jackson's strengthening of the powers of the presidency are the biggest influence to this day.  He used the power of the veto 12 times (more times than all of his successors combined).  And his use of the powers of removal and of executive orders made a standard for a modern American Presidency.  I only wish that their was a candidate like that running for election in '96.  The closest to someone like Jackson would of probably been Colin Powel, unfortunately he decided not to run.  When you gave this project, I though Jackson was a mean tempered Indian fighter who found his way to office because he took over Florida and de
fended New Orleans Successfully.  But I grew to learn that he was really a great president and did a lot for the presidency of the United States of America.















The Nomination ofAndrew Jackson 
to the
"Presidents Hall of Fame"












								By:  Brian Weber
								Dedember 8, 1995























































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andrew Jackson.TXT
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	Like any hall of fame, its inductees are the best in whatever they do, from baseball or football to something like being President.  If you are a member of any hall of fame (including the one for the Presidents), it means that you have done something special or have a certain quality about yourself that makes you worthy to be in a hall of fame.  My nominee for the Presidents hall of Fame is our seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson.  I'll go over his presidency, focusing on both the highs and the lows of his two terms in office, from 1829-1837.  The issues that I'll focus on are states' rights, nullification, the tariff, the spoils system, Indian removal and banking policies; these controversies brought forth strong rivalry over his years of president.  He was known for his iron will and fiery personality, and strong use of the powers of his office that made his years of presidency to be known as the 
"Age of Jackson."
	Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in a settlement on the border of North and South Carolina.  He was orphaned at age 14.  After studying law and becoming a member of the Bar in North Carolina later he moved to Nashville Tennessee.  Their he became a member of a powerful political faction led by William Blount.  He was married in 1791 to Rachel Donelson Robards, and later remarried to him due to a legal mistake in her prior divorce in 1794.
	Jackson served as delegate to Tenn. in the 1796 Constitutional convention and a congressman for a year (from 1796-97).  He was elected senator in 1797, but financial problems forced him to resign and return to Tennessee in less than a year.  Later he served as a Tennessee superior court judge for six years starting in 1798.  In 1804 he retired from the bench and moved to Nashville and devoted time to business ventures and his plantation.  At this time his political career looked over.
	In 1814 Jackson was a Major General in the Tennessee Militia, here he was ordered to march against the Creek Indians (who were pro-British in the war of 1812).  His goal was achieved at Horseshoe Bend in March of 1814.  Eventually he forced All Indians from the area.  His victory's impressed some people in Washington and Jackson was put in command of the defense of New Orleans.  This show of American strength made Americans feel proud after a war filled with military defeats.  Jackson was given the nickname "Old Hickory", and was treated as a national hero.
	In 1817 he was ordered against the Seminole Indians.  He pushed them back into Spanish Florida and executed two British subjects.  Jackson instead that his actions were with approval of the Monroe administration.  His actions helped to acquire the Florida territory, and he became a provisional governor of Florida that same year.
	In 1822 the Tennessee Legislature nominated him for president  and the following year he was elected the U.S. senate.  He also nearly won the presidential campaign of 1824 however as a result of the "corrupt bargain" with Henry Clay.  Over the next four years the current administration built a strong political machine with nationalistic policies and a lack of concern of states rights.  In 1828 through a campaign filled with mud slinging on both sides, Andrew Jackson became the seventh President to the United States.

	Instead of the normal cabinet made up by the president, he relied more on an informal group of newspaper writers and northern politicians who had worked for his election.  I believe that this made him more in contact with the people of the United States, more in contact with the public opinion and feelings toward national issues
	President Jackson developed the system of "rotation in office."  This was used to protect the American people from a development of a long-standing political group by removing long-term office holders.  His enemies accused him of corruption of civil service for political reasons.  However, I think that it was used to insure loyalty of the people in his administration.
	States rights played an important part in Jackson's policy's as president.  In the case of the Cherokee Indians vs. The State of Georgia, two Supreme Court decisions in 1831 and 1832 upholding the rights of the Cherokee nation over the State of Georgia who had wanted to destroy Cherokee jurisdiction on it's land because gold had been found on it, and the state seeing the Indians as tenants on state land decided to "kick them out".  Chief  Justice John Marshall ruled that Georgia had no jurisdiction to interfere with the rights of the Cherokee and removal of them would violate treaties between them and the U.S. Government.  However, Jackson, not liking these decisions was reported of saying "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."  It seems to me like a slap in Justice Marshall's face, that Jackson was and always will be an Indian fighter.  I think he just liked pushing around the Indians because he new that whatever resistance they had was no match for the U.S. army.  To emphasize his po
int, in 1838 (one year after Jackson left office), a unite of federal troops rounded up the 15,000 Cherokee who resisted relocation and remained in Georgia and during the cold and rain of winter forced them to march to their lands in the west, this was known as the "Trail of Tears" since about 25% of the people died in route of either disease, starvation, and exposure to the cold.  Even though Jackson wasn't in office at the time and is not a part of his presidency, his effluence still existed through his predecessor, Martin Van Burin.
	The question of the tariff was a major controversy in the United States around the years of his Presidency and his strong support for a unified nation oven states rights would hold the country together in this national crisis.  Jackson had promised the south a reduction in duties to levels established in 1828, which were acceptable to southerners as opposed to the higher rates since then.  In 1832 his administration only sliced away a little bit of the duties, not close to what the south expected he would do.  In retaliation of this insulting lack of concern of the South's voice in government, South Carolina acting on the doctrine of Nullification which stated that the union was made up of the states and that the states had the right to null or void a law if they didn't agree with it, declared the federal tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 invalid and prohibited collection of tariff's after February first of 1833.  Jackson's response to this came on his Nullification Proclamation on December 10, 1832.  He declared 
his intent to enforce the law and was willing to seek and agreement in a lowering of tariff's.  In 1833 congress passed a compromise bill which set a new tariff, when the other southern states accepted the new tariff the threat of S. Carolina breaking away form the union was brought to a "happy" end.
	The Second Bank of the United States was not made into an issue of his election in 1828 by Jackson.  However he decided the  bank, which is not a government bank, but chartered by it in 1826, had failed to provide a stable currency, and had favored the Northern states, and few loans were granted to the southern and western areas because they were a larger risk and the bank didn't see it in it's interest to make such a gamble with it's money.  And in his mind the bank was in violation on the Constitution.  Even though the bank's charter wasn't due to expire until 1836, Jackson's political enemies pushed a bill through congress granting the banks re-charter, Jackson vetoed the bill.  The "Bank" issue was a major item in his re-election in 1832.  In his second term Jackson decided to remove federal deposits from the bank into "pet banks" which virtually took away the power Nicholas Biddle's power as president of the Second National Bank, which left him and anti-Jackson people very upset with what they called the
 abuse of his powers.  The increase in loans from the state chartered caused a land boom and gave the federal government a surplus (which it split up amongst the states), the increase in loans brought on the use of paper currency that was issued by the state banks, Jackson prohibited the use of paper money to by federal land or pay federal debts.  This demand for coins called specie led to many bank failures in the Panic of 1837.  I don't think he knew what he got himself into when he did this, and could of handled the situation a little better, but not all the blame should fall on his shoulders, because it wasn't his fault the private state-chartered banks issued the paper money when they didn't have the specie to back it up.
	Jackson's foreign policy showed a strong interest in making the French to pay long-overdue spoliation claims and reopening the British West Indian Trade.  Even thought he personally agreed with the rebellion of Texas against Mexico.  He didn't recognize the Lone Star republic until the day before he left office in 1837, and left the problem of  Texas annexation to Martin Van Buren.

	Even though Jackson switched support form his successor Martin Van Buren to James K. Polk (probably due to Van Burins failed economic policy).  Jackson was a powerful voice in the Democratic party even after retired.  He died on June 8, 1845 on his plantation, the Hermitage, in Nashville Tennessee.
	Andrew Jackson was the first "peoples president."  This comes from his youth in a frontier territory and his "people qualities" which helped him to be more touch with the people of the United States, and therefore the people of the United States took a more active role in the Government.  He even went so far as to call himself the elected representative of all American people.  I think that Jackson's strengthening of the powers of the presidency are the biggest influence to this day.  He used the power of the veto 12 times (more times than all of his successors combined).  And his use of the powers of removal and of executive orders made a standard for a modern American Presidency.  I only wish that their was a candidate like that running for election in '96.  The closest to someone like Jackson would of probably been Colin Powel, unfortunately he decided not to run.  When you gave this project, I though Jackson was a mean tempered Indian fighter who found his way to office because he took over Florida and de
fended New Orleans Successfully.  But I grew to learn that he was really a great president and did a lot for the presidency of the United States of America.















The Nomination ofAndrew Jackson 
to the
"Presidents Hall of Fame"












								By:  Brian Weber
								Dedember 8, 1995























































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andy Warho1.TXT
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Andy Warhol
Pop art is a movement that occurred near the end of the 1950's. It was a reaction to the seriousness of Abstract Expressionism. Pop art emphasized contemporary social values, the sprawl of urban life, the vulgar, the superficial, and the flashy. Advertising provided a number of starting points for the subjects. A particular favorite advertisement form that Warhol likes to use was product labels. You will see quite a few examples of this in some of his work. (Grolier 1996)
Warhol did most of his well-know works in a four year span from 1960 to 1964. He started out by reproducing images such as comic strips on much larger canvases. Some examples of these would be Nancy, Dick Tracy, Superman, and Popeye. He later became much more interested in reproducing labels of products and some people. This became a standard procedure for Warhol during this period. He later began to make movies and photography. (Coplans pg 47-48)
At the beginning of his work, he started out with the making comic strip "reproductions." They really shouldn't be considered reproductions because they aren't always an extremely accurate portrayal of the product. Some of his pieces such as the thirty-two painting collection of Campbell's Soup Cans, are almost identical to the models he used. While others have a looser quality and are merely starting points on which to begin. (Coplans pg 47)
He accomplished the mass amounts of the same subject through many methods. Sometimes he would just paint each of the subjects by hand, one by one. Other times he would use stamp molds and silk-screening. The silk-screening process is very similar to that of an intricate and sophisticated stencil. There is a screen made of fine silk or similar material that is made impermeable to all places except that of the area wanted to be colored. This is done photomechanically, a process that makes photographs into silkscreen. The silk-screening process is fairly simple. You pour ink or paint into the silk-screen, and then you run a squeegee across it so it goes through the open pores of the screen. You repeat this procedure for each of the colors to be used. An advantage to this it that you can used them more than once. To date, silk-screening is the cheapest and most effective means of reproducing many products of it type and quality. (Coplans pg 50) (Crone pg 11)
The main focus of serial imagery is redundancy. (Coplans) There are many ways in which serial painting differs from traditional painting. Some of these differences include that of theme, uniqueness, and variation. It is not important for serial paintings to be unique, the structure and composition are meant to be similar to the other members of the series. The objects of the serial paintings, like in the Campbell Soup series is show almost eternity or the feeling of never-ending. (Coplans pg 49)
Some of the portraits that were done by Warhol began with Troy Donahue and Warren Beatty, and Elvis Presley. Then later on came Marilynn Monroe and Jackie Kennedy. There was also a series of car crash pictures done around this time. The Jackie Kennedy portraits were done very shortly after the assassination of President Kennedy. They mirrored the mourning face of Jackie that was shown time and time again in the media. There were eight different images that were all taken from different newspapers at the time. The number of works in this series is still unknown. (Crone pg 29)
The car crash pictures had an extreme amount of variation. They ranged from having one picture to a canvas to having up to twenty on the same canvas at one time. There are many different colored pictures in this set. The most major change from one to another is the background color. It is difficult for critics to place the origination of the meaning of this set of works. (Crone pg 29)
The series involving the electric chairs has a very serious political statement. It is a symbol of misuse of governmental sovereignty; it has also been considered and open confession of a deficiency in cultural development. (Crone) About the same time as the electric chair pictures were being shown there were many other quite disturbing sets of pictures being shown. They were of race riots and many were taken directly from newspaper articles of the Nazi Germany and Castro's revolution in Cuba. (Crone pg 29)
One of the last serial sets that Warhol created before moving on from painting was of flowers. The flowers were produced in an extreme variety of sizes and quantities. These were on display in 1964. The original flowers were taken from a women magazine. Unlike most of his earlier works, these reproductions were touched up by hand on the screen. These are also different in that they do not represent anything to Warhol. They are strictly decorative. The colors used in the painting aren't used to symbolize anything but just to bring out color in decoration. In all there were about nine hundred of the flower painting made in Warhol's studio, "The Factory". These were among the very last of Warhol's paintings, in the remainder of his life he concentrated on movie making. (Crone pg 30)
During Warhol's life his work has been controversial. He has become more recognized and famous after his death in 1987. I think that his purpose for being an artist seemed to be different from that of other artists. I'm not convinced he painted and filmed for the love of the art or so much for his purpose in doing it. I think he had a message he wanted to get across and this was the medium through which he chose to express himself.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andy Warhol!.TXT
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Never before have I encountered more intriguing works of art than those done by Andy Warhol.  I have been curious about his life ever since I saw his work in Milwaukee.  I saw his famous work of the Campbell's Soup Can.  By viewing this, one can tell he is not your average artist.  I'm sure his life is full of interesting events that shaped him into who he was.  As an artist myself, I would like to get to know the background of his life.  I may then be able to appreciate his styles and understand why and how his works were created.  His life is as interesting as his artistic masterpieces.  
Andrew Warhola (his original name) was born one of three sons of Czech immigrants, somewhere in Pennsylvania on either August 6, 1928 or on September 28, 1930 (the date on his birth certificate).  His father died when Andy was at a very young age.  Thus, it forced Andy into a deep depression containing lack of self confidence.  Much of his young life has been kept secret.  However, he did report being very shy and depressed because he never felt comfortable with his homosexuality.  His childhood life may have been full of the torture that children threw at him for being the different person he was.  He was able to attend college.  After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in pictorial design from Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1949, he went to New York City with Philip Pearlstein, who was a fellow student that later became a well-known realist painter.  In 1960, Warhol finally began to paint in earnest and to view art seriously as a career.  He began his career with commercial drawings of women's shoes.  In 1961, an early manifestation was his Dick Tracy, an enlarged version of the comic strip that was placed in the window of Lord & Taylor's department store.  He followed in his own footsteps to keep going in the ever-so-famous "pop art" track.  Warhol's use of images are so close to the images themselves, thanks to the photographic silkscreen technique, which is a process of applying the same image over and over again without changing the original.  In 1963, he began turning film into his next aesthetic.  He was the recorder of the world around him.  Warhol saw this world as populated by hustlers of various sorts, motivated largely by money and the goods it would buy.  Later that next year, he started to experiment in underground film.  In the late 70's he began to use sex and nudity to gain attention in his films.  Whether this was moral or not;  it did, however, work.  The rest of his short life was spent visiting with celebrities and keeping up with the world's times.  He tried to understand how the rest of the world saw things, but just never got there.  Sadly, Warhol died of a heart failure on March 9, 1987, still wearing his famous blond hair wig. 
Andy's diaries are not actual written records of his day to day accounts, but they are audio recordings of his phone conversations to Pat Hackett every Monday through Friday (from Wednesday, November 24, 1976 to Tuesday, February 17, 1987, just weeks before his death).  Warhol originally intended these daily records to be documentation of his minor "business" expenses.  He was just audited and felt the need to be extra careful.  "In a word it was a diary.  But whatever its broader objective, its narrow one, to satisfy tax auditors, was always on my mind" (Warhol xvi).  Later on, he felt the diaries were a great way to explain his everyday occurrences for more than a decade of his life.  This view of his life from his eyes is probably the most balanced view ever given.  He may have changed since the 60's, but it is still the truest representation of Andy, himself.  He never expressed the key happenings of his life; it's as if we, the readers, already knew them.  He just usually mentions the quick everyday type things such as a cab ride to uptown New York.
The first major influence on Andy Warhol's life was the stepping stone of his artistic career, his enrollment in and completion of Carnegie Institute of Technology with a bachelor degree in pictorial design.  After graduating he moved out to New York City, where his life blossomed.  He lived for a couple of years with Philip Pearlstein, who he had met at school.  Warhol, with his education centered around design, set out to begin his career on the right foot.  He started doing drawings for advertisements in a women's shoe catalog.  It may not have been much to brag about, but it was at least something he could learn and gain from the experience given to him.  Andy may have acquired his use of media exploited images through his beginning attempts at commercialism.  He knew what sold to society, whether he agreed with it or not.  He continued on with simplified pop art and he made it famous.  He is the person most people think about when pop art is mentioned.  Through his advertising projects, he was conditioned to think only in glorification of people, products, and style.  One of his popular works, the silkscreen of the Campbell's Soup Can, is an example of this.  It is an image that everyone is familiar with, and it is so common that sometimes it is overlooked.  Many times, Andy took something simple and glorified it.  This is how he made his designing skills useful in promotion.  "One would compare Warhol to the pictorial hyper-realism of Norman Rockwell, and to the surrealism of Marcel Duchamp, and the radicalism of Jasper Johns" (Sagan 1).
A second major influence in Andy Warhol's life is his participation in the underground film scene.  It started in 1963, when he called himself "the recorder of society around him" (Moritz 590).  He would find people for his movies in a club-type warehouse called Max's Kansas City.  Every night, celebrities of art, fashion, music, and underground film-making crowds gathered in the back corners of Max's to try their chance at working with Warhol.  In 1968, he was nearly killed by a woman who was in one of his short films.  She shot him on the side of his chest, but fortunately he was not killed.  He still continued to make films; such famous ones are "Eat," "Haircut," "Sleep," "Kiss," and "Empire."  He would make them boring on purpose to possibly prove a point.  Again it was glorifying something thought of as being extremely pointless.  In the late 70's he began to use sex and nudity, featuring films concerning sexual bondage.  He may have been simply looking for a shock value content.  Many artists work off shock value, it takes only the true to admit it and still continue with it.
The last and most important influence on Warhol was his mother, Julia Warhola.  When Andy first arrived in New York, he would share apartments with friends and acquaintances.  Eventually he could afford a place of his own.  Then his mother suddenly arrived in town and moved in with him.  Her reason was to look after him.  She would constantly keep an eye out for a wife for Andy.  Little did she know he was interested in the opposite sex for marriage.  Andy appreciated his mother, and never wanted to explain how she had an impact on him.  Maybe it was the fact that she meant well, and tried her hardest to take care of him.  She lived with him on 89th Street and Lexington Avenue until 1971.  By then, suffering from senility, she required constant care and Andy sent her back to Pittsburgh to be cared for by his two brothers, John and Paul.  After suffering a stroke, she died in her nursing home in 1972.  Andy did not except the fact too kindly.  He would even go as far to say his mother was doing fine, when people would ask about her, even though she had already passed away.  Andy stayed quiet and tried to hide himself from the rest of society.  He would avoid emotional interaction as much as he could.  He did this so he could "shrink away from human touch" (Moritz 591).  A man who started his life shy and uncomfortable, blossomed into an outspoken artist, now finished his life with feelings even worse than the beginning of his life.
After extensive research I found that Andy had much more to his life than I had originally expected.  He was involved in the classic rock band The Velvet Underground, with famous singer Lou Reed.  He actually even designed a few of the album covers.  Most people remember the self-entitled album with the picture of a banana on it.  Directly to the left of the banana read the words "peel me."  If one would peel it, it would reveal the pink insides of a banana.  Truly a work of Andy, I must say.  Another thing I found was that Andy was not only homosexual, but he was "omnisexual."  It was rumored he had no problem with sex with anyone or anything.  Men, women, animals, you name it, it was probably thought of.  And last of all I found he was unusually kind and appreciative to others, especially the ones who worked for him.  Pat Hackett, his editor, once said that she has never met a person who says "thank you" as much as Andy does.  
Not once have I been more informed on a person's life.  In the beginning I thought I knew a lot about.  This research on Andy Warhol definitely reinforced my positive view of him.  It may have possibly enhanced my appreciation for him as well.  I enjoyed the honesty of the entire diary.  Nothing was hidden from the reader and I felt as informed as a good friend of his would feel.  His life is an interesting one and I believe more people should try to investigate other lives of the unusual.  It expands your own viewpoints to accept those of others.  
Many critics have different viewpoints on Warhol's autobiography.  He was still appreciated by those who understood his ideas.  "But he had to have had some sense of history, or he wouldn't have left the diaries behind to try to explain everything to future generations" (Plagens 1732).  Some realize that the diaries are rather boring, but seem to see the true Andy come through in the entries.  "Despite their virtuoso triviality, their naive snobbery and their incredible length, the diaries are not without a certain charm" (Amis 1732).  Others saw the diaries as a simplistic record of events.  "His diaries are more or less just records of who went where and did what with whom,  that anybody else who'd been along could have kept" (Plagens 1732).  It's too bad he didn't start the diaries earlier in his life, such as the 60's, "when it would have been more interesting to know what he did and whom he was with, instead of waiting until 1976 to begin" (Plagens 1732).  Some even complained of the editing job done by Pat Hackett.  "One problem with the diaries is their postmodern polish, such as the casual proofreading and editing" (Trebay 1732).  The reason the editor didn't fit up to par was the mere fact she wanted it to sound how Andy explained the day.  "...still the book is great social history with its lip-smacking tales of loveless, sexless marriages, its gimlet-eyed view of other people's success, and its rampant unclosetings" (Trebay 1732).  I, myself, found the book very entertaining and a great nonchalant look at the famous and their everyday lives.  It may have been organized better and condensed a bit, but none-the-less it was still interesting and kept me reading.  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andy Warhol.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Andy Warhol


Never before have I encountered more intriguing works of art than those done by
Andy Warhol.  I have been curious about his life ever since I saw his work in
Milwaukee.  I saw his famous work of the Campbell's Soup Can.  By viewing this,
one can tell he is not your average artist.  I'm sure his life is full of
interesting events that shaped him into who he was.  As an artist myself, I
would like to get to know the background of his life.  I may then be able to
appreciate his styles and understand why and how his works were created.  His
life is as interesting as his artistic masterpieces. Andrew Warhola (his
original name) was born one of three sons of Czech immigrants, somewhere in
Pennsylvania on either August 6, 1928 or on September 28, 1930 (the date on his
birth certificate).  His father died when Andy was at a very young age.  Thus,
it forced Andy into a deep depression containing lack of self confidence.  Much
of his young life has been kept secret.  However, he did report being very shy
and depressed because he never felt comfortable with his homosexuality.  His
childhood life may have been full of the torture that children threw at him for
being the different person he was.  He was able to attend college.  After
graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in pictorial design from Carnegie
Institute of Technology in 1949, he went to New York City with Philip Pearlstein,
who was a fellow student that later became a well-known realist painter.  In
1960, Warhol finally began to paint in earnest and to view art seriously as a
career.  He began his career with commercial drawings of women's shoes.  In 1961,
an early manifestation was his Dick Tracy, an enlarged version of the comic
strip that was placed in the window of Lord & Taylor's department store.  He
followed in his own footsteps to keep going in the ever-so-famous "pop art"
track.  Warhol's use of images are so close to the images themselves, thanks to
the photographic silkscreen technique, which is a process of applying the same
image over and over again without changing the original.  In 1963, he began
turning film into his next aesthetic.  He was the recorder of the world around
him.  Warhol saw this world as populated by hustlers of various sorts, motivated
largely by money and the goods it would buy.  Later that next year, he started
to experiment in underground film.  In the late 70's he began to use sex and
nudity to gain attention in his films.  Whether this was moral or not;  it did,
however, work.  The rest of his short life was spent visiting with celebrities
and keeping up with the world's times.  He tried to understand how the rest of
the world saw things, but just never got there.  Sadly, Warhol died of a heart
failure on March 9, 1987, still wearing his famous blond hair wig. Andy's
diaries are not actual written records of his day to day accounts, but they are
audio recordings of his phone conversations to Pat Hackett every Monday through
Friday (from Wednesday, November 24, 1976 to Tuesday, February 17, 1987, just
weeks before his death).  Warhol originally intended these daily records to be
documentation of his minor "business" expenses.  He was just audited and felt
the need to be extra careful.  "In a word it was a diary.  But whatever its
broader objective, its narrow one, to satisfy tax auditors, was always on my
mind" (Warhol xvi).  Later on, he felt the diaries were a great way to explain
his everyday occurrences for more than a decade of his life.  This view of his
life from his eyes is probably the most balanced view ever given.  He may have
changed since the 60's, but it is still the truest representation of Andy,
himself.  He never expressed the key happenings of his life; it's as if we, the
readers, already knew them.  He just usually mentions the quick everyday type
things such as a cab ride to uptown New York. The first major influence on Andy
Warhol's life was the stepping stone of his artistic career, his enrollment in
and completion of Carnegie Institute of Technology with a bachelor degree in
pictorial design.  After graduating he moved out to New York City, where his
life blossomed.  He lived for a couple of years with Philip Pearlstein, who he
had met at school.  Warhol, with his education centered around design, set out
to begin his career on the right foot.  He started doing drawings for
advertisements in a women's shoe catalog.  It may not have been much to brag
about, but it was at least something he could learn and gain from the experience
given to him.  Andy may have acquired his use of media exploited images through
his beginning attempts at commercialism.  He knew what sold to society, whether
he agreed with it or not.  He continued on with simplified pop art and he made
it famous.  He is the person most people think about when pop art is mentioned.
Through his advertising projects, he was conditioned to think only in
glorification of people, products, and style.  One of his popular works, the
silkscreen of the Campbell's Soup Can, is an example of this.  It is an image
that everyone is familiar with, and it is so common that sometimes it is
overlooked.  Many times, Andy took something simple and glorified it.  This is
how he made his designing skills useful in promotion.  "One would compare Warhol
to the pictorial hyper-realism of Norman Rockwell, and to the surrealism of
Marcel Duchamp, and the radicalism of Jasper Johns" (Sagan 1). A second major
influence in Andy Warhol's life is his participation in the underground film
scene.  It started in 1963, when he called himself "the recorder of society
around him" (Moritz 590).  He would find people for his movies in a club-type
warehouse called Max's Kansas City.  Every night, celebrities of art, fashion,
music, and underground film-making crowds gathered in the back corners of Max's
to try their chance at working with Warhol.  In 1968, he was nearly killed by a
woman who was in one of his short films.  She shot him on the side of his chest,
but fortunately he was not killed.  He still continued to make films; such
famous ones are "Eat," "Haircut," "Sleep," "Kiss," and "Empire."  He would make
them boring on purpose to possibly prove a point.  Again it was glorifying
something thought of as being extremely pointless.  In the late 70's he began to
use sex and nudity, featuring films concerning sexual bondage.  He may have been
simply looking for a shock value content.  Many artists work off shock value, it
takes only the true to admit it and still continue with it. The last and most
important influence on Warhol was his mother, Julia Warhola.  When Andy first
arrived in New York, he would share apartments with friends and acquaintances.
Eventually he could afford a place of his own.  Then his mother suddenly arrived
in town and moved in with him.  Her reason was to look after him.  She would
constantly keep an eye out for a wife for Andy.  Little did she know he was
interested in the opposite sex for marriage.  Andy appreciated his mother, and
never wanted to explain how she had an impact on him.  Maybe it was the fact
that she meant well, and tried her hardest to take care of him.  She lived with
him on 89th Street and Lexington Avenue until 1971.  By then, suffering from
senility, she required constant care and Andy sent her back to Pittsburgh to be
cared for by his two brothers, John and Paul.  After suffering a stroke, she
died in her nursing home in 1972.  Andy did not except the fact too kindly.  He
would even go as far to say his mother was doing fine, when people would ask
about her, even though she had already passed away.  Andy stayed quiet and tried
to hide himself from the rest of society.  He would avoid emotional interaction
as much as he could.  He did this so he could "shrink away from human touch"
(Moritz 591).  A man who started his life shy and uncomfortable, blossomed into
an outspoken artist, now finished his life with feelings even worse than the
beginning of his life. After extensive research I found that Andy had much more
to his life than I had originally expected.  He was involved in the classic rock
band The Velvet Underground, with famous singer Lou Reed.  He actually even
designed a few of the album covers.  Most people remember the self-entitled
album with the picture of a banana on it.  Directly to the left of the banana
read the words "peel me."  If one would peel it, it would reveal the pink
insides of a banana.  Truly a work of Andy, I must say.  Another thing I found
was that Andy was not only homosexual, but he was "omnisexual."  It was rumored
he had no problem with sex with anyone or anything.  Men, women, animals, you
name it, it was probably thought of.  And last of all I found he was unusually
kind and appreciative to others, especially the ones who worked for him.  Pat
Hackett, his editor, once said that she has never met a person who says "thank
you" as much as Andy does. Not once have I been more informed on a person's
life.  In the beginning I thought I knew a lot about.  This research on Andy
Warhol definitely reinforced my positive view of him.  It may have possibly
enhanced my appreciation for him as well.  I enjoyed the honesty of the entire
diary.  Nothing was hidden from the reader and I felt as informed as a good
friend of his would feel.  His life is an interesting one and I believe more
people should try to investigate other lives of the unusual.  It expands your
own viewpoints to accept those of others. Many critics have different
viewpoints on Warhol's autobiography.  He was still appreciated by those who
understood his ideas.  "But he had to have had some sense of history, or he
wouldn't have left the diaries behind to try to explain everything to future
generations" (Plagens 1732).  Some realize that the diaries are rather boring,
but seem to see the true Andy come through in the entries.  "Despite their
virtuoso triviality, their naive snobbery and their incredible length, the
diaries are not without a certain charm" (Amis 1732).  Others saw the diaries as
a simplistic record of events.  "His diaries are more or less just records of
who went where and did what with whom,  that anybody else who'd been along could
have kept" (Plagens 1732).  It's too bad he didn't start the diaries earlier in
his life, such as the 60's, "when it would have been more interesting to know
what he did and whom he was with, instead of waiting until 1976 to begin"
(Plagens 1732).  Some even complained of the editing job done by Pat Hackett.
"One problem with the diaries is their postmodern polish, such as the casual
proofreading and editing" (Trebay 1732).  The reason the editor didn't fit up to
par was the mere fact she wanted it to sound how Andy explained the day.
"...still the book is great social history with its lip-smacking tales of
loveless, sexless marriages, its gimlet-eyed view of other people's success, and
its rampant unclosetings" (Trebay 1732).  I, myself, found the book very
entertaining and a great nonchalant look at the famous and their everyday lives.
It may have been organized better and condensed a bit, but none-the-less it was
still interesting and kept me reading.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Andy Worhal.TXT
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Andy Worhal
Andy Warhol, the American painter, printmaker, illustrator, and film maker was born in Pittsburgh on August 6, 1928, shortly afterwards settling in New York. The only son of immigrant, Czech parents, Andy finished high school and went on to the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, graduating in 1949 with hopes of becoming an art teacher in the public schools. While in Pittsburgh, he worked for a department store arranging window displays, and often was asked to simply look for ideas in fashion magazines . While recognizing the job as a waste of time, he recalls later that the fashion magazines "gave me a sense of style and other career opportunities." Upon graduating, Warhol moved to New York and began his artistic career as a commercial artist and illustrator for magazines and newspapers. Although extremely shy and clad in old jeans and sneakers, Warhol attempted to intermingle with anyone at all who might be able to assist him in the art world. His portfolio secure in a brown paper bag, Warhol introduced himself and showed his work to anyone that could help him out. Eventually, he got a job with Glamour magazine, doing illustrations for an article called "Success is a Job in New York," along with doing a spread showing women's shoes. Proving his reliability and skills, he acquired other such jobs, illustrating adds for Harpers Bazaar, Millers Shoes, contributing to other large corporate image-building campaigns, doing designs for the Upjohn Company, the National Broadcasting Company and others. In these early drawings, Warhol used a device that would prove beneficial throughout his commercial art period of the 1950's-a tentative, blotted ink line produced by a simple monotype process. First he drew in black ink on glazed, nonabsorbent paper. Then he would press the design against an absorbent sheet. As droplets of ink spread, gaps in the line filled in-or didn't, in which case they created a look of spontaneity. Warhol mastered thighs method, and art directors of the 1950's found in adaptable to nearly any purpose. This method functioned provided him with a hand-scale equivalent of a printing press, showing his interest in mechanical reproduction that dominates much of his future work. Such techniques used for almost all of his works derived from his beginning in the commercial arts. His pattern of aesthetic and artistic innovation, to "expect the unexpected," began with his advertising art in the 1950's. Much of his future subject matter can be placed in the realm of such common, everyday objects, that were focused on in these early times. Nearly all of Warhol's works relate in one way or another to the commercially mass-produced machine product. Hence, Warhol's future artwork and techniques were greatly influenced by his rather humble beginnings. Although Warhol did receive recognition for much of his commercial illustrations during those times, he was constantly pursuing another career as well-that of a serious artist. Unfortunately, Warhol was not so successful at first in obtain this goal. His delicate ink drawings of shoes and cupids, among various others, had no place in a decade dominated by such heroic artists as William de Kooning and Jackson Pollock. Warhol And Pop Art
Pop Art emerged in the US in the early 1960's, at first completely unacknowledged. During it's beginning, Pop Art was often seen as an insult to the roles of such artists as Pollock and de Kooning, who were leading a revival of Abstract Expressionist, "an abrupt and conspicuous dialectical reaction to a great wave of abstraction," at mid-century. Emerging with considerable fanfare, mainly condemnation, but by 1963-64, it suddenly began being extensively exhibited, published, and consumed as a cultural phenomenon By the early 60's, Warhol became determined to establish himself as a serious painter, as well as to gain the respect of such famous artists of the time such as Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose work he had recently come to know and admire. He began by painting a series of pictures based on crude advertisements and on images from comic strips. These first such works, such as 'Saturday's Popeye'(1960) and 'Water Heater"(1960), were loosely painted in a "mock-expressive" style that mocked the gestural brushwork of Abstract Expressionism, and are among the first examples of what came to be known as Pop Art. Warhol's works during the early 60's are among those for which he is best known for. He reproduced advertisements and cartoons, as well as such familiar household items as telephones and soup cans, often painting one image repeatedly in a grid design. Many of these works, such as his pictures of dollar bills and soup cans, as in 'Cambell's Soup Cans 200"(1962), show many ideas underlying advertising, as well as showing his interest in techniques that enabled multiplication of an image, such as silk-screen printing, techniques that dominated much of his work. Through these works Warhol gained his much desired recognition, becoming an instant celebrity, having gone from respected commercial illustrator to controversial and influential artist. Such Pop Art images as Warhol's soup cans and Lichtenstein's comic book panels jumped from the vast American consumer culture into the realm of high artistic and aesthetic recognition. It is not known whether Lichtenstein or Warhol was the first to displace commercial images from the media to modernist painting, but Warhol, of all the founding Pop artists, first and foremost, consistently "hewed to the canons of Pop technique and iconography." These first Pop works, in their intentional exclusion of all conventional signs of personality, in their obvious rejection of innovation and their blatant vulgarity, were somewhat brutal and shocking, designed with the intention of offending an audience "accustomed to thinking of art as an intimate medium for conveying emotion." Warhol further extended these concerns by using techniques that gave his images a printed appearance, using stencils, rubber stamps, and hand-cut silkscreens, along with in his choice of subject-matter. He used the shocking images of tabloids, as in '129 Die in Jet' to money, in a series of screenprinted paintings representing rows of dollar bills, and to the products of consumer society, including Coca-Cola bottles and tins of Cambell's Soup. Thus, the once struggling commercial illustrator transformed into one of the most recognized and influential artists of the century, considered the "progenitor of American Pop Art." Death And Disaster
In the summer of 1962, Warhol's friend Henry Geldzahler laid out a copy the Daily News while the two were having lunch. On the cover, the headline was "129 Die in Jet." According to Warhol, that is what began a series of paintings depicting rather gruesome images of human death and disaster, with subjects ranging from the personal focus of individual suicide, the banality of everyday disaster, death by legal execution, to the historical death of political assassination, culminating with the most destructive instrument the world has ever known-the atom bomb. Together, these works are among the most shocking and disturbing works of art the world has ever known. In most of these works, Warhol displays death as an ever-present subject. His first silkscreened death and disaster paintings were of suicides and especially gruesome car crashes, such as in 'Ambulance Disaster" and "Saturday Disaster." the power and suffering shown in the images stunning viewers. Like the contaminated canned food shown in "Tunafish Disaster," these images appear to represent a breach of faith in the products of the Industrial Revolution by showing consumes products embraced by the population that backfire and cause death. Warhol retained the images from clippings of newspapers, magazines, and photographs, altering them only slightly, as was his norm, to show the images as they were, everyday occurrences the public accepts yet forgets, forcing the viewer to take them at face value. They portray "A stark, disabused, pessimistic vision of American life, produced from the knowing rearrangement of pulp materials by an artist who did not opt for the easier paths of irony or condescension." Among the most iconic Death and Disaster images in the "Electric Chair."(1963) According to Warhol, his replication of this image, both within the single composition and from painting to painting, was intended to "empty" the image of it's meaning. The electric chair is shown from the front, fully visible, showing a sign reading "SILENCE," the sign exclamating the emptiness of the execution chamber. The image, the chamber empty , showing only the sign, represents death as an absence and complete silence, a complete void. This notion was characteristic of Warhol, who once said "I never understood why when you died, you didn't just vanish and everything could just keep going the way it was, only you just wouldn't be there," and who often stated that he wanted a blank tombstone when he died. Many wonder why Warhol chose such imagery to focus on, and he himself gives little reason. For some of these works, in which he shows images repeated relatively unchanged, he was attempting to lessen the shock of the viewer, recognizing such events for their face value, as everyday occurrences. "When you see a gruesome picture over and over again, it doesn't really have and effect." As in the "Jackies," images of the recently assassinated President Kennedy's grieving widow, were repeated to reinforce the obsessive ways that our thoughts keep returning to a tragedy, and "stress the flash of fame these little known(suicides) victims achieve in death. This can be said to be consistent with Warhols claim that everyone "will be famous for 15 minutes." In this, does he mean by tragedy? Others claim the initial context for these subjects was journalistic- as an artist trained in drawing and pictorial design, he was obviously predisposed to consider the front page of the news and other media items in visual , artistic terms-as a "media junkie" who continually pursued and collected printed matter, he was drawn into a network of "sensationalized intimacies with the protagonists of the news." Regardless, there is a tie between these images and his celebrity portraits. Warhol took up the theme of suicide shortly after his first meditations on Marilyn Monroe's death. While doing those works, he said to have realized that "everything I was doing must have been death." Thus, the idea of death was not a new one for him, and thereby his choice of subject matter may not have been completely random. Throughout the Death and Disaster paintings, Warhol makes use of background color to serve various functions. Mostly, throughout the series, he avoids the use of primary colors, using mainly secondaries, such as oranges, lavenders, and pinks, the types of colors "you would expect to find in a wallpaper store." His use of background color in the Death and Disaster paintings is mostly extrinsic to the content of the images. In some, such as "Lavender Disaster," the background color seems to intensify the effect of alienation created by the realism of the visual content. In others, such as "Atomic Bomb," the red-orange color serves a supporting role. The images Warhol selected for these paintings were gruesome, though he showed again his brilliant eye for such images so effective in shocking the viewer. "With an eye for the eccentricity of an individual event, Warhol's paintings capture the unpredictable choreography of death." Using a broad range of images, from car crashes, suicides, burn victims, funerals, riots, to the culmination with the atomic bomb, Warhol succeeded in giving the viewer what one expected of Warhol; to expect the unexpected.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another A Biographical Report on Thomas Fitzsimons Essay.TXT
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A Biographical Report on Thomas Fitzsimons


	Thomas Fitzsimons, or Fitzsimmons as his last name was sometimes spelled,
was born during 1741 and died on August 26, 1811. Originally from Ireland, as
young man he immigrated to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to start a career as a
merchant.  On November 23, 1761, he married Catharine Meade.  A few months later,
with his brother-in-law, he formed an extensive mercantile and commercial
business which traded chiefly with the West India Islands.  In 1782 Fitzsimons
was elected to the congress created by the Articles of Confederation.

	In 1787, Fitzsimons served as a member to the Constitutional Convention,
where he took an active role.  While there he argued for a strong national
government, stiff restrictions on voting qualifications and office-holding,
against slavery, giving Congress the power to tax imports and exports, and
granting the House of Representatives and the Senate equal power in making
treaties.  He was elected, in 1789, to the first national House of
Representatives for the state of Pennsylvania.  Fitzsimons is counted among the
ranks of Alexander Hamilton's Federalists.  Fitzsimons was a congress man until
his defeat in 1794, after which he returned to private life.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Abigail Adams Essay.TXT
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Abigail Adams


     Abigail Adams was a unique women because she had an education and an
interest in politics.  She learned how to read and write and enjoyed poems most.
She was also very resourceful by helping her husband on difficult problems.

     Abigail was born on November 11 on the Julian calendar, or November 22 on
the modern Gregorian calendar.  Abigail had two sisters named Mary and Elizabeth
or Betsy.  She had one brother named William or Billy.  Abigail's name was
originally Abigail Smith.  Each baby was baptized on the first Sabbath of its
life and was recorded in their parish records.  Abigail live in a comfortable
house.  When Abigail was sixteen, her father added a wing that was bigger than
the original building to make room for the children, servants, and visitors.
When I say servants it means that they were probably slaves but were called
servants to avoid the dehumanizing effect that the word 'slave' can mean.  Their
house was a sight of luxury in the eyes of the common folk in the parish.
Though they lived well, the Smiths had no fortune.  Abigail's father often
worked with his own hands, planting corn and potatoes, gathering hay, sowing
barley, or making sure that his sheep received proper care.  Abigail, with the
help of her family grew a very religious bond between each other and a long
lasting friendship.

     Abigail never went to a real school because of poor health.  So, she
learned at home. Her father's library was not big, but she still went to it to
read books.  Abigail's favorite books were novels by Samuel Richardson.
Abigail's father knew John Adams by working with him and she grew rather close
to him starting a wedding.  This now made her name Abigail Adams.  Their wedding
was held on October 25, 1764, a month before her twentieth birthday.  John was a
lawyer and very often was not at home due to court cases he had to attend to.
When Abigail was pregnant with her first son, John was only at home for eight
out of the nine months.  The baby was born on a hot day on the morning of July
14, 1765.  The baby's name was 'Abigail', but was called Nabby.  She was with
her parents when she had the baby. Shortly after, she was again pregnant.  July
11, 1767, she delivered a healthy boy named John Quincy.  John Adams soon moved
his family to Boston to be closer to his important clients and the center of
political action.  In Boston, Abigail had two more children.  one named Susanna,
who died thirteen months later, and Charles who was born healthy at the end of
May 1770.  John Adams sent everyone in his enlarged family back to there old
house because of the recent Boston Massacre happening.  While Abigail was there,
She had her last son named Thomas.  John soon bought a brick house back in
Boston and moved everyone back in.  Abigail started teaching the children to
read and write.

     John told Abigail almost everything that he knew and went to her for
political problems.  He understood what she could understand and trusted her.
Abigail became the most informed woman on public affairs in the nation.  On
August 10, 1774, Abigail parted with John as he left to attend the Congress
called at Philadelphia to try and unite the colonies against Great Britain's
plan to punish Boston and Massachusetts.  Though her sons would not be of
military age for another decade, Abigail dreaded war, in which only God knew
what would happen.  When the shots at Lexington and Concorde were fired, John
was again off to the Congress and cautioned Abigail that she should 'fly to the
woods' with the children if the British attacked Boston. Abigail prayed for the
war and on June 17 John Quincy and Abigail went to Bunker Hill and watched the
roar of the cannons and saw the flames of burning Charleston atop of Penn's Hill
near where they lived.  Soon they learned of the British losses and how greater
they were, but Abigail knew someone named Dr. Warren who died.  He helped John
Quincy from the loss of his finger.  Abigail wrote many letters to her husband
and it became a way of life for her.  She was always keeping John up to date
with what's happening at the immediate point in time. Abigail sometimes called
herself 'Mrs. Delegate' because she was the wife of a Revolutionary leader.
Abigail continued to keep in tact with her husband throughout the war.  She also
was very political. Then later she led a very productive life.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another About All Sharks Essay.TXT
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About All Sharks


BY. SHAUN LEVY


SHARK FAMILIES: There are more then 350 know species of sharks today, which can
all be placed under 8 scientific orders that contain 30 families.  They are
placed into these categories by their shared characteristics, this is called
taxonomy.  The more closeley related species are placed in another family in the
order.

SQUAINIFORMES: The angel shark as they are commonly known are
characterized by their RAY like flattened bodies.  This order has one family
which is called  SQUATINDAE that contains about 13 species.  The maximum size
that can be attained by any one of these species is 4-6 feet  in length.

PRISTIOPHORIFORMES: These shark are known as the saw shark.  This order has only
has one family

PHISTOPHORIFORMES which  contains five species.  These sharks are
easy to recongnize due to the fact that they posses an ellongated blade like
snout that is lined with sharp teeth along the edges, thus, the name saw sharks.


SQUALIFORMES: The order possesses three family which consist of about 82 species.
These sharks are characterized by their slender, cylinder-shaped bodies, long
snouts with shortened mouths.

HEXANCHIFORMES: The Hexanchiformes or cow sharks, comprise of two families.
Recognized by their six or seven pairs of gill slits, there sharks can often
be found in deep water.  The frilled shark (CHLAMYDISELACHUS ANGUINEUS)
who's appearance is quite unmistakable due to it's "eel" like appearance, is
perhaps one the strangest shark that exist today.

FOSSIL RECORD: Shark fossil record is fargmentery at best.  Most fossils found
so far consist of nothing but teeth in some cases a few vertebra  have been
found.  This is rare due to the fact that sharks have bones instead, they have
cartiladge which countrary common belief is rather solid.  In the rarest of
cases complete fossil have been discovered.  Scientific data shows that
following a period of great physiological changes.  There was not to many
changes in the sharks fossil in the millions of  years, of studying the shark
fossils. The Hybodonts who made their appearance some 320 million (years ago the
age of the dinosaurs) where quite common through out both oceanic and fresh
water.  Due to reasons unknown to science both oceanic and fresh water hybodonts
because exticnt at about the same time as the dinosaurs. The largest shark to
ever swim the oceans is called the megalodon. Many  think that it's ancestor to
the great white shark however  there is great controversy surrounding this
matter.  The size of the shark is 40 to 50 feet in length it is safe to say that
megalodon is still considered to be largest predatory fish to have ever existed.

THE PERFACT PREDATOR: The shark is considered by many to be the perfect
predator.  It's perhaps the most perfectly adapted predator in it's environment.
The shark jaws another facinating development of evolution.  Each species jaws
are perfectly adapted to that sharks eating habits some sharks have long pointed
teeth for cathing fish others have teeth contains the most of the species of
sharks are harmless botton dwellers, like catsharks or houndsharks.  However the
most of those sharks are in danger of be coming extinct.

THE SHAPE OF SHARKS:

The sharks has all different kinds of shapes and sizes or sharks one can find in
the ocean.  Sharks posse a richness of diversity and body  forms, ranging from
the popular sharks. A good example of this is a Bizzare Goblin Shark. This
sharks has a horn-like protrusion coming from it's head.  The body forms of
sharks can be related to their way of life.  Some like the angel and wobbegong
sharks the shape of these sharks of these sharks is perfectly adapted to their
environment and their way of life.   All sharks swim by snaking their way
through the water while using their pectoral fins for lift and direction.

Shark attacks:

Most attacks take place within 100 feet of the shoreline.  However, it's not
impossible to be stuck on open sea.  Sharks have been recorded following boats
for many years.  Sailors used to consider this a bad omen and would throw one
man overboard to please the shark.  If there is one drop of blood from a person
a shark and sense 200 feet where the blood is coming from.  The people most at
risk of shark attacks are men from a shipwreck just floating in the open ocean.
This is because there are usually large amounts of blood in the water.  The most
know shipwrecks that involved with sharks in the U.S.S.  More then 500 people
died by shark attacks.  The most common shark that attacks is the blue shark.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Abraham Lincoln Essay.TXT
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Abraham Lincoln


 Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States.  Born in a log
cabin in the backwoods, Lincoln was almost entirely self-educated. In 1831 he
settled in New Salem, Ill., and worked as a storekeeper, surveyor, and
postmaster while studying law. The story of his brief love affair there with
Anne Rutledge is now discredited. In 1834 he was elected to the state
legislature, and in 1836 he became a lawyer. He served one term (1847-49) in
Congress as a Whig; in 1855 he sought to become a senator but failed. In 1856 he
joined the new Republican Party. He ran again in 1858 for the Senate against
Stephen A. Douglas, and in a spirited campaign he and Douglas engaged in seven
debates. Lincoln was not an abolitionist, but he regarded slavery as an evil and
opposed its extension. Although he lost the election, he had by now made a name
for himself, and in 1860 he was nominated by the Republicans for president. He
ran against a divided Democratic party and was elected with a minority of the
popular vote. To the South, Lincoln's election was a signal for secession. By
Inauguration Day seven states had seceded, and four more seceded after he issued
a summons to the militia. It is generally agreed that Lincoln handled the vast
problems of the Civil War with skill and vigor. Besides conducting the war, he
faced opposition in the North from radical abolitionists, who considered him too
mild, and from conservatives, who were gloomy over the prospects of success in
the war. His cabinet was rent by internal hatred, and the progress of the war
went against the North at first. In 1863 he moved to free the slaves by issuing
the Emancipation Proclamation, but preserving the Union remained his main war
aim. His thoughts on the war were beautifully expressed in the Gettysburg
Address (1863). In 1864 Lincoln ran for reelection against George B. McClellan
and won, partly because of the favorable turn of military affairs after his
appointment of General Ulysses Grant as commander-in-chief. Lincoln saw the end
of the war but did not live to implement his plan for Reconstruction. On Apr. 14,
1865, while attending a play at Ford's Theater, in Washington, D.C., he was shot
by the actor John Wilkes Booth.  He died the next morning. As time passed a
full-blown "Lincoln legend" grew, and he became the object of adulation and a
symbol of democracy.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Adolf Hitler Essay.TXT
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Adolf Hitler


       Adolf Hitler was born on April 20,1889. This was the beginning with
horrible plans for power and control of other people.Some of the things that
Hitler did throughout his life were very cruel things; first of all, he was a
man who loved war and fighting. Second, he was in charge of putting all of the
innocent Jews into Concentration Camps and killing them. Third, he wanted one
dominate race of all the same kind of people. Fourth, he had a life long
obsession with danger.  Fifth, he blamed the Jews for the war debt and sentenced
them all to die. So as you can see already Hitler was a very cruel person.
	 The fact that he wanted one dominate race was unbelievably true. First
of all, the fact he would kill everyone one way or another that didn't have
blond hair and blue eye and was of German descent, was a frightening fact. The
idea of this gives me quite a scare my self, because I have brown hair, and
brown eyes and would I have been killed just because I did not Hitlers physical
standards.  Also Hitler himself did not have blond hair and blue eyes. Next, I
don't think that you should judge anyone by the way they look or what they do;
that is very wrong. Hitler's idea of one dominate race was a very bad one.
	Adolf Hitler was born in an Austrian town known as Braunau am Inn.
Hitler was the son of a man named Alois. Alois Hitler's father was a Custom
official's, and his mother was named Klara. Alois was illegitimate, first of all
he used his mother's name, Schicklgruber until 1876, when he adopted the name
Hitler. Adolf's father was very strict with him, and ignored him most of the
time because Adolf liked to dream. As you can see Adolf did not idealize his
father very much, and his death in 1903 actually came as a relief to Adolf.
Adolf really idealized his mother, whose death in 1907 had a traumatic effect on
him. So as you can see Adolf lead a very mixed up childhood.
	As Hitler grew up, he failed as a student in the classical secondary
schools. This led Hitler to new opportunities, for instance his desire to become
an artist.  Adolf tried to pursue this dream but, was unable to attain admission
to the Academy of Fine Arts.  Since he was unable to do anything, he lead a
shadowy, alienated existence in multicultural Vienna until 1913. Hitler was
described as living his life in melancholy, aimlessness, and racial hatred.
Also in Vienna he established his life long obsession with danger. Hitler was a
failure at virtually everything he tried in his early years as you can see.
	In 1913 Hitler went to Munich, partly to evade being drafted into the
Austrian army.  There he answered the call to colors at the outbreak of World
War I and Served in the Bavarian Sixteenth Regiment on the Western Front. This
turned Hitler's life around, for example, he distinguished himself for bravery
and was awarded the Iron Cross, First Class. For the first time in Hitler's life,
he had found a home. He glorified, for example, the "raw majesty of life under
fire, the beauty of comradeship, and the nobility of the warrior." His soldiery
dreams of victory and fulfillment were shattered, however, by German defeat.  He
became convinced that Germany had been "stabbed in the back" by Jews and
Marxists. So now you can see that this started his extreme hatred if the Jewish
people and the realization he needed to become involved in this problem.
	After the war, Hitler returned to Munich and joined a small National
group called the German Workers Party. In 1920, this group changed it's name to
the National Socialist German Workers Party, which became known as the Nazi
party.  Some of the things t Nazi's called for were the creation of a strong
central government, and the cancellation of the Versailles Treaty. So in
conclusion Hitler became very involved in this new party.
	Hitler was a skillful schemer, politician, and organizer. For example,
he became leader of the Nazi party and built up membership fast. This came
partly from his ability to stir street crowds with his speeches. Hitler had too
much control over the Nazi party; for example he attacked the government and
assured that the Nazi party would assure jobs for workers and greatness for
Germany. So in concusion Hitler was proving to be a good organizer and
politician.
	Hitler organized a private army of hoodlums who became known as storm
troopers. They fought Communist and others who tried to break up the Nazi party.
Hitler established many of these. For example, in October 1923, he had 15,000
Nazi party members with machine guns and rifles. Next, to identify these men as
special Nazi party members, he gave them brown shirts with swastikas on them to
distinguish them as part of the Nazi party.
	In 1923 Germany was deep in trouble; first it's money had lost almost
all of it's value because of severe economic problems. Second, France and
Belgium had sent troops to occupy the Rhur valley of Germany.  Third, the
Bavarian state government in Munich was open to conflict with the national
government in Berlin. Hitler regarded this quarrel as a chance to take over both
the Bavarian and the national German governments. So as you can see Hitler was
starting to get himself into trouble.
	On November 8, 1923, at a rally in a Munich beer hall, Hitler proclaimed
a Nazi revolution. The next day he tried to seize the Bavarian government in
what became known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler led more than 2,000 Storm
Troopers in a march against the government. This led to the police opening fire
and killing 16 Nazis the plot failed. Hitler was arrested and sent to jail for 5
years in prison for treason. Asa result the revolution failed.
	Because some Germans agreed with his ideas, Hitler was freed after only
nine months. Great changes had taken place in Germany since his imprisonment.
For example, most of the people had begun to get homes, jobs, and had hope for
the future. Once Hitler was released, he reformed the Nazi party. They had been
banned and many of the members had gone to other political parties. Hitler said
that he would not let the Nazi group would not do anymore illegal acts, and the
government made them reform.  Hitler also made up a private army of elite guards,
after his release, the Schutzstaffel, known as the SS. The SS was a battle ready
army. In final conclusion after the release of Hitler he had reformed a plan to
refine the party further.
	In 1930 a worldwide depression hit Germany. This first of all caused
people to face unemployment and hunger again. This depression started the same
year that Germany agreed to pay the Young Plan which it had agreed to follow to
pay off the war debt. Hitler's opposition to the plan made him known throughout
the country. First, he led protest marches. Second, he organized mass meetings.
Third, he made many speeches. In conclusion you can see Hitler was looking for
someone to pay for what happened to Germany in the World War I. The war debt had
to be paid.
	Hitler added his old arguments to the question of the war debt payment
plan. First of all he blamed Jews, and Communist, for Germany's defeat in World
War I. He thought that now the Jews were plotting to cheat "true" Germans by
destroying the fruit of their years of struggle. Because of this Hitler promised
to rid Germany of the Germans and the Communist, and reunite the parts of Europe
in which German was spoken. As you can see Hitler  already started to rise to
great power, and bring about the expulsion of all Jews.
	In Conclusion you can now understand that the rise of Adolf Hitler marks
a violent chapter in German history. He and his Nazi party still have fallowers
today, hopefully not to the same end.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Albert Einstein 3 Essay.TXT
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This German born physicist is considered one of the world's greatest thinkers in history. Not only did he shape the way people think of time, space, matter, energy, and gravity but he also was a supporter of Zionism and peaceful living. Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm Germany, and spent most of his youth living in Munich, where his family owned a small electric machinery shop. He attended schooling in Munich, which he found unimaginative and dull. In addition to this he taught himself Euclidean geometry at the age of 12. Later his family was forced to move to Milan, Italy where he then decided to withdraw from school at the age of 15. Eventually he realized that he had to finish secondary school, which he took in Arrau, Switzerland. On the other hand he still often skipped class to study physics on his own much like myself. At age 22 he became a Swiss citizen and in 1903 married a women named Mileva Marec, whom which he had two sons with but nonetheless latter divorced as to marry his cousin in 1919. Which is unlike me. On the other hand he did publish five major research papers at the age of 26. The first one getting him his doctorate in 1905. The first paper was on Brownian motion, which is a zigzag motion of microscopic particles in suspension. He suggested that the movement was the result of the random motion of molecules of the suspension medium as they rebound off suspended particles. The second paper laid the base of the photon, or quantum theory of light. It said that light is made off separate packets of energy, titled quanta or photons. The paper remade the theory of light. Also explaining the emissions of electrons from some solid objects when they are struck by light. Televisions are practical applications of Einstein's discoveries. The third paper, which he began as an essay at age 16, contained the "special theory of relativity." He showed that time and motion are relative to the observer, if the speed of light is constant and natural laws are the same everywhere in the universe. The fourth was a mathematical addition to the special theory of relativity. This is where he presents his famous E=mc², also known as the energy mass equivalence. Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia translates it as "(E) inherent in mass (m) equals the mass multiplied by the velocity of light squared (c²)." His fifth paper was his general theory of relativity. In which he proposed that gravity is not a force, a previously accepted theory but it's a curved field in the space-time continuum created in the presence of mass. In 1921 Einstein won the Nobel Prize for physics for the confirmation of his general theory of relativity although the other papers where still considered controversial. In 1933 he moved to the U.S.A where he became a citizen in 1940. Einstein died in Princeton, NJ, on April 18, 1955. But the knowledge he passed still caries through tomorrow.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Albert Einstein 4 Essay.TXT
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ALBERT EINSTEIN


Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14, 1879.As
a kid he had trouble learning to speak.  His parents thought that
he might be mentally retarded.  He was not smart in school.  He
suffered under the learning methods that they used in the
schools of Germany at that time so he was never able to finish
his studies.  In 1894 his father's business had failed and the
family moved to Milan, Italy.  Einstein who had grown interested
in science, went to Zurich, Switzerland, to enter a famous
technical school.  There his ability in mathematics and physics
began to show.
When Einstein was graduated in 1900 he was unable to get a
teaching appointment at a university.  Instead he got a clerical
job in the patent office at Bern, Switzerland.  It was not what
he wanted but it would give him leisure for studying and
thinking.  While over there he wrote scientific papers.  Einstein
submitted one of his scientific papers to the University of Zurich
to obtain a Ph.D. degree in 1905.  In 1908 he sent a second
paper to the University of Bern and became lecturer there.  The
next year Einstein received a regular appointment as associate
professor of physics at the University of Zurich. By 1909,
Einstein was recognized throughout Europe as a leading
scientific thinker.  In 1909 the fame that resulted from his
theories got Einstein a job at the University of Prague, and in
1913 he was appointed director of a new research institution
opened in Berlin, the Kaiser Wilhelm Physics Institute.
	In 1915, during World War 1, Einstein published a paper
that extended his theories.  He put forth new views on the
nature of gravitation.  Newton's theories he said were not
accurate enough.  Einstein's theories seemed to explain the slow
rotation of the entire orbit of the planet Mercury, which
Newton's theories did not explain. Einstein's theories also
predicted that light rays passing near the sun would be bent out
of a straight line.  When this was verified at the eclipse of 1919,
Einstein was instantly accepted as the great scientific thinker
since Newton.
	By now Germany had fallen in the hands of Adolf Hitler and
his Nazis.  Albert Einstein was Jewish.  In 1933  when the Nazis
came to power, Einstein happened to be in California.  He did
not return to Germany. He went to Belgium instead.  The Nazis
confiscated his possessions, publicly burned his writings, and
expelled him from all German scientific societies.  Einstein came
back to the United States and became a citizen.  
	The atomic bomb is an explosive device that depends upon
the release of energy in a nuclear reaction known as FISSION,
which is the splitting of atomic nuclei.  Einstein sent a letter to   
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out that atomic bombs
are possible and that enemy nations must be allowed to make
them first.
	Roosevelt agreed with Einstein and funded the Manhattan
Project.
	On April 18, 1955, Albert Einstein died.  To his dying day,
he urged the world to come to some agreement that would
make nuclear wars forever impossible.

			

             




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Albert Einstein Essay.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Albert Einstein


     Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14, 1879.As a kid he had trouble
learning to speak.  His parents thought that he might be mentally retarded.  He
was not smart in school.  He suffered under the learning methods that they used
in the schools of Germany at that time so he was never able to finish his
studies.  In 1894 his father's business had failed and the family moved to Milan,
Italy.  Einstein who had grown interested in science, went to Zurich,
Switzerland, to enter a famous technical school.  There his ability in
mathematics and physics began to show. When Einstein was graduated in 1900 he
was unable to get a teaching appointment at a university.  Instead he got a
clerical job in the patent office at Bern, Switzerland.  It was not what he
wanted but it would give him leisure for studying and thinking.  While over
there he wrote scientific papers.  Einstein submitted one of his scientific
papers to the University of Zurich to obtain a Ph.D. degree in 1905.  In 1908 he
sent a second paper to the University of Bern and became lecturer there.  The
next year Einstein received a regular appointment as associate professor of
physics at the University of Zurich. By 1909, Einstein was recognized throughout
Europe as a leading scientific thinker.  In 1909 the fame that resulted from his
theories got Einstein a job at the University of Prague, and in 1913 he was
appointed director of a new research institution opened in Berlin, the Kaiser
Wilhelm Physics Institute.
	In 1915, during World War 1, Einstein published a paper that extended
his theories.  He put forth new views on the nature of gravitation.  Newton's
theories he said were not accurate enough.  Einstein's theories seemed to
explain the slow rotation of the entire orbit of the planet Mercury, which
Newton's theories did not explain. Einstein's theories also predicted that light
rays passing near the sun would be bent out of a straight line.  When this was
verified at the eclipse of 1919, Einstein was instantly accepted as the great
scientific thinker since Newton.
	By now Germany had fallen in the hands of Adolf Hitler and his Nazis.
Albert Einstein was Jewish.  In 1933  when the Nazis came to power, Einstein
happened to be in California.  He did not return to Germany. He went to Belgium
instead.  The Nazis confiscated his possessions, publicly burned his writings,
and expelled him from all German scientific societies.  Einstein came back to
the United States and became a citizen.
	The atomic bomb is an explosive device that depends upon the release of
energy in a nuclear reaction known as FISSION, which is the splitting of atomic
nuclei.  Einstein sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out
that atomic bombs are possible and that enemy nations must be allowed to make
them first.
	Roosevelt agreed with Einstein and funded the Manhattan Project.
	On April 18, 1955, Albert Einstein died.  To his dying day, he urged the
world to come to some agreement that would make nuclear wars forever impossible.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Albert Einstein.TXT
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Another Albert Einstein
Albert
Einstein was a great man who contributed many
theories and ideas to the world of science. Some
people considered him one of the smartest human
beings alive. The theory of relativity is also said to
be "held as the human thought of highest quality.
Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany in
1879. In 1894, Einstein's family moved to Milan.
Einstein went to Switzerland, and he attended
Aarau Secondary School. There, he received his
Swiss Citizenship. Afterwards, Einstein returned
back to his home, Ulm Germany, and studied to
become a mathematics and physics teacher. Later
in 1902-1909, he worked at the patent office, as
an examiner in Bern. He obtained his doctorate
while working there. During this time he developed
the theory of relativity, in 1905, which explained
the photoelectric effect and studied the motion of
atoms. The theory, E=mc explained that mass and
energy were equivalent. Later in 1908, he became
a lecturer at the University of Bern. Then
eventually in 1909, he became a physics teacher
back at the University of Bern. As you can see,
Einstein had a very busy academic life. By this
time, Einstein's incredible knowledge had
attracted many scientists. In 1910, he became a
professor at the German University, in Prague. By
1913, Einstein had become famous internationally.
In 1921, Einstein was awarded with the Nobel
Prize for his incredible work in physics, especially
his theory of Relativity. In 1933, he accepted a
place at Princeton, the institute for advanced
study. Einstein became very happy in 1940, when
he became an American citizen. Although, Einstein
was very worried about the possible use of
Atomic Energy in bombs. He wrote to the
President of the United States, Franklin Roosevelt,
to investigate this. Einstein wanted world peace
and disagreed with wars. Here is a more detailed
explanation of Einstein's Theory of Relativity.
Einstein's early work on the theory of relativity
(1905) dealt only with systems or observers in
uniform (unaccelerated) motion with respect to
one another and is referred to as the special theory
of relativity; among other results, it demonstrated
that two observers moving at great speed with
respect to each other will disagree about
measurements of length and time intervals made in
each other's systems, that the speed of light is the
limiting speed of all bodies having mass, and that
mass and energy are equivalent. Overall Einstein
had wished that his theories would be very simple
and easy to understand, but no matter how simple
he made them, they were still hard to interpret.
Maybe, this was one of his only flaws in the work
he did. Einstein was fascinated by the works of
Max Plancle and other leading scientists. Max was
concerned with the phenomenon of energy being
emitted in tiny quantities from objects. Sadly, in
1955, Albert Einstein died in Princeton. Even
though, he was still world renown for his great
contributions to the science and the world. People
wonder if he had lived would the world have been
a better place, but even without the great
knowledge on Einstein we can still work together
to achieve what Albert Einstein had achieved.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Alfred Binet Essay.TXT
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Alfred Binet


The following essay offers both a short biography of Psychologist Alfred Binet
and a present day practical application using the theory from which Binet
developed his Intelligence test.

Alfred Binet, born in Nice, France, on the eleventh of July, whose mother was an
artist and whose father was a physician, became one of the most prominent
psychologists in French history.

Having received his formal education in both Nice and later, in Paris, at the
renowned Lycee Louis -le-Grand, Binet went on to become a lawyer. This
profession, however, was not suited to him, and he found himself immersed in the
works of J.S. Mill, Bain and Sully at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. He
identified strongly with the associationism theory in following that his mentor
was J.S. Mill.

Binet began working with Charcot and Fere at the Salpetriere, a famous Parisian
hospital, where he absorbed the theories of his teachers in regards to hypnosis,
hysteria and abnormal psychology. During the following seven years, he
continuously demonstrated his loyalty in defending Charcot's doctrines on
hypnotic transfer and polarization until he was forced to accept the
counterattacks of Delboeuf and the Nancy School, which eventually caused a split
between student and teacher.

Having been married in 1884 to Laure Balbiani, whose father was E.G. Balbiani,
an embryologist at the College de France, Binet was given the opportunity to
work in his lab where his interest in 'comparative psychology' was piqued and in
which he eventually wrote his thesis for his doctorate in natural science,
focusing his research on the "the behavior, physiology, histology and anatomy of
insects"(Wolfe, p.7). It was while working in Dr. Balbiani's lab, that Binet
wrote 'Animal Magnetism', an obvious breaking away from associationism, showing
Binet's ability to adapt and learn with every opportunity.

Binet's next area of interest could be considered a precursor to some of
Piaget's work with child psychology and began with the systematic observation of
his two daughters, to whom he devoted much of his time, studying and writing
about. It was at this point, that Binet "came to realize that individual
differences had to be systematically explored before one could determine laws
which would apply to all people"(Pollack,p.xii).

Soon after, Binet was nominated co-director and one year later, became director
of the Laboratory of Physiological Psychology at the Sorbonne. He and Beaunis,
also co-director, initiated and edited the first French psychological journal
'L'Annee Psychologique', which remains in press today.

Although never having attained a professorship in his own country (a bitter
disappointment for the proud nationalist) Binet did spend one spring in
Bucharest where his knowledge in experimental psychology was fully appreciated
as he taught to auditoriums filled to capacity, and was thus offered a chair in
psychophysiology. Binet refused, unable to remain away from Paris.

The 'Society Libre pour l'Etude Psychologique de l'Enfant', was established in
1900 by Binet and Ferdinand Buisson. This organization's concerns dealt with
practical problems in the school setting. Binet, after having proven himself
through his work here, was appointed to a commission which was to adorn Binet
with his most famous contribution in Psychology...the 'Methodes Nouvelles pour
le Diagnostic du Niveau Intellectuel des Anormaux', a series of tests developed
by he and his partner, Theodore Simone, allowing the differentiaion of normal
from retarded children in the school system, thus allowing the slower children
to be separated for remedial help. Although never used extensively in France,
this of course, was the precursor (although used for different and opposable
reasons than were initially intended by Binet) of the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Test.

Alfred Binet "attempted to penetrate the human mind, to analyze its wellspring,
to understand [it as] a complete whole"(Wolfe, p. 327). His work was diverse,
covering areas such as systematic introspection, suggestibility, research with
abnormals, mental fatigue, psychology of legal testimony, experimental study of
children and experimental pedigogy.

Binet died in Paris in 1911. As a French Psychologist, he was never appreciated,
specifically by the French, to the extent that his work and dedication merited
him to be. Binet's work was diverse, showing interest in the person as a whole
and therefore, trying to understand all facets comprising man. His work,
although contributing much in the sense that it was often the precursor of more
detailed, profound research, was never detailed enough to formulate any firm
theories in any one area.

Binet's crownig glory was the formulation of the first intelligence test. The
development of this test is explained fully in the 'The Psychological Testing
Enterprise, An Introduction' pages 191 to 208.

Binet's theory which argues that "the best way to predict success in school was
to measure success in school"(Rogers, p.653), can equally be applied in other
situations. In breaking up the whole into a series of minitasks which allow the
demonstration of ability, one can properly assess and place the learner in a
learning situation which will best benefit that individual.

The following example deals with the sport of hockey. As it stands, children are
separated into age divisions regardless of physical development, experience,
etc.. In following Binet's theory, we shall take the game of hockey and divide
it into minitasks such as:

1) Skating

forward backward

2) Stopping

spontaneously on command stopping and starting

3) Agility

switching directions quickly switching directions quickly on command

4) Stick handling

while still while skating while playing

5) Puck handling

alone with others passing accurately receiving

6) Plays

remembering executing

7) Anticipating opponents Although I'm sure there are many more minitasks into
which this complex game can be sub-divided, this provides a starting point from
which to work and is the first step in our process.

Start testing all children in the norm group in all tasks. Some of the children
will perform many of the subtests well, but others will not. There will be a
natural division due to the abilities of the children.

Start with the easiest subtests and gradually increase difficulty.

The subtests in each scale will be determined by the percentage of children who
can do this subtest well.

Sixty-five to seventy-five per cent of children in each level should be able to
pass the subtests of that specific scale. Each scale would therefore, be
determined following the natural separation of subtests by the different
abilities of the participants.

Most of the children in the level below, should not be able to perform the
subtests in this specific scale; most of the children in the level above should
be able to perform the subtests well.

Therefore, if the lowest 65% of the children can skate forward, stop
spontaneously and switch directions, but cannot perform the other tasks well,
these three subtasks will become one scale. The next scale would consist of the
following tasks which are performed at a consistent level by the next lowest 65%
of the players.

Each level will thus contain a scale of subtests which the children will work at
mastering during the session. The levels should range from basic scales,
concentrating on the easiest subtests to levels which are comprised of scales
needing great skill in order to master the subtests.

In this manner, children would be separated on the basis of skill level and
would thus receive the attention that they needed. They would play more and see
more ice time, because they would be playing with their equals and they would
thereby be provided with the optimal opportunity for skill development.
Advancement would be based on the acquiring of the skills of the next level:
Children would not be moved automatically to the next level with this same group.
They would advance when they demonstrate that they can perform 80% of the
subtests of the scale they are presently in and would therefore always be
playing at a level which would be most beneficial to the development of their
individual potential.


Work Cited

Pollack, B., The Experimental Psychology of Alfred Binet, Selected Papers.
     Springer Publishing Co., Inc., New York City, @ 1995.

Robinson, D.N., Significant Contributions to the History of Psychology 1750-1920
     - Bine Psychometrics and Educational Psychology. University Publications of
     America, Inc., Washington, D.C., @ 1977

Rogers, T.B., The Psychological Testing Enterprise, An Introduction. Books/Cole
     Publishing Co., Pacific Grove, California, @ 1995.

Wolf, T.H., Alfred Binet. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, @
     1973.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Alfred Nobel Essay.TXT
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Alfred Nobel


Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm, Sweden on October 21, 1833.(Encarta) His
father Immanuel Nobel was an engineer and inventor who built bridges and
buildings in Stockholm. In connection with his construction work Immanuel Nobel
also experimented with different techniques of blasting rock.  Alfred's mother,
Andrietta Ahlsell came from a wealthy family. Due to misfortunes in the
construction work caused by the loss of some barges of building material,
Immanuel Nobel was forced into bankruptcy the same year Alfred Nobel was born.
In 1837,  Immanuel Nobel left Stockholm and his family to start a new career in
Finland and in Russia. To support the family, Andrietta Nobel started a grocery
store which provided a modest income. Meanwhile Immanuel Nobel was successful in
his new enterprise in St. Petersburg, Russia. He started a mechanical workshop
which provided equipment for the Russian army and he also convinced the Tsar and
his generals that naval mines could be used to block enemy naval ships from
threatening the city.  The naval mines designed by Immanuel Nobel were simple
devices consisting of submerged wooden casks filled with gun powder. Anchored
below the surface of the Gulf of Finland they effectively deterred the British
Royal  Navy from moving into firing range of St. Petersburg during the Crimean
war (1853-1856).

Immanuel Nobel was also a pioneer in arms manufacture and in designing steam
engines. Successful in his industrial and business ventures, Immanuel Nobel was
able, in 1842, to bring his family to St. Petersburg. There, his sons were given
a first class education by private teachers. The training included natural
sciences, languages and literature. By the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was fluent in
Swedish, Russian, French, English and German. His primary interests were in
English literature and poetry as well as in chemistry and physics. Alfred's
father, who wanted his sons to join his enterprise as engineers, disliked
Alfred's interest in poetry and found his son rather introverted. In order to
widen Alfred's horizons his father sent him abroad for further training in
chemical engineering. During a two year period,  Alfred Nobel visited Sweden,
Germany, France and the United States.(Schuck p. 113)  In Paris,  the city he
came to like best, he worked in the private laboratory of Professor T.J. Pelouze,
a famous chemist. There he met the young Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero who,
three years earlier, had invented nitroglycerin, a highly explosive liquid.
Nitroglycerin was produced by mixing glycerin with sulfuric and nitric acid. It
was considered too dangerous to be of any practical use.(Schuck p. 87) Although
its explosive power greatly exceeded that of gun powder, the liquid would
explode in a very unpredictable manner if subjected to heat and pressure.

Alfred Nobel became very interested in nitroglycerin and how it could be put to
practical use in construction work. He also realized that the safety problems
had to be solved and a method had to be developed for the controlled detonation
of nitroglycerin. In the United States he visited John Ericsson, the Swedish-
American engineer who had developed the screw propeller for ships. In 1852,
Alfred Nobel was asked to come back and work in the family enterprise which was
booming because of its deliveries to the Russian army. Together with his father
he performed experiments to develop nitroglycerin as a commercially and
technically useful explosive. As the war ended and conditions changed,  Immanuel
Nobel was again forced into bankruptcy. Immanuel and two of his sons, Alfred and
Emil, left St. Petersburg together and returned to Stockholm. His other two sons,
Robert and Ludvig, remained in St. Petersburg. With some difficulties they
managed to salvage the family enterprise and then went on to develop the oil
industry in the southern part of the Russian empire. They were very successful
and became some of the wealthiest persons of their time. (Compton's)

After his return to Sweden in 1863, Alfred Nobel concentrated on developing
nitroglycerin as an explosive. Several explosions, including one (1864) in which
his brother Emil and several other  persons were killed, convinced the
authorities that nitroglycerin production was exceedingly dangerous. They
forbade further experimentation with nitroglycerin within the Stockholm city
limits and Alfred Nobel had to move his experimentation to a barge anchored on
Lake Mälaren. Alfred was not discouraged and in 1864 he was able to start mass
production of nitroglycerin. To make the handling of nitroglycerin safer Alfred
Nobel experimented with different additives. He soon found that mixing
nitroglycerin with silica would turn the liquid into a paste which could be
shaped into rods of a size and form suitable for insertion into drilling
holes.(Internet Site)  In 1867 he patented this material under the name of
dynamite. To be able to detonate the dynamite rods he also invented a detonator
(blasting cap) which could be ignited by lighting a fuse. These inventions were
made at the same time as the diamond drilling crown and the pneumatic drill came
into general use. Together these inventions drastically reduced the cost of
blasting rock, drilling tunnels, building canals and many other forms of
construction work.  The market for dynamite and detonating caps grew very
rapidly and Alfred Nobel also proved himself to be a very skillful entrepreneur
and business man.

By 1865 his factory in Krümmel near Hamburg, Germany, was exporting
nitroglycerin explosives to other countries in Europe, America and Australia.
Over the years he founded factories and laboratories in some 90 different places
in more than 20 countries.(Encarta) Although he lived in Paris much of his life
he was constantly traveling. Victor Hugo at one time described him as "Europe's
richest vagabond."  When he was not traveling or engaging in business activities
Nobel himself worked intensively in his various laboratories, first in Stockholm
and later in Hamburg (Germany), Ardeer (Scotland), Paris (France), Karlskoga
(Sweden) and San Remo (Italy). He focused on the development of explosives
technology as well as other chemical inventions, including such materials as
synthetic rubber and leather, artificial silk etc. By the time of his death in
1896 he had 355 patents.(Compton's)

Intensive work and travel did not leave much time for a private life. At the age
of 43 he was feeling like an old man. At this time he advertised in a newspaper
"Wealthy, highly educated elderly gentleman seeks lady of mature age, versed in
languages, as secretary and supervisor of  household." The most qualified
applicant turned out to be an Austrian woman, Countess Bertha Kinsky. After
working for Nobel for about two months she decided to return to Austria to marry
Count Arthur on Suture. In spite of this Alfred Nobel and Bertha von Suttner
remained friends and kept writing letters to each other for decades. Over the
years Bertha von Suttner became increasingly critical of the arms race. She
wrote a famous book, titled,   "Lay Down Arms"  and became a prominent figure in
the peace movement. No doubt this influenced Alfred Nobel when he wrote his
final will which was to include a Prize for persons or organizations who
promoted peace. Several years after the death of Alfred Nobel, the Norwegian
Storting (Parliament) decided to award the 1905 Nobel Peace Prize to Bertha von
Suttner.

Alfred Nobel's greatness lay in his ability to combine the penetrating mind of
the scientist and inventor with the forward-looking dynamism of the
industrialist. Nobel was very interested in social and peace-related issues and
held what were considered radical views in his era. He had a great interest in
literature and wrote his own poetry and dramatic works. The Nobel Prizes became
an extension and a fulfillment of his lifetime interests.

Many of the companies founded by Nobel have developed into industrial
enterprises that still play a prominent role in the world economy, for example
Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Great Britain, Société Centrale de Dynamite,
France, and Dyno Industries in Norway. Toward the end of his life, he acquired
the company AB Bofors in Karlskoga, where Björkborn Manor became his Swedish
home.

Alfred Nobel died in San Remo, Italy, on December 10, 1896. When his will was
opened it came as a surprise that his fortune was to be used for Prizes in
Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature and Peace. The executors
of his will were two young engineers, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist.
They set about forming the Nobel Foundation as an organization to take care of
the financial assets left by Nobel for this purpose and to coordinate the work
of the Prize-Awarding Institutions. This was not without its difficulties since
the will was contested by relatives and questioned by authorities in various
countries.

But as we all know, the legacy of Alfred Nobel lives on today. The prizes named
after him are still the most coveted prizes for the recipients in their
respective fields. Everyone will remember Alfred Nobel as a daring pioneer who
knew no limits.

Many of the new advanced scientific discoveries made in the last century were
surely helped out by the work of Nobel. His Nobel prizes reward people of
science and enable them to keep churning out new ways of accomplishing new feats
that have never been attempted before



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Andrew Jackson Essay.TXT
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Andrew Jackson


Book Summary/Contents

     Andrew Jackson, in the author's words, was "mild, polite, polished,
benevolent, and democratic."  It would not be in anyone's favor to question the
validity of the his words, but to understand them with unrestrained faith in
those words will help to insure complete insight into the book.  Moreover, this
book stresses the immortal fact that Jackson's private life had as much irony
and agony as his political/outside life did.  With those factors understood,
Jackson's life and the times he lived in, will become clear to all.
	The important point to understand about most things in this world is the
nature of their origins, Andrew Jackson is no different. Born with no idea as to
what his father looks like, Andrew Jackson Jr., third son from Elizabeth and
Andrew Jackson Sr., will be raised at the home of Elizabeth's sister and
brother-in-law, the Crawfords in the state of South Carolina. Andrew Jackson Sr.
descended from a long line Ulster families that were thrown out of Ireland,
seeking refuge in the United States, made their home in South Carolina.  Jackson
Sr., dying suddenly before his son's birth, left Andrew to grow up without a
male parental figure. Living in the Crawfords gave young Andrew little rewards;
he was given very little schooling of  basic reading, writing, and figuring.  So,
how, in fact, does a man that receives less education than the average American
at that time, not to mention the likes of John Adams or Thomas Jefferson, be, in
the many historians minds, greater than Adams or Jefferson?  The long answer to
that question will start when "Andy" as the young, and slim Jackson is called,
attains to the age of 13.
 The year was 1780, British troops had taken South Carolina, Andy's oldest
brother had joined the American regiment fighting in their home town, but died
due to heat exhaustion in battle.  At the sight of his deceased brother Hugh,
Jackson joins the army as a mounted messenger.  After the fighting halted, both
Andrew Jackson and his brother Robert (who had also joined the American army by
now) went back home to the Crawfords.  Even though official battles had been
temporarily stopped, the "civil war" raged on as Patriots fought Tories in the
towns of South Carolina, catching young Andrew Jackson in the midst of the fight.
In one bloody encounter, Jackson and his brother were taken prisoner by British
dragoons.  A British officer ordered Andrew to clean his boots. The boy refused,
claiming his right as a prisoner of war not to be treated like a servant.  The
furious officer whipped out his sword and slashed at the boy's head.  Luckily
for Jackson, his stealth saved him from certain death, but leaving him with
scars on his left hand and head which he carried with him his whole life, along
with a hatred for the British. Thrown into prison camp, Elizabeth Jackson would
not let her sons rot in British cells, and making deals for exchange of
prisoners, got her sons in the trade.  Alas, Robert died during the trip home,
and Elizabeth was barely able to save Andrew.  Being the courageous woman that
she was, Elizabeth Jackson made a journey to Charlestown Harbor, where she
intended to help American soldiers sick in British prison ships, but while
nursing the plague-ridden men, she caught cholera herself and died.  Andrew
Jackson's response, "I felt utterly alone", was all that needed to conclude his
feelings about events at that time.
	The following years after that, until he ventured into politics,
included going from city to city in South Carolina seeking the horse-race and
drinking his heart out.  Uncontrolled and unrestrained by anyone or anything
besides money, Andrew would come to see and do almost everything imaginable at
that time in the United States. He had also gone into various professions, from
teaching to law.  It was at law where he began his rise to politics.
     On the road to becoming a lawyer, Jackson's first stop was be apprentice
to Spruce MaCay, in North Carolina.  But simply being apprentice wasn't enough,
Jackson left MaCay after two years, and when he finally got admitted to the
state bar, he began drifting about the local courts, taking a case here and
there.  It wasn't until an old friend made him the public prosecutor of the new
Western District of North Carolina that he got his first major break as a lawyer.
 Now in his twenties, Jackson finally gains wealth and becomes a indispensable
lawyer to the speculators in Nashville, N. Carolina.
	It was also during this time, that Andrew Jackson takes a wife. He had
an intimate relationship with the landlady's daughter Rachel that he lived with
during his time in Nashville but could not move in on her because she was
married.  Her husband left her, and by the fall of 1790, rumor had spread that
he was ready for divorce.  Andrew and Rachel then got married, but this event
became an issue because of the fact that Rachel's husband's divorce was only a
rumor, where, in later years, in the great game of politics, the issue would be
brought up over and over again that Andrew Jackson committed ungentlemen-like
bigamy.
	Marriage had brought Jackson a few miles ahead in the road through
politics.  Being the very influential family that Rachel Donelson was from, she
helped provide Jackson with enough political and economic boost to become one of
the richest men on the Western Frontier.  Due to his vast holdings, and his
leadership on this new state called "Tennessee", Andrew Jackson landed a seat in
the U.S. Senate.  Showing very little political ambition, and not accomplishing
a whole lot, Jackson soon resigns his seat.
	It was after his senate resigning  that Jackson would become major
general of the militia of Tennessee and where his great accomplishments in the
battle field start.  During the War of 1812, General Jackson, with his troop of
2,500 men, was to march to Natchez, at the tip of the Mississippi, to prepare
strikes on either Pensacola, Mobile, or New Orleans.  But unfortunately the War
Department in Congress recalled his troops, and along the hardship-filled way
back (through Indian territory, without pay, transportation, or medicine) to
Nashville, Jackson received the nickname that would cling to him forever-Old
Hickory-because of his willingness to walk alongside his troops in support,
comforted the sick, encouraged the weary, and doled out rations. Shortly after
he had received the Old Hickory name came Jackson's greatest victory courtesy of
the battle of New Orleans which ended the War of 1812.  The time was following
Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat in France, Great Britain had now assembled a troop
of 14,000 men to attack the U.S. in three directions: top from Lake Champlain,
Chesapeake Bay in the middle, and New Orleans in the south.  The Lake Champlain
and Chesapeake Bay campaigns were easy victories for Britain, but the most
important battle rested in New Orleans, even with their victories, the tide can
turn with a win by General Jackson in New Orleans against the British.
Recruiting two regiments of African Americans, dastardly employing pirates, it
is still known as a miracle today that he pulls off this great win considering
that the odds of 7:3 against the Americans which make this battle even more
memorable. "New Year's Day, 1815, General Edward Pakenham of Great Britain
commands his (7,000) troops	 to begin a heavy bombardment of the American
positions.  In two hours of steady fire, the British were outgunned; they failed
to breach the American line.  Pakenham then came up with an unworkable plan.  He
would hurl all his power straight ahead through the Americans' well-prepared
fortifications.  It meant committing thousands of his redcoats to a frontal
assault in the hop that their superior numbers would shatter the American
resistance.  Fighting starts at dawn on the eighth of January, the files of
soldiers made two direct attacks in the face of deadly rifle and artillery fire.
All the Americans had to do was shoot them down as them came.  ...The British
broke completely and fled the field."
	Some years after that great victory in Orleans, once he regains his
health in his Hermitage, Jackson enters politics in the form of assuming the
newest state (Florida) to enter the Union's governorship.  And after a few years
of that, at the age of 55, but, "...looking 65", he is once again elected into the
U.S. Senate.  The interesting event that occurs during his third stint on the
Senate is that now, the idea of Andrew Jackson as the next president of the
United States has suddenly crept into everyone's mind.  The stage was now set
for the greatest election the world has known in that time.
     Jackson's candidacy had come from state legislatures due to the collapse
of the party caucus system.  Backed by one of the best politician in the U.S. at
that time (William B. Lewis) and one of the wealthiest men (John Overton), his
campaign was destined to be a success.  His opponents were John Quincy Adams of
Massachusetts, who was the Secretary of State; Henry Clay of Kentucky, majority
leader of the House of Representatives; Secretary of War from South Carolina,
John C. Calhoun, and William Crawford of Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury.
Due to lack of support for himself, and the apparent overwhelming support for
Jackson, Calhoun withdrew from the race and joined Andrew Jackson's forces as
the vice-presidential candidate.
     As the campaign went on, Jackson's men had to sway voters by saying one
thing in one state, while his men in another state would contradict that same
statement, making him seem like a vote-monger in the eyes of many people and to
which his opponents used as a weapon against him.  But, alas, Jackson was not to
be denied votes since he stood so firmly on the issue of slavery.  Defending
slavery caused him to finish with the most popular votes overall, but did not
get enough votes to win the electoral college.  Upon which case, the irony of
this election started.  It so happened that Henry Clay wound up as the last of
the candidates to have a chance at the presidency, and since Jackson, Adams, and
Crawford now needed to win by vote in the House of Representatives, Clay, being
Speaker of the House, struck a deal with his least hated person out of the three,
which was Adams.  So therefore, Adams getting the support of the leader of the
House, wins the election of 1824, much to the dismay of Jackson.
	At this point in time, angry Old Hickory makes plans to usurp and defeat
Adams in 1828 following the possible "corrupt bargain" that was struck between
Clay and Adams.  Andrew Jackson and his followers now formed the Democratic
Party.  With men such as Martin Van Buren and John C. Calhoun campaigning and
propagandizing on his behalf, he found Campaign '28 to be an easy victory,
despite vast accusations about his personal life from opponents that led to the
saddest day in Andrew Jackson's life when Rachel, reacting to pamphlets about
her alleged affair with Andrew, and other assorted gossip, grows ill and dies.
This event shocked and made Jackson utter the words, "I feel utterly alone" once
again in his life: but he strives on, being the Old Hickory that he is, and
inaugurates as the 7th President of the United States of America.
 One of the most memorable items during Jackson's terms was his "Kitchen
Cabinet", which consisted of Francis P. Blair, Amos Kendall, Isaac Hill and
William Lewis; all of whom are newspaper editors with the exception of Lewis.
The four men would assist in close matters with Jackson, who does not really
trust the competence of his Congressional Cabinet.  These men's ideas helped
shape Jackson's administrative policy, but in no way did they dictate what
Jackson said or did, because he was "master in his own White House".  That label
would soon come to bestow upon him the honor of being one of the most "king-
like" presidents in history, due to his over-excessive use of the veto power.
Andrew Jackson's greatest battle in the political ground also resulted in his
re-election when he started his War against the Bank (of the United States).
The Bank's story begins with Alexander Hamilton, who made Congress pass the Bank'
s charter in 1791, it was meant to stabilize  the government's finances and
establish its credit.  Partly private, partly government-financed and -
controlled, it became the cornerstone of the American economy by providing a
safe place to deposit the government's funds, lend the government money when
needed, regulate state banks' lending, issue bank notes, and collect taxes.
     The Bank's charter had ended in 1811, but in 1816, President Madison
rechartered the Bank for twenty years.  By the Panic of 1819, when (land)
speculative fever pushed people to the brink of bankruptcy and failure, state
and local banks also arrived at that point because they made loans that they did
not have equal amounts in gold or silver to back up.  Distrust everywhere, by
mostly everyone in the system of the Bank had arrived at an all time high.  But
a resurgence by the bank in the 1820's, led by its young, handsome, and
energetic president, Nicholas Biddle, allowed it to survive.
     Biddle continues to do well until the early 1830's, when he tries to
recharter the bank.  He tried to appeal to Jackson for recharter.  It is
interesting to see that what fueled Jackson's anger towards the Bank of the
United States was his own misfortune at the hands of it: during a time where he
had planned to open a merchandise store, but a land-speculating deal gone awry,
mainly because of Bank of the United State bank notes, forced him to forfeit his
plans on the merchandise store, and left him in poverty for a time.
	And so with that hatred, Jackson makes this great fight against the bank,
charging that the bank was the beneficiary of special privilege, granted a
monopoly of the government's business by charter.  That monopoly worked for the
aristocrats, and hurt the common man.  Not only was the bank evil, but it was
also unconstitutional.  With that said, President Jackson rallied the people
behind him in the stand on the Bank of the U.S.  So in the election of 1832,
Henry Clay, the opponent of Jackson, supports the Bank's recharter, and
therefore loses the election.  With his last breadth at a time of his greatest
power, Clay gathers enough votes in Congress to pass a recharter of the Bank;
but Jackson vetoes it, and that ended the life of the first Bank of the United
States.
	With that beening his greatest use of the veto power, President Andrew
Jackson becomes "King Andrew I" that so many people portrayed him to be.  In the
totally contradicting statement, he cannot be that because him and his followers
started the democratic party, which was essentially the party for the people!
Ending, it is interesting to see how his early childhood and wife shaped him,
from being juvenile teenager, to the Old Hickory millions have come to praise.

Knowledge/Insights

     The new knowledge that I've gained from this book complements the ones I'
ve received reading Hofstadter.  Where Hofstadter tells me mainly of the
political side into the life of Jackson, this book gave me feelings and emotions
towards Jackson's life.  In a sense, Hofstadter has a touch of "coldness" about
his works, whereas the author of this book gives Andrew Jackson a heart.  Also,
I see the great detail implemented in this book, or lack thereof from our text
books which causes me to wonder about the quality of our textbooks, and that
maybe I should always read a biography of a character in American History every
time someone famous is mentioned in the textbooks.
	My insight into this book is that as most biographies go, this one is
truly exemplary.  Not only does it tell of one of the most interesting men that
ever graced this earth, it tells it in a melodramatic way, from the unparalleled
reactions of Jackson's shooting of Charles Dickinson to Jackson hopeless
mourning over the corpse of his dead wife, as he "(hopes) vainly for signs of
returning life(in her)".  Jackson's pure energy, raw emotion, as shown in the
Battle of new Orleans,  where even sick, he can give orders to win the battle,
is truly mind-boggling.  Also, being the first ever "self-made" man and
president, he is truly a character that seems almost fictional in the way he can
transcend from one thing to another.  His survival at the hands of several duels,
and to live to the incredible age of 78 with several bullets lodged in his chest
from duels, truly shows how incredible a man Jackson had been.  The statement
that he was "born poor and died rich" fits Andrew Jackson perfectly.
	My most important insight into this book is that if you take away the
politics and egotistical displays of power, and make the Battle of New Orleans
the focus, Jackson would make a great hero for young kids.  Also, if you strip
away his machinations with battle and fighting, you could make Jackson to be the
true self-made man that Abraham Lincoln is, in the rise to politics.
Relationship Between Book & 19th Century American History This book's
intricate relation to developments of the 19th century include the rights and
questions of slavery, the American Frontier and its ideals of the "self-made"
man, and questions about the rights of Indians to their lands.
     Regarding the slavery issue, the book tells clearly of Andrew Jackson's
dealings as a "average" slave holding.  By "average", I mean that he would
probably not do anymore or less to hurt or command his slaves around than anyone
else would in other plantations.  To that end, what he cannot possibly condone
was runaways; he would pay extra for slave catchers to have the runaways lashed
in the effort to teach obedience.  Andrew Jackson is a very commanding and
forceful person by nature, and when slaves step out of line, he had the right to
punish them, so he feels no sorrow for either peoples-black or red-only contempt.
 In one time, during a raid on a Negro Fort before Florida had joined the Union,
Jackson and his soldier massacred free blacks, just because of the "slave-
holders' desire to enslave or kill blacks enjoying their lives in freedom."
	Slave trading contributed to those ideas that regarded  him as the first
"self-made" man/president.  Abraham Lincoln might've been the best example of a
"self-made" man, but Andrew Jackson was the forefather of that ideology.  Having
born into poverty, and struggled most of his life through poverty, he climbed
the first step in the ladder of success by knowing that the step was in the
practice of law.  After some years of practice, it paid off, eventually leading
to his marriage into aristocracy to Rachel Donelson.
	Out of all three of these relationships into 19th century American
History, Andrew Jackson's thoughts and acts towards the Native Americans is the
most intensified subject.  In this field, Jackson typified the "white man that
would cheat the Indian out of land he did not own in the first place!"
President Jackson's greatest action towards Indian removal came in the form of
the Trail of Tears.  This started in the state of Georgia, where the Cherokee
nation was "catching" up to the white man, and as a measure of defense or out of
fear, as Calhoun states, "The whole trouble with the Cherokees, ..., was precisely
their progress in civilization."  Jackson, whom sometime ago made treaties and
talked of peace with the "5 civilized tribes" of the Southeast, is now driving
the Cherokees out of land that the "white, middle-classed" man wants.  And so,
with the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee Indian population was forced
to move from Georgia into what is now Oklahoma, losing about 1/4th of the total
population along the way.

Merits and Assessment

	My assessment as to the merit of this book is that it is one of great
moral and intellectual integrity.  It cannot stress more on the moral side as it
unbiasly tells the reader the whole truth about Andrew Jackson's love life,
family life, war life, and political life.  This book is intellectually
stimulating, making you feel the urge to somehow, some way, relive the life of
Jackson, but you know that is not possible, so you go and reread the book again.
Andrew Jackson and His America clearly depicts emotions, and even though there
is no open dialogue, you get a sense of what the characters feel during trying
times.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Babe Ruth Essay.TXT
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Babe Ruth


     Babe Ruth is an American hero. He transformed baseball from a sport, to a
national pastime when it needed it the most. Coming off of the wake of the Black
Socks scandal, baseball was headed downhill. It had a bad reputation, and
interest was waning. The dead-ball era was dragging on, and there were to few
baseball "purists" left to support it. Baseball was in search of a new audience,
and Babe Ruth handed it to them on a silver platter. Babe Ruth started the Home
run era of baseball. In the dead-ball scores of 2-1 1-0 was the norm. With the
advent of the Home run era, games that averaged 1-2 runs an inning were common.
What once took a couple hits, walks, and a stolen base to accomplish were being
done with the single swing of a bat. Baseball was now much more enjoyable to
watch. Then  with the invention of the radio, millions of people enjoyed
listening to it.

     George Herman Ruth was born in the early 1890's to a couple of German
immigrants who ran a local bar. His parents had there hand's full with the bar,
and had very little time to tend to young George. His trouble making, and lack
of time on his parents part eventually landed him in St. Mary's Boys school. It
was here that he met the man who Babe claimed to be the greatest man who ever
lived, Brother Mathias. Brother Mathias was the one who handed Babe his
punishments, and it was Babe who always touted his strong, yet caring hand that
led him to baseball. It was also at St. Mary's that Babe started his life of
giving. He would save up his money from his job in the Tailor shop and often
spend it on large amounts of candy to give away to the little boys at St. Mary
who were poor, or orphans.

	Brother Mathias was the one who introduced Babe to baseball, as a
recreational game to play during the spring. It wasn't long until Babe was the
only 13 year old playing on the 16 years and older team. First as a catcher,
then later as a Pitcher. It was here that he first established a prowess for
hitting. His long home runs would leave local audiences speechless. It was his
pitching, however that landed him his first professional job. Jack Dunn of the
then minor league Baltimore Orioles signed him at the young age of 17. He played
a few years for the Orioles, until Dunn sold him to the Boston Red Sox. Babe
pitched well, finally breaking into the Red Sox starting rotation in 1918. Then
the Red Sox ran into some hard luck, and in search of money sold him for the
then huge amount of money, 125,000.

	It is often said that New York and Babe Ruth were made for one another,
and by the way Babe took New York by storm, it is hard to dispute the saying. He
took an instant liking to the big city, enjoying bars, dance clubs and people in
general. It was in New York that Babe started the long ball game. In the early
twenty's Babe's home run totals usually eclipsed that of any other TEAM  in
baseball. After a few years however, people began to pattern there swing after
babe, and pretty soon each team had their own home run experts. The boom in run
scoring also equated to a boom in attendance and revenue. It wasn't long until
Babe started to cash in on this, with  his salary soon surpassing that of then
President Grover Cleveland. In a Characteristic Ruth remark, Babe Responded "Why
not I had a better year than him!" When asked by a reporter if he should be
making more money than the president.

     Babe's way of life was Characteristic of the time period, The Free
willing 20's. Babe frequented speakeasies (a place to get illegal alcohol during
the prohibition. He was often at odds with his teams manager, owner, and even
police. This was Characteristic of the Rebellious 20's. He would often weasel
his way out of speeding tickets by offering a signed baseball if the officer let
him go. The Yankee's owner was often reluctant to suspend Ruth, knowing the
negative effect it would have on his team's performance. In this particular
Biography, the author's intent is to provide the most detailed, in depth
Biography on Ruth ever. That he does, in masterful accounts of Babe's most
heroic Games, and World series. Even his personal life is told in great detail
and accuracy. Controversies such as Babe's actual date of birth are presented,
debated, then concluded with the authors opinion.

	I choose this book because I am fascinated by Babe Ruth. I have read
many biographies on him, and this is by far the most in depth and detailed. I
really admire Babe's love for life, and people. He gave to those less fortunate,
and did everything in his power to make sure he enjoyed his life to the fullest.
Sometimes that meant bending a few rules, and even laws, but Babe realized you
only get one crack at life, and he made it worth it.

	In all the biographies I have read before, I did not know  Babe made an
unsuccessful bid to be a manager. It was details like this, and many more that
made this book very interesting. This book didn't really change my view on Babe,
it just broadened my horizon as to the many aspects of his life and career in
the major leagues. I would not however recommend this book to someone just
looking to learn a little about this American icon. There are many books that
would do this in far fewer pages, and most would probably consider this book
boring with it's many little story's it delves into with great detail. However
for the baseball enthusiast who has time on his hands, or for someone who just
can't get enough of Babe Ruth; I strongly recommend this book as the most
informative piece of work on the Greatest Baseball Player to have walked the
earth, George Herman (Babe) Ruth.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Ben Hogan Essay.TXT
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Ben Hogan


   Ben  Hogan  had  more  dedication  than  any  athlete  today.  Throughout
his  life Mr.Hogan  overcame  a  very  traumatic  childhood,   recovered  from
a  nearly fatal  head-on  collision  with  a  bus  and  built  a  golf
equipment  empire.

   Ben  Hogan  was  born  in  a  small  town  in  Texas  called  Dublin.  He was
one of  three  children.  When  Ben  was  only  six  years  old  he  witnessed
his  father commit  suicide  while  playing  in  the  same  room.  " At age
nine  my  childhood was  shot  through  the  heart".(p.14)  obviously  Hogan
was  traumatize  by  the tragedy. Hogan's  instinctive  reaction  was  to
become  protective  of  his  mother.  After  the suicide  the  family  underwent
serious  financial  problems.  To  do  his  part  Ben began  selling newspapers,
until  he  heard  that  their  was  big  money  to  be  made at  the  local
golf  club  for  caddies.  This  was  Hogan's  ticket  into  golf,  with  golf
being  considered  a  "rich man's"  game  Hogan  probably  would  never  have
started  playing golf.  Because  of  the  poor  wages  the  caddies  recieved,
most  of  the  caddies made money  by  gambling  on  golf,  this  was  where
Hogan's  dedication  was  shown even  as a  child.  Hogan  was  much  smaller
than  any  of  they  other  caddies  so  they usually beat  him.  But  Hogan
wouldn't  accept  it,  instead  he  would  show  up  for  work  a couple  of
hours  early  and  practice  his  heart  out, " Sometimes  I  practised  until
my  hands  bled."(p.11)  Finally  he  began  winning  the  bets,  but  also
caddy  and junior  tournaments  too.

    Secondly,  on  February 1, 1949   Hogan  was  on  top  of  the  world,
having  won the US OPEN,  the MASTERS  and  appearing  on  the  cover  of  Time
life  Magazine. Until  he  collided  head  on  with  a  twenty  thousand  pound
passenger  bus.  Hogan suffered  a  broken  collarbone,  broken  left  ankle,
broken  right  leg,  broken  pelvis and  a  few  broken  ribs.  In  the  weeks
after  the  accident  several  other complications occurred  like  blood  clots
in  his  lungs,  the  doctors  said  he  would  probably never play  competative
golf  again.  However  in  the  months  of  recovery  that  followed, Hogan
practiced  the  things  he  could  do  with  his  injuries  like  practice  his
short game.  For  the  next  thirteen  months  Hogan  practiced  to  the  best
of  his  ability, gradually  improving.  Thirteen  months  later  he  entered
the  L.A  open  and finished  second this   demonstration  shocked  the  world,
for  it  was  only  thirteen  months  earlier people  thought  they  would
never  see  Hogan  play  again.

   In  1953  Hogan  decided  to  produce  his  own  line  of  clubs.  In  1954,
after  a year of  struggling  sales,  Hogan  bought  out  his  partners  due
too  "creative differences".Hogan  took  time  off  his  regular  playing
schedule  in  order  to  over see operations  of  his  plant  and  to,  "see  if
I  can  make  some  damn  money  out  of this thing."(p.207)  Hogan  worked
harder  than  anyone  in  '54  designing  clubs  that  he liked and  felt  were
traditional.  But  it  wasn't  until  he  realized  people  wanted something
new,  that  he  made  money.  After  his  revolutionary  cavity  back design
made  his company  number  one  in  sales  he  decided  he  had  done  enough.
Hogan decided  to sell  the  company.  He  sold  the  company  that  he  started
for  only  500 000 dollars thirty  years  later,  for  approximately  210
million  dollars.

  In  conclusion,  Ben  Hogan  had  a  difficult  life  filled  with  adversity.
But  he made the  best  of  what  was  given  to  him.  He  overcame  a
traumatic  childhood  too become    the  best  golfer  of  his  time.  When
doctors  told  him  he  probably wouldn't  play  golf  again  because  of  his
accident,  he  decided  he  wasn't finished  yet  and  practiced  his  way  back
to  his  old  form  and  in  to the  record books.  And  finally  when  his  own
friends  didn't  have  faith  in  the  company  he built  he  bought  them  out ,
put  a lot  of  hard  work  into  it  and  sold  it  for millions.  Ben  Hogan
was  a truly  dedicated  champion.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Benedict Arnold Essay.TXT
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Benedict Arnold


     The name Benedict Arnold has become a synonym for a traitor to one's
country. In the first years of the American Revolution, however, Arnold was
a brilliant and dashing general, highly respected for his service to the
patriot cause (see Revolution, American).
     Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. His father,
Benedict, was a well-to-do landowner. His mother was Hannah King Waterman Arnold.
While a boy, young Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in
the French and Indian War. When he was 21 he settled in New Haven. In time he
became a prosperous merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He
married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They had three sons.
   Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major
general in 1777. His wife had died in 1775. Early in 1779 he married Margaret
Shippen, by whom he had four sons and one daughter. Arnold lived lavishly and
soon found himself badly pressed for money.
   He then began his treasonable activities. Most historians agree that Arnold
did so for money, though he may also have resented lack of further promotion.
Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the British
and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In
1780 Arnold obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over
the garrison to the British. He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made
final plans. Andre was captured, however, and his papers indicated Arnold's
treason.
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York
City. He was given a command and about  6,300. He served with the British for
the rest of the war, leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut. After
the war he lived with his family in England. He failed to obtain a regular
commission in the British army and failed also in several business ventures,
including land speculation in Canada. He died in London on June 14, 1801.
     In the first years of the American Revolution,  Arnold was a brilliant
and courageous general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause.
     Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. He was a very
daring boy. He once ran on a millwheel with another kid. He was also known to
love fireworks and once was caught lighting a jug of gunpowder that would have
resulted in a big explosion.  When he was a little older (about 17), Arnold
twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and Indian War.
When he was 21 he moved to New Haven. In time he became a prosperous merchant
and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767.
They had three sons.
     Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major
general in 1777. His wife had died in 1775 and early in 1779 he married Margaret
Shippen, by whom he had four sons and one daughter. Arnold was not careful with
his money and soon found himself hard up for cash. It was because of this that
he began his treasonable activities. Most people think Arnold did it for the
money. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the
British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger.
In 1780 Arnold obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over
the garrison to the British. He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made
final plans. Andre was captured, however, and his papers indicated Arnold's
treason.
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York
City. He was given a command and about  6,300 men. He served with the British
for the rest of the war, leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut.
After the war he lived with his family in England. He failed in several business
ventures, including land speculation in Canada. He died in London on June 14,
1801.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Bill Gates 4 Essay.TXT
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1202
William Henry Gates, III was born October 28, 1955 in Seattle, Washington. He was the middle child of three born to William and Mary Gates. ATrey, as he was called because of the III, was sent to a private school by his father, a lawyer, and mother, a former teacher now on several prestigious boards (Moritz, 238). At age 13, Bill had completely taught himself programming after taking computer studies class. After scoring a perfect 800 on the mathematics half of the SAT, he graduated from Lakeside school and enrolled at Harvard University as a prelaw major. As a student, Gates was a wonder. He received an A in an economics class without attending and cramming the night before the final exam. In June 1975, Bill Gates dropped out of Harvard to pursue a career in computers full time. Later that year after dropping out of Harvard he moved to New Mexico. There he and Allen Kay established Microsoft to produce their Basic for the MITS. Eighteen months later they were a few hundred thousand dollars richer and were hired by Tandy to develop software for its radio shack computers. Gates and Allen then moved their headquarters to Seattle, Washington. In Seattle, Gates re-wrote an operating system and called it MS-DOS, which stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System. Microsoft would eventually sell the rights of MS-DOS to IBM, making it a major computer corporation. Other computer companies wanted Microsoft to produce software for their computers, including Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak of Apple computers. With the operating system established, Gates and Microsoft set out to create applications software, for tasks such as financial analysis or word processing. Microsoft has continued being successful through the years and will be in the future as long as ! it keeps innovating new and exciting computer software. Bill Gates has his eye on the future. He sees the world in a Apowerful, high-speed network-both within companies and across the so called Information Superhighway@ (Brandt, 57). He hopes to be on top of the Transformation from Personal Computers to nets. Gates predicts that an explosion of low-cost, high-capacity, networks will radically alter how we use technology in the upcoming decade. Now before Bill Gates came onto the scene in the early seventies, the main focus in the computer world was hardware. Chips, circuit boards, capacitors and controllers these were what computers were all about at this time. Companies like IBM, Compaq and Apple were at the head of the pack in the Aindustry that pushed hefty boxes of metal and plastic and silicon at thousands ob bucks a pop.@(Manes, 4) No one had yet attempted to tap the software business, a market that was inevitably going to grow as fast of faster than its complimentary hardware market. Bill gates saw this opportunity and took advantage of it. When William Henry Gates came into the world in the year 1955, the fledgling computer industry was still trying to spread its wings and fly. AOn the day he was born in 1955, fewer then 500 electronic computers had existed in the entire world, their total retail value amounted to less then $200 million, and the term Asoftware@ had not yet been coined.@(Manes, 2) Bill first laid a hand on a computer in 1968 while in junior high school. The computer business was rapidly transforming at this time, and so was Bill Gates. He saw the real profitable side of computers was not their hardware. Rather it was the software end of the business. Good software is what makes a computer exciting and easy to use. Bill Gates grabbed this concept and ran with it. The result: As of 1993 AGates was personally worth more than $2 billion@, and his company, Microsoft, was Avalued at more than $7 billion.@(Manes, 2) As Microsoft and the software industry grew, the computer hardware manufacturers no longer saw the opportunity to exploit Bill Gates= company, as they had done initially with BASIC, one of the first programs Microsoft produced. Rather, they saw Bill Gates and Microsoft as the Controller of their destinies. Microsoft software had become so popular that if your hardware could not run it, you were certain of defeat. Throughout the early 80's, Bill was the ruler of the computer industry. AHis decisions on which machines to back and which to ignore helped to make companies and break them. Heads of firms that created computers and microprocessors regularly make pilgrimages to Microsoft=s wooded headquarters in Redmond, Washington, to sit at the feet of the master.@(Manes, 4) In 1986, Microsoft again revolutionized the computer industry and launched its first version of Windows. Microsoft called Windows an Aoperating environment,@ meaning it was designed mainly to run other programs. The difference between this system and the original BASIC language was that Windows incorporated a Graphical user interface or AGUI@, (pronounced as Agooey@) as it was known in the industry. This interface gave a symbolic representation of a desktop to every computer screen across the country, complete with little pictures called Aicons@ to signify different files and programs. Opening these files and programs was like opening different Awindows@, hence the name. Finally, non-Macintosh personal computers had become user friendly; no longer was it seen by the majority of the consuming public as a cold, high-tech piece of equipment whose secrets could only be unlocked by some alien script. The first seven years after the announcement of windows, however, was not exactly smooth sailing for Bill Gates and Microsoft. AOver those seven years, the windows story had been one of tepid reviews, backhanding compliments, empty hype, sluggish sales.@(Manes, 7) If these problems were not enough, in the same period, Apple computer, headed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, had sued Microsoft accusing the company of stealing their Macintosh ideas for the Windows application. Despite all of these setbacks, Windows finally caught on and spread like wildfire. Since its introduction, Microsoft has introduced numerous updated versions of the original windows application software, the most recent being Windows 95. Like the introduction of the original Windows program ; however, the Windows 95 version was anything but smooth. Microsoft again found itself in another legal battle, but this time it was up against the U.S. Justice Department. AAlthough the department will confirm only that it is conducting an unspecified investigation in the computer industry, it appears to have launched three antitrust probes into Bill Gates empire.@ reported the June 24, 1995 issue of the Economic magazine. (The Economist, 59) The basis behind these probes was focused upon possible misuse of licensing agreements and royalty fees by Microsoft with many personal computer makers. Just as the operating software of Bill Gates and Microsoft become the standard of personal computers, so would Mr. Gates like to dominate the software end of the up and coming multimedia market. This market spans from virtual reality video games to interactive multimedia programming on cable television. To begin its movement into this market, Gates now has a contract to Asupply software to Sega, a Japanese video-games maker whose central character, a hyperactive hedgehog called Sonic, is the industry=s hottest property.@ In addition to Sega, AMr. Gates has also been talking to Time Warner and TCI about forming a venture, to be known as CableSoft, that should set standards for interactive TV.@(The Economist, 73) Bill Gates and his company Microsoft have been at the head of the rapidly changing computer industry for much of its existence. If profit margins and stock prices continue to grow and Microsoft products continue to be household names, the duo will remain in this position will into the future. Bibliography 1. Manes, Stephen; Andrews, Paul; Gates - How Microsoft=s Mogul Reinvented An Industry - And Made Himself The Richest Man In America. Doubleday 1993 2. AA Trojan hedgehog@, The Economist. January 22, 1994, p.73-74 3. AHigh noon for Billy the Kid?@, The Economist. June 24, 1995, P.59-60 4. Bitter, Gary G. AWillian H. Gates.@ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Computers. Macmillan Publishing: New York, NY, 1992, P.409-410. 5. Brandt, Richard. ABill Gate=s Vision.@ Business Week. June 27, 1994, P.56-62. 6. Moritz, Charles. AWilliam Gates.@ Current Biography. H.W. Wilson Company: New York, NY, 1991, P.237-241.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Bill Gates Essay.TXT
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Bill Gates


We read books for a number of reasons but usually because we want

to or we have to. When you pick up a book it falls into one of three types,
dependent on whether it is a want to or a have to type of book. First there's
the kind of book you pick up and like the look of but then the first chapter is
so bad that you have to put it down because you are either too confused by the
plot or you discover it has been written in some obscure untranslatable language.


The second type is where the first chapter is slightly disappointing but it is
worth pursuing so you read on. These books are often the type you recommend to
friends although you have only the basic sketch as to what they are about (such
as any pulp fiction novel - you've read the story somewhere before but you are
on holiday so it is either this or the guide book).

The third type of book is a rare breed indeed. This is the book you read and
then read and then read some more. It is the type of book that you miss things
for.  If you like computers and want to know more about them, about the history,
and about the most important figure in this industry, then this is definitely
"the third type of book."

The book that I was able to read was Gates by Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews.
It was about how man named Bill Gates became the foundation of computing
industry and how he reinvented an industry- and made himself the richest man in
America.

 	William (Bill) Gates is the computer industry's youngest billionaire. As
president and CEO of Microsoft, he has made several important contributions to
the world of technology.  Most people would probably picture him as being a
computer programmer but not with holding the position of chair and chief
executive officer (CEO) of a corporation. Actually, Bill Gates is both a
programmer and CEO. To talk about Bill Gates one has to talk about the history
of Microsoft.

Gates' family was financially well off.  His father, William H. Gates II, is a
prominent attorney.  His mother, Mary, is the director of First Interstate Bank.
Early on in life, Gates' parents placed him into Lakeside, an academically
challenging private school. While at Lakeside, Gates met his close friend and
future business partner Paul Allen. Together they entered the world of
programming at Lakeside.

It all started on October 28, 1955, in Seattle, Washington, where one of the
brains behind Microsoft Corporation was born, William Henry Gates III. At
thirteen he started going to Lakeside School. A year later, the Mothers' Club
invested in a computer terminal for the students. Gates teamed up with three
other students to form The Lakeside Programmers Group. Their first real business
deal was a payroll program they wrote for Information Sciences Inc., in 1971.

At the young age of 15, Gates was able to crash the DEC operating system and the
CDC, which were two of the most advanced computer systems at that time. Although
his ability to crash these two systems brought him some major trouble, it also
led him to his first business adventure. Gates and Allen started the company
Traf-O-Data, which earned them $20,000. Gates and Allen developed a machine was
able to generate summary statistics on traffic flow from a rubber tube strung
across a highway. Unfortunately, Traf-O-Data was not a big success. However,
after their Traf-O-Data adventure the Gates and Allen received a job offer with
TRW, a corporation that produced software producta. They were able to earn
$30,000 a year working with a software development group, which proved to be a
very valuable experience for both Allen and Gates.  Then in 1973 Gates started
at Harvard University, in Massachusetts.

In December 1974, Paul Allen, the other brain behind Microsoft, saw an article
in Popular Electronics describing the Mango Information Technology Systems
(MITS) Altair 8800, a home computer kit costing four hundred dollars. This
"magazine article...would charge their lives and, ultimately, just about
everybody else's". At that time, Gates and Allen contacted MITS to let them know
they had a form of the computer language, called Basic, for the Altair 8800. A
few months later, the Basic language for the Altair was finished, and they
signed a deal with MITS. MITS offered Allen a job and office space for the two
of them to work in its headquarters. Gates and Allen referred to themselves as
Micro-Soft at that time. Before long, they would set up Microsoft in its own
building in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

In 1977, Gates dropped out of Harvard University. Microsoft was released from
their contract with MITS and owned its Basic language program outright.
Microsoft also made an agreement with Kuzuhiko Nishi for future software
developments in Japan. Two years later Microsoft moved to Seattle, due to the
growth of the company.

Microsoft made a deal with International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in
1980, regarding a computer language and disk operating system for IBM's new
range of personal computers. So, Microsoft signed a deal to have the rights to
Q-DOS, an operating system from Seattle Computer Products. They adapted Q-DOS to
work with IBM's new personal computer. A year later, Microsoft came out with MS-
DOS.

In 1981, Gates decided that Microsoft should be in the market for application
software for personal computers users. Two years later, Microsoft launched their
first application program, WORD 1. Gates then announced that Microsoft was going
to be launching a new way to use a computer with a Graphical User Interface
(GUI) know as Windows. They also introduced a hand-held pointing tool, the mouse,
which changed the way one interfaces with the computer.

Even though Allen had to leave Microsoft for health reasons in 1983, he remains
a director of Microsoft. On March 13, 1986, Gates and Allen become instant
millionaires when Microsoft was launched onto the stock exchange. Also that year
Microsoft moved to Redmond, Washington, to accommodate its twelve hundred
employees. With the launch of Windows 3.0 in May 1990, Microsoft become the
first personal computer software company to exceed over $1 billion in sales in a
single year. In June 1992, Gates accepted the National Medal of Technology from
President George Bush. Six months later, Microsoft became the world's largest
computer-industry company, based on the total value of its stock.

After this book was published, I would like to mention that Bill Gates is now
married whose name is Melinda Gates and now has a daughter named Jennifer
Katharine Gates.  Furthermore, he is now worth more then 17 billion dollars.  Of
course, I am underestimating Bill Gates's wealth because it only counts his
current holdings of Microsoft stock.  The cars, houses, aircraft, helicopters,
aircraft carriers, islands, and small European countries that he owns are not
figured in.

I think that the authors wrote this book as part history, part biography,
and part computing.  This book is overflowing with detail of computer industry
the reason being that the authors are computer experts.  Stephen Manes has
covered the computer industry for more than ten years as a columnist and
contributing editor for PC Magazine and PC Computing.  Paul Andrews is a high
tech reporter for the Seattle Times.  The information in this book is amazing
from starting of industry to where it's headed.  And from reading this book, I
feel that Bill Gates and Microsoft are one in the same--one does not exist
without the other.  "Gates, they say, understands that his company's image is
closely linked to his own."  No matter what people say about him, there is no
telling where personal computing would be without him. What he has done will
affect the computer world for a long time.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another BIll Gates.TXT
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Another BIll Gates
William or Bill Gates was born on October 28, 1955. Bill had two sisters
and they grew up in Seattle. Their father William H. Gates II is a Seattle
attorney and their mother, Mary Gates as a schoolteacher of the University
of Washington regent and chairwomen of United Way International. Bill Gates
attended public elementary school and the private Lakeside School. At the
age of 13 Bill Gates started his career in computer software at the private
Lakeside School and programming computers.
Bill Gates entered the University of Harvard as a freshman and where Steve
Ballmer lived right down the hall from Bill Gates and he is now Microsoft's
President. When at Harvard Bill made the programming language for the first
microcomputer. When Bill Gates was a junior, Bill Gates dropped out of
Harvard University to work on Microsoft, a company he had begun in 1975 with
the help of Paul Allen. Bill Gates believed that computers were the thing of
the future and everyone will have in an office, house and schools. So they
had begun making software for personal computers.
With Bill Gates as a leader Microsoft will continue to advance and improve
technology and to make software easier, less money and more fun. The company
is committed to a long-term relationship. In 1999, Bill Gates wrote a book
called Business @ the speed of Thought, this book shows how digital programs
will help a business in solving problems. This book was co-authored by
Collins Hemingway, and also written in 25 different languages and is
available in more than 60 countries.
Bill Gates was married on Jan 1, 1994, to Melinda French Gates. The couple
has two children: a daughter, Jennifer Katharine Gates, born in 1996; and a
son, Rory John Gates, born in 1999. Bill Gates is not a computer nerd he
also likes golfing and bridge.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Bruce Lee Essay.TXT
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Bruce Lee



     This essay is dedicated to Bruce Lee, without a doubt the most famous,
skilled, and inspiring martial artist that ever lived.
     Bruce Lee was a Chinese martial artist and actor whose main style of
fighting was Kung-Fu among many other styles that he practiced.
     From all of the things that I've read and seen about Lee, I think that he
was the type of person that would never give up. He could get beat and come back
for revenge, but there weren't many times that he was defeated.  He was also a
very inspiring person to many people. He taught that mental actions overcome
physical ones, that people should only result to fighting when it was the last
option, and that a person shouldn't determine the outcome of a fight before it
starts because underestimation could lead to defeat. Bruce also had clever
methods of thinking and different ways to put his thoughts into action. He was
nicknamed "Dragon" because he was born in 1940, the year of the dragon according
to the Chinese calendar.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Buddha Essay.TXT
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Buddha


	The word Buddha means "enlightened one."  It is used today as a title to
the one who has given us more religious beliefs than almost any other human who
lived in this world.  However, he was not given this name at birth; he had to
earn it for himself by undergoing long, hard hours of meditation and
contemplation.  Buddha has changed the lifestyles of many cultures with new,
never-before asked questions that were explained by his search for salvation.
He began an entirely new religion that dared to test the boundaries of reality
and go beyond common knowledge to find the answers of the mysteries of life.

India
	During the sixth century BC, India was a land of political and religious
turmoil.  It was an era of great brutality with the domination of Northwest
India by Indo-Aryan invaders.  Many people, influenced by the Aryan civilization,
began to question the value of life and it's true meaning.  Schools were opened
because of this curiosity where teachers would discuss the significance of
existence and the nature of man and held programs to reconstruct one's spiritual
self. (Pardue, page 228)

Background
	Near the town of Kapilavastivu, today known as Nepal, lived King
Suddhodhana and Queen Maya of the indigenous tribe known as the Shakyas.
(Encyclopedia Americana, page 687)  Queen Maya soon became pregnant and had a
dream shortly before she gave birth.  In this dream a beautiful, white elephant
with six tusks entered her room and touched her side.  This dream was soon
interpreted by the wisest Brahmin, or Priest of Brahmanism, that she was to give
birth to a son that would, if he were to remain in the castle, become the wisest
king in the world, but if he were ever to leave the castle he would then become
the wisest prophet far into future generations. (Encyclopedia Americana, page
410)
	In around the year 563 BC, Siddhartha Gautama was born into a life of
pure luxury. (Wangu, page 16)  His father wanted to make sure that his son was
well taken care of as he grew to prevent him from desiring to leave the palace.
Suddhodhana, listening to the prophecy, kept Siddhartha away from the pain of
reality so that he could follow in his father's footsteps in becoming a well
respected leader.
	As Siddhartha grew, he became very curious about the world outside of
the palace walls.  He felt a great need to undergo new experiences and learn the
truth of reality.  Siddhartha was married to a woman named Yasodhara who gave
birth to a boy, Rahul.  Even after his marriage, Siddhartha was still not
completely satisfied with his life; he decided that it was necessary for him to
see the lives of those outside the castle.

The Four Meetings
	One day, Siddhartha called for his charioteer to take him to the park.
When the King heard of this, he ordered the streets to be cleared of everything
except beauty.  As the Prince rode by, the people cheered and threw flowers at
him, praising his name and Siddhartha was still clueless to the suffering of
life until a god, disguised as a poor, old man stumbled before the chariot.
Siddhartha was curious to this man's condition and he asked the charioteer about
his appearance.  The charioteer replied that all men must endure old age and
that even the prince could not escape this fate.  Siddhartha then returned to
the palace to contemplate about old age which caused him to want to see more.
	The next day, Siddhartha decided to venture on to the streets again
which were, by the King's request, once more cleared of all evil and ugliness.
This time, Siddhartha encountered a sick man and again, returned to the palace
to reflect on sickness.  On his third trip to the park, Siddhartha approached a
funeral in a garden and was educated by the charioteer about how every man must
experience death.  Finally, on the fourth day, the young prince saw a shaven-
headed man wearing a yellow robe.  He was amazed and impressed by how peaceful
the man seemed; he carried with him only a begging bowl and had left all other
possessions to try to find spiritual deliverance.  At that moment, Siddhartha
knew his destiny was to discover how this man has avoided these acts of
suffering. (The New Encyclopedia Britannica, page 270)
	Later that night, Siddhartha kissed his wife and son, and left with his
charioteer away from the palace of riches and pleasure.  He left behind his life
of pure desire to understand the true meaning of life. To symbolize his
renunciation from civilization, Siddhartha cut his long hair and beard with his
jeweled sword, traded his silk robes for a yellow robe, and gave away all of his
possessions.

The Journey to Moksha (Salvation)
	Siddhartha wandered from place to place gathering as much information as
he could from countless teachers.  His main beliefs revolved around the Hindu
religion and the theory of transmigration which means that the human soul, or
Atman, is entrapped in an endless cycle of rebirths called Samsara.  After the
soul has died, it is reborn into a different state, depending on the deeds done
in former lives which is known as karma.  The ultimate goal is to obtain
complete salvation from this cycle. (Pardue, page 228)
	Siddhartha also practiced the art of yoga and self mutilation. Yoga is a
system of inward, ascetic discipline over the body, mind, and motivations.  In
other words, yoga is gaining control over one's desires and even their needs
such as breathing or eating.  It can be accomplished by long, concentrated hours
of meditation. (Pardue, page 228)  It is designed to end the torturous cycle of
transmigration and all sources of karma.  Self mutilation is putting one's own
body through acts of torment and pain to learn to cope with problems that occur
such as diseases and to eliminate all feeling of despair and suffering.
Siddhartha would experience the limits of his body by practicing long periods of
fasting and skin torture; he devoted his time to learning the nature of his self.

	Finally, Siddhartha settled near the banks of the Nairanjana River and
began deep meditation, determined to gain salvation. Through harsh weather
conditions, he survived with the minimum of food that the body needs to live.
He remained here, in this state for six years with little strength and power.
Soon Siddhartha was joined by five other men who were almost as determined to
gain redemption. They continued these acts for about a year until one day, the
young voyager realized that he had only weakened his body and mind; he finally
understood that with these long years of self mutilation, he has not yet
achieved his goal.  He did, however, manage to survive with very little of the
necessities that people need daily which was in itself a large accomplishment.
Unfortunately, the other men had realized that Siddhartha Gautama was giving up,
so they left and saw him as a failure.  With great disappointment on his mind,
Siddhartha gathered all the rest of his strength to crawl into a pool to bathe,
but found that his energy had been used and he was just too tired to climb out.
Before the young man's life was taken from him, he noticed a tree branch hanging
near his reach; he grabbed them and was pulled out. An old milk maid noticed
Gautama's frail body and brought him milk to aid his hunger.  Gaining back his
health, Siddartha decided to abandon the teachings that he had learned thus far
and walked to a Bo-Tree where he would meditate until enlightenment or death.

Enlightenment
	While Siddartha meditated, he was visited by the God of Evil, Mara, who
saw the attempt of the prince to reach his goal.  Mara attacked Siddartha with
several demons, but there was a force of goodness surrounding him, preventing
any weapons thrown from hitting his body.  The evil god then sent two incredibly
beautiful women to tempt Siddartha away from his goal, but he had the strength
to ignore his lusts and enter into a deeper stage of thought.  At this point,
Siddartha is able to recall all of his previous lives and gains the knowledge of
the cycle of birth and death.  He now casts off the ignorance which has led him
to great passion for his self and bounded him to the suffering of Samsara.  This
marks the beginning of Buddhism, when Siddhartha becomes the Buddha and his
suffering and desires come to an end; he can now enter Nirvana.
	"There is a sphere which is neither earth, nor water, nor fire,
	  nor air...which is neither this world nor the other world, neither
	  sun nor moon.  I deny that it is coming or going, enduring death
	  or birth.  It is only the end of suffering."
							   -Buddha (Wangu, page
24)

Buddhism
	When the Buddha finally reached his ultimate goal, he made a great
sacrifice to all human kind and gave up his Nirvana so that he could teach his
enlightenment to others.  Even though Siddhartha could have stayed in perfect
harmony in paradise, he chose to spread the practices that he had experienced to
all of man, so that they may learn to end their cycle of rebirths also.
	Siddartha traveled to Saranath where he found the five men who
previously joined him on his quest for release.  These men were drawn to the
Buddha with a phenomenal power that they could not explain.  They immediately
felt a great love and loyalty towards Siddhartha and they became the Buddha's
first disciples.  With some grains of rice, he drew a picture of a wheel that
represented the cycle of Samsara.  The first of his ceremonies is known as the
Deer Park Sermon; he began "setting in motion the wheel of doctrine." (Wangu,
page 25)
	Thus began the beginning of Buddha's teachings of the Middle Way of life
which says that one should not lead a life of desire of pleasure or materials,
but that they should also not mistreat their body. The Middle Path was between
the Upper Path, which is when someone has luxury and wealth such as Siddhartha
had when he was living with his family, and the Lower Path, which he also
experienced when he performed self mutilation.  On the Middle Path, one would
have to follow the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path.  The Four Noble
Truths are open to all human kind despite race, sex, or caste.

The Four Noble Truths
	1.  Duhkha -This explains that all life is suffering and that man is
			  bound to the earth by Samsara.

	2.  A person suffers because they believe they are important
	     when in fact they are insignificant.  This is caused by
	     ignorance of the nature of reality and desires.

	3.  The rejection of desire will break the chain of Samsara and
	      bring salvation.

	4.  The Eight Fold Path must be followed to gain enlightenment.

The Eight Fold Path
	1. Think right thoughts	  		  5. Have right
intentions
	2. Say right words			  6. Live the right way of life
	3. Perform right deeds			  7. Perform right efforts
	4. Have right aspirations		  8. Perform right meditations

	Many people are not ready to give up their lives yet and they must
subsist as many lives as they need until they feel that it is the right time.
The Buddha did, however, develop five principles to be able to gain salvation in
the next life.
 Buddha's Five Principles
	1. Refrain from taking life
	2. Refrain from taking what is not given
	3. Refrain from sexual misconduct
	4. Refrain from false speech
	5. Refrain from intoxicating things that cloud the mind
				(Wangu, page 29)

Spread of Buddhism
	The Buddha began attracting followers from all over India. Stories of
his deeds began to spread even throughout other nations. The pupils of Buddhism
were called monks and they developed a community called a Sangha were Buddha's
rules of conduct were followed.  The Sangha was created for monks to preserve
the teachings karma and to let the monks concentrate on the goal to reach
Nirvana.  A monk agrees to give total commitment to Buddhism and to withdraw
from the world to gain enlightenment; all men who were committed could enter a
Sangha.  Their only possessions that were allowed were a beggar's bowl, a needle,
a razor, a strainer, a staff, a toothpick, and a robe.  Those who have perfected
Buddha's teachings are called Arahats which means perfected ones.
	Buddhism began to spread worldwide and conflicted with the Hindu
religion.  Buddha's rejection to the idea that Brahmin's should be the supreme
leader and to the caste system, won him many supporters.  It was evident that
Buddhism would be a long-lasting religion. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 689)

The Buddha's Departure
	The Buddha had preached until he felt the end of his life coming. At the
age of 80, he decided that he had completed his tasks and he began to meditate
to once again attain Nirvana.  He had no written books of his teachings, but
they would still live on through his followers.  Siddartha's death was tragic,
but his students knew that his life was complete.  He left behind his legacy to
the world and shaped the cultures of people for centuries to come.

Buddha's Contributions
	Much of what the world believes today have originated from the teachings
of Buddha.  Even within other religions, it is evident that they were in some
ways  influenced by him.  Ideas, such as the Middle Path, are clearly
communicated in many values of today.  Buddhism has even had a major effect on
politics in Asia.  Tibet used to be controlled a system of theocracy ruled by a
Buddhist Priest, or the Dalai Lama.  In China and Japan, Zen Buddhism has been
used in the practices of Yoga that many people study everyday.

	He was one of the greatest prophets ever to walk the earth and his
teachings will be remembered for generations.  He has sacrificed his total
salvation so that mankind could be taught of the path to enlightenment.  The
Buddha has proven to be one of the wisest and giving men who touched the lives
of so many millions of people. Buddhism will live on as a major impact on the
cultures of the world and the Buddha will never be forgotten.
	"Everything that has been created is subject to decay
  and death.  Everything is transitory.  Work out your own salvation
                                          with diligence."
							-Buddha (Wangu, page 31)


Bibliography

"Buddha and Buddhism."  Encyclopedia Americana.  1990.

Cohen, John Lebold.  Buddha.  Mary Frank, 1969.

Pardue, Peter A.  "Buddha."  Encyclopedia of World Biography.
	McGraw Hill, 1973.

"The Buddha and Buddhism."  The New Encyclopedia Britannica.
	1990.

Wangu, Madhu Bazaz.  Buddhism.  New York: Facts On File, 1993.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Carl Jung Essay.TXT
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Carl Jung


Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a son of a minister in Switzerland. He
was born on July 26, in the small village of Kesswil on Lake Constance. He
was named after his grandfather, a professor of medicine at the University
of Basel. He was the oldest child and only surviving son of a Swiss Reform
pastor. Two brothers died in infancy before Jung was born. Jung's mother
was a neurotic and often fought with his father. Father was usually lonely
and very irritable. When the child could not take his mother's depressions
and his parents' fights, he sought refuge in the attic, where he played
with a wooden mannikin. Carl was exposed to death early in life, since his
father was a minister and attended many funerals, taking his son with him.
Also, Jung saw many fishermen get killed in the waterfalls and also many
pigs get slaughtered. When he was eleven, he went to a school in Basel, met
many rich people and realized that he was poor, compared to them. He liked
to read very much outside of class and detested math and physical education
classes. Actually, gym class used to give him fainting spells (neurosis)
and his father worried that Jung wouldn't make a good living because of his
spells. After Carl found out about his father's concern, the faints
suddenly stopped, and Carl became much more studious.

He had to decide his profession. His choices included archeology,
history, medicine, and philosophy. He decided to go into medicine, partly
because of his grandfather. Carl went to the University of Basel and had
to decide then what field of medicine he was going to go into. After
reading a book on psychiatry, he decided that this was the field for him,
although psychiatry was not a respectable field at the time. Jung became
an assistant at the Burgholzli Mental hospital in Zurich, a famous medical
hospital. He studied under Eugen Bleuler, who was a famous psychiatrist
who defined schizophrenia. Jung was also influenced by Freud with whom he
later became good friends. Freud called him his crown-prince. Their
relationship ended when Jung wrote a book called "Symbols of
Transformation." Jung disagreed with Freud's fundamental idea that a symbol
is a disguised representation of a repressed wish. I will go into that
later. After splitting up with Freud, Jung had a 2 year period of
non-productivity, but then he came out with his "Psychological Types," a
famous work. He went on several trips to learn about primitive societies
and archetypes to Africa, New Mexico to study Pueblo Indians, and to India
and Ceylon to study eastern philosophy. He studied religious and occult
beliefs like I Ching, a Chinese method of fortune telling. Alchemy was
also one of his interests. His book, "Psychology and Alchemy," published
in 1944 is among his most important writings. He studied what all this
told about the human mind. One of his methods was word association, which
is when a person is given a series of words and asked to respond to them.
Abnormal response or hesitation can mean that the person has a complex
about that word.

His basic belief was in complex or analytical psychology. The goal is
psychosynthesis, or the unification and differentiation of the psyche
(mind). He believed that the mind started out as a whole and should stay
that way. That answered structural, dynamic, developmental questions. I
will attempt to restate the major ideas and terms in this book in a
pseudo-outline. It will make the understanding a bit more clear.

STRUCTURE

Jung said that there are three levels of mind. Conscious, Personal
Subconscious, and Collective Subconscious. The conscious level serves four
functions. The following are the functions of people (not types!):

A. Thinking: connecting ideas in ordered strings.
B. Feeling: evaluating ideas upon feelings about them.
C. Sensing: wanting to get experiences.
D. Intuiting: following unfounded ideas.

A & B are called rational, and C & D are called irrational. If they
don't make much sense, they will be explained in more detail after
explaining Types.

There are also 2 classes of conscious behavior:

A. Introverted, which are people who are content to stay within their
own psyche. They base their whole life on analyzing their mind.

B. Extroverted, which are people who seek out other people. They care
about the outside world and adjust to it.

Also, one of the two classes usually dominates, and rarely does one see
an individual with perfectly balanced classes of behavior. Jung said that
an ego is a filter from the senses to the conscious mind. All ego
rejections go to the personal subconscious. The ego is highly selective.
Every day we are subjected to a vast number of experiences, most of which
do not become conscious because the ego eliminates them before they reach
consciousness. This differs from Freud's definition of ego, which we
studied in class. The personal subconscious acts like a filing cabinet for
those ego rejections. Clusters of related thoughts in the personal
subconscious form Complexes. One type of complex we have talked about in
class is the Oedipus Complex. For example, if one has a mother complex,
(s)he can not be independent of his/her mother or a similar figure.
Complexes are often highly visible to people, but unfelt by the individual
who has the complex. As already mentioned, complexes can be revealed by
word association, which will cause hang-ups, if mentioned. A strong or
total complex will dominate the life of a person, and weak or partial
complex will drive a person in a direction of it, but not too strongly. A
complex, as Jung discovered, need not be a hindrance to a person's
adjustment. In fact, quite the contrary. They can be and often are
sources of inspiration and drive which are essential for outstanding
achievement. Complexes are really suppressed feelings. Say you want to be
a fireman, but your parents don't let you, so you might have suppressed
feelings about it and let it drive you, so you might think that firemen are
heroes, because you never could be one.

The Collective Subconscious is hereditary. It sets up the pattern of
one's psyche. A collection of so called primordial images which people
inherit, also called archetypes are stored here. They are universal
inclinations that all people have in common somewhere by means of heredity.
The four important archetypes that play very significant roles in
everyone's personality are Persona, Anima(us), Shadow, and the Self. Here
is a brief explan ation of each.

Persona - from Latin word meaning "mask." Something actors wore to portray
a certain personality. In Jungian psychology, the persona
archetype serves a similar purpose; it enables one to portray a
character that is not necessarily his own. The persona is the
mask or facade one exhibits publicly, with the intention of
presenting a favourable impression so that society will accept
him. This is necessary for survival, for the reason that it
enables us to get along with people, even those we diskike, in an
amicable manner. Say, you have to get a job, and what is expected
of you is such personal characteristics such as grooming,
clothing, and manners, so even if you don't exhibit those at
home, you have to demonstrate them at work, in order to get this
job. A person may also have more than one persona.

Anima, Animus - Jung called the persona the "outward face" of the psyche
because it is that face which the world sees. The "inward face"
he called the anima in males and the animus in females. The anima
archetype is the female side of the masculine psyche; the animus
archetype is the masculine side of the female psyche. Man has
developed his anima archetype by continous exposure to women over
many generations, and woman has developed her animus arch etype
by her exposure to men. Anima and animus archetype, like that of
the persona, have strong survival value. If a man exhibits only
masculine traits, his feminine traits remain unconscious and
therefore these traits remain undevel oped and primitive. This,
if you will remember, is like Jack, who was a macho guy, and was
encouraged to discard all feminine traits. Jung said that since
this image is unconscious, it is always unconsciously projected
upon the person of the beloved, (i.e. girlfriend) and is one of
the chief reasons for passionate attraction or aversion. So, for
example, if I always thought that women were nagging, then I
would project that notion onto my wife, and think that she is
nagging, although she is perfectly customary. If he experiences
a "passionate attraction," then the woman undoubtedly has the
same traits as his anima-image of woman. Western civilization
seems to place a high value on conformity and to disparage
femininity in men and masculinity in women. The disparagement
beings in childhood when "sissies" and "tomboys" are ridiculed.
Peter was expected to be kind and gentle, which would bring deri
sion. Boys are simply expected to conform to a culturally
specified masculine role and girls to a feminine role. Thus, the
persona takes precedence over and stifles the anima or animus.

The Shadow - This is another archetype that represents one's own gender and
that influences a person's relationships with his own sex. The
shadow contains more of man's basic animal nature than any other
archetype does. Because of its extremely deep roots in
evolutionary history, it is probably the most powerful and
potentially the most dangerous of all the archetypes. It is the
source of all that is best and worst in man, especially in his
relations with others of the same sex. In order for a person to
become an integral member of the community, it is necessary to
tame his animal spirits contained in the shadow. This taming is
accomplished by suppressing manifestations of the shadow and by
developing a strong persona which counteracts the power of the
shadow. For example, if a person suppresses the animal side of
his nature, he may become civilized, but he does so at the
expense of decreasing the motive power for spontaneity,
creativity, strong emotions, and deep insights. A shadowless
life tends to become shallow and spiritless. The shadow is
extremely persistent and does not yield easily to suppression.
Say, a farmer was in spired to be a psychology teacher.
Inspirations are always the work of the shadow. The farmer does
not think this inspiration is feasible at the time, probable
since his persona as a farmer is too strong, so he rejects it.
But the idea keeps plaguing him, because of the persistent
pressure exerted by the shadow. Finally, one day he gives in and
turns from farming to teaching psychology. When the ego and the
shadow work in close harmony, the person feels full of life and
vigor.

The Self - The concept of the total personality or psyche is a central
feature of Jung's psychology. This wholeness, as pointed out in
the discussion of the psyche, is not achieved by putting the
parts together in a jigsaw fashion; it is there to begin with,
although it takes time to mature. It is sometimes manifested in
dreams, it leads to self realization, its the driving force to be
a complete person! The self is the central archetype in the col
lective unconscious, much as the sun us the center of the solar
system. It unites the personality. When a person says he feels
in harmony with himself and with the world, we can be sure that
the self archetype is performing its work effectively.

There are three ways how your psyche works together. One structure may
compensate for the weakness of another structure, one component may oppose
another component, and two or more structures may unite to form a
synthesis. Compensation may be illustrated by the contrasting attitudes of
extraversion and introversion. If extraversion is the dominant or superior
attitude of the conscious ego, then the unconscious will compensate by
devel oping the repressed attitude of introversion. Compensation also
occurs between function, which I briefly mentioned earlier. A person who
stresses thinking or feeling in his conscious mind will be an intuitive,
sensation type unconsciously. As we studied in class, this balance, which
compensation provides us with, is healthy. It prevents our psyches from
becoming neurotically unbalanced. We need to have a little Peter and Jack
in all of us. Opposition exists everywhere in the personality: between
the persona and the shadow, between the persona and the anima, and between
the shadow and the anima. The contest between the rational and irrational
forces of the psyche never ceases either. One's integrity of "self" can
actually determine whether or not this opposition will cause a shattering
of a personality. Must personality always by a house divided against
itself, though? Jung thought not. There can always be a union of
opposites, a theme that looms very large in Jung's writings.

DYNAMICS

The psyche is a relatively closed system that has only a fixed amount of
energy also called Values, which is the amount of energy devoted to a
component of the mind. There are some channels into the psyche through
which ene rgy can enter in form of experiences. If the psyche were a
totally closed systems, it could reach a state of perfect balance, for it
would not be subjected to interference from the outside. The slightest
stimulus may have far-reaching consequences on one's mental stability.
This shows that it is not the amount of energy that is added, but the
disruptive effects that the added energy produces within the psyche. These
disruptive effects are caused by massive redistributions of energy within
the system. It takes only the slightest pressure on the trigger of a
loaded gun to cause a great disaster. Similarly, it may take only the
slightest addition of energy to an unstable psyche to produce large effects
in a person's behavior. Psychic energy is also called Libido. It is not
to be confused with Freud's definition of libido. Jung did not restrict
libido to sexual energy as Freud did. In fact, this is one of the
essential differences in the theories of the two men. It can be classified
as actual or potential forces that perform psychological work. It is often
expressed in desires and wants for objects. The values for things are
hidden in complexes.

The psyche is always active, yet it is still very difficult for people to
accept this view of a continuously active psyche, because there is a strong
tendency to equate psychic activity with conscious activity. Jung, as well
as Freud, hammered away at this misconception, but it persists even today.
The source of psychic energy is derived from one's instincts and diverted
into other uses. Like a waterfall is used to create energy, you have to
use your instincts to turn into energy as well. Otherwise, just like the
waterfall, your instincts are completely fruitless. For example, if you
think that to get a beautiful wife, you have to be rich, so you direct your
sexual drive into a business persona, which will bring you money.

There are two principles of psychic dynamics. What happens to all that
energy?

1. Principle of Equivalence. Energy is not created nor destroyed. If
it leaves something, it has to surface. For example, if a child devoted a
lot of energy to reading comics, it might be redirected into a different
persona, som ething like being Mr. Cool Dude! He then will loose interest
in reading comics. Energy also has an inclination to carry tendencies of
its source to its destination.

2. Principle of Entropy. Energy usually flows from high to low. If you
have a highly developed structure (persona, for example), instead of
equalizing, it may start drawing values from other systems to boost itself
even higher. Such highly energized systems have a tendency to go BOOOOM!
So, entropy can destroy those high energy systems if they get too big. The
operation of the entropy principle results in an equilibrium of forces.
Just like two bodies of different temperatures touching each other would
soon equalize temperatures. The hotter one will transfer heat to the
cooler one. Once a balance is reached in your psyche, according to Jung, it
will be then difficult to disturb. Tho se two principles influence the
following:

Progression and Regression. Progression is the advance of psychological
adaptation. For example, if you need a shadow (creativity, perhaps), you
will try to develop one. When conflicting traits loose power, your psyche
enters regression. Say, your persona and shadow are in opposition and
because they are in opposition, they both would be suppressed, because
neither would get enough libido, or energy.

DEVELOPMENT

Jung stated that there are basically four stages of life. They are
Childhood, Youth and Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age. In the
beginning (childhood), a person's psyche is undefferentiated and this
person becomes a projection of the parents psyche. Children are not
individuals in the beginning of their life, because their ir memories don't
have too much stored in them and they lack a sense of continuity because of
that. As they gain experience, they realize that they are their own person
and not their parents' projection. The stage of youth and adulthood is
announced by the physiological changes that occur during puberty. During
this stage, an individual establishes his/her position in life. His
vocation and marriage partner are determined. A person usually uses his
Anima and Shadow to d ecide those things. Values are channeled into his
establishment in the outside world. Once one is independent, even a small
experience can influence him greatly. The Middle Age is the one often
neglected by psychiatrists. Lots of people have problems in this stage.
They usually don't know what to do with the energy left over that was
devoted to establishing positions in society as youth. As the principle of
entropy suggests, the energy is conserved, so once an adult put it to use,
he must redirect it elsewhere. Jung stated that those left-over energies
can be usefully diverted into spiritual contemplation and expansion.
Nothing much happens in old age. People have so much energy of experiences
in their psyche that even a major experience won't upset their
psychological balance.

Often, society will force people to assume prefered types. Types are
categories of classifications of psyches which are non-absolute and have no
definite boundaries. There are eight "types." Types are combinations of
functions and attitudes (page 3). The following are the eight main types:

1. Extraverted Thinking Type. This type of man elevates objective
thinking into the ruling passion of his life. He is typified by the
scientist who devotes his energy to learning as much as he can about
the objective world. The most developed extraverted thinker is an
Einstein.

2. Introverted Thinking Type. This type is inward-directed in his
thinking. He is exemplified by the philosopher or existential
psychologist who seeks to understand the reality of his own being.
He may eventually break his ties with reality and become
schizophrenic.

3. Extraverted Feeling Type. This type, which Jung observes is more
frequently found in women, subordinates thinking to feeling.

4. Introverted Feeling Type. This type is also more commonly found
among women. Unlike their extraverted sisters, introverted feeling
persons keep their feelings hidden from the world.

5. Extraverted Sensation Type. People of this type, mainly men, take an
interest in accumulating facts about the external world. They are
realistic, practical, and hardheaded, but they are not particularly
concerned about what things mean.

6. Introverted Sensation Type. Like all introverts, the introverted
sensation type stands aloof from external objects, immersing himself
in his own psychic sensations. He considers the world to be banal
and uninteresting.

7. Extraverted Intuitive Type. People of this type, commonly women, are
characterized by flightiness and instability. They jump from
situation to situation to discover new possibilities in the external
world. They are always looking for new worlds to conquer before they
have conquered old ones.

8. Introverted Intuitive Type. The artist is a representative of this
type, but it also contains dreamers, prophets, visionaries, and
cranks. He usually thinks of himself as a misunderstood genius.

Variations in the degree to which each of the attitudes and functions are
consciously developed or remain unconscious and undeveloped can produce a
wide range of differences among individuals.

This book is an extremely valuable source of thought provoking logic.
Jung wrote with common sense, passion, and compassion, and the reader
experiences a "shock of recognition"; he will recognize truths he has
known, but which he has not been able to express in words. This book made
me think about myself, and people in general. How people's minds work,
including my own. I found a lot of "truth" or at least I though I did in
Jung's teachings. I could relate some of the reading material to elements
studied in class. One will be astounded by the number of Jung's ideas that
anticipated those of later writers. Many of the new trends in psychology
and related fields are indebted to Jung, who first gave them their
direction. The book is also interesting, because of its challenging
nature. I suppose that not all people would enjoy reading such type of
literature, since many people in this world are sensational types. I
certainly did enjoy it, and have found out some things about myself in the
process. The book is very well written. It has many good analogies and
explanations which even the most sensational type would understand. The
collection of information is tremendous. There is so much information
bundled in 130 pages, that it makes you think that 500 pages would not be
enough to really explain deeply the subject matter. This book can be
faultlessly us ed as a textbook, which could prove to be salutary in
psychology classes. I strongly recommend reading this book to all
audiences that want to. A person, content with the world around him, not
wishing to challenge the puzzles of nature, should not. This book is a
treasure for all who seek to explore the human mind.

Ilya Shmulevich



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Changing Attitudes of Ferhat Abbas Essay.TXT
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Changing Attitudes of Ferhat Abbas


Introduction

Ferhat Abbas believed in the peaceful solution and that the French are
willing to co-operate with the Algerians. With this co-operation, he thought, it
was possible for all to live together. He was brought up and thought to believe
in democracy and parliament, to look for these in a peaceful fashion and that
the people have to be asked what to do with their country and not to be
terrorised to be convinced differently.  However in the 1950's we can see a
clear change, a turn in his thoughts. He accepts more violent ways in order to
gain what he believes in. In order to explain the change in attitudes of Ferhat
Abbas it is important that we first look at his background.  In 1899 Ferhat
Abbas was born.  He had, like many others, received entirely French education at
Constantine and at the University of Algiers.  After finishing his studies he
had served the French Army for two year after which he founded a pharmacist shop
in Setif.  There he also founded a student union which was a start of his
political career.  Soon he was accepted into the city Council where he fought
for the emancipation of Algerians from the French.    In 1938 Abbas founded the
Union Populaire Algérienne which peacefully fought for the equal rights of
Algerians and French.  Believing in the possible co-operation of French and
Algerians he had, fought alongside the French.

Political Career

During the war Abbas still continues his work towards the equality.  In
1943 he wrote the 'Manifesto of the Algerian People' which was than proclaimed
and several times sent to the French authorities. "The French colony only admits
equality with Muslim Algeria on one level; sacrifice on the battlefields." This
manifesto represented some very revolutionary ideas and proposed the equality of
rights and "immediate and effective participation."  Also in this manifesto
Abbas continuously condemns the French oppressive colonialism and even asks for
the self- determination of the whole population as a different culture.  Soon
afterward he wrote an addition to the manifesto in which he sees the Algeria as
the country separate from France.  In the book 'A Savage War of Peace' his
attitude is described as following:
 "Of pacific temperament, although he was a skilful debater, he was no rabble-
 rouser..."(Horne,1979, p.40).

The A.M.L

On its rejection by the French governor general, Ferhat Abbas and an Algerian
working-class leader, Messali Hadj, formed the Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté
(A.M.L. ; Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty), which envisioned an Algerian
autonomous republic federated to a renewed, anti-colonial France. This party saw
that the Algeria should be decolonised and that the French should leave the
ruling to the Algerian people.  Mesaslli was a trouble maker and believed in
constant activity of the party in order to gain attention needed.  The activity
mostly was in the form of open speeches and leaflets.  It did gain lot of
support but also attracted the attention of the French.   Soon the French dealt
with the A.M.L. The ideas were to rebellious for the authorities to overlook.
Abbas was imprisoned for a year.  In the prison he meets other politicians with
the similar ideas like himself.  Also when Abbas was thrown to prison his party,
the A.M.L., was abolished.

The U.D.M.A

In 1946, after a year of imprisonment Ferhat Abbas founded the Union Dé
mocratique du Manifeste Algérien (U.D.M.A. ; Democratic Union of the Algerian
Manifesto), which advocated co-operation with France in the formation of the
Algerian state.  This union has many times tried to propose the agreement with
the French whereby the power could be shared.  On one meeting he said: "It is a
hundred and sixteen years that we have been waiting this moments, that is to say
the opportunity of being here and making ourselves heard among you....Therefore,
have patience, I ask and beg of you...We are but a very small minority.  Be
generous...!" (Horne, 1979, p.73). Again the propositions were rejected.  Ferhat
Abbas tried further to perceive his views in his peaceful and democratic fashion
only to be ignored again. The best proof of his belief into the French is his
speech to the Assembly, and the French, in 1954:


Ferhat joins F.L.N.

Abbas' moderate and conciliatory attempts failed to evoke a sympathetic response
from the French colonial officials, and in 1956 he escaped to Cairo to join the
Front de Libération Nationale (F.L.N.), an Algerian organisation committed to
revolutionary struggle for independence from France founded in 1954.

In 1956 we can see the change in Abbas's attitude.  In that year he
joins the F.L.N. which was committed towards the similar views as him but
believed in different techniques in gaining them.  F.L.N. believed that the use
of aggression and violence was necessary to convince the French that the people
want independence.  They often used urban guerrilla techniques to sabotage the
French.  These techniques included hidden bombs in French buildings, killing of
the street police, smuggling weapons, ...

F.L.N. believed in forceful action which could paralyse the whole Algerian
system.  Abbas himself gave a speech in which he approves the change:

Why did Abbas change his views?

There are several of factors which made Abbas switch sides from pacific to a
more radical and liberationist stance in such a short notice.  As we can see
from before he had in many different ways attempted to convince the French
government that the change is really needed and that if they will not allow it
the conflict will spark off.  These peaceful attempts were a failure. Another
important factor was the assassination of Ferhat's brother because it was
believed that he was connected with the French in 1955 and this was blamed on
French although it was a deed of F.L.N. Many historians argue that Abbas was
afraid for his own life from the F.L.N. and that this played a major role in
deciding weather to join them. In 1955 Abbas takes a trip to France as the last
attempt to peacefully gain some rights but he was just again rejected by the
French authorities. This trip was Abbas' last hope. When he got back the asked
him: "Well, is it peace?" "He replied: 'No, it's war.' Finally there was the
gaining of independence by Tunisia and Morocco.  These countries have managed to
separate from the French and create their own government in 1956.  This further
convinced Abbas that he should change his tactics. The creation of F.L.N. has
attracted many of Arabs and Abbas saw that joining with them would create a huge
mass of people. Abbas had already considered to join the FLN and now was
convinced. Same year he wrote in a newspaper:

The change and acceptance of F.L.N. by Abbas was a huge step towards uniting the
rebels against the French which made the actions and negotiations much more
favourable for the F.L.N. with the French government. Horne also states and
emphasises this point:

	"Undoubtedly the most important single acquisition to the F.L.N. during
this period was the person of the arch-apostle of moderation, Ferhat Abbas
himself."
	(Horne, 1979, p.140).

	Abbas's work inside the F.L.N. and the G.P.R.A.

In 1958, when the Provisional Governemnt of Algerian Republic (G.P.R.A.) was
formed, Ferhat Abbas was declared a president.  They were situated outside the
country for their safety.  Before even becoming a president of G.P.R.A. Abbas
had already been contacted by the Farès, former president of Algerian Assembly.
Farès was a connection of Abbas to de Gaulle, French president.  Still Abbas did
not trust the French the way he once did: "...Farès informed Abbas...that de
Gaulle was ready to 'open serious negotiations with the rebels'.   Abbas seemed
receptive, declaring that he personally would be prepared to participate in '
any kind of conversation on neutral ground'." (Horne, 1979, p.319) In the 1961
the open negotiations were organised between the provisional government and the
French.  Due to French unwillingness to co-operate and the Ferhat Abbass's huge
demands the negotiations proved a failure.  Than Ferhat Abbas resigned from the
position of the president, but the people who accepted his government wanted to
keep him in power so he was chosen a president of the Algerian Constutuent
Assembly in 1962 after Algeria had gained it's independence.

Although Ferhat Abbas had made a alliance with F.L.N. he had never
agreed with its policies. He was a believer in the parliamentary institutions
and the constitution. But F.L.N. did not care for that. The name of Ferhat Abbas
was extremely famous and him becoming a member meant that lot of people who
trusted hi judgement would join this is confirmed by Horne as well: "With Abbas
as the front piece, however, a new and a seductive appearance of flexibility and
softness of approach temporarily cloaked the G.P.R.A." (Horne, 1979, p.317).

Resignation from presidency When F.L.N. published an Algerian constitution
without the help of the Constituent Assembly, Ferhat Abbas saw his goals much
different than what he believed in and therefore he resigned.  He hoped for a
peaceful solution after which a democratic system would be established.  Also he
wished to have power spread out more and not so concentrated in the top of the
government.  In 1963, with his resignation he was expelled from the F.L.N.  The
president in power, Ahmed Ben-Bella was a man with whom Ferhat Abbas did not
agree.  Ben-Bella was aware of the reputation that Abbas had with the people and
therefore could not allow him to speak or write against him. Ferhat Abbas was
placed, in Algeria, under house imprisonment for year.

The changes in the attitude of Ferhat Abbas were caused by the series of
attempts to negotiate and constant ignoring by the French government.  He
understood that the only way to get the attention of the French would be to take
some action. Since FLN was prepared to take action he had agreed to join it. The
book "War in Algeria" yet states a rather different reason for Ferhat's change
of the attitude: "...though most escaped, Ferhat Abbas' nephew was killed. Abbas
himself was one of the designated victims. But he soon made his peace with the
FLN, and joined them in Cairo..."  (Jackson, 1977, p.172)

From the source we can see that the historian thinks that Abbas was
scared for his own life. It explains that FLN had killed everyone who not only
supported the government but did not wish to join their party. Abbas was one of
them.

In my opinion this does not seem quite true because as we saw before and after
this incident Ferhat was not afraid to speak up and tell the people what be
thought even for the price of his life. Even when he did join the FLN for that
particular reason he would never become the president of that kind of the
government unless he agreed with them.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Charles Darwin Essay.TXT
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Charles Darwin


     Charles Robert Darwin was a British scientist who laid the foundation of
modern evolutionary theory with his views on life development through natural
selection.  He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809.
	After graduating from the elite school at Shrewsbury in 1825, Darwin
attended the University of Edinburgh where he studied medicine. In 1827 he
dropped out and entered the University of Cambridge in preparation for becoming
a clergyman of the Church of England. While there, Darwin met two important
people in his life: Adam Sedgwick, a geologist, and John Stevens Henslow, a
naturalist. After graduating from Cambridge in 1831, the 22-year-old Darwin was
taken aboard the English survey ship HMS Beagle, mainly because of Henslow's
recommendation, as an unpaid naturalist on an expedition around the world.
	When the voyage began, Darwin didn't believe that species change through
time, but he did believe in two prevailing ideas of the time. The first theory
was that the earth was 6,000 years old and had remained unchanged except for the
effects of floods and other catastropes. The second was that organisms were
designed especially for certain habitats and appeared on the earth in their
present form.
	After reading the works of a noted geologist, Darwin began to change his
ideas. He saw evidence that the earth was much older than 6,000 years. In South
America, he was witness to an earthquake that lifted the land several feet. He
realized that mountains could be built by the action of an earthquake over
millions of years. He found fossils of marine mammals high up on mountains, and
realized that rocks must have been lifted from the ocean.
	Darwin also studied plants and animals. On the Galapagos Islands, he
found animals that resembled animals on the South American continent, but not
exactly the same. He understood that they must have come to the islands from the
mainland, and then adapted into new species. He also observed the plant and
animal life of South America, oceanic islands, and the Far East. He noted many
examples that proved that animals in similar environments didn't always look the
same. For example, the emus of Australia and the rheas of South America are two
very distinct species, but they live in the same basic kind of habitat. Darwin
thought about this, and asked himself the question, if animals were formed for a
specific habitat, why would different species be found in habitats that are so
similar?
	After leaving the HMS Beagle and returning to England in 1836, Darwin
began recording his ideas about changeability of species in his Notebooks on the
Transmutation of Species. Darwin's explanation for how organisms evolved was
brought into sharp focus after he read An Essay on the Principle of Population
by the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus, who explained how human
populations remain in balance. Malthus argued that any increase in the
availability of food for human survival couldn't match the rate of population
growth. Therefore, the population had to be checked by natural limitations such
as famine and disease, or by actions such as war.
	After studying Malthus's essay, Darwin immediately applied his
principles to plant and animal life, and by 1838 he had arrived at his first
idea of the theory of evolution through natural selection. For the next twenty
years, he worked on his theory and other natural history projects. In 1839, he
married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and soon after moved to a small estate,
Down House, outside of London. There he and his wife had ten children, three of
which died during infancy.
	Darwin's theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper presented at the
same time as one by a young naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace. Friends
arranged for the two men to present a paper together before the Linnaean Society
of London. On November 24, 1859, an abstract of Darwin's theory was published
under the long title of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Darwin's
complete theory was published later in 1859, in On the Origin of Species.
Commonly referred to as "The book that shook the world," the Origin sold out on
the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions.
	In this book, Darwin presented his idea that species evolve from a more
primitive species through the process known as natural selection, which works
spontaneously in nature. Darwin pointed out in his account of how natural
selection occurs, known as Darwinism, that not all individuals undergo changes
and that some changes make the particular animal better suited to particular
environmental conditions. He pointed out that most species produce more eggs and
offspring than ever reach maturity. He theorized that well-adapted animals of a
species have a better chance of reaching maturity and producing offspring tha



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Charles Dickens Essay.TXT
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Charles Dickens


INTRODUCTION

This report will talk about the life of a famous author, Charles Dickens. It
will tell you about his early, middle, and later years of his life. It will also
talk about one of his great works of literature. In conclusion, this report will
show a comparison of his work to his life.

EARLY LIFE

Charles Dickens was born at Landport, in Portsea, on February 7, 1812. His
father was a clerk in the Navy Pay-Office, and was temporarily on duty in the
neighborhood when Charles was born. His name was John Dickens. He spent time in
prison for debts. But, even when he was free he lacked the money to support his
family. Then, when Charles was two they moved to London. 1

Just before he started to toddle, he stepped into the glare of footlights. He
never stepped out of it until he died. He was a good man, as men go in the
bewildering world of ours, brave, transparent, tender-hearted, and honorable.
Dickens was always a little too irritable because he was a little too happy.
Like the over-wrought child in society, he was splendidly sociable, and in and
yet sometimes quarrelsome. In all the practical relations of his life he was
what the child is at a party, genuinely delighted, delightful, affectionate and
happy, and in some strange way fundamentally sad and dangerously close to tears.
2

At the age of 12 Charles worked in a London factory pasting labels on bottles of
shoe polish. He held the job only for a few months, but the misery of the
experience remain with him all his life. 3

Dickens attended school off and on until he was 15, and then left for good. He
enjoyed reading and was especially fond of adventure stories, fairy tales, and
novels. He was influenced by such earlier English writers as William Shakespeare,
Tobias Smollet, and Henry Fielding. However, most of the knowledge he later used
as an author came from his environment around him. 4

MIDDLE LIFE

Dickens became a newspaper writer and reporter in the late 1820's. He
specialized in covering debates in Parliament, and also wrote feature articles.
His work as a reporter sharpened his naturally keen ear for conversation and
helped develop his skill in portraying his characters speach realistically. It
also increased his ability to observe and to write swiftly and clearly. Dickens'
first book, Sketches by Boz (1836) consisted of articles he wrote for the
Monthly Magazine and the London Evening Chronicles.5

On April 2, 1836 he married Catherine Hogarth. This was just a few days before
the anoucement that on the 31st he would have his first work printed in The
Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club. And this was the beginning of his career.
6

Then, at 24, Dickens became famous and was so until he died. He won his first
literary fame with The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club. Published in
monthly parts in 1836 and 1837 the book describes the humorous adventure and
misadventures of the English Countryside. After a slow start, The Pickwick
Papers as the book was usually called gained a popularity seldom matched in the
history of literature. 7

Then in 1837, Catherine's sister Mary, died. Because of her death Dickens'
suffered a lot of grief. This led some scholars to believe that Dickens loved
Mary more than Catherine. Catherine was a good woman but she lacked intelligence.
Dickens and Catherine had 10 children. Then later in 1858, the couple seperated.
8

LATER LIFE

His later years was basically consisting of two main additions to his previous
activites.

The first was a series of public readings and lectures which he began giving it
systematically. And second, he was a successive editor. Dickens had been many
things in his life; he was a reporter , an actor, a conjurer, a poet, a lecturer,
and a editor and he enjoyed all of those things. 9

Dickens had a remarkable mental and physical energy. He recorded all his
activites in thousands of letter, many of which made delightful readings. He
spent much of his later life with crowded social friends from arts and
literature. He also went to the theater as often as he could, cause he loved
drama. Dickens also produced and acted in small theaters to give public readings
of his work.10

Besides doing all this after his retirement he got involved in various charities
. These charities included schools for poor children and a loan society to
enable the poor to prove to Australia. 11

Then about 1865 his health started to decline and he died of a stroke on June 9,
1870. 12

Dicken's Work

The Great Expectations

This story talks about a guy who is in love with a girl. It is the theme of a
youths discovery of the realities of life. An unknown person provides the young
hero, Pip, with money so that he can live as a gentleman. Pip's pride is
shattered when he learns that he loses Estella forever, the source of his "great
expectation". Only by painfully revising his values does Pip reestablish his
life on a foundation of sympathy, rather than on vanity, possesions, and social
position.

Conclusion

His work of Great Expectation is very related with his life. It deals with the
same problems he faced when he lost Catherine and how his life was before he
became rich and famous. He also created scenes and descriptions of places that
have longed delighted readers. Dickens was a keen observer of life and had a
great understanding of humanity, especially of young people. The warmth and
humor of his personality appeared in all of his works. Perhaps in no other large
body of fiction does the reader receive so strong and agreeable impression of
the person behind the story.

Endnotes

1. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of The Great

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg.19

2. Ibid, pg. 21-22

3. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed.

Viking, 1977, pg. 20

4. Ibid, pg. 27

5. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

6. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 50

7. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

8. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed.

Viking, 1977, pg. 53

9. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 167

10. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg.195

11. Ibid

12. Ibid

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chesterton, G.K., "The Last of the Great Men" American

Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942.

Johnson, Edgar, "His Tragedy and Triumph" Rev. ed.

Viking, 1977.

World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Charles Lindbergh Essay.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Charles Lindbergh


     Shortly after Charles Lindbergh landed, he was swarmed by 25,000
Parisians who carried the wearied pilot on their shoulders. They were rejoicing
that Charles Lindbergh, the American aviator who flew the first transatlantic
flight, had just landed at Le Bourget field in France. Having just completed
what some people called an impossible feat, he was instantly a well-known
international hero. Despite his pro-German stance during World War II, Charles
Lindbergh is also an American hero. A record of his happiness and success exists
in the material form of his plane hanging in the Smithsonian Institute; however,
much of Lindbergh's life was clouded by turmoil.  The life of Charles Lindbergh
though best remembered for his heroic flight across the Atlantic, was marred by
the kidnapping of his baby and his fall from favor with the American public
following his pro-German stance during the 1930's. Charles Lindbergh, the famous
American aviator, was born February 4, 1902 in Detroit, Michigan.  As a boy he
loved the outdoors and frequently hunted.  He maintained a good relationship
with his parents "who trusted him and viewed him as a very responsible child".
His father, for whom young Charles chauffeured as a child, served in the U.S.
Congress from 1907 to 1917. Lindbergh's love of machinery was evident by the age
of 14; "He could take apart a automobile engine and repair it".  Attending the
University of Wisconsin, Lindbergh studied engineering for two years.  Although
he was an excellent student, his real interest was in flying. As a result, in
1922 he switched to aviation school.  Planes became a center of his life after
his first flight.  His early flying career involved flying stunt planes at fair
and air shows. Later, in 1925 he piloted the U. S. Mail route from St. Louis to
Chicago.  On one occasion while flying this route his engine failed and he did a
nosedive towards the ground.  Recovering from the nosedive he straightened the
plane successfully and landed the plane unharmed. This skill would later be
invaluable when he was forced to skim ten feet above the waves during his famous
transatlantic flight.
	As early as 1919 Lindbergh was aware of a prize being offered by the
Franco-American philanthropist Raymond B. Orteig of New York City. Orteig
offered 25, 000 dollars to the individual who completed the first non-stop
transatlantic flight from New York to Paris.  Ryan Air manufactured his single
engine monoplane, the Spirit of St. Louis, so named because many of his
investors were from that city. In preparation for the flight, Lindbergh flew the
Spirit of St. Louis from Ryan Airfield in St. Louis, non-stop to Roosevelt Field
outside New York City. After arriving he waited six days to begin his flight to
Paris, due to inclement weather.	Although he was scheduled to attend the
ballet on the evening of May 19, 1927, word came from the airfield that there
was a large break in the weather coming across the Atlantic and that he was
clear to fly first thing in the morning.  As a precaution Lindbergh instructed
one of his friends to stand guard outside the room where Lindbergh attempted to
sleep that night. Unfortunately, with all the thoughts going through his head,
sleep was an impossibility.  Rising at 4:00 am, accompanied by a police escort,
Lindbergh was driven to Roosevelt Field. Dressed in a brown flight suit complete
with headpiece and goggles, Lindbergh climbed into his single engine monoplane
and began his destiny with history; the first non-stop transatlantic flight.
	During the flight of 33 hours and 32 minutes, Lindbergh ate five chicken
sandwiches and consumed a one-liter bottle of water. It is not documented what
Lindbergh did to occupy his time during the flight, but it is obvious based upon
the length of the flight that staying awake must have been a major concern.  In
a famous film recounting this flight, speculation was that Lindbergh stayed
awake by watching the activity of a housefly trapped in the cabin.  Later, based
upon his excess fuel level, Lindbergh considered continuing his flight to Rome,
despite the fact that he had already traveled 5,800 km.  Fearing it was too
dangerous, he opted to land in Paris as planned.  When Lindbergh approached Le
Bourget Airport near Paris he noticed the headlights of many cars. Amazed that
so many Parisians had come out to the field to greet him, Lindbergh anxiously
deplaned. In their excitement some of the crowd tore pieces of the plane's outer
shell off as souvenirs.   "Lindbergh's achievement won the enthusiasm and
acclaim of the world, and he was greeted as a hero in Europe and the U.S."
Lindbergh, the American hero, was sent home on a naval vessel specially
chartered by Harry S. Truman.  When Lindbergh arrived in New York City he was
greeted by a hero's ticker tape parade in downtown New York City.  Roughly 6
tons of confetti was thrown into the street in celebration of his historic
flight. When the parade ended, Lindbergh was presented with an honorary key to
the city of New York.  Similar ceremonies were repeated in several U.S. and
European cities. Later Lindbergh was commissioned as a colonel in the U.S. Air
Service Reserve and served as a technical advisor for several commercial
airlines.  When in the service of one of the airlines, Lindbergh flew to Mexico
and met the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico's daughter, Anne Morrow.  Soon began a
very private relationship, resulting in their marriage in May of 1929. Though
certainly a happy time in their life, this relationship would produce a child,
one that would be brutally murdered.
     The Lindbergh's first son, Charles Augustus, was born in 1930.  Living outside
New York City, they moved to a rural community near Hopewell, New Jersey.  Far
away from the crime of a major city, the Lindberghs were comfortable in this
small community.  Soon, that would end with the kidnapping of their son.
Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. was kidnapped about 9:00p.m. on March 1, 1932 ,
abducted from the nursery on the second floor of the Lindbergh's home. At about
10:00p.m , the child's nurse, Betty Gow, found that the baby was not in the
nusery. The grounds around the house were searched and a ransom note demanding
50,000 dollars was found. The New Jersey State Police took charge of the
Investigation. A second ransom note was given to Lindbergh on March 6, 1932,
stating that the kidnappers now wanted 70,000 dollars.  A third ransom note
given to Lindbergh on March 8, dictated that a negotiator proposed by the
Lindbergh's was not acceptable and that Dr. John F. Condon, a retired school
principal, was suitable. Negotiations for the ransom money took place in the
Bronx Home News newspaper columns using the code name "Jafsie." Dr. Condon
eventually met with the kidnappers and they negotiated until the kidnappers
brought the ransom demand down to 50,000.  Charles gave Dr. Condon $50,000 in
cash ,which he was instructed to give to the kidnappers.  Having done so, Dr.
Condon was told that the baby was in a boat called "Nellie" in Martha's vineyard.
     Lindbergh and the police searched Martha's Vineyard and found nothing. On May
12, 1932 the baby's body was accidentally found, partially buried and heavily
decomposed. The body was about four and a half miles southeast of the Lindbergh
home.  William Allen, an assistant on a truck driven by Orville Wilson, found
the body.  The baby's head was crushed, there was a hole in the skull and some
of the body parts were missing. The body was identified and cremated at Trenton,
New Jersey, on May 13, 1932. The baby had been dead for two months and the death
was due to the blow to the head.  Bruno Hauptmann a German born carpenter was
convicted of the kidnapping. Hauptmann was later sentenced to death and died in
the Electric Chair.  After this incident Congress enacted "Lindbergh Law" which
stated that kidnapping was now a federal crime. With all of the publicity that
came with the trial the Lindbergh's were distraught. They decided the best thing
to do would be to move to England.  Lindbergh, though the American hero, was not
happy with his life in America.  He and his wife chose a life of seclusion in
Europe.
	In 1935 the Lindbergh's packed their belongings and moved to the rural
countryside of England. There, while living a life of semi-retirement, Lindbergh
studied the possibility of creating an artificial heart pump, as inspired by the
French surgeon Alexis Carrel. Lindbergh's and Carrel's experimentation did not
result in a functioning model, even though their first experiments appeared to
be very successful.  Following two years of failure to complete their task, the
two gave up. They did however eventually co-author the book, The Culture of
Organs (1938).   During this time, Lindbergh turns his sights to another task,
the evaluation of the German Luftwaffe.
	At the request of the U.S. government, Lindbergh was asked to evaluate
the German Air Force.  Well respected by the Germans, Lindbergh was shown most
of the German Air Force and even the new planes.  Hitler wanted Lindbergh to see
the extent of his air force and hoped that Lindbergh would reveal to officials
in London and Washington the power of the Germans. Meanwhile, Lindbergh informed
the U.S. government of all that he had seen, including the fact that he was very
impressed with the German Air Force. Hitler was very grateful to Lindbergh for
the time that he spent evaluating the German Air Force .  To commemorate his
work, Lindbergh was decorated by Adolph Hitler in 1938.  Lindbergh gratefully
accepted the honor, and act for which he was widely criticized.  Lindbergh even
considered moving to Germany because he considered the German civilization
advanced to that of the rest of Europe. Although he never really understood the
holocaust and what was happening in Germany at the time, Lindbergh never recants
this view of Germany and the German people.  Lindbergh never returned the medal
given to him by Hitler, which further alienated him from the American public.
Lindbergh, once the American hero, is now considered by many to be a traitor.
	Lindbergh returned to the U.S. in 1939 and began a series of antiwar
speeches. Lindbergh believed that it was not the US war to fight and that if the
US got involved it would lose.  Lindbergh toured the country speaking to large
audiences and ended up being widely criticized for his views. Lindbergh was
labeled as pro-German and pro-nazi.  He had to resign his commission in the US
Air Corps Reserve and his membership in the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics.  Lindbergh still considered himself a loyal American and wanted to
participate.
	During World War II, Lindbergh wanted to help out the war effort but was
not permitted, based upon his pro-German stance. Eventually he found a way. He
served as a civilian consultant for an aircraft maker in the Pacific.  Lindbergh
had a desire to fly bombers against the Japanese but his supervisors would not
let him.  With his persuasive personality Lindbergh convinced his supervisors to
let him fly some combat missions against the Japanese. Eventually Lindbergh flew
more than 55 missions against the Japanese.  Later, he recounted these exploits
in a book entitled The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh. Following the
end of the war, Lindbergh and his wife continued their life of seclusion but
elected to live in a remote section of a United States territory.
	Lindbergh decided that he would like to live the remainder of his life
in Maui, Hawaii.  Earlier, a friend of Lindbergh's accompanied him to Hawaii.
Lindbergh was so impressed with the island, that he decided it was truly a
paradise, one of the best places he had ever visited.  That same friend offered
to sell him several acres in Maui, which Lindbergh gratefully accepted.  Charles
and Anne built a simple home there to serve as their island retreat.  Lindbergh
still enjoyed the outdoors and his home close to the wilderness. The Lindbergh's
started spending six to eight weeks a year at their home in Maui and as time
went on they increased the time spent there.  Eventually, Lindbergh was
diagnosed with an incurable cancer .  In  1974 Lindbergh flew from a New York
Hospital to Hana, Maui, to spend his last days with his family on the island he
had grown to love.  His funeral was a simple one, consisting of a Eucalyptus
coffin carried in a local pickup truck serving as a hearse.  Lindbergh, the
great American hero, was laid to rest on American soil but far from the American
public who had turned against him.
	In conclusion, the life of Charles Lindbergh though best remembered for
the heroic flight across the Atlantic, is marred by the kidnapping of his baby
and his fall from favor with the American public following, his pro-German
stance during the 1930's.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Charles Manson Essay.TXT
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Charles Manson


Charles Manson. He and his cult, "The Family," together killed
seven people, bloodied and butchered. The people who he and others killed,
the Tate and LaBianca families, were wealthy and well-off. What could have
made them do such a thing without pity or remorse? Read on........MANSON: The Man Himself

In 1954, Manson set up a commune-based cult, drawing in hippies,
drifters. and the unemployed at the Spahn Ranch, near Los Angeles. Manson
had lovely ideas and his followers or "Family" regarded him as a
Christ-like figure. They indulged in free love practices, pseudo religious
ceremonies, and used drugs such as marijuana and LSD.

The Black Panthers were a major black movement in the 1960's. After
killing a leader of this movement in self defence, Manson grew scared on
the promise of revenge from the Black Panthers. Scared, Manson ordered his
followers to practice guerrilla tactics and they did so, without question.

Manson sad he taught love because in love there is no hatred, but John
Flynn, a man who testified at his trial, testified to some very
incriminating admissions by Manson. Barbara Holt, a "Family" member, fled
the group before a raid. She later showed up as a prosecution witness, a
potential danger to Manson, so faithful members of the "Family" tried to
kill her with a hamburger laced with LSD. Before her testimony, another
"Family" member, Gary Hinman, who had also fled he group, was killed
because he had betrayed the "Family." As you can see, the punishment for
crossing the "Family" was severe.

Manson makes claims to thirty-five murders. Although he was convicted
for others, there was not enough evidence to bring him to trial for the
thirty five.

THE MOTIVE BEHIND THE MAN

The driving force behind Manson's killing was hard to prove and hard
to believe. Manson had a plan in his head. When the Beatles first
released "The White Album," it was a hit. Manson listened to it often. He
had a great devotion to the Beatles, who he believed spoke to him across
the oceans in their lyrics and songs. Manson saw the 4 Beatles as the 4
Angels that announced the ending of the world in the bible. (Armageddon)

On "The White Album" there are two song titles containing the
word revolution. These are "Revolution 1" and "Revolution 9." Manson
thought the Beatles were talking about a black/white revolution. The word
rise can be found in "Revolution 9" and could be depicted as a prediction
of a Black uprising. One song in particular, "Helter Skelter" seemed
unexceptional to the normal ear, but was given a weird interpretation by
Manson. Man saw the Blacks as stupid and felt he had to show "Blackie" the
way. His plan to kill seven wealthy white people and to blame it on the
blacks would start his plan of a black/white revolution which he called
"Helter Skelter." He attempted to frame the black people by writing "Death
to Pigs" in the victim's own blood and carving the word "war" in the
stomach of his victims. Manson denied allegations that this was the motive
behind the murders but many of Manson's followers said that Manson often
spoke of this revolution, "Helter Skelter."

Another controversial song on the album was "Sexy Sadie." It was
believed by Manson that the song foretold his murder trial when Susan
Atkins made a crucial mistake on the witness stand. She made the "Family"
appear to be murderers of the seven butchered victims while Manson felt he
was convincing the jury of their innocence. Manson believed he foresaw this
even before the trial.

THE FOLLOWERS OF MANSON:THE FAMILY

The killers of the Tate and LaBianca families now serve life in
prison. Four people, all part of the "Family" were convicted of these
murders: Charles Manson, Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten, and Patricia
Krenwinkle. It is interesting to see that most of the killers are women.
Another woman, Linda Kasabian, who drove the killers to the murder scene,
turned state's evidence, and literally, got away with murder. Charles
Watson was another member of Manson's group and was a Texan citizen, so he
was tried under Texan Law. The others were tried in Los Angeles. He was
also given life imprisonment. The trial, which lasted nine and one half
months, cost Los Angeles one million dollars.

Many people have wondered how these so called "normal" people could
commit such morbid crimes and show no signs of regret or remorse. Its is
suggested that Manson used threats, guilt, and partial fear to seduce these
people into doing what he wanted. Manson's followers were devoted to him,
doing whatever he wanted. They so much believed in him that they did not
question what they were doing.

THE MANSON HATE LIST

Charles Manson is said to have kept a secret list of future targets,
with graphic details of how he is going to "deal" with these people.
Prisoners who have shared jail cells with members of the "Family" testify
that this was a frequent topic of conversation among them. All individuals
on the hate list were white (suggesting that Manson would blame the blacks)
and the list seemed to deal with the rich and famous for whom Manson
invented cruel tortures. Some examples: Frank Sinatra, skinned alive,
Steve McQueen, boiled in oil, Doris Day, raped and impaled, Tom Jones,
tongue cut off, Elizabeth Taylor, breasts cut off, Richard Burton,
castrated, etc.

THE MANSON LIFE AND TRIAL

A movie, entitled "Manson" was taped prior to the trial in Los
Angeles. It was questioned if the movie gave an accurate portrayal of the
life of Manson, or if it made a mockery out of him. The information
presented in the movie is considered to be a documentation of the life of
the Manson Family. The film was taped prior to the trial and was ordered
to be removed from public viewing because it was thought to be a possible
influence on the jurors.

The Manson trial lasted nine and one half months and cost Los Angeles
tax payers one million dollars. Four people stood trial: Manson, Patricia
Krenwinkle, Leslie Van Houten, and Susan Atkins. They were all convicted of
five murders altogether. There were two other people with them on the
night of the murders. Charles Watson was a texan citizen, and was deported
to Texas to be tried under Texan law. Linda Kasabian turned state's
evidence and got away with murder. All particpants in the murders, with
the exception of Kasabian, were found guilty and were sentenced to death.
This sentence was revoked and turned into life imprisionment. There was
great concern for the possibility of the popular image of martyrdom being
assigned to Manson and his "Family."

Manson used suggestion and passive hypnotism to make his followers
answer any command of his. People did unquestioning acts of any sort, even
murder at his whim. He found the fear in people and enjoyed playing on it.
Manson's followers frequently said, "He reflects back to you what you want
to see." Manson himself said: "You are using us fpr a scapegoat, trying to
look past Nixon, and past Vietnam. I am only what your world made me."
Another quote of Manson's is: "I hate the world I live in." By the age of
thirty, he had fifty convictions against him.

Manson believed in free love and experimentation with drugs. Followers
of Manson came from all over the globe. They believed they had to go to
the desert and bring along all the children they could convince to join
the,. Children were not excluded from anything and this "freedom" appealed
to may yound people. They could participate in free secual activities,
experiment with drugs, or use guns and cars. Manson's ranch became a home
for runaways, people in trouble with they law, and hippires. Manson did
not like hippies, and he said they were just trying to be different and
were looking for trouble, hence the name he gave to them: "slippies." Girls
in Manson's "family" made a ceremonial vest that tells the life of Manson
in thread. Bruce Davis, Manson's second in command, overdosed on LSD and
was mentally and physcially disabled. On August 11, 1972, police raided
the ranch and arrested the killers for auto theft with the intention to
later convict them of the murders once they had firm evidence.

The motive was the strangest and most unbelievable thing that the
police had to deal with. Manson saw the Beatles as prophets that described
a race war between the whites and blacks. Manson planned to start this war
up by blaming the murders of members of black society. Only it didn't work
out that way. Manson planned to hide in the desert until the war ended.
Manson believed he would later have to take over because the blacks were
inexperience leaders. He called this plan Helter Skelter.

The seven deaths the "Family" were convicted of were oriented around
the rich and famous. Sharon Tate, who was eight and a half moths pregnant,
was hanged and her baby was cut out of her. She was the wife of movie
director Roman Polanski. Abigail Folger was the heiress to the vast Folger
estate and was killed along with her lover Voityck Fryowski, a famous
writer. Jay Sebring was present at this gathering because he was a former
boyfriend of Tate's.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Chocolate Chip Cookies Essay.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Chocolate Chip Cookies


	Whoever in here likes chocolate chip cookies STAND UP!  Well, I like
them too.

	The story of the Chocolate chip cookie is really an interesting one.  In
fact, did you know that the invention itself was really an accident?  Nope, well,
I didn't think so.  Let me tell you a little about it.

Have you ever wondered how the chocolate chip cookie came to be?  Have you ever
wondered who brought this American tradition into our homes?  Do you know how
they became so popular?

	Well, it all started one day with a young lady named Ruth Wakefield.
One day she was making some cookies for her guests.  They were called Butter
Drop Do's.  This cookie required semisweet chocolate pieces to be melted in the
batter.  Well she was in a hurry, she had beds to make and drapes to clean so,
instead of melting the chocolate pieces in the batter she just chopped them up
in the batter, thinking they would melt during the cooking process.  To her
surprise they stayed very much intact  See what happens when you do not follow
the directions?

	Well, never the less everyone at the Toll House Inn simply loved them.
In fact, they became so popular the recipe was published in the Boston Newspaper.
The recipe was named the Toll House Cookie.  One day Nestlé was going over their
reports and they found that sales for chocolate bars rose rapidly in the Boston
area.  This was because the chocolate bars were the primary ingredient in the
Toll House Cookies.  When Nestlé found out what was up they started making their
chocolate bars with score lines on them for easier breaking.  This was ok but
still not easy enough.  So to solve this problem they made morsels (miniature
chocolate kisses)and bought the Toll House name. With that they called them
Nestlé Toll House Morsels.

	Did you also know that the chocolate chip cookie is the most popular
cookie in America?  The Toll House produces thirty-three thousand cookies each
day.  In the world about 7 billion cookies are eaten annually that means 19,200
thousand cookies a day.  That explains why 50% of cookies in American homes are
chocolate chip.

As you can see this invention of the 1930's had a powerful effect on the cookie
industry.  Whit the hopes you learned something about how it came to be, who
invented it and the popularity of the chocolate chip cookie, I leave you with
this plate of cookies to enjoy!!



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Daniel Webster Essay.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Daniel Webster


Daniel Webster contributed a large potion of the Civil War. To begin,
he was born in Salisbury, New Hampshire on January 18, 1782. His parents
were farmers so many people didn't know what to expect of him. Even though
his parents were farmers, he still graduated from Dartmouth College in
1801. After he learned to be a lawyer, Daniel Webster opened a legal
practice in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1807.

Webster quickly became an experienced and very good lawyer and a
Federalist party leader. In 1812, Webster was elected to the U.S. House of
Representatives because of his opposition to the War of 1812, which had
crippled New England's shipping trade. After two more terms in the House,
Webster decided to leave the Congress and move to Boston in 1816. Over the
next 6 years, Webster won major constitutional cases in front of the
Supreme Court making him almost famous. Some of his most notable cases
were Dartmouth College v. Woodward, Gibbons v. Ogden, and McCulloch v.
Maryland. He made himself the nations leading lawyer and an outstanding
skilled public speaker or an orator. In 1823, Webster was returned to
Congress from Boston, and in 1827 he was elected senator from
Massachusetts.

New circumstances let Daniel Webster become a champion of American
nationalism. With the Federalist Party dead, he joined the National
Republican party, he joined with Westerner Henry Clay and then endorsing
federal aid for roads in the West. In 1828, since Massachusettses had
shifted the economic interest from shipping to manufacturing, Webster
decided to back the high-tariff bill of that year to help the small new
manufacturing businesses grow. Angry southern leaders condemned the
tariff, and South Carolina's John C. Calhoun argued that South Carolina had
the right to nullify or ignore the law. Replying to South Carolina's
Robert Hayne in a Senate debate in 1830, Webster triumphantly defended the
Union states by a very powerful but short speech. He said, "Liberty and
Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," made him a favorite and made
him well known among many people worldwide.

Webster and President Andrew Jackson joined forces in 1833 to try to
change South Carolina's attempt to nullify the tariff, but Webster and the
Whigs battled him on other issues including his attack on the National
Bank. Webster ran for the presidency in the election of 1836 as one of the
three Whig candidates, but he mostly only Massachusetts voted for him so he
lost badly because no one else voted for him. For the rest of his career
he tried very hard to get to the presidency and ran in many elections
hoping to get his shot at the office, but it never happened and he failed
every time.

In 1841, Daniel Webster came close to his idea of President but was
only named secretary. President William Henry Harrison appointed him to
this position. When he got killed in April 1841, John Tyler was brought to
the presidency. In September 1841, all the Whigs resigned from the cabinet
except Webster. He remained to settle an argument with Great Britain
having to do with the Maine-Canada boundary and he wanted to finish the
Webster-Ashburn Treaty, which he finally did in 1842. The Whigs finally
pressured Webster enough so that he would leave the cabinet with everyone
else in May of 1843.

The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the war with Mexico, both which,
were disliked by Webster, forced the country to face the issue of expansion
of slavery. Webster opposed the expansion but feared even more the
separation of the union over the dispute of the expansion of slavery. In a
powerful speech on March 7, 1850, he supported the Compromise of 1850,
lowering southern threats of separation but urging northern support for a
stronger law for the recovery of fugitive slaves. Webster was again named
secretary of state in July 1850 by President Millard Fillmore and
supervised the strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. Webster's
stand on the Act divided the Whig party, but it helped preserve the Union
and keep it together for a little while after until the Civil War started.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Prodigy - Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1990, W-section
2. Daniel Webster - John Melvin, Copyright 1976, Bonhill Publishing 3.
Civil War Heros - American Books, 1979, p.244-247



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Determination Essay.TXT
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Determination


I am a very dependable person.  When I start a project I concentrate and focus
in it.  I use my determination in all parts of my life. In school my
determination has allowed me to achieve many academic accomplishments.  In an
engineering course I was given an assignment to design a house using Autocad.
This house had to be designed to all of the state building codes.  My teacher
had set up many different requirements for the project.  It had to be an
original design with four different types of architectural plans.  This entire
project was due at the end of the semester along with the regular homework
assignments.  My determination allowed me to complete all these tasks in almost
one half the time allotted.  I received a 99.7% grade for this massive project.
My determination is what dove me to its completion. My determination also is
extremely important at my part -- time job.  My job is to sell computers and
many other business machines.  Selling the computers and peripherals was not a
problem, but when I started working I knew almost nothing about fax machines and
copiers.  I was determined to learn about these new machines so I read the
magazines and listened to the representative to learn about the machines.  My
determination is what helped me to learn about these products so that I could
share my information with the customer.  Now with my expertise in copiers and
fax machines I can answer almost any question that customers have and perform
almost any type of service necessary on them.  Determination again is what lead
me to be ahead in my field of study and work. A good wrestler has to have
determination.  When I was at a tournament in January of 1996  I broke my
shoulder blade.  I was in the second and final match of the day when I broke my
clavicle (I didn't know that it was broken until a week later).  This happened
on a Friday night, and I was upset that I had lost the chance for the
championship by two points.  I knew that I would be wrestling for third place
the next day so I would have to shake off any aches or pains that I might have.
I woke up the next morning and my shoulder was throbbing.  I thought that the
pain would subside if I stretched out a bit.  Stretching wasn't helping the pain,
I still was not able to move my shoulder.  As I prepared for my match I was
worried that the pain would overtake me, and I would fail.  Then my
determination broke through and I pinned my opponent in the third and final
period.  Without my determination I could not have won that match. Determination
is a powerful tool.  Once I am determined to do something it is very hard to
stop me.  When I face a challenge I am confident that I will overcome the
obstacle, and do my best.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Donatello Essay.TXT
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Donatello


        Donatello (1386-1466) was a master of sculpture in bronze and marble and
was one of the greatest Italian Renaissance artists of his time.
        A lot is known about his life and career but little is known about his
character and personality. He never married and seems to be a man of simple
tastes. Patrons often found him hard to deal with and he demanded a lot of
artistic freedom. The inscriptions and signatures on his works are among the
earliest examples of classical Roman lettering. He had a more detailed range of
knowledge of ancient sculpture than any other artist of his time. His work was
inspired by ancient visual examples which he often transformed, he was really
viewed as a realist but later research showed he was much more.
        Early career. Donatello was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a
Florentine wool carder. It is not known how he started his career but probably
learned stone carving from one of the sculptors working for the cathedral of
Florence about 1400. Some time between 1404 and 1407 he became a member of the
workshop of Lorenzo Ghiberti who was a sculptor in bronze. Donatello's earliest
work was a marble statue of David. The "David" was originally made for the
cathedral but was moved in 1416 to the Palazzo Vecchio which is a city hall
where it long stood as a civic-patriotic symbol. From the sixteenth century on
it was eclipsed by the gigantic "David" of Michelangelo which served the same
purpose. Other of Donatello's early works which were still partly Gothic are the
impressive seated marble figure of St. John the Evangelist for the cathedral and
a wooden crucifix in the church of Sta. Croce.
        The full power of Donatello first appeared in two marble statues, "St.
Mark" and "St. George" which were completed in 1415. "St. George" has been
replaced and is now in the Bargello. For the first time the human body is
rendered as a functional organism. The same qualities came in the series of five
prophet statues that Donatello did beginning in 1416. The statues were of
beardless and bearded prophets as well as a group of Abraham and Isaac in 1416-
1421 and also the "Zuccone" and "Jeremiah". "Zuccone" is famous as the finest of
the campanile statues and one of the artist's masterpieces.
        Donatello invented his own bold new mode of relief in his marble panel "
St. George Killing The Dragon" (1416-1417). The technique involved shallow
carving throughout, which created a more striking effect than in his earlier
works. He no longer modelled his shapes but  he seemed to "paint" them with his
chisel.
        Donatello continued to explore the possibilities of the new technique he
would use in his marble reliefs of the 1420's and early 1430's. The best of
these were " The Ascension, with Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter," the "
Feast of Herod" (1433-1435), the large stucco roundels with scenes from the life
of St. John the Evangelist (1434-1437), and the dome of the old sacristy of S.
Lorenzo shows the same technique but with colour added.
        Donatello had also become a major sculptor in bronze. His earliest work
of this was the more than life size statue of St. Louis (1423) which was
replaced half a century later. Donatello in partnership with Michelozzo helped
with fine bronze effigy on the tomb of the pope John XXIII in the baptistery,
the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the Brancacci tomb and the dancing angels on
the outdoor pulpit of the Prato Cathedral (1433-1438). His departure from the
standards of Brunelleschi did not go to well between the two old friends and was
never repaired. Brunelleschi even made epigrams against Donatello.
        During his partnership with Michelozzo, Donatello made works of pure
sculpture, including several works of bronze. The earliest and most important of
these was the "Feast of Herod" (1423-1427). He also made two statuettes of
Virtues and then three nude child angels (one which was stolen and is now in the
Berlin museum). These statues prepared the way for the bronze statue of David,
the first large scale, free-standing nude statue of the Renaissance. It was the
most classical of Donatello's works and was done for a private patron. Its
recorded history begins with the wedding of Lorenzo the magnificent in 1469,
when it was placed in the courtyard of the Palazzo Vecchio.
        Whether the "David" was requested by the Medici or not, Donatello worked
for them (1433-1443), producing sculptural decorations for the Old Sacristy in S.
Lorenzo, the Medici church. Works there included ten large reliefs in coloured
stucco and two sets of small bronze doors which showed saints.
        Paduan period. In 1443 Donatello was about to start work on two more
bronze doors for the cathedral. He  started work on a statue of Erasmo da Narmi,
called Gattamelata, who had died shortly before. Donatello did most of the work
on the statue between 1447 and 1450 but the statue was not placed on the
pedestal until 1453. It shows him in classical armour, the baton of command in
his raised right hand. This statue was the ancestor of all the monuments erected
since. Its fame was spread far and wide. Even before it was on public view, the
King of Naples wanted Donatello to do the same kind of statue for him.
        In the early 1450's, Donatello started to work on some important works
for the Paduan church of S. Antonio. These works included a bronze crucifix and
a new high altar. His richly decorated architectural works of marble and
limestone include seven life-size bronze statues, twenty-one bronze reliefs of
various sizes, and a large limestone relief, "Entombment of Christ." The housing
for these was destroyed a century later and the present arrangement, dating from
1895 is wrong historically. The Madonna and St. Francis are outstanding and the
finest of the reliefs are the four miracles of St. Anthony. Donatello was great
in handling large numbers of figures ( one relief has more than one hundred )
which predicts the construction standards of the High Renaissance.
        Donatello was not doing much work the last three years at Padua, the
work for the S. Antonio altar was unpaid for and the Gattamelata monument not
placed until 1453. Offers of other places reached him from Mantua, Modena,
Ferrara, and even Naples, but nothing came of them. He was clearly passing
through a crisis that prevented him from working. He was later quoted as saying
that he almost died "among those frogs in Padua." in 1456 the Florentine
physician Giovanni Chellini noted he had successfully treated the master for a
protracted illness. Donatello only completed two works between 1450 and 1455,
the wooden statue "St. John the Baptist" and a figure of Mary Magdalen. Both
works show new reality, Donatello's formerly powerful bodies have become
withered and spidery. When the " Magdalen" was damaged in the 1966 flood at
Florence,  restoration work revealed the original painted surface, including
realistic flesh tones and golden highlights throughout the saint's hair.
        Late Florentine period. During his absence, a new generation of
sculptors who excelled in the treatment of marble surfaces had rose in Florence.
With the change in Florentine taste, all of Donatello's important requests came
from outside Florence. They included the bronze group "Judith and Holofernes"
which is now standing before the Palazzo Vecchio and a bronze statue of St. John
the Baptist for Siena cathedral, also undertook the work of the pair of bronze
doors in the late 1450's. This project, which might have rivalled Ghiberti's
doors for the Florentine baptistery, was abandoned about 1460 for unknown
reasons.
        The last years of Donatello's life were spent designing twin bronze
pulpits for S. Lorenzo, and again in the service of his old patrons the Medici,
he died on December 13, 1466. These twin bronze pulpits covered with reliefs
showing the passion of Christ, are works of tremendous spiritual depth and
complexity. Even though some parts were left unfinished, they had to be
completed by lesser artists.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Dr Seuss The Great American Childrens Poet Essay.TXT
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Dr. Seuss: The Great American Children's Poet


	Dr. Seuss is the pseudonym for Theodor Seuss Geisel III, Ted Geisel to
his friends. He originally thought of his pen name being pronounced zo-oice
which is the German pronunciation. He took his middle name from his mother's
maiden name.

	He was born in 1904 to Theodor Jr. and Henrietta Geisel of Springfiel
Massachusetts. Both sets of grandparents were from Germany. Theodor Jr. was a
wealthy brewer and tavern owner until the Prohibition. Then he worked as the
manager of the Springfield Zoo. Ted also had an older sister named Marnie. He
went to college at Dartmouth and graduate school at Oxford. While at Dartmouth
he got into a bit of trouble when the police arrested him for drinking. (This
was during the Prohibition.) As punishment he was kicked off the school magazine,
The Jack O'Lantern, to which he contributed as a cartoonist. To get around the
rule he began to sign his work as Dr. Seuss. And that is why Ted Geisel became
Dr. Seuss. While at Oxford he met his first wife Helen Palmer to whom he was
married for 40 years until her death. They moved to New York. While in New York
he worked drawing cartoon advertisments for Flit, an insect repellant. It was he
who coined the phrase "Quick Henry, the Flit" which was to 1930s advertising
what "Just Do It" is to 1990s advertising. Sort of.

	They later moved to La Jolla, California where Ted lived for the rest of
his life. They loved children although they were unable to have any of their own.
About five years after Helem's death he married Audrey Stone. He died in 1991 in
his sleep at the age of 87. He wrote 57 books spanning seven decadesfrom 1939's
And To Think I Saw It On Mulberry Street to 1992's posthumously published Daisy-
Head Maizy.

	He received a special Pulitzer Prize recognizing his contribution to
children's literatur. He also received an Emmy for The Grinch Who Stole
Christmas and an Oscar for his screenplay for Gerald McBoing-Boing which Chuck
Jones  (of Looney Tunes fame) animated.

     Dr. Seuss completely revolutionized the field of children's beginner
books. Before Dr. Seuss the books were of the See Dick. See Dick run. type. With
the Cat In The Hat all that changed by creating a fun, interesting story that a
young reader could read.

	Ted Geisel also ran the publishing company Beginner Books (a division of
Random House). He thus was the publisher of many of his own books. Beginner
Books also fostered several other children's writers, most notably Stan and Jan
Berenstain, creators of the Berenstain Bears. Ted had so many demands with
running the publishing company that he felt some of his writings were not up to
par. These he published under two different pseudonyms, Rosetta Stone. and Theo.
Le Seig (Geisel spelled backwards). He did not illustrate these himself but
rather let other people do that.

	Why did Dr. Seuss write. For many reasons. He loved children and wanted
to entertain them and instill in them a love for reading. He wanted to tell the
stories inside him as only he could with his beautiful illustrations and
nonsense words. But perhaps the most important reason was he loved writing the
almost musical rhymes that a generation of Americans grew up with more than he
loved to do anything else.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Edgar Allan Poe Essay.TXT
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Edgar Allan Poe


	Edgar Allan Poe was a bizarre and often scary writer.  People throughout
history have often wondered why his writings were so fantastically different and
unusual.  They were not the result of a diseased mind, as some think.  Rather
they came from a tense and miserable life.  Edgar Allan Poe was not a happy man.
He was a victim of fate from the moment he was born to his death only forty
years later.  He died alone and unappreciated.  It is quite obvious that his
life affected his writings in a great way.  In order to understand why, the
historical background of Poe must be known.
	Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809.  His parents
were touring actors and both died before he was three years old.  After this, he
was taken into the home of John Allan, a prosperous merchant who lived in
Richmond, Virginia.1  When he was six, he studied in England for five years.
Not much else is known about his childhood, except that it was uneventful.
	In 1826, when Poe was seventeen years old he entered the University of
Virginia.  It was also at this time that he was engaged to marry his childhood
sweetheart, Sarah Elmira Royster.  He was a good student, but only stayed for a
year.  He did not have enough money to make ends meet, so he ran up extremely
large gambling debts to trying make more money.  Then he could not afford to go
to school anymore.  John Allan refused to pay off Poe's debts, and broke off his
engagement to Sarah Elmira Royster.  Since Poe had no other means of support, he
enlisted in the army.  By this time however, he had written and printed his
first book, Tammerlane, and Minor Poems (1829).2
	After a few months though, John Allan and Poe were reconciled.  Allan
arranged for Poe to be released from the army and enrolled him at West Point.
During this time, his fellow cadets helped him publish another book of poetry.
However, John Allan again did not provide Poe with enough money, and Poe decided
to leave this time before racking up any more debts
	Still, Poe had no money and necessity forced him to live with his aunt,
Mrs. Clemm, in Baltimore, Maryland.  None of his poetry had sold particularly
well, so he decided to write stories.  He could find no publisher for his
stories, and so resorted to entering writing contests to make money and receive
exposure.  He was rarely successful, but eventually won.  His short story, "MS.
Found in a Bottle" was well liked and one of the judges in the contest, John P.
Kennedy, befriended him.3
     It was on Kennedy's recommendation that Poe became assistant editor of
the Southern Literary Messenger, published at Richmond by T.W. White.  It was at
this time that Poe went through a period of emotional instability that he tried
to control by drinking.  This was a mistake because he was extremely sensitive
to alcohol and became very drunk just from one or two drinks.
	In May of 1836 Poe married his cousin, Virginia and brought her and her
mother to live with him in Richmond.  It was during this time that Poe produced
a number of stories and even some verse.4
	Over the next few years, Poe went from good times to bad.  He had become
the editor of magazines and had written books, but none of these were paying off
enough.  He would always be laid off the editorial staff for differences over
policies.  He was doing so poorly that by the end of 1846 he was asking his
friends and admirers for help.
	He was then living in a cottage with Mrs. Clemm and Virginia.  Virginia
was dying of consumption and had to sleep in an unheated room.  After six years
of marriage she had become very ill, and her disease had driven Poe to
distraction.
	Virginia died on January 30, 1847, and Poe broke down.  It is here that
much is learned about him and why he wrote the way he did.  All of his life he
had wanted to be loved and to have someone to love.  Yet one by one, he kept
losing the women in his life.  His mother, Mrs. Allan, and now Virginia.  He had
wanted to lead a life of wealth and luxury and still, despite his tremendous
talent, was forced to live as a poor man.
	When he reached manhood, after a sheltered childhood and teenage years,
his life seemed to be caught up in failures.  So, he did what most people do.
He found a way to escape.  His method was writing.  He found so much in common
with his characters, that his life began to emulate theirs.  Although it is
probably the other way around.
	How tragic that the one thing that he was good at never seemed to do him
any good.  No matter what he wrote, he just kept sinking further and further
into an abyss.  This abyss could be called death or ultimate despair.
     When we read Poe's stories, we often find ourselves wondering how such a
mind could function in society.  This quotation from American Writers: A
Collection of Literary Biographies, very accurately describes the landscape of
Poe's stories:
          "The world of Poe's tales is a nightmarish universe.  You cross
	wasted lands, silent, forsaken landscapes where both life and waters
stagnate.  Here and there you catch sight of lugubrious feudal buildings
	suggestive of horrible and mysterious happenings......The inside of
these 	sinister buildings is just as disquieting as the outside.  Everything is
dark 	there, from the ebony furniture to the oaken ceiling.  The walls are
hung      with heavy tapestries to which mysterious drafts constantly give 'a
hideous   and uneasy animation.'  Even the windows are 'of a leaden hue,'
so that the    rays of either sun or moon passing through fall 'with a ghastly
lustre on the  objects within.'  .......it is usually night in the ghastly (one
of his favorite     adjectives) or red-blood light of the moon that Poe's
tales take place-or in 	the middle of terrific storms lit up by lurid
flashes of lightning."
     None of Poe's characters could ever be normal, since they lived in this
bizarre world.  All of his heroes are usually alone, and if they are not crazy,
they are on their way to becoming so rapidly.
	This leads one to wonder, just how lucid Poe was when he wrote these
stories.  Was he crazy or just upset and confused?  Most texts and histories of
Poe have it that he was influenced not only by his life, but by other writers.
These include Hawthorne, Charles Brockden Brown, E. T. A. Hoffman, and William
Godwin to name a few.  Many of his stories show similarities to the works of the
aforementioned.
	Therefore another point is brought up, was Poe writing these stories as
the result of a tortured existence and a need to escape, or was he writing to
please readers and critics?  In letters he wrote, he often pokes fun at his
stories and says that they are sometimes intended as satire or banter.  Also in
his letters, he describes horrible events seemingly without any concern.  So who
can tell how he really felt since he might not have been totally sane and
rational at the time.
	Even though Poe writes such bizarre tales he is never quite taken in
with them.  He fears but is at the same time skeptical.  He is frantic but at
the same time lucid.  It is not until the very end that Poe was consumed by
something, and died.  It might have been fear or something worse, something that
could only be scraped up from the bottom of a nightmare.  That is what killed
him.
     Poe's stories contain within them a fascination for death, decay, and
insanity.  He also displays very morbid characteristics and in some cases,
sadistic.  His murderers always seem to delight in killing their victims in the
most painful and agonizing way.  Still, terror seems to be the main theme.  That
is what Poe tries to bring about in his stories.  For example, in "The Fall of
the House of Usher" what kills Roderick Usher is the sheer terror of his sister
who appeared to have come back from the dead.
     According to Marie Bonaparte, one of Freud's friends and disciples, all
the disorders Poe suffered from can be explained by the Oedipus Complex and the
trauma he suffered when his mother died.  The Oedipus Complex is best described
as a child's unconscious desire for the exclusive love of the parent of the
opposite sex.  The desire includes jealousy toward the parent of the same sex
and the unconscious wish for that parent's death.  In fact, upon examining the
women in Poe's stories, we find that they bear striking resemblance to the
mother that Poe never had.
     So one gets a glimpse at how Poe's life, filled with insurmountable
obstacles and full of disappointments, indeed played a role in his writing.  A
good comparison would be Vincent Van Gogh.  He also endured hardship and died at
an early age.  Poe was only forty when he passed away.  Insignificant in his
lifetime, it was only after his death that he was appreciated.  He is now
acclaimed as one of the greatest writers in American history.  It is indeed a
pity that he will never know or care.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Elizabeth Cady Stanton Essay.TXT
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Elizabeth Cady Stanton


	I was once called the most dangerous woman in America because I dared to
ask for the unthinkable- the right to vote.  I challenged my culture's basic
assumptions about men and women, and dedicated my life to the pursuit of equal
rights for all women.  My name is Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
	I was born in Johnstown, New York, on the 12th of November, 1815.  My
father is the prominent attorney and judge Daniel Cady and my mother is Margaret
Livingston Cady.  I was born the seventh child and middle daughter.  Although my
mother gave birth to eleven children- five boys and six girls- six of her
children died.  Only one of my brothers survived to adulthood, and he died
unexpectedly when he was twenty.  At ten years old, my childhood was shadowed by
my father's grief.  I can still recall going into the large darkened parlor to
see my brother and finding the casket and my father by his side, pale and
immovable.  As he took notice of me, I climbed upon his knee.  He sighed and
said, " Oh my daughter, I wish you were a boy!"  I threw my arms around his neck
and replied that I will try my hardest to be all my brother was.
	I was determined to be courageous, to ride horses and play chess, and
study such manly subjects as Latin, Greek, mathematics, and philosophy.  I
devoured the books in my father's extensive law library and debated the fine
points of the law with his clerks.  It was while reading my father's law books
that I first discovered the cruelty of the laws regarding women, and I resolved
to get scissors and snip out every unfair law.  But my father stopped me,
explaining that only the legislature could change or remove them.  This was the
key moment in my career as a women's rights reformer.
	As I grew older, my intellectual interests and masculine activities
embarrassed my father.  He told me they were inappropriate in a young lady,
especially the daughter of a prominent man.  I was educated at the Johnstown
Academy until I was 15, and was always the head of my class, even in the higher
levels of  mathematics and language, where I was the only girl.  But when I
graduated, and wanted to attend Union College- as my brother had done- my father
would not allow it.  It was unseemly, he said, for a woman to receive a college
education, for in 1830 no American college or university admitted women.
Instead, my father enrolled me in Emma Willard's Female Academy in Troy, New
York.  Although I learned a great deal at the academy, I objected to the
principle of single sex education and felt it was artificial and unnatural.  I
believed knowledge had no sex.
	 I graduated in 1833 and returned to my parent's home, and this is when
I entered the world of reform.  While visiting my cousin, Gerrit Smith (the
abolitionist) in Peterboro, New York, I met with all kinds of reformers.  There,
too, I met the man I was to marry- Henry Stanton, a renowned abolitionist
speaker and journalist.  My marriage to Henry, who was 10 years older than me,
marked an important turning point in my life, especially since my father
objected to my choice.  He strongly disagreed with Henry's radical politics, and
tried to discourage me, but I was stubborn.  So, on May 1, 1840, we got married
in my parents home in Johnstown.  On the wedding day, we both agreed (although
the minister objected) to remove the word "obey" from my vows.  I refused to
obey someone with whom I was entering an equal relationship.  We honeymooned in
London where Henry combined business with pleasure and attended the World Anti-
Slavery Convention.  It was in London that I met Lucretia Mott, when both of us
were banished from the convention because of our gender.  We resolved the keep
in touch when we returned to America, but eight years passed before this
happened.
	Meanwhile, after Henry and I returned to the United States, Henry gave
up the lecture circuit and studied law with my father to support our growing
family.  I had given birth to three sons in four years, and bore seven children
in all, five sons and two daughters.  This colored everything that I did, for I
was either pregnant or nursing or both during the formative years of the women's
movement.  One result was that I learned to use my pen instead of my presence.
A second result was that Susan Anthony spent so much time at our house that the
children called her "Aunt Susan."
	After Henry passed the bar, we lived briefly in Boston before settling
permanently at Seneca Falls, New York.  From my home in the small town near the
Canadian border, the start of the struggle for women's rights began.  Lucretia
Mott and I organized the first Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, along
with the draft of the Declaration of Sentiments.
	Susan B. Anthony and I grew to be the most intimate of friends and the
closest collaborators in the battle for women's suffrage.  Susan and I co-
founded the  Women's State Temperance Society for women married to alcoholics.
It was in an 1852 meeting of this women's society that I proposed the right to
divorce drunken husbands.  The response was outrage, for the very idea of
divorce was scandalous, and even the relatively advanced women feared that my
radicalism would jeopardize their cause.  The chief reason  for the miserable
state of wives of alcoholics was the lack of married women's property right.  So,
in 1854 I made my first major address to the New York legislature on behalf of a
bill on this subject.  The legislature passed a bill giving married women rights
to their own wages and guardianship of their children.
	As the Civil War erupted, we moved to New York City.  This gave me
greater access to the public.  Again, I teamed up with Susan B. Anthony and
together we headed the Loyal League and collected hundreds of thousands of
petitions for a constitutional amendment ending slavery.  A secondary benefit
was that the league reinforced women's networks and fundraising abilities.
	When the war ended, I engaged in what was the biggest of my many leaps.
In order to test the Constitution's gender-neutral wording on candidate
eligibility, I ran for Congress in 1866.  Of some 12,000 men who casted ballots,
only 24 were courageous enough to vote for me.  The following year, I made my
first major speaking tour.  I accompanied Susan B. Anthony to Kansas for a
referendum on the enfranchisement of both ex-slaves and women.
	We lost the election, but won other support, including financing that
allowed us to begin publishing the Revolution in January, 1868.  I did most of
the writing on women's issues for the newspaper.  I published  editorials on
jury duty and prostitution as well as some standard topics.  But in 1869, the
newspaper collapsed in bankruptcy.
	Meanwhile, Susan and I separated from our longtime associates in the
women's rights movement and we formed the National Women Suffrage Association
(NWSA) in 1869.  I was the NWSA's president and Susan Anthony was vice-president.
	By 1871, I had gone lecturing all the way to California, where western
women found my suffrage advocacy less shocking.  In addition to suffrage, my
chief lecture point was educational opportunity for girls.  The Centennial
Exposition brought me to Philadelphia in 1876, and I also made regular trips to
Washington to speak on behalf of the federal suffrage amendment.  I spent most
of the 1880's working on my book, The History of Woman Suffrage. After Henry's
death in 1887, I spent increasing amounts of time in England with my daughter,
Harriot Stanton Blatch.  This, in turn, helped spark my interest in the
International Council of Women that formed in 1888.  My speech there celebrated
the fortieth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention.  In that same year, I
also attempted to cast a ballot in a case similar to other unsuccessful test of
the Fifteenth Amendment.  Two years later, the suffrage associations reunited,
and I served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association
from 1890-1892.
	Though I never attended another suffrage convention after stepping down
from the presidency, my days of radical leadership were not over.  As the
suffrage movement grew increasingly conservative and ineffective, I again turned
to the pen rather than the platform.  In my eightieth year, I shocked even
feminists with the publication of The Woman's Bible (1895), a carefully
researched argument against women's subordinate position in religion that- like
the Revolution- was more reasonable than its inflammatory title implied.
Reverend Anna Howard Shaw and others moved a resolution in the 1896 NAWSA
convention disassociating the organization from the book, and despite Susan B.
Anthony's impassioned plea, the motion passed.  This outrage gave me no pause,
however, and in 1898, I added a second volume.
	In the same year, I published my autobiography, Eighty Years and
More(1898), and I continued to write on broad topics for newspapers and
magazines.  While the NAWSA concentrated with increasing  exclusivity on
suffrage, I remembered that the original movement had included far more than
suffrage- and that it was I who had to fight for the addition of suffrage on the
agenda.  As I aged, my writing focused more on issues that directly concerned
women's personal lives, particularly dress reform, divorce, and the damaging
influence of religious and educational systems on the female population.
	In June of 1902, Susan Anthony spent a week in my home and she found me
almost blind, but still alert.  A few months later, on October 26, 1902, I died
quietly at the age of eighty three. The Nineteenth Amendment, allowing 26
million American women the right to vote, became the law of the land on August
18, 1920.  Unfortunately, Elizabeth Cady Stanton did not live long enough to
vote freely.
	Elizabeth Cady Stanton's writings, her speeches, her enthusiasm and her
life provide inspiration for generations of American feminists, even to the
present day.  I think that Elizabeth, were she here today, would be pleased to
see her work was not in vain.  And that the revolution she and other ladies of
Seneca Falls began that hot July day in 1848 did not end 76 years ago when women
acquired suffrage.  And that her life still inspires new  genrations of young
women.  If it were possible for me to meet with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, I would
be delighted to take part in that opportunity.  Stanton's spirit lives on today
whenever and wherever American women use their voices and their votes to
proclaim equality.


	Works Cited

Faber, Doris.  Oh Lizzie! The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  New York: Lothrop,
     Lee, and  Shepard Company, 1972.

Franck, Irene and David Brownstone. Women's World: A Timeline of Women in
     History.  New  York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995.

Rossi, Alice S.  The Feminist Papers: From Adams to deBeauvoir.  New York:
     Columbia  University Press, 1973.

Weatherford, Doris.  American Women's History.




















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Emilie du Chatelet Essay.TXT
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Emilie du Chatelet


	Emilie du Chatelet grew up in a society where there were not many
education opportunities for women.  She was born in Paris on December 17, 1706
and grew up in a household where marriage was the only way one could improve
their place in society.  During her early childhood, Emilie began to show such
promise in the area of academics that soon she was able to convince her father
that she was a genius who needed attention.  Provided with good education, she
studied and soon mastered Latin, Italian and English.  She also studied Tasso,
Virgil, Milton and other great scholars of the time.
	In spite of her talents in the area of languages, her true love was
mathematics.  Her study in this area was encouraged be a family friend, M. de
Mezieres, who recognized her talent.  Emilie's work in mathematics was rarely
original or as captivating as that of other female mathematicians but it was
substantive.
	At the age of nineteen she married Marquis du Chatelet.  During the
first two years of their marriage, Emilie gave birth to a boy and a girl, and
later at the age of 27 the birth of another son followed.  Neither the children
or her husband deterred her from fully grasping and indulging in the social life
of the court.
	Some of Emilie's most significant work came from the period she spent
with Voltaire, one of the most intriguing and brilliant scholars of this time,
at Cirey-sur-Blaise.  For the two scholars this was a safe and quiet place
distant from the turbulence of Paris and court life.  She started studying the
works of Leibniz but she then started to analyze the discoveries of Newton. She
was extremely success in translating his whole book on the principals of
mathematics into French.  She also added to this book an "Algebraical
Commentary" which very few general readers understood.
	To realize the significance of her work for future French scholars it is
important to understand the social context within which she lived and worked.
One of Emilie's most significant tutors was Pierre Louis de Maupertuis, a renown
mathematician and astronomer of the time.  The struggle for success did not come
easy even for Emilie.  As a student her curiosity and unrelentedness caused her
to place impossible demands on her tutors.  Such nature caused her to engage in
dispute with her tutor at the time, Samuel Koenig.  Their dispute was about the
subject of the infinitely small which ended their friendship.
	In 1740 when Emilie's book Institutions de physique was published,
Koenig started a rumor that the work was merely a rehash of his lessons with her.
Of course this mad Emilie very angry and for help she turned to the Academy of
Sciences and Maupertuis, with whom she had discussed there ideas long before she
engaged Koenig as her tutor.  The intelligent scientists of the time were aware
of her capabilities of performing the work.  However she did not feel that she
had received the support she deserved.  This was the first time that she felt
that being a woman really worked against her.
	The years Emilie spent with Voltaire at Cirey were some of the most
productive years of her life.  Their scholarly work was very intense.  When
there were no guests both of them stayed at their desks almost all day long.
	In the spring of 1748, Emilie met and fell in love with the Marquis de
Saint-Lambert, a courtier and poet.  This affair did not destroy her friendship
with Voltaire.  Even when she found out that she was carrying Saint-Lambert's
child, Voltaire was there to support her.  Along with Voltaire and Saint-Lambert,
she was able to convince her husband that it was his child she was carrying.
	During the course of her pregnancy in 1749 she finished her work with
Clairaut, an old friend with whom she had been studying, but her book on Newton
was not completed yet.  She was determined to finish it and with that goal she
took on a very regimented lifestyle of only work.
	In early September of 1749, she gave birth to a baby girl.  For several
days, Emilie seemed happy and healthy.  On September 10, 1749 she suddenly died.
Emilie's death was soon followed by the death of the baby girl.
	Emilie died at the age of 43.  Among her greatest achievements were her
Institutions du physique and the translation of Newton's Principia, which was
published after her death.  Emilie du Chatelet was one of many women whose
contributions to the field of mathematics are still felt today and helped shape
the course of mathematics throughout history.


Bibliography

2 sources on the Internet

Encyclopedia Britannica



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Emily Dickinson Essay.TXT
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Emily Dickinson


	The year 1830 is a crucial date in English history.  You see, this is
the year that one of the most influential poets in the world was born.  Emily
Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, an old fashioned Puritan town.
Rarely did she go outside to meet strangers or walk in the garden.  Emily felt
uncomfortable outside of her house and even if she did travel, it wasn't for
more than one hour.  She was greatly impacted by her father, who was a lawyer,
politician, and treasurer of Amherst College.  The turning point in Emily's life
occurred while she was on a business trip in Washington D.C. with her father.
There, Emily met a Presbyterian Minister.  Soon enough, she deeply fell in love
with this man , whose name was Charlies Wadsworth.  Even though the two were
acquaintances, Emily felt a bond between herself and the much older and already
married minister.  However, although Charles was kind to her, he did not return
her love.  Eight years later, in1862, Charlies left for San Francisco,
Calafornia with his family.  It was about this time that Emily totally secluded
herself from the world and started what would be world  famous poems throughout
the future .  She adopted her ideas on poetry from her personal life, her
fondness of nature, death, and her dislike of organized religion.  War is
occasionally pulled into Emily's poems also.

	Emily seemed truly concerned over happenings in her personal life.  So
she mainly focused her writings on the loss of her lover.  In "I Never Saw A
Moor," she describes things that she had never seen or experienced before but
she knows what they are about.  Here, Emily is trying to express herself on why
she thinks Charles left her.  She is desperately searching for answers.  Emily
attempted to teach others a lesson when she wrote "Tell All The Turth, But Tell
It Slant."  In this work, she wishes that Charles had given her a reason why he
left so abruptly.  She is stressing that people should tell all the truth, but
lay it down easily so it does not cause strife.  "Heart! We Will Forget Him!"
Explains her feelings that she still has for Charles.  However, she strived to
put memories of Charles behind her and to move on in life.  Emily hoped to see
her lost love in eternity sometime.

	On the other hand, her love for Charles was not the only thing that she
wrote about.  "The Spider Holds A Silver Ball" explains why we should admire a
spider's web.  A spider took an excessive amount of time to build the silver
ball, or pearl, that we call a web.  The spider cherishes its web, so we should
respect that. In the poem "There's A Certain Slant Of Light," we must realize
that when hard times attack us, we need to fight back by ourselves.  We can not
always depend on nature for help.  Emily wrote "The Sky Is Low" to contrast the
similarities of life and nature.  She speaks of nature being an uncontrollable
and unpredictable force just like people inhibit these same traits.

	Death was certainly not a disclosed subject to Emily.  "I Shall Keep
Singing" inspires us all to consider death as a brand new beginning.  It says
look forward to death because it will relieve you of all your worries and
frustrations.  "The GraveMy Little Cottage Is" also encourages us to battle
through struggles and eventually death will bring us relaxation.  In "The Dying
Need But Little Dear," Emily once again stresses on having a laid back attitude
toward death.  She absolutely put faith in ger beliefs about death and where she
was spending eternity.  This is probably why Emily was not terrified of death
the least bit.

	Despite Emily's ignorance of death itself, she still had to face it.  In
1884, her health gave way at the age of fifty four and she became ill.  Two
years later, Emily Dickinson died.  All of her poems were found by Tom Higginson,
a close friend of hers, and by her neighbor.  They were all  neatly organized in
blue folders in her house.  Little did she know that her poems would sit the
pace for years to come.  Her poems would be examined by students, professors,
and those who had common characteristics to her.  To end on a thoughtful note,
remember to follow Emily's words wisely and "Tell all the truth, but tell it
slant."



















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Ernest Hemingway Essay.TXT
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Ernest Hemingway


Chris Ivie American Literature Dr. Breeden 10/2/96

	Many of Ernest Hemingway's books have had different meaning and all
could be interpreted in different way, but there has never been so much written
about his other stories. Well the Old Man and the Sea had more written about it
than any of his other novels and there have never been so many different types
of interpretations about his other novels.  The Old Man and the Sea is a book in
which can be interpreted in many different ways.  Here you will read what many
critics have composed about the story of a great writer, Ernest Hemingway.
Many of the critics have the same outlook on the works of Hemingway.
Hemingway's work The Old man and the Sea can be looked at in many different
perspectives.  All the critics believed that his styling of writing was very
defined.

	In 1944 Ernest Hemingway went to Havana, Cuba and it was there he wrote
a letter to Maxwell Perkins which states he has a idea on a new novel called
The Old Man and the Sea ( Nelson and Jones 139). Hemingway first got his idea
for The Old Man and the Sea  from the stories that he had heard in the small
fish cities in Cuba by a man named Carlos Gutierrez.  He had known of this man
for about twenty years and the stories of the fighting marlins. It was then
that he imagined that man under the two circumstances and came up with the idea.
 After about twenty years of pondering on the story , he decided that he would
start on the novel of The Old Man and the Sea.  The story The Old Man and the
Sea is about a old man named Santiago who has to over come the great forces of
nature.  Things seem to always go wrong for him because originally he started
out going to fish for some dinner, then he caught the biggest marlin ever and
it pulled him out in the bay of Cuba even more then he was.  After he was pulled
out, he hurt his hands and couldn't risk going to sleep because of the risk of
sharks. When the sharks finally attacked he lost the marlin which had become a
great part of him because he knew that no one would believe him when he told
them the size of the marlin. This has to be one of the most memorable fights in
a novel that I have ever seen, but I think that the way he put the novel
together was just as good as that of the fight.

	When he put them together it was then that he relized that what he was
actually writing about was a struggle of man vs. nature.  He liked the idea of
man vs. nature and decided to use it in the struggle scene with the marlin.
Magill wrote," the book can be seen as a fable of the unconquerable spirit of
man, a creature capable of snatching  spiritual victories from the
circumstances of disaster and material defeat" (Magill  4325). Also it is
said," the conflict is of  the strength of a ordinary man and the power of
nature"(Magill 4325).  I feel that Santiago plays a large role in the novel by
being able not to give in and prove to the element of nature that he would over
come them in the long run.

	 Magill  wrote," The Old Man and the Sea is a direct descendant of Moby
Dick"(Magill 4326). He feels that  the struggle between Santiago and the
marlin is very much like that of the whale and the captain in Moby Dick. The
similarities between The Old Man and the Sea  and Moby Dick are extremely
noticeable after reading both of the stories back to back, but there are
differences in the story line. The main difference is that Santiago never comes
out with anything unlike the captain in Moby Dick. Santiago was left with just
a broken boat, a bad fishing pole, and the misery of defeat.

	The story could also be interpreted as being religious because of the
struggle that Santiago was put though. Also it is felt by some people to be
religious because of the way he only cut his palms( from the rope), his feet(
on the front of the boat) and his head(when the bow hit him in the head). It is
often portrayed as that of Jesus on the cross.  I don't know if I really agree
with this interpretation of it being religious.  The reason I don't agree with
this is because if everytime someone got cut on the hands and feet in a movie
or book  then I guess that they too resemble that of Jesus on the cross.

	This story has many different interpretations to it, but would the
interpretations be if the story contained everyone from the village in it and
sowed how the were raised, born, educated, and bore children. This story could
have been well over a thousand pages if the above were included (Plimpton 125).
The big question that I ask is though,  if all the above were included in the
novel,  how different do you think that the interpretation would be?  I feel
that the interpretations would be so very different because the whole story be
circled around that of the battle between Santiago and the marlin.  Also, I
believe that the religious interpretations would be not as strong because of
dealing more with the life of the city people and that of Santiago.

	Hemingway is a writer who creates things out of his head. If he wasn't a
genius then how come did he win a Pulitzer Pride for the story The Old Man and
the Sea Hemingway states," I knew two or three things about the situation, but
I didn't know the story" " I didn't even know if that big fish was going to
bite for the old man when it started smelling around the bait. I had to write on
inventing out of knowledge.  You reject everything that is not or can't be
completely true."(Bruccoli 179)  I think that Hemingway is a genius for writing
this novel because in my point of view it shows the battle between human and
nature and that really caught my attention rereading this novel for the third
time.  I also caught the moral of the story in my point of view, and that is
not everything good that you have is always going to be there. To me that means
alot because that moral also refers alot about your family as well as friends.

	Hemingway is looked upon as one of the greatest writers to ever set foot
on this earth in the twentieth century.  He is a writer who is know for leaving
very little left unsaid or leave you wondering, for example, what's going to
happen, is he gonna die or not.  As you could see in this novel he got to the
point in a direct manner without leaving anything unsaid and he definitely
didn't leave you thinking about if Santiago was going to live or not.

	Many people do not like the writings of Ernest Hemingway because they
feel most everything that he writes about is unhappy or make believe. Fredrick
Busch said at one point in time ," He didn't want to read that of which was
unhappy or make believe" referring to Hemingway's work  (Bryfonski 130).  Many
have said to believe that The Old Man and the Sea was written about the life
of Ernest Hemingway, which in reality it was written about a Cuban by the name
of Carlos Gutierrez.  However some of the parts in this story do relate to
things Hemingway has experienced.

	In conclusion,  The Old Man and the Sea can be interpreted in many
different forms, but I think it isn't how you interpret it.  Don't get me wrong
some people like to read to see how many ways you can interpret it but ,  you
should read a novel to learn from others mistakes and also for the pleasure of
expanding you knowledge American and English literature.  I could name many
different books in which I have read that have actually left a impact on my
life in some sort or another.

Bibliographies

Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway.
	Mississippi: UP Mississippi, 1986

Bryfonski, Dedria. Contemporary Authors. Michigan: Bok Towers,1984

Magill,Frank M. Masterplots. 8 vols., New Jersey: Salem Press,1976

Nelson, Gerald B., and Glory Jones.
	Hemingway: Life and Works. New York: Facts on File
	Publications,1984

Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Five Decades of Criticism .
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1974

Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Six Decades of Criticism.
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1982



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Ernest Miller Hemingway Essay.TXT
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Ernest Miller Hemingway


	Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park,
Illinois.  His father was the owner of a prosperous real estate business.  His
father, Dr. Hemingway, imparted to Ernest the importance of appearances,
especially in public.  Dr. Hemingway invented surgical forceps for which he
would not accept money.  He believed that one should not profit from something
important for the good of mankind.  Ernest's father, a man of high ideals, was
very strict and censored the books he allowed his children to read. He forbad
Ernest's sister from studying ballet for it was coeducational, and dancing
together led to "hell and damnation".
	Grace Hall Hemingway, Ernest's mother, considered herself pure and
proper.  She was a dreamer who was upset at anything which disturbed her
perception of the world as beautiful.  She hated dirty diapers, upset stomachs,
and cleaning house; they were not fit for a lady.  She taught her children to
always act with decorum.  She adored the singing of the birds and the smell of
flowers.  Her children were expected to behave properly and to please her,
always.
	Mrs. Hemingway treated Ernest, when he was a small boy, as if he were a
female baby doll and she dressed him accordingly.  This arrangement was alright
until Ernest got to the age when he wanted to be a "gun-toting Pawnee Bill".
He began, at that time, to pull away from his mother, and never forgave her for
his humiliation.
	The town of Oak Park, where Ernest grew up, was very old fashioned and
quite religious.  The townspeople forbad the word "virgin" from appearing in
school books, and the word "breast" was questioned, though it appeared in the
Bible.
	Ernest loved to fish, canoe and explore the woods.  When he couldn't
get outside, he escaped to his room and read books.  He loved to tell stories
to his classmates, often insisting that a friend listen to one of his stories.
In spite of his mother's desire, he played on the football team at Oak Park
High School.
	As a student, Ernest was a perfectionist about his grammar and studied
English with a fervor.  He contributed articles to the weekly school newspaper.
It seems that the principal did not approve of Ernest's writings and he
complained, often, about the content of Ernest's articles.
	Ernest was clear about his writing; he wanted people to "see and feel"
and he wanted to enjoy himself while writing.  Ernest loved having fun.  If
nothing was happening, mischievous Ernest made something happen.  He would
sometimes use forbidden words just to create a ruckus.  Ernest, though wild and
crazy, was a warm, caring individual.  He loved the sea, mountains and the
stars and hated anyone who he saw as a phoney.
	During World War I, Ernest, rejected from service because of a bad left
eye, was an ambulance driver, in Italy, for the Red Cross.    Very much like
the hero of A Farewell to Arms, Ernest is shot in his knee and recuperates in a
hospital, tended by a caring nurse named Agnes.  Like Frederick Henry, in the
book, he fell in love with the nurse and was given a medal for his heroism.
	Ernest returned home after the war, rejected by the nurse with whom he
fell in love.  He would party late into the night and invite, to his house,
people his parents disapproved of.  Ernest's mother rejected him and he felt
that he had to move from home.
	He moved in with a friend living in Chicago and he wrote articles for
The Toronto Star.  In Chicago he met and then married Hadley Richardson.  She
believed that he should spend all his time in writing, and bought him a
typewriter for his birthday.  They decided that the best place for a writer to
live was Paris, where he could devote himself to his writing.  He said, at the
time, that the most difficult thing to write about was being a man.  They
could not live on income from his stories and so Ernest, again, wrote for The
Toronto Star.
	Ernest took Hadley to Italy to show her where he had been during the
war.  He was devastated, everything had changed, everything was destroyed.
	Hadley became pregnant and was sick all the time.  She and Ernest
decided to move to Canada.  He had, by then written three stories and ten poems.
 Hadley gave birth to a boy who they named John Hadley Nicano Hemingway.  Even
though he had his family Ernest was unhappy and decided to return to Paris.  It
was in Paris that Ernest got word that a publisher wanted to print his book, In
Our Time, but with some changes.  The publisher felt that the sex was to
blatant, but Ernest refused to change one word.
	Around 1925, Ernest started writing a novel about a young man in World
War I, but had to stop after a few pages, and proceeded to write another novel,
instead.  This novel was based on his experiences while living in Pamplona,
Spain.   He planned on calling this book Fiesta, but changed the name to The
Sun Also Rises, a saying from the Bible.  This book, as in his other books,
shows Hemingway obsessed with death.
	In 1927, Ernest found himself unhappy with his wife and son. They
decided to divorce and he married Pauline, a woman he had been involved with
while he was married to Hadley.  A year later, Ernest was able to complete his
war novel which he called A Farewell to Arms.  The novel was about the pain of
war, of finding love in this time of pain.  It portrayed the battles, the
retreats, the fears, the gore and the terrible waste of war.
	This novel was well-received by his publisher, Max Perkins,but Ernest
had to substitute dashes for the "dirty" language.  Ernest used his life when
he wrote; using everything he did and everything that ever happened to him.  He
nevertheless remained a private person; wanting his stories to be read but
wanting to be left alone.  He once said, "Don't look at me.  Look at my words."
A common theme throughout Hemingway's stories is that no matter how hard we
fight to live, we end up defeated, but we are here and we must go on.
	At age 31 he wrote Death in the Afternoon, about bullfighting in his
beloved Spain.  Ernest was a restless man; he traveled all over the United
States, Europe, Cuba and Africa.  At the age of 37 Ernest met the woman who
would be his third wife; Martha Gellhorn, a writer like himself.  He went to
Spain, he said, to become an "antiwar correspondent", and found that war was
like a club where everyone was playing the same game, and he was never lonely.
Martha went to Spain as a war correspondent and they lived together.  He knew
that he was hurting Pauline, but like his need to travel and have new
experiences, he could not stop himself from getting involved with women.
	In 1940 he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls and dedicated it to Martha,
whom he married at the end of that year.   He found himself traveling between
Havana, Cuba and Ketchum, Idaho, which he did for the rest of his life.  During
World War II, Ernest became a secret agent for the United States.  He suggested
that he use his boat, the "Pillar", to surprise German submarines and attack
them with hidden machine guns.  It was at this time that Ernest, always a
drinker, started drinking most of his days away.  He would host wild, fancy
parties and did not write at all during the next three years.
	At war's end, Ernest went to England and met an American foreign
correspondent named Mary Welsh.  He divorced Martha and married Mary in Havana,
in 1946.  Ernest was a man of extremes; living either in luxury or happy to do
without material things. Ernest, always haunted by memories of his mother,
would not go to her funeral when she died in 1951.  He admitted that he hated
his mother's guts.
	Ernest wrote The Old Man and the Sea in only two months.  He was on top
of the world, the book was printed by Life Magazine and thousands of copies
were sold in the United States.  This novel and A Farewell to Arms were both
made into movies.
	In 1953 he went on a safari with Mary, and he was in heaven hunting big
game.   Though Ernest had a serious accident, and later became ill, he could
never admit that he had any weaknesses; nothing would stop him, certainly not
pain.  In 1954 he won the Nobel Prize for Literature.  Toward the end, Ernest
started to travel again, but almost the way that someone does who knows that
he will soon die.  He suddenly started becoming paranoid and to forget things.
He became obsessed with sin; his upbringing was showing, but still was
inconsistent in his behavior.  He never got over feeling like a bad person, as
his father, mother and grandfather had taught him.  In the last year of his
life, he lived inside of his dreams, similar to his mother, who he hated with
all his heart.  He was suicidal and had electric shock treatments for his
depression and strange behavior.
	On a Sunday morning, July 2, 1961, Ernest Miller Hemingway killed
himself with a shotgun.



	Ernest Hemingway takes much of the storyline of his novel, A Farewell
to Arms, from his personal experiences.  The main character of the book,
Frederick Henry, often referred to as Tenete, experiences many of the same
situations which Hemingway, himself, lived.  Some of these similarities are
exact while some are less similar, and some events have a completely different
outcome.
	Hemingway, like Henry, enjoyed drinking large amounts of alcohol.  Both
of them were involved in World War I, in a medical capacity, but neither of
them were regular army personnel.  Like Hemingway, Henry was shot in his right
knee, during a battle.
	Both men were Americans, but a difference worth noting was that
Hemingway was a driver for the American Red Cross, while Henry was a medic for
the Italian Army.  In real life, Hemingway met his love, Agnes, a nurse, in the
hospital after being shot; Henry met his love, Catherine Barkley, also a nurse,
before he was shot and hospitalized.   In both cases, the relationships with
these women were strengthened while the men were hospitalized.  Another
difference is that Hemingway's romance was short-lived, while, the book seemed
to indicate that, Henry's romance, though they never married, was strong and
would have lasted.  In A Farewell to Arms, Catherine and her child died while
she was giving birth, this was not the case with Agnes who left Henry for an
Italian Army officer.
	It seems to me that the differences between the two men were only
surface differences.  They allowed Hemingway to call the novel a work of
fiction.  Had he written an autobiography the book would probably not have been
well-received because Hemingway was not, at that time, a well known author.
Although Hemingway denied critics' views that A Farewell to Arms was symbolic,
had he not made any changes they would not have been as impressed with the war
atmosphere and with the naivete of a young man who experiences war for the
first time.  Hemingway, because he was so private, probably did not want to
expose his life to everyone, and so the slight changes would prove that it was
not himself and his own experiences which he was writing about.
	I believe that Hemingway had Catherine and her child die, not to look
different from his own life, but because he had a sick and morbid personality.
There is great power in being an author, you can make things happen which do
not necessarily occur in real life.
 It is obvious that Hemingway felt, as a young child and throughout his life,
powerless, and so he created lives by writing stories. Hemingway acted out his
feelings of inadequacy and powerlessness by hunting, drinking, spending lots of
money and having many girlfriends.
	I think that Hemingway was obsessed with death and not too sane.  His
obsession shows itself in the morbid death of Miss Barkley and her child.
Hemingway was probably very confused about religion and sin and somehow felt or
feared that people would or should be punished for enjoying life's pleasures.
	Probably, the strongest reason for writing about Catherine Barkley's
death and the death of her child was Hemingway's belief that death comes to
everyone; it was inevitable.  Death ends life before you have a chance to learn
and live.  He writes, in A Farewell to Arms, "They threw you in and told you
the rules and the first time they caught you off base they killed you.  ...
they killed you in the end.  You could count on that.  Stay around and they
would kill you."
	Hemingway, even in high school, wrote stories which showed that people
should expect the unexpected.  His stories offended and angered the principal
of his school.  I think that Hemingway liked shocking and annoying people; he
was certainly rebellious.  If he would have written an ending where Miss
Barkley and her child had lived, it would have been too easy and common;
Hemingway was certainly not like everyone else, and he seemed to be proud of
that fact.  Even the fact that Hemingway wrote curses and had a lot of sex in
his books shows that he liked to shock people.  When his publisher asked that
he change some words and make his books more acceptable to people, Hemingway
refused, then was forced to compromise.
	I think that the major difference between Hemingway and Henry was that
Henry was a likable and normal person while Hemingway was strange and very
difficult.  Hemingway liked doing things his way and either people had to
accept him the way he was or too bad for them.  I think that Hemingway probably
did not even like himself and that was one reason that he couldn't really like
other people.
 Hemingway seemed to use people only for his own pleasure, and maybe he wanted
to think that he was like Henry who was a nicer person.


	In the book, Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms,
Malcolm Cowley focuses on the symbolism of rain.  He sees rain, a frequent
occurrence in the book, as symbolizing disaster. He points out that, at the
beginning of A Farewell to Arms, Henry talks about how "things went very badly"
and how this is connected to "At the start of the winter came permanent rain".
	Later on in the book we see Miss Barkley afraid of rain.  She says,
"Sometimes I see me dead in it", referring to the rain.  It is raining the
entire time Miss Barkley is in childbirth and when both she and her baby die.
	Wyndham Lewis, in the same book of critical essays, points out that
Hemingway is obsessed with war, the setting for much of A Farewell to Arms.  He
feels that the author sees war as an alternative to baseball, a sport of kings.
He says that the war years "were a democratic, a levelling, school".  For
Hemingway, raised in a strict home environment, war is a release; an
opportunity to show that he is a real man.
	The essayist, Edgar Johnson says that for the loner "it is society as a
whole that is rejected, social responsibility, social concern" abandoned.
Lieutenant Henry, like Hemingway, leads a private life as an isolated
individual.  He socializes with the officers, talks with the priest and visits
the officer's brothel, but those relationships are superficial.  This avoidance
of real relationships and involvement do not show an insensitive person, but
rather someone who is protecting himself from getting involved and hurt.  It is
clear that in all of Hemingway's books and from his own life that he sees the
world as his enemy.  Johnson says, "He will solve the problem of dealing with
the world by taking refuge in individualism and isolated personal relationships
and sensations".
	John Killinger says that it was inevitable that Catherine and her baby
would die.  The theme, that a person is trapped in relationships, is shown in
all Hemingway's stories.  In A Farewell to Arms Catherine asks Henry if he
feels trapped, now that she is pregnant.  He admits that he does, "maybe a
little".  This idea, points out Killinger, is ingrained in Hemingway's thinking
and that he was not too happy about fatherhood.  In Cross Country Snow, Nick
regrets that he has to give up skiing in the Alps with a male friend to return
to his wife who is having a baby.  In Hemingway's story Hills Like White
Elephants the man wants his sweetheart to have an abortion so that they can
continue as they once lived.  In To Have and Have Not, Richard Gordon took his
wife to "that dirty aborting horror".  Catherine's death, in A Farewell to Arms,
saves the author's hero from the hell of a complicated life.


	ENDNOTES






 . Peter Buckley, Ernest, The Dial Press: 1978, p.96
 . Peter Buckley, p.97
 . Peter Buckley, p.98
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.112
 . Peter Buckley, p.114
 . Peter Buckley, p.117
 . Peter Buckley, p.123
 . Peter Buckley, p.127
 . Peter Buckley, p.129
 . Peter Buckley, p.135
 . Peter Buckley, p.138
 . Peter Buckley, p.144
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.154
 . Peter Buckley, p.160
 .  Malcolm Cowley, "Rain as Disaster", Twentieth Century
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970,
pp.54-55
 .  Wyndham Lewis, "The Dumb Ox in Love and War", Twentieth Century
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970,
p.76
 .  Edgar Johnson, "Farewell the Separate Peace", Twentieth Century
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970,
pp.112-113
 .  John Killinger, "The Existential Hero", Twentieth Century Interpretations
of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970, pp.103-105




























f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another F Scott Fitzgerald Essay.TXT
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F. Scott Fitzgerald
								

 	Welcome to the roaring 1920's!  The Jazz Age. A period within time which
the passive behaviors, beliefs, and purity of the past generations, were tossed
aside to create room for the changes America was about to experience! The birth
of independent voting rights for women, lavishing parties,  and where excitement
was to be found in every corner. This was the era in which the people were
considered the "Lost Generation," and from this environment emerged a eminent
writer of those times. Francis Scott Fitzgerald.
	Born to the calm and submissive atmosphere of St. Paul Minnesota, he
came from a line of highly regarded men and women from his family's past. His
most famous relative by far was Francis Scott Key. The writer of our national
anthem. Though he was certainly the most famous Fitzgerald, his mother was the
most eccentric. Often dressed in miss-matched shoes and had a peculiar behavior,
she at one time stared at a woman whose husband was dying and said: "I'm trying
to decide how you'll look in the mourning."
	"I helped him by encouraging his urge to write adventures. It was also
his best work. He did not shine in his other subjects. It was the pride in his
literary work that put him in his real bent." Recalls his St. Paul Academy
teacher. From that prestigious school he then traveled and began attendance in
Princeton University. Not a promising student he was often late to his classes.
His excuse was once "Sir-it's absurd to expect me to be on time. I'm a
genius!!!" Though the "Princeton years" we not his most memorable, it provided
an outlet for his writing, and talent.
	During his junior year he left Princeton and entered the army in 1917.
Though he was never sent to battle for his country, there he began work on the
short story, The Romantic Egoist, which was published as This Side of Paradise.
Though rejected it later returns as a imitated nationwide sensation. When time
and America began evolving, then was his work beginning to receive its time
awaited praise. The Jazz Age had arrived! By this period Fitzgerald had already
found his love and married the enchanting Zelda Syre. She was an accomplished
writer, ballet dancer, and painter. Though every one of these qualities were
contributions to her vivid personality, her flaws were seen by many! "Her
rudeness, selfishness and lack of self restraint! She abuses men terribly then
cuts and breaks dates with them, yawns in their faces, and they come back for
more!" recalls Fitzgerald. As the jaded, rebellious "flaming youth" of the new
era went on, it brought life to Fitzgerald's story which became and instant hit.
This Side of Paradise. And during America's decade of prosperity, excess, and
abandon, he became noted as the spokesman for the Jazz Age.
	He continued to write, and he then achieved his strongest and greatest
work which described the weaknesses and the ideals which America lost. The Great
Gatsby. Now considered a classic of our times, it marked the beginning of the
author's decline in popularity. This and several other factors effected his
writing. Zelda's schizophrenia, lack of inspiration, efforts in remaining a good
father for his daughter Scottie, and financial difficulties.
	"...Ability to perceive the reality behind the glittering carnival, the
face behind the mask." This was the work of Fitzgerald in which our society and
numerous prominent American writers respect today. Without Fitzgerald's writings
a piece of our heritage and culture in the 20's may have been lost. The
unmatched voice of the Jazz Age.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Gandhi Essay.TXT
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Gandhi


	On October 2, 1869, the "little brown saint" was brought into the world;
during this time India was under the British monarchy.  During his early years
he did not show the signs of developing into the great leader that he eventually
became but nevertheless Gandhi aspired to be a lawyer, follow in the footsteps
of his father and become a respected member of the community.  Throughout his
life Gandhi fought against colour prejudice, promoted religious harmony and
toiled laboriously to gain independence for his country.

	Gandhi was a great man who brought about many changes all over the world
but especially in India.  His means of bringing about change and the effect he
had on people made him a respected and loved individual.

	Gandhi travelled to South Africa for the first time in the summer of
1892, to try his luck at a law firm.  He was not aware of how deeply he would be
involved in South African affairs while he proceeded  on his journey.  Indians
in South Africa suffered many disabilities.  For instance, an Indian "had to
carry a pass if he appeared on the streets after 9 p.m."(Pg. 24).  Gandhi felt
this was completely unfair and by the time he had finished his campaign against
colour prejudice in South Africa, "the three pound tax on farm indentured
labourers was annulled, Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages were declared valid;
free Indians and their wives could continue to come into the country from India"
(Pg. 47-48). Gandhi achieved this status for Indians in South Africa by a method
called "Satyagraha" or "passive resistance".  This involved a non-violent means
of refusing to co-operate with the government's wishes, thus forcing the
government to meet the demands of the resistors.  This method of nonco-operation
earned Gandhi a great deal of respect, world-wide acclaim and helped him
considerably reduce legalized racism against Indians in South Africa.

	Gandhi was a very patriotic man and believed that people in his country
should become one in unity, but he knew that there were obstacles that had to be
overcome.  One of the hardest of these obstacles was easing Muslim and Hindu
tensions.  Religious tension was one aspect that Gandhi felt he should try to
bring to an equilibrium.  He knew that the relations between Hindus and Muslims
would determine the future of India.  He wrote a "6,000 word article on 'Hindu-
Muslim Tension.  Its Cause and Cure'"(Pg. 36).  Gandhi did not feel that this
was enough and was assured of it when he heard about "Hindu-Muslim riots (and)
the forcible kidnapping and conversion of women and children from one religious
community by men of the other" (Pg. 49).  The situation, as Gandhi, concluded
were getting out of hand and so he decided that he needed another means of
communicating with his fellow man.  He fasted, abstained from eating, "to reform
those who loved him.  (He said) 'you cannot fast against a tyrant for (he) is
incapable of love therefore inaccessible to a weapon of love like fasting"(Pg.
23).  Gandhi made up his mind to fast either until death or until reform.  This
was enough to bring instantaneous results and soon riots ceased and there were
weeks without religiously motivated killings or demonstrations.  Gandhi's ploy
had worked.  People all over the world admired the "Mahatma" (father) and his
methods of controlling a whole population by their love for him.  This was one
stepping stone which had been safely passed and no longer posed a threat to
India.

	Throughout his life Gandhi always pondered ways to better the lives of
others.  He put himself and his needs last before those of others.  Gandhi knew
that to better the lives of Indians living in India he had to work towards
Independence.  One major event that paved the way to achieving this was the
civil disobedience of the Salt Laws.  The laws "made it punishable to possess
salt not purchased from the government salt monopoly" ( Pg. 23). Gandhi felt
that "nothing but organized non-violence (could) check the organized violence of
the British government...the non-violence would be expressed through civil-
disobedience... and convert the British people making them see the wrong they
have done to India"(Pg. 33). Gandhi proceeded to march "241 miles in 24 days" (
Pg. 35) thus rivet the attention of all of India.  When Gandhi reached the end
of his march, he was at the coast where there were piles of salt, so he picked
up a pile of salt as an act of defiance.  He was arrested but people all over
the country were fascinated and intrigued and followed his example by also
disobeying the Salt Laws.  This demonstrated to the British government that they
were "subjugating India and gave the Indians conviction that they should lift
the foreign yoke off their shoulders"(Pg. 102).  This event foreshadowed the
achievement of India gaining Independence in the August of 1947.  People in
India now felt that they had some reason to work towards independence and others
joined in the efforts to free the country from British rule.

	Although Gandhi did lead his country to Independence, his attempts in
unifying Hindus and Muslims in India failed miserably.  Riots ceased for a while
but restarted.  He led a bad example by getting imprisoned. Some people viewed
this as breaking the law and not changing the system.  Although Gandhi may have
failed in his attempts of unifying Hindus and Muslims, he did succeed in
achieving Independence for India and as a bonus  Muslims in India additionally
gained something, the birth of their new nation, Pakistan.

	Gandhi's preaching of non-violence worked on many occasions but also
resulted in the bloodshed of thousands of others.  People were so caught up in
gaining Independence from the British that they forgot Gandhi's preachings of
non-violence and riots ensued and thousands upon thousands of people were killed.
 Although many people were killed, if Gandhi hadn't preached non-violence, a
great many more people would have lost their lives fighting for Independence,
instead millions of people were saved and the end result was victory.

	Gandhi was very successful in changing the ways many Hindus viewed
Hinduism and he strengthened their beliefs in the religion.  He changed their
ideas about the caste system and he preached peace and non-violence to Hindus
all over the country.  He most of all emphasized abstinence, self-denial and
sacrificing.  These various lessons made people better human beings with a
better outlook on life.

	Mahatma (Mohandas K.) Gandhi was a great leader who captured the hearts
of many all over the world just by the techniques he used to achieve his
objectives.  He was the most unselfish, hardworking and saintly character anyone
ever met until an assassin's bullet prematurely ended his life at the age of
seventy-eight.  He fought hard and abolished prejudice against Indians in South
Africa, he worked towards easing religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims
in India and  he freed India from British rule and gained them independence
through a means unlike any country has ever used, non-violence. His legacy is
courage, his lesson truth, his weapon love.  His life is his monument.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another George Frederick Handel Essay.TXT
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George Frederick Handel


	George Frederick Handel was born on February 24, 1685 in Halle, Germany.
One of the greatest composers of the late baroque period (1700-50) and, during
his lifetime, perhaps the most internationally famous of all musicians. Handel
was born February 24, 1685, in Halle, Germany, to a family of no musical
distinction. His own musical talent, however, expressed itself so clearly that
before his tenth birthday he began to receive, from a local organist, the only
formal musical instruction he would ever have. Although his first job, beginning
just after his 17th birthday, was as church organist in Halle, Handel's musical
tendencies lay elsewhere. Thus, in 1703 he traveled to Hamburg, the operatic
center of Germany; here, in 1704, he composed his own first opera, Almira, which
achieved great success the following year. Once again, however, Handel soon felt
the urge to move on, and his instincts led him to Italy, the birthplace of
operatic style. He stopped first at Florence in the autumn of 1706. In the
spring and summer of 1707 and 1708 he traveled to Rome, enjoying the backing of
both the nobility and the clergy, and in the late spring of 1707 he made an
additional short trip to Naples.  In Italy, Handel composed operas, oratorios,
and many small secular cantatas; he ended his Italian visit with the stunning
success of his fifth opera, Agrippina (1709), in Venice. Handel left Italy for a
job as court composer and conductor in Hannover, Germany, where he arrived in
the spring of 1710. As had been the case in Halle, however, he did not hold this
job for long. By the end of 1710 Handel had left for London, where with Rinaldo
(1711), he once again scored an operatic triumph.
      After returning to Hannover he was granted permission for a second, short
trip to London, from which, however, he never returned. Handel was forced
to face his truancy when in 1714 the elector at Hannover, his former employer,
became King George I of England. The reconciliation of these two men may well
have occurred, as has often been said, during a royal party on the River Thames
in 1715, during which the F major suite from Handel's Water Music was probably
played. Under the sponsorship of the duke of Chandos, he composed his oratorio
Esther and the 11 Chandos anthems for choir and string orchestra (1717-20). By
1719 Handel had won the support of the king to start the Royal Academy of Music
for performances of opera, which presented some of Handel's greatest operas:
Radamisto (1720), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano (1724), and Rodelinda (1725).
In 1727 Handel became a naturalized British citizen; in 1728 the academy
collapsed. He formed a new company the following year. Forced to move to another
theater by the Opera of the Nobility, an opponent company, in 1734, he continued
to produce opera until 1737,  when both houses failed. Handel suffered a stroke
and retired to Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to recover. In 1738 Handel, as
determined as ever, began yet another operatic effort, which ended with his last
opera, Deidamia, in 1741. During the 1730s, however, the most important
directions taken by Handel were, first, the composition of English dramatic
oratorios, notably Athalia (1733) and Saul (1739); and, second, the surge of
instrumental music used in connection with the oratorios, including some of
Handel's greatest concertos-the solo concertos of op. 4 (1736, five for organ
and one for harp) and the 12 concerti grossi of op. 6 (1739). In 1742, Messiah,
the work for which he is best known, was first performed in Dublin. Handel
continued composing oratorios at the rate of about two a year, including such
masterworks as Samson (1743) and Solomon (1749), until 1751, when his eyesight
began to fail. Handel died in London on April 14, 1759; the last musical
performance he heard, on April 6, was of his own Messiah. Throughout his life
Handel avoided the strict techniques of  his exact contemporary Johann Sebastian
Bach and achieved his effects through the simplest of means, trusting always his
own natural musicianship. The music of both composers, however, sums up the age
in which they lived. After them, opera took a different path; the favorite
baroque genres of chamber and orchestral music, trio sonata and concerto grosso,
were largely abandoned; and the development of the symphony orchestra and the
pianoforte led into realms uncharted by the baroque masters. Their influence
can't be found in specific examples.
     Handel's legacy lies in the dramatic power and lyrical beauty inherent in all
his music. His operas move from the rigid use of traditional schemes toward a
more flexible and dramatic treatment of recitative, arioso, aria, and chorus.
His ability to build large scenes around a single character was further extended
in the dramatic scenas of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the
Italian Gioacchino Rossini. Handel's greatest gift to posterity was undoubtedly
the creation of the dramatic oratorio genre, partly out of existing operatic
traditions and partly by force of his own musical imagination; without question,
the oratorios of both the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn and the German composer
Felix Mendelssohn owe a large debt to those of Handel. He was one of the first
composers to have a biography  written of him (1760), to have centennial
celebrations of his birth (1784-86), and to have a complete edition of his music
published (40 vol., 1787-97) Ludwig van  Beethoven cherished his set. Although
tdel is best known for only a few of his works, such as Water Music and Messiah,
more and more attempts are being made to bring his other compositions,
especially his operas, before the public. Handel's rich and unique musical
genius deserves to be remembered in the magnificent fullness of its entirety.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another George Washington Essay.TXT
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George Washington


  He was born 1732 and he died in1799. George Washington seems today a figure
larger than life itself.....almost as he was when he was a familiar person in the
halls, homes, shops, and bars of 18th-century city Williamsburg. On Duke of
Gloucester Street, in the Raleigh Tavern's Apollo Room, or the Governor's Palace
Gardens, his powerful frame and his nice attitude..his presence....drew to him the
notice that wrote his place in the history of the city, the state, and the
nation.

"His bones and joints are large, as are his hands and feet," friend of
Washington George Mercer observed in 1760. He said Washington kept "all the
muscles of his face under perfect control, though flexible and expressive of
deep feeling when moved by emotion. In conversation he looks you full in the
face, is deliberate, deferential and engaging. His voice is agreeable . . . he
is a splendid horseman."

Thomas Jefferson who served with Washington in the House of Burgesses, wrote:
"On the whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in a few
points indifferent; and it may truly be said, that never did nature and fortune
combine more perfectly to make a man great, and to place him in the same
constellation with whatever worthies have merited from man an everlasting
remembrance."

In Williamsburg, when it was the seat of Virginia's government, Washington
secured his first military commissions, learned and practiced the arts of
politics, and moved from the attitude of being just another country squire to
become the leader of a continental revolution.

Born February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland County he was the first son of his father
Augustine's second marriage: his mother was the former Mary Ball of Epping
Forest. When George was about 3 his family moved to Little Hunting Creek on the
Potomac, then to Ferry Farm opposite of Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock in
King George County.

His father died in 1743, and Washington grew nervous under his mother's guidance.
He proposed at one point to follow the sea, but he divided his adolescence among
the households of relatives, finding a home and a model in his half-brother
Lawrence at Mount Vernon. From Lawrence he learned trig and surveying and
accomplished a taste for ethics, novels, music, and the theater. An officer in
the Virginia militia, Lawrence had served with Admiral Edward Vernon...for who the
plantation was named, and tinged George with aspirations for military service.

In the interim, the powerful Fairfax family of neighboring Belvoir introduced
him to the accomplishments of wealth and in 1748 provided him his first
"adventure". That year Lord Fairfax dispatched him with a party that spent a
month surveying Fairfax lands in the still-wild Shenandoah. In the expedition,
he began to appreciate the uses and value of land, an appreciation that grew the
following year with his appointment as Culpeper County surveyor, certified by
the College of William and Mary.

Lawrence, suffering from a lung complaint took a Barbados voyage in search of
health in a warmer climate....and george accompanied him. The younger brother
contracted smallpox and returned to Virginia alone, but with a immunity to a
disease that destroyed colonial-era armies. Lawrence died in 1752, and the Mount
Vernon estate passed by stages into George's hands until he inherited it in 1761.

Washington also succeeded to Lawrence's militia office. Governor Robert
Dinwiddie first appointed him assistant for the southern district of the
colony's militia, but soon conferred on him Lawrence's assistantcy for the
Northern Neck and Eastern Shore. So it happened that in 1753 the governor sent
21-year-old Washington to warn French troops at Fort Duquesne at the forks of
the Ohio (that's modern Pittsburgh) that they were encroaching in territory
claimed by Virginia.

The French ignored the warning and the mission failed, but when Washington
returned Dinwiddie had Williamsburg printer William Hunter publish his official
report as The Journal of Major George Washington. It made the young officer
well-known at home and away.

Returning to the Ohio in April with 150 men to remove the intruders, Washington
got his first taste of war in a fight with a French scouting party. He wrote to
his brother Jack, "I heard the bullets whistle, and, believe me, there is
something charming in the sound."

A second fight quickly followed and Washington, retreating to Fort Necessity,
was beaten by an even more numerous French force. He surrendered and, in his
ignorance of French, signed an embarrassing surrender agreement. But he had
opportunities to get revenge for his defeat. The whistling bullets heralded the
start of the Seven Years' War, as it was called in Europe. In America it was
called the French and Indian War or, sometimes, Virginia's War. Horace Walpole
wrote, "The volley fired by a young Virginian in the backwoods of America set
the world on fire."

Washington returned to the field as an friend to General Braddock in 1755 and
performed with distinction, despite sickness, in the disastrous campaign against
Fort Duquesne. Later that year Dinwiddie gave him command of all Virginia forces
and promoted him to colonel.

In these years Washington had two arguments with English officers who viewed
their regular-army commissions as superior compared to of the Virginia militia
commander. These disputes may mark the beginning of Washington's anger of
British attitudes toward the colonies.

Operating from a fort at Winchester, Washington protected the Virginia frontier
until 1758 when he was made a militia and helped to chase the French from Fort
Duquesne for good.

Washington resigned at war's end and retired to Mount Vernon. He was defeated in
elections for the House of Burgesses in 1755 and 1757, but won in 1758 and was
seated the following year from Frederick County. For 15 years he devoted himself
to his legislative work and his farm. During this period, he also became a
family man, marrying the widow Martha Dandridge Custis, the mother of two
children, on January 6, 1759, in New Kent County.

In 1760, Washington took on the additional duties of a Fairfax County justice of
the peace. He also found time for the hobbies of a Virginia gentleman--fox
hunting, snuff taking, plays, billiards, cards, dancing, and fishing. He
delighted in bottles of Madeira, plates of watermelon, and dishes of oysters.

In these years his resentment of the subordination of American interests to
those of England grew. When Parliament attempted to force the Stamp Act in 1769,
Washington told someone that Parliament "hath no more right to put their hands
into my pocket, without my consent, than I have to put my hands into yours for
money."

By 1774 he was in the forefront of the defense of Virginia liberties and was
among the rebellious burgesses who gathered at the Raleigh Tavern on May 27
after Governor Dunmore dissolved the house. Washington signed the resolves
proposing a Continental congress and non-importation of British goods. On July
18, he chaired the Alexandria meeting that adopted George Mason's "Fairfax
Resolutions."

Sent to the First Continental Congress, Washington returned home afterward to
organize independent militia companies in Northern Virginia and to win election
to the Second Continental Congress. In Philadelphia on June 15, 1775, he was
offered command of America's forces, accepted, vowed to accept no pay, and left
to take over the army at Boston.

The years that passed before the victory at Yorktown in 1781 were marked as
often by frustration as by success. Hampered by shortages of supplies and the
disloyalty of enlistments, Washington commanded with caution. He once reported
to Congress, "We should on all Occasions avoid a general Action, or put anything
to the Risque, unless compelled by a necessity, into which we ought never to be
drawn."

Jefferson wrote:

"His mind was great and powerful, without being of the very first order; his
penetration strong . . . and as far as he saw, no judgment was ever sounder. It
was slow in operation, being little aided by invention of imagination, but sure
in conclusion. Hence the common remark of his officers, of the advantage he
derived from councils of war, where hearing all suggestions, he selected
whatever was best; and certainly no general ever planned his battles more
judiciously. But if he deranged during the course of the action, if any member
of his plan was dislocated by sudden circumstances, he was slow in re-adjustment.
The consequence was, that he often failed in the field, and rarely against an
enemy in station, as at Boston and York. He was incapable of fear, meeting
personal dangers with the calmest unconcern. Perhaps the strongest feature in
his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every
consideration, was maturely weighed; refraining if he saw a doubt, but, when
once decided, going through with his purpose, whatever obstacles opposed."

Washington regarded Yorktown--a battle he planned in part at the George Wythe
House--as "an interesting event that may be productive of much good if properly
improved, but if it should be the means of relaxation and sink us into
supineness and security, it had better not have happened."

The war wound down and, as danger dropped, congressional disregard of the Army
grew. His troops urged Washington to seize power from the politicians, but he
rejected every such suggestion. On March 15, 1783, Washington met his unhappy
and rebellious officers at Newburgh, New York, to discourage them from marching
on Congress over back pay, but the speech he had prepared proved unpersuasive.

He decided to read a letter that he had received from a congressman. As he
reached into his coat for his glasses, he said, "Gentlemen, you will permit me
to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray, but almost blind, in
the service of my country." The officers were so touched that some cried, and
the day was carried. Biographer James Thomas Flexner wrote, "This was probably
the most important single gathering ever held in the United States."

On April 19, 1783--the anniversary of the Battle of Lexington--Washington said
bye to his staff at the Fraunces Tavern in New York and, on the way to Mount
Vernon, stopped in Annapolis to resign his commission to Congress. He resumed
the life of a plantation squire, and set out to repair his finances.

He had long hoped to connect the Virginia seaboard to the Ohio and the interior
by means of canals he rode away in autumn 1784 on a 650-mile journey for
observations. Improvement of his long-neglected farms, however was his primary
preoccupation. He wrote to the Marquis de Lafayette, "I have not only retired
from all public employments, but I am retiring within myself . . . Envious of
none, I am determined to be pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being
the order for my march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I
sleep with my fathers."

The weakness of the government created by the Articles of Confederation
concerned Washington and, in 1786, Shays's Rebellion alarmed him. He
regrettingly accepted a seat in the federal convention and election to its
presidency. His unanimous election as the first president of the United States
was certain before the Constitution was even adopted and, again, he accepted
with unwillingness. "My movements to the chair of government will be accompanied
by feeling not unlike those of a culprit, who is going to the place of his
execution," he wrote after the ballot. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of
office in New York at age 57.

Washington not only had to organize a government but also to create a role for
the highest officer of the new nation. Both tasks earned him enemies. Always
opposed to factions, his two administrations prepared the rivalry of the
Federalist and Anti-federalist parties.

Though unopposed for re-election, his second administration was the subject of
uncommon, and sometimes indecent and abuse. He had one such attack to an alarm
raised against a rabid dog: "Such exaggerated terms as could scarcely be applied
to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pickpocket."

The Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania against a federal excise tax on
spirits was his critical domestic challenge. He rode partway to the field at the
head of the column of militia raised to put it down.

After serving as Washington's secretary of state, Jefferson split with the
president. The break became permanent. Jefferson wrote,

"I do believe that General Washington had not a firm confidence in the
durability of our government. He was naturally distrustful of men, and inclined
gloomy apprehensions; and I was ever persuaded that a belief that we must at
length end in something like a British constitution, had some weight in his
adoption of the ceremonies of levees, birthdays, pompous meetings with Congress,
and other forms of the same character, calculated to prepare us gradually for a
change which he believed possible, and to let it come on with as little shock as
might be to the public mind."

Historians credit Washington's conduct of the office with the preservation of
the national union under the American Constitution. Washington issued his
farewell address on September 7, 1796, and was succeeded by John Adams the
following March 4. His last official act was to pardon the participants in the
Whiskey Rebellion.

When relations with France soured in 1798, his Country once more turned to
Washington for his service. Adams appointed him lieutenant general of a
provisional army. The danger lessened before the troops came together.

In December 1799, after a day spent riding on his farms in bad weather,
Washington's throat became inflamed. At 2 a.m on December14, he awakened his
wife to say that he was having trouble breathing. At sunrise she sent for Dr.
James Craig, who arrived at 9 a.m. and diagnosed the illness as "inflammatory
quinsy." During the morning Washington was bleeding three times and two more
doctors came, Elisha Dick of Alexandria and Gustavus Brown. One counseled
against bleeding, but more blood was taken. At midnight Washington said to his
secretary, Tobias Lear; "I am just going. Have me decently buried, and do not
let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead. Do
you understand me?"

Lear said, "Yes."

Washington's last words were, "'Tis well."




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Graduation Essay.TXT
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Graduation


	I can still remember it like yesterday.  It was June 6, 1994, the day of
my high school graduation.  This day is the single most important day of my life.
This day was so important to me because it was the first thing I had to work
really hard on to accomplish. For the first time in my life I felt as if I
really could succeed in something.  It helped to change my life.
	It started out like just another day but things would quickly change.  I
woke up at 7:00 a.m., which is extremely early by my standards, with
anticipation of the day I had been waiting for.  After sitting around for 3
hours I  made my way over to Ludlow High School.  The graduating class was to be
there for 10:00 a.m. to pick up our cap and gown. The principal, Mr. James
Cavallo, called out everyone's name and proceeded to hand them their cap and
gown.  When he finally handed me my gown I quickly took it and sat to me admire
it.  Its funny how the simplest things can symbolize a whole new beginning.  I
sat and looked at this ugly maroon gown with this weird looking square hat.
	The ceremonies were to be held at the Mullins Center on the campus of
the University of Massachusetts in Amherst.  The ceremonies were to begin at
7:00p.m., yet  I had to be there at 6:00p.m..  When everyone arrived we
rehearsed on how we were  to walk in and where we were going to sit.  You could
the excitement in everyone's eyes. No one could wait for the moment in which our
diplomas would be handed to us.  They lined us up by height with the boys to one
side and the girls to the other.  Each boy was paired up with a girl and was to
walk in side by side with her when the ceremonies began. Once the couple reached
the grandstands, where each member of the graduating class would be sitting ,
they were to separate with the girls going left and the boys to the right until
everyone was seated.
	The time finally arrived .  It was 7:00p.m. and the music had begun to
play.  We started our slow march to the grandstands and I could here the crowd
cheering.  I looked up to take a look at the audience and quickly found my
family waving their hands around in excitement.  It felt like we had just won a
sporting championship and had arrived home to our beloved fans.  I sat through
about an hour of boring speeches which I could not tell you one single thing
about.  I tried to seem interested in what was being said at the platform to my
right but I just couldn't concentrate.  My mind kept wandering to the moment why
I was sitting through this nonsense.  Finally I saw my principal stand up and
then I knew it was time.  He gave a brief  five minute speech and started
calling out names.  When my name was finally called I had a funny feeling come
about me.  It was a feeling that I have not experienced since.  My heart felt
like it dropped into my stomach and I got this cold shivering which produced
goose bumps all over my me.  That brief moment had come and gone and now it was
time to celebrate.
	Not only was my high school graduation the first step in helping me to
get to college but it gave me the confidence that I could do anything if I
really put my mind to it. If I had not graduated I would of felt like I couldn't
accomplish anything.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Grover Cleveland Essay.TXT
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Grover Cleveland


	Grover Cleveland , the twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the
United States, was born in Caldwell, New Jersey on March 18, 1837.  He was the
first Democratic President who served two terms that did not directly follow
each other.  He also was the first President who was elected after the Civil War.

	Grover Cleveland was born the son of a country minister whose name was
Richard Falley Cleveland.  His mothers name was Ann Neal Cleveland, the daughter
of a publisher.  Grover Cleveland was the fifth child in a family of four
brothers and five sisters.

	Grover Cleveland's family let a hard life, having little money and
moving around alot.  After Grover Cleveland's father died, he had to help
support the family of nine on his wages as a clerk.  He earned only $4.00 a
week!  He was unable to go to law school like he wanted to do, so he studied by
himself and became an attorney in l859.  Grover Cleveland became interested in
politics and held several small offices, including sheriff.  He became Mayor of
Buffalo, New York, in 1881 and attacked corruption and dishonesty in govwenment.
He then became Governor in 1882 and was a huge success because of his reputation
for honesty.

	Grover Cleveland got married in 1886 to Frances Folsom.  He was the
first President to get married in the White House.  Reporters pried into every
detail of Grover Cleveland's life which he called "colossal impertinence".
Grover Cleveland had five children.  Esther, his second daughter, was the first
and only child of a President to ever be born in the White House.

	In 1884, Grover Cleveland's supporters suggested that he run for
President of the United States.  His motto was "a public office is a public
trust".  He was elected as the twenty-second President from 1885 until 1889.  He
served for four years and then barely lost the next election to Benjamin
Harrison, even though he had the majority of the popular vote.  In 1892, he was
persuaded to seek office again and he returned to Washington as the twenty-
fourth President in 1893 for four more years.

	This President, called "Uncle Jumbo" by his relatives, was a hard-
working President.  He liked to do much of the work himself instead of assigning
tasks to other people.  Mr. Cleveland often stayed up until 2 or 3 a.m. going
over official business, and sometimes answered the White House Telephone himself.

	Grover Cleveland worked hard at reducing taxes on products that came
into the United States, he refused easy money to farmers so that they could
reduce their debt, and he refused bigger pensions to Veterans.  These "no"
answers made him unpopular at the time, but have caused him to have respect now.

	People think that they would rate Grover Cleveland at a 9 out of a
possible 10, with 10 being the highest score.  This is because he was the only
President to be elected one year, loose the next (even though winning the
popular vote), and then win the next year.  He was respected for his honesty and
hard workmanship.

	In 1879, after Grover Cleveland's second term in office, he returned to
New Jersey where he lived a private life with his family.  Occassionally he gave
lectures at Universities.  He died in 1908 at the age of 71.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Gwendolyn Brooks Essay.TXT
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Gwendolyn Brooks


	Writing with uncommon strength, Gwendolyn Brooks creates haunting images
of black America, and their struggle in escaping the scathing hatred of many
white Americans.  Her stories, such as in the "Ballad of Rudolph Reed", portray
courage and perseverance.  In those like "The Boy Died in My Alley"  Brooks
portrays both the weakness of black America and the unfortunate lack of care
spawned from oppression.  In "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie" Brooks unveils
another aspect of her skill by entering the domestic arena with the lingering
limitations imposed by prejudice.  These aspects, such as strength and finesse,
are among Brooks great attributes.  Worthy of exploration, Brooks powerful and
haunting techniques can be separated and explored in the above mentioned poems.
Each work contains a specific tactic, which effectively promotes her ideas.  It
is for that reason, tactics mixed with ideas, which have placed Brooks among the
finest poets.
	Perhaps because of Brooks' use of a stiff format, "The Ballad of Rudolph
Reed" may be her strongest work.  Imbuing the poem with incredible lines and
description, Brooks transforms Rudolph Reed, who is the character the poem is
built around, into a storybook hero, or a tragic character whose only flaw was
the love he held for his family.  Brooks creates a strong, solid character who
is more than another fictional martyr, but a human being.  The Finesse she
imbued in this work from the first stylized Peiffer 2 stanza:  "Rudolph Reed was
oaken.\ His wife was oaken too.\ And his two girls  and his good little man\
Oakened as they grew." (1081, 1-4)  Here brooks' symbolic use of the word
oakened, coupled with the use of a rhyme scheme of the second and last sentence
of every stanza causes the reader to more deeply feel what the character and his
family are going through.  Using the idea of a dream home, Brooks stabbed to the
heart of the American dream and where those of African descent fit into it.
Every person, man or woman, has at one time or another dreamt of living in a
beautiful home:

          "I am not hungry for berries.\ I am not hungry for bread.\
          But hungry hungry for a house\ Where at night a man in bed\ "May never
          here the plaster\ stir   as if in pain.\ May never here the roaches\
          Falling like   fat rain.\ "Where never wife and children need\ Go blinking
          through the gloom.\ Where every room of many rooms\ Will be full of
          room.\ "Oh my house shall have its east or west\ Or north or south behind
          it.\ All  I know is I shall know it,\ And fight for it when I find it."
               (1081, 5-20)

Without her use of the above dream, Brooks would have been unable to bring an
effective human perspective to Rudolph Reed and his family.  Once this human
side was Peiffer 3 created, the horrible demise of Rudolph Reed struck with an
intensity which would otherwise have been lost.
	Losing finesse in place of what at first seems a shallow attempt at
poetry, "The Boy Died in My Alley" develops into an incredible exploration of
enfeeblement.  Brooks power comes again from her ability to bring the reader
into a human world, with human characters.  It explores the pain one person
feels, and the hopelessness spawned from it.  Although relatively few people
live in an area where crime is so rampant as in "The Boy Died in My Alley", it
strikes a chord of fear and depression most in society may relate to.  The use
of a strong beat in this poem help to create the frantic yet uncanny depression
found throughout the poem:

          "Policeman pounded on my door.\ "Who is it?" "POLICE!"
          Policeman yelled.\ "A boy was dying in your  Alley.\ A boy is dead, and in
          your alley.\  And have you known this boy before?"\ I have known this
          boy  before.\ I have known this boy before, who\  ornaments my alley.\ I
          never saw his face at all.\ I never saw his futurefall.\ But I have known this
          boy.
               (1084, 10-21)

The staccato rhythm Brooks uses is developed through repeating many of the lines.
The lines are not exact copies, Peiffer 4 but keep the poem rolling forward,
which is important if Brooks hopes to keep the reader active in the storyline.
Included for the staccato rhythm, is a short curt sentence structure:

          "Without my having known.\ Policeman said, next 	morning,\
          "Apparently died alone."\ "You heard a  shot?" Policeman said.\ Shots I
          hear and shots I hear.\  I never see the dead." (1083, 1-6)

This use of rhythm is the style the work hinges on.  In many ways the broken
sentences remind the reader of the forms the English language have taken for
black Americans.  Again, it can be pointed out this was the intention of Brooks.
In ways not seen in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks acts as the conductor
of a symphony of words and style.
	An intoxicating work is "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie".  Second only
to "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", "Chocolate Mabbie" has an unrivaled depth of
character.  Once again, Brooks draws the reader deep into the human soul.  She
bares the wheels and cogs which keep people moving.  It is the one thing nearly
every man woman and child has felt from one time or another, that Brooks delves
into.  Bringing to life a little girl of seven, Brooks creates a vision of human
life.  Unfortunately it is painfully aware to the reader Mabbie's crush will
never manifest itself beyond herself: Peiffer 5

          "Oh, warm is the waiting for joys, my dears!\ And it 	cannot
          be too long.\ Oh, pity the little poor chocolate  lips\ That carry the
          bubble of song!\ Out came the saucily bold Willie Boone.\ It was woe for our
          Mabbie now.\ He wore like a jewel a lemon-hued lynx\ With     sand-
          waves loving her brow.

Mabbie is black, and her crush is white.  Brooks again crushes the readers
senses with the struggle of inequality and racism.  As in "The Ballad of Rudolph
Reed", Brooks uses both finesse, and human characters.  She allows the reader to
feel close to the characters.  She gives them a chance to realize they may have
lived through a time in their lives which were as difficult.
	It is safe to say, Gwendolyn Brooks is a master of styles.  Her ideas
come to life on the page through careful examination of possible stylistic
interpretations; will it be finesse, rhythm or a combination of both.  Brooks
brings out the best a work has to offer with strong, powerful lines, with enough
finesse to lull the reader into the story.


An Exploration of Style by: Will Peiffer




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Harriet Tubman Essay.TXT
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Harriet Tubman


     Harriet Tubman was born 1821 in Dorchester county. She was one of eleven
children, and her parents were slaves.  At the age of seven she was hired to do
housework and to take care of white children on nearby farms.
	In 1944 she married John Tubman, a free black.  In 1949 she escaped to
the north to freedom by following the north star.  Before the outbreak of the
American civil war in 1861 she made 19 journeys back to lead other slaves and
her parents to freedom along the clandestine route known as the Underground
Railroad to Canada.  Harriet was helped by other abolitionist, and Quakers.
	During the Civil War Harriet served the union army. She nursed and
cooked for white soldiers.  She acted as both a scout and a spy leading raiding
parties into confederate territory.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Hayden Carruth Essay.TXT
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Hayden Carruth


	Scrambled Eggs & Whiskey is Hayden Carruth's most recent collection of
works. Published in 1996, it reflects a dark, boozed washed view of the world
throw the eyes of a 76- year-old man. His works reflect his personal experiences
and his opinion on world events. Despite technical merit Carruth works have
become depressing.
	Hayden Carruth is a child of the depression born in Vermont in 1921
where he lived for many tears. He now lives in upstate New York, where he taught
in the Graduate Creative Writing Program at Syracuse University, until his
recent retierment. He has published twenty-nine books, mostly of poetry but also
a novel, four books of criticism, and anthologies as well. Four of his most
recent books are Selected Essays & Reviews, Collected Longer Poems, Collected
Shorter Poems, 1946-1991, and Suicides and Jazzers. He edited poetry for, Poetry,
Harper's, and for 20 years The Hudson Review. He has received fellowships from
the Bollingen Foundation, the Guggenheim Foundation, and the National Endowment
for the Arts, most recently in 1995, a Lannan Literary Fellowship. He has won
many awords including the Lenore Marshall Award, the Paterson Poetry Prize, the
Vermont Governor's Medal, the Carl Sandburg Award, the Whiting Award, the Ruth
Lily Prize, the National Book Award and The National Book Critics' Circle Award
for Collected Shorter Poems, 1946-1991.
	In "Another" Carruth comments on the goal of poetry. He begins by
dismissing truth and beauty;

		"Truth and beauty
		were never the
		 aims of proper poetry
		and the era
		which proclaimed them
		was a brutal
		era."
			-Another

	The era mite have been brutal but "truth and beauty" where and still are
a large part of  "proper poetry". The collected works of William Shakespeare and
Robert Frost both have great deal of truth and beauty in their works as well as
the tragic ordeals in life while Carruth only sees the brutality of life.
Carruth goes on to name the goal of poetry as:

		"...let
		justice be primary
		when we sing,..."
			-Another

	Even though he's primary goal is justice this collection of poems seems
to be one long complaint about injustice. It is easy to agree with Carruth in
the "Quality of wine" when he says "this wine is really awful, " unlike the poet,
it is his unremitting winning that is awful. Like self commentary Carruth
writes:

		 "Language is defeated
		in the heavy, heavy day.

		Limp lines on the page
		like grass mown in the meadow."
			-The Heaviness

	This utter heaviness can be seen in the horrific poem "The Camp, " all
21 verses of it lament man's hardness of heart. In the second verse, a lighter
through reads,

		"As the kittens were born
		the father of the little girl
		bashed the head
		of each one against a rock.
		She watched."
			-The Camps

	In this and many other of his works he illuminates the harshest
situations but rarely offers a solution. If justice is truly Carruth goal why
does not he offer a solution to his readers instead of concentrating on the
hopelessness he sees in life. It would seem that Carruth is in agreement when he
writes "True I've notices in who knows how many poems this life is hell, the
inferno of everyday, every miserable day,..." from "the Best, the Most".
	The grizzle details and sad mussing of Carruth's third world, voyeurism
reeks of CNN or more likely The Nation,
		"on the beaten earth the right hands heaped
		in a little pile for you to encounter

		on your journey and think of those who
		lost them, help less in a forest, children
		probably bleed to death - a village
		in every possible way abandoned."
			-Mort aux Belges

he seems to trail with a eye for the dark underside. Blind to the joy and
triumphs of the human spirt.
	At best he writes of the difference between our ideals and our true
actions:

		"How we cherish
		the dove on the peaceful flag
		even while the real dove at our bird-feeders
		fight viciously among themselves
		and against the smaller sparrows, finches, and chickadees
		for the seed I place there in abundance."
			-The Chain

	Perhaps the dry, grieving, depression of this collection can be
attributed to the impeding death of his daughter due to liver cancer. He
includes three poems in the work illuminating this tragedy in his life. First,
"Auburn Poem," written to his first wife and mother of his daughter. The second,
"Pittsburgh," an account of his time with his daughter at Allegheny General
Hospital. The third "Overlooking Pittsburgh," a poem about his daughter's
paintings of the city while a patient in the hospital. They are the best of the
lot balance some what sweet yet profoundly sad; beautiful but self centered with
grieving.
	Others have lost there youth heath and even loved ones and not been
filled with such despair Carruth tells us he has a loving wife good friend and a
comfortable life, but he seems to find so little joy in them. Talking future
tense of happiness not to be found in his presence. In "Graves," he has a self
revelation when he writes:

		"I wouldn't go look at the grave
		of Shakespeare if it was just
		down the street. I wouldn't
		look at- " And I stopped, I
		was about to say the grave of God
		until I realized I'm looking at it
		all the time...."
			-Graves

	Perhaps to a man how believes God is dead the mystery that is life ends
here and in a demeaning fashion. That view point could tern the colors of life
ti gray and the sweetness to bitter.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Henry Ford Essay.TXT
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Henry Ford
Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 to William and
Mary Ford. He was the first of six children. He grew up in
a rich farming household in Dearborn, Michigan. He
enjoyed a typical childhood, spending his days in a
one-room schoolhouse and doing farm chores. Ever since
he was young, he showed an interest for the mechanical
aspect of things, and how they worked and functioned. He
used to take things apart and put them back together to get
an idea of the inner workings of basic mechanical tools
(Nevins, 47 - 50). In 1879, at a young age of 16, he left
his home to travel to the near by city of Detroit to work as
an apprentice for a machinist. He occasionally returned
home to work on the farm. He remained an apprentice for
three years and then returned to Dearborn. During the next
few years, Henry divided his time between operating and
repairing steam engines, finding occasional work in Detroit
factories, and working on his fathers broken down farm
equipment, as well as lending an unwilling hand with other
farm work. Henry got married to Clara Bryant in 1888
Henry supported himself and his wife by running a sawmill
(Collier, 145 - 152). In 1891, Henry became an engineer
with the Edison Illumination Company. This was an
important event in his life because it signified that he had
made a conscious career move into industrial pursuits. He
was promoted to Chief Engineer in 1893. This gave him
enough time and money to devote attention to his personal
experiments on internal combustion engines (Lacey 13 -
14). The high point of this research came with the
completion of his own self- propelled vehicle, the
Quadricycle. This bike had four wire wheels and was
steered with a tiller, like a boat. It had two forward speeds,
and no reverse. Although this was not the first
self-propelled vehicle, it set Henry Ford as one of the
major pioneers whom helped this nation become one of
motorists (Head 22 - 24). Ford decided that he wanted to
become an automobile manufacturer. After two
unsuccessful tries, Ford motor company was finally
incorporated in 1903 with Henry Ford as the Vice
President and Chief Engineer. When the company first
started it was only producing a few cars a day at the Ford
factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. A group of two or
three men would work on one car from components made
to order by other companies (Lewis 99 - 100) Ford
realized his dream of producing an automobile that was
reasonable priced, reliable and efficient with the
introduction of the Model T in 1908. This vehicle iniated a
new era in personal transportation. It was easy to operate,
maintain, and could handle rough roads. It was also very
reasonably priced at 850 dollars. The cars sold fast and for
the first time, the middle class could afford a car. By 1920,
about 4 million Model T's were sold (Lewis, 103 - 105).
The model T revolutionized America in many different
ways. For example, while the Model T was in production,
the assembly line was used on a large scale. The assembly
line was a powered chain that brought the chassis of the car
to each of its parts. The parts were then attached to the
chassis of the car and moved on to the next station. It
usually took fourteen hours to build one Model T, and with
the assembly line it only took six. Henry built a huge factory
based on the assembly line. The assembly line added more
jobs and significantly lowered the cost of production
(Nevins, 65 - 67). Since the assembly line, Ford was able
to produce many more cars than usual, therefore increasing
profits. Since the profits were increased, Henry was able to
raise the workers' salaries from $2.50 an hour to $5.00 an
hour. He also cut the workday to only eight hours a day,
making the workers very happy. People from all over the
nation tried to get a job working at the Ford Motor
Company because the wages were so good. Also since the
assembly line increased profits, Henry was able to sell
Model T's for a cheaper price. In 1915, the price of the
Model T's went down to $490 (Lacey, 27 -29). Fords
assembly lines didn't always manufacture cars. In early
1941 the Ford was granted government contracts whereby
he was to manufacture parts for bombers and later, the
entire airplane. He then launched the construction of a huge
plant at Willow Run, Michigan. By the end of the War, the
plant had manufactured more than 8000 planes (Collier,
160). In the period of 1937 to 1941, the Ford Company
became the only major manufacturers of automobiles in the
Detroit area that had not recognized any labor unions as the
collective bargaining representative of employees. The
company was later found guilty of repeated violation of the
national Labor Relations Act (Nevins, 69 -70). Henry
Ford was active in many other fields besides those of
automobile and airplane manufacturing. In 1915, he had
world peace on his mind. He chartered a peace ship, which
carried him and a number of like-minded individuals to
Europe, where they attempted without success to persuade
the close-minded to end WWI (Lacey, 33). While still
working at his company, Henry was also nominated for the
U.S. Senate for the state of Michigan in 1918, though he
was defeated. In 1919 Ford laid out 7.5 million of his own
money to erect the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit (Head,
27 - 28). As Ford was getting older, he retired from the
active direction of his gigantic enterprise in 1945. Two
years later, on April 7 1947, Ford died in Dearborn,
Michigan. Ford left behind a personal fortune estimated
between 500 and 700 million (Lacey, 20-21). In
conclusion, Henry Ford was a very important part of our
society. He was responsible for many inventions, including
the Model T. His biggest contribution was revolutionizing
and perfecting the assembly line.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Hippocrates Essay.TXT
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Hippocrates
Hippocrates, the central historical figure in Greek medicine, was born in Kos between 470-460 B.C. He was born of an ancestor of Aselepios, the son of Apollo, named Heraklides. He greatened his education by traveling. He traveled often and widely before he settled in Kos to practice and teach medicine.
Hippocrates taught in Athens and worked on squaring the circle and also worked on duplicating the cube. He grew far in these areas and although his work is not lost, it must have contained much of what Euclid later included in Books One and Two of the Elements.
He believed that experience and mind with speech are the criteria of the knowledge. And according to Hippocrates, the diseases are not due to the "wrath of God", but to natural causes which bring disturbances in the function of the organism. He was set against any idea of sacerdotalism, the belief that priests can act as mediators between God and human beings, and also opposed the spirit of trade-unionism in medicine. He was concerned with the physician's duties, not the "rights". This brought on the greatest legacy of Hippocrates: the Hippocratic Oath.
The Hippocratic Oath was the example for medical etiquette for centuries and endures in modified form today. There is some uncertainty about when it was composed, the purposed for which it was intended, and the historical forces which shaped the document. It is said to have been written in the fifth century B.C. It's principles have slightly changed, if at all, regardless of the place and time, social systems, or religious beliefs. It is the basis for graduates of medical schools and the health professions all over the world.
Translated, the Hippocratic Oath is against suicide and abortion, which were in consonance with the principles of the Christian Church. Suicide was not proscribed by ancient religions, mostly because they did not know of any eternal punishment for those who had ended their own lives. It is also against surgical procedures and is against the shedding of blood. The blood was where the soul was thought to reside. The second half of the Hippocratic Oath is the ethical half and is inconsistent with the principles and practices of Hippocrates.
Hippocrates' work was a breakthrough in medicinal history. He set an example of the ideal physician after which others, centuries after him, copy their existence. It was said by Celsus that "Hippocrates fist gave the physician an independent standing, separating him from the cosmological speculator, or nature philosopher. He then advanced the idea that by observing enough cases, a doctor can soon predict the course of a disease.
Hippocrates was associated with a group of medical treatises known as the Hippocratic Corpus. It consisted of some sixty medical treatises, in which, most were dated back to the later decades of the fifth century B.C. or to the early decades of the fourth. The Hippocratic Corpus is a library. Some of the books included are Ancient Medicines or On Epilepsy. Ancient Medicine was written by an anonymous fifth century physician. But both of the books mentioned involve origin of disease and the intrusion of hypothetical philosophers into medicine.
The picture of Hippocrates is a portrait as envisioned by a Byzantine artist. His portraits usually represent him with a noble face and an impressive body to match his intellectual attributes. There are many busts of Hippocrates but no original Greek portraits have survived, that is why evidence comes from Roman copies.
A certain fact that no one with know of is that during the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, he took part in the efforts to check the great plague, which devastated Athens. The evidence is not to clear on that subject though.
In conclusion, Hippocrates was an important person in history. He had many accomplishments during his life time, that lasted until 380-360 B.C. Some of which were: he was regarded the father of medicine, he was an excellent geometer, and he came across the Hippocratic Oath. But although he was very genius, some said he was "stupid and lacking in sense."
Bibliography
1. www.goto.com then www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/texto.html
2. www.yahoo.com
3. www.encyclopedia.com
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Hitler Essay.TXT
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Hitler


1. THE BEGINNING

At half past six on the evening of April 20th, 1889 a child was born
in the small town of Branau, Austria. The name of the child was Adolf
Hitler. He was the son a Customs official Alois Hitler, and his third wife
Klara.

As a young boy Adolf attendated church regulary and sang in the local
choir. One day he carved a symbol into the bench which resembled the
Swastika he later used as the symbol of the Nazi party. He was a pretty
good student. He received good marks in most of his classes. However in
his last year of school he failed German and Mathematics, and only
succeeded in Gym and Drawing. He drooped out of school at the age of 16,
spending a total of 10 years in school. From childhood one it was his
dream to become an artist or architect. He was not a bad artist, as his
surviving paintings and drawings show but he never showed any originality
or creative imagination. To fullfil his dream he had moved to Vienna the
capital of Austria where the Academy of arts was located. He failed the
first time he tried to get admission and in the next year, 1907 he tried
again and was very sure of success. To his surprise he failed again. In
fact the Dean of the academy was not very impressed with his performance,
and gave him a really hard time and said to him "You will never be
painter." The rejection really crushed him as he now reached a dead end.
He could not apply to the school of architecture as he had no high-school
diploma. During the next 35 years of his live the young man never forgot
the rejection he received in the dean's office that day. Many Historians
like to speculate what would have happened IF.... perhaps the small town
boy would have had a bit more talent....or IF the Dean had been a little
less critical, the world might have been spared the nightmare into which
this boy was eventually to plunge it.

2. WORLD WAR I

While living in Vienna Hitler he made his living by drawing small
pictures of famous landmarks which he sold as post cards. But he was
always poor. He was also a regular reader of a small paper which claimed
that the Araban race was superior to all and was destined to rule the
world. The paper blamed Communists and Jews for all their problems and
hitler agreed to those views. Hitler agree with most of the points made in
the publication. He continued to live a poor live in Vienna and in 1913
decided to move to Munich. Still living in Vienna and being Austrain by
birth, Hitler showed more loyalty to the Geramny. He thought that the
Aryan race was destined to rule the world. Many believe that he tried to
escape the draft but it was never proven. His live in Munich was not much
better then before and he continued to be poor. Then in 1914 World War I
broke out and Hitler saw this as a great opportunity to show his loyalty to
the "fatherland" by volunteering for the Imperial army. He did not want to
fight in the Austrian Army. Hitler was a good soldier. Many of political
opponents claimed that he was a coward but records clearly show that he was
not. He received to awards of bravery but never achieved a high Rank.

In 1918 Germany surrendered and Hitler was very upset about the loss.
He believed that it was the Jews and the Communists who betrayed the
"fatherland" and it was here that his disliking of the Jews most likely
began. Germany after the war was in chaos. With no real Government to
control the country, many groups tried to take control. One day a big
communist group staged a big riot but another group of ex-soldiers
including Hitler managed to hold them back.

3. THE NAZI PARTY

Since there were not many chances for employment Hitler stayed in the
army. Hitler was assigned the job of going go to various meetings of
groups which sprang up like mushrooms and to report on them. One day
September 12, 1919 - a fateful day in history, Hitler was sent to
investigate a small group which called itself the "German Workers Party".
Hitler was not to happy about his assignment. He thought it wouldn't be
worth it to even go. At the group mainly talked about the Countries
problem and how the Jews, communists and others where threatening the
master race and offered their own solutions. Hitler was bored by the
meeting but when a man stood up and claimed that Bavaria should separate
from Germany, Hitler got up and argued that point. He argued that Germany
and germans must unite into one to survive. His natural ability to speak
imprest the leader of the group and at the end of the meeting he gave
Hitler a pamphlet and an initiation the next meeting. He wasn't interested
in attending but after reading the hand out he accepted. He later joined
the German Workers Party and was in charge of Propaganda. The party was
small at first but Hitler's great skill at deliberating speeches attracted
more and more listeners and it soon became a major party with many
followers. Eventually Adolf Hitler became it's leader and the rest as they
say....is history.

4. HITLER IN POWER

While spending time in prison for trying to overthrow the government
Adolf Hitler wrote his famous book "Mein Kampf", in which he describes many
problems and where he states that the Jews and communists were responsible
for those problems. He also decided on the "Final Solution" to the "Jewish
Question". It was his goal to eliminate the Jewish race from the European
continent. It is interesting to look and see how a small time boy from
Austria with no education, money or political background could become
within a few years the leader of big nation such as Germany. Historians
believe that Hitler saw a great opportunity to get his views across to the
German people who have lost all hope. Of course people did not start to
support him right away. After he came into power, the Nazi party took
control over every aspect of every day life. Hitler ordered the creation
of a special police force to make sure that all opponents would be
elimanted, the Gestapo. He also gave orders to set up a special force
which would be used to transport and take care of all political prisioners
and people thought to be inferior. The name of the force was the feared
SS. Mass propaganda was used to persuade the German people that the
"Fuhrer" would make the country strong and powerful again. They also used
propaganda against the Jews and other minority groups which were considered
enemies. Teachers had to belong to the Nazi party, and children were
taught that Jews very the source of all their problems. Since the country
was in chaos after the war, and was forced to pay billions in damages, The
Germans saw hope in Adolf Hitler. In the late 20's the depression hit which
made the situation even worse.

Hitler in his speeches blamed the Jews and Communists for their
misfortunes and many listed. Unemployment was very high at that time
standing at about 25%. Hitler also spoke out against the unfairness of the
Versailles treaty. Germany lost a lot of its territory. The Empire was no
more. He believed the pure Araban race is destined to rule the world and
wanted to build an Empire that would last a 1000 years. He preached that
all Germans must unite in order for this goal to succeed.

Hitler publicly stated his views on the Jews. But the Jews of Germany
didn't see Hitler as a great threat at first. However when Hitler became
chancellor and eventually took over totally they changed their mind. The
first thing he did was to take the Jews their right to vote. Soon they
were not allowed to marry with a pure german, they could not hold positions
such as teachers, doctors lawyers,..and so on. Many Jews only then
realized that he was serious and many fled Germany. Why did so many
Germans follow Hitler? When he took power the economy was basically non
existent. Many looked for answers and hope. Hitler was their answer. He
promised to rebuild the Glorious Germany of the past. First he started to
build up the Wehrmacht. Germany was not allowed to have more than 100,000
men, but Hitler broke the treaty and gave orders to increase that number.
Factories started putting out weapons and people now had jobs. To the
Germans this was a very good sign. Mass rallies were held, where Hitler
continued to use his powers of speech on the German people.

5. THE ROAD TO WAR

At first the allies did nothing about the fact that Hitler broke the
Treaty. He gave speeches in which he indicated that the German people
needed living space. Later he Marched into the Reihnland, and area which
Germany lost. Next He moved into Austria, his home country and annexed it
without a shoot being fired into the Reich. Following Austria, he wanted
control of the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia which was mainly
German speaking. He also achieved that goal. The allies didn't want
another war so they led Hitler do what he wanted to, but when he Attacked
Poland on September 1st, 1939 the allies no longer stood by and watched.
Britain and France declared war on Germany a few days after later, World
War II began.

6. THE DARK SIDE

After the Wehrmacht conquered and occupied a territory the SS quickly
followed. They would round up Jews, Communists, Gypsies, Homosexuals and
others which were viewed as "Inferior" according to Nazi racial theory and
enemies of the German people and put on trains. They were all sent to
Concentration camps, which were set up to implement the 'final solution'.
Camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Bergen Belsen were all equipped with
gas chambers to make the killing process quick and efectfull. In those
camps 6 million Jews and many others were killed by the Nazis. Hitler's
army seemed unstoppable but in the end, the allies managed to win many
decisive battles. Eventually on Aril 30th, 1945 Hitler committed suicide
in his bunker by shooting himself in the mouth. His body was burned, but
no ones knows what happened to the "Fuhrer's" ashes. On May 7th, 1945
Germany surrendered unconditionally.

7. THE MAN

Hitler was one of the most, if not the most cruel man to ever walk the
face of the earth. His believe of the superiorority of the "Aryan" race
made him hate all others. He believed that the slaws to the east should be
made work for the German people. He thought of blacks as being
"Sub-human". And Most of all he hated the Jews. So much that in early
1945, when equipment and manpower was badly needed on the front Hitler
insisited on man and equipment staying and continuing to tranport Jews to
the camps. In his Testament he left his money to his family. And message
to the Germany people "Above all I charge the leaders of the nation and
those under them to scrupulous observance of the laws of race and to
merciless opposition to the universal poisoner of all peoples,
international Jewry."

The only people which would be spared where the Scandinavians to the
north, since they were closely related to the German race. With Hitler's
death the Nazi party quickly fated. But there is still a lot of tension in
todays Germany.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Hopes and Dreams Essay.TXT
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Hopes and Dreams


	Science has been the backbone of my life ever since my high school days
in Malaysia.  Although I studied many science subjects like Physics and Biology,
I was especially fond of chemistry.  My fondness of chemistry was attributed to
my chemistry teacher Mr. Ang, in the eleventh grade who motivated me to explore
every topic in great depth.  He always gave me great advice, and I was greatly
influenced by his spirit and values.
	Before I applied to universities in Malaysia, I attended various
seminars which gave advice to students who were applying to universities and
colleges.  It is here that I got the most important advice of all, "Chose a
major in a field that interests you."  It did not take long before I was
accepted to the xxxx University, and I chose Chemical Engineering as my field of
study.  Unfortunately, I had to deny the offer since my family had decided to
move to the United States of America.
	Moving to the States has not been easy.  I have not only encountered
cultural differences, but a lot of difference in the educational system as well.
But my goal to major in Chemistry still remains unchanged, and my options have
widened.  Last year, I learned about the Center for Science Excellence in one of
my Chemistry classes, but I wasn't aware of the many advantages and rewards of
being part of such a remarkable program.
	As a newcomer, I have made numerous mistakes in choosing my courses and
I need a lot of good advice and guidance.  The Center for Science Excellence is
exactly the type of program that can fulfill these needs, and help to put me on
the right track instead me personally learning from costly mistakes.  CSE is
center which guides many other science students.  It would be very helpful to
make friends with other science students with whom I can exchange knowledge,
ideas, and friendship.  The internships that CSE provides to its students would
help me gain experience and exposure to various areas in science which interest
me, and hopefully guide me to the job of my dream.
	The guided study sessions would be a great asset to my education and
would greatly increase my chances of being successful in every class.  The
various seminars and guest speakers would give me knowledge that isn't in the
school syllabus, and help expand my view of the scientific world.
	Being accepted as part of the Center for Science Excellence will not
only help me succeed as a student, but it would give me a head-start towards my
goals in life.






 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another James A Garfield Essay.TXT
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James A. Garfield


	James A. Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, in 1831.  His
father died in 1833, when Garfield was only two years old and so his mother
had to carry on working the family farm by herself. With the death of his
father, the family feel into poverty.  Even though they had very little money,
his mother made sure that her children went to the neighborhood school to get
a good education.  He belonged to the Desciples of Christ Church.

	While growing up, James drove canal boat teams, and earned enough
money to further his education at college.  He attended Western Reserve
Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio,  and was graduated from Williams College
in 1856.  He returned to Western Eclectic Institute and became a classics
professor.  Later, he became the president of the College.

	In 1858, he was married to Lucretia Rudolph and had seven kids.
Eliza, Harry, James, Mary, Irvin, Abram, and Edward.

	James Garfield was an advocate for free-soil principles and soon
became a supporter of the newly organized Republican Party.  And in 1859,
he was elected to the Ohio Legislature.  During the succession crisis, he
advocated coercing the seceding states back into the Union.

	During the Civil War, he helped to recruit the 42nd Ohio Volunteer
Infantry and became the infantry's colonel.  He fought at Shiloh in April 1862,
served as a chief of staff in the Army of the Cumberland, saw action at
Chickamauga in September of 1863.

	When the Union victories had been few in 1862, he successfully led a
brigade at Middle Creek, Kentucky, against Confederate troops.  And in
1862, at the age of 31, he became brigader general, only to be made a major
general in 1863.

	Meanwhile, in 1862, he was elected by fellow Ohioans to The United
States House of Representatives.  He was persuaded by President Lincoln to
resign his army job and remain in Congress.  Said Lincoln, "It is easier to find
major generals than to obtain effective Republicans for Congress."  Garfield
held his House seat for 18 years by winning repeated elections and became
the leading Republican in the House.  As Chairman of the House committee
on Appropriations, he became an expert on fiscal matters. He also advocated
a high protective tarriff, and sought a firm policy of Reconstruction for the
South.  In 1880, he was elected to the United States Senate.

	At the Republican Convention in 1880, he failed to win the Presidential
nomination for his friend, John Sherman, but became the "dark horse"
nominee on the 36th ballot.

	In November 1880, he became the 20th President, winning with a
10,000 vote margain over the Democratic challenger, General Winfield Scott
Hancock.

	As president, he strengthened Federal authority over the New York
Customs House, the stronghold of Senator Conkling.  He named Conkling's
arch-rival, William H. Robertson, to run the Customs House. This ruling was
contested, but Garfield would not back down.  "This will settle the question
whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the
United States."

	Garfield's presidential career came to an abrupt end on July 2, 1881, in
a Washington railroad station when  he was shot by Charles Guiteau, only
four months into Garfield's presidency.  For eighty days the president lay ill
and performed only one official act, the signing of an extradiction paper.

	Alexander Graham Bell tried to find the bullet in Garfield's body with a
metal detector, but was unsuccessful at locating it, because Garfield was
laying on a mattress with metal springs.  He was taken to New Jersey and
seemed to be recuperating but died on September 19, 1881 from an infection
and internal hemmorage.

	In my opinion, Garfield wasn't much of a president, solely on the fact
that he only spent four months in office and never had a chance to do
anything great or stupid.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another James Cook Essay.TXT
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James Cook


	Do you know who the worlds greatest explorers are?  One of them is the
topic of this essay.  This essay is about James Cook.  The objective of this
report will be to answer the following question: Why do we remember James Cook?
	James Cook was born on October 27, 1728 in Marton, England.  At the age
of 18 James Cook became an apprentice with a shipping company.  His first
voyages he worked on ships that carried coal to English ports.    In 1755,
during the French - Indian war, Cook joined the British navy.  In 1759 he was
given a dangerous wartime mission. He was to enter French territory and survey
the St. Lawrence river for the British navy. The charts that he made during this
voyage contributed to the capture of the French city of Quebec later in that
year.
	James Cook made three voyages to the Pacific.  His first voyage, in 1768,
the navy appointed Cook to lead an expedition to Tahiti.  On the Endeavour they
left in August and reached Tahiti in April of 1769.  On the island scientists
watched the planet Venus pass between the Earth and the Sun.  This was the main
goal of this voyage but cook had been given secret orders to find an unknown
continent in the south pacific.  He was told to find it because geographers
believed that it kept the world in balance, however Cook was unable to find it.
In October of 1769 Cook became the first European man to visit New Zealand.  In
April of 1770 the Endeavor sailed to Botany Bay on the east coast of Australia.
Cook claimed the entire east coast of Australia for Great Britain. He returned
to England in July of 1771.  During this voyage, from 1678 - 1771, Cook became
the first ship captain to prevent an outbreak of scurvy.  Cook had heard that
scurvy was caused by a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits.  To prevent an
outbreak he served his sailor's fruit and sauerkraut.  In July of 1772 Cook set
off on his second voyage to the pacific.  Cook had left England with the
Resolution and the Adventure.  This expedition was Cook's second attempt to find
the unknown southern continent.  During this voyage Cook sailed farther south
than any European had ever gone.  Cook faced many dangers in the cold Antarctic
waters.  Jagged mountains and ice as high as 18 meters often blocked the way of
the ships.  High winds that pushed the icebergs towards the ships increased the
danger.  Cook circled Antarctica but the ice kept him from sighting land.  In
1773 and 1774 Cook became the first European to visit a number of Pacific
Islands, including the Cook Islands and New Caledonia.  He arrived back in
England in July of 17775 and was promoted to a captain.  Cook's final voyage was
in July of 1776. Cook took two ships, the Resolution and the Discovery, to find
a possible northern sea route between Europe and Asia.  Cook first sailed to New
Zealand and some other Pacific Islands.  In January of 1778 James Cook became
the first European to go to the Hawaiian Islands.  Cook named them the Sandwich
Islands to tribute Britain's chief naval minister, the Earl of Sandwich.
Later that year Cook sailed to the northwest coast of North America.  He was the
First European to land on Vancouver Island.  Cook then continued up the coast
and sailed Bering Strait and then entered the Arctic Ocean.  The walls of ice in
the Arctic Ocean blocked the expedition so Cook headed back to the Sandwich
Islands in August.  In February of 1779 an Islander stole a boat from the
Discovery at Kealakekua Bay.  Cook tried to investigate the theft of the boat
but was stabbed to death in a fight with Islanders on February 14, 1779.  The
expedition returned to England in October of 1780.
	James Cook accomplished many things in his lifetime.  He  had surveyed
and charted thousands of kilometers of coast and solved many mysteries of the
Pacific Ocean. He opened the northwest American coast trade and colonization.
He also discovered the Hawaiian Island, which he called the Sandwich Islands,
and was the first European man to set foot on New Zealand and Vancouver Island.
	James Cook played a very important part in the formation of Canada.  The
maps he made of the St. Lawrence river helped the British conquer the French.
If he had never gone on these voyages Canada would now be under French rule and
we would be living, talking, and acting differently.  He opened the northwest
American coast to trade which led to the colonization of North America.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another James Joyce Essay.TXT
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James Joyce


	James Joyce, an Irish novelist and poet, grew up near Dublin.  James
Joyce is one of the most influential novelists of the 20th century.  In each of
his  prose works he used symbols to experience what he called  an "epiphany",
the revelation of certain revealing qualities about himself. His early writings
reveal individual moods and characters and the plight of Ireland and the Irish
artist in the 1900's.  Later works, reveal a man in all his complexity as an
artist and in family aspects.  Joyce is known for his style of  writing called
"stream of consciousness".  Using this technique, he ignored ordinary sentence
structure and attempted to reproduce the rambling's of the human mind.  Many of
his works were influenced  by his life in Ireland as an artist.  He was
influenced by three main factors in his life, his childhood and parents, his
homeland of Dublin, Ireland, and the Roman Catholic Church.   These three
aspects show up in all his works subtly, but specifically in, The Dead, A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, and Araby.
	James Joyce, was born February 2, 1882 in Dublin, Ireland.  He was the
first of fifteen kids born to Mary Jane Murray, and John Stanslaus Joyce.  He
was christened James Augustine Aloysius Joyce.  His mother was a mild woman who
had intelligent opinions but didn't express them.  His father was a violent,
quick tempered man who was a  medical student and politician.  He was educated
in Dublin at Jesuit school's his whole life.  In 1888, he went to Clongeswood
College, but his father lost his job and James had to withdraw.  He graduated in
October of 1902, from Royal University.  He was fascinated by the sounds of
words and by the rhythms of speech since he first started school.  He was
trained by the Jesuits who at one time hoped he would join their order; but
Joyce became estranged from the Jesuits and defected from the Catholic Church
after graduating college.  Joyce made a huge effort to free himself from all
aspects of the past such as, family, religion, and country.  He left Ireland in
1902 after graduating college.  He spent the rest of his life in either Trieste,
Zurich, or Paris.  During this time he was very  poor.  He spent much of his
working career as a  language instructor.  He was said to have known 17
languages.  He also spent time as a bank clerk, while trying to find time to
write.  He started to have eye problems in 1907, and by the end of his life he
was almost blind.  After Ulysses in 1922, he was left a lot of money from an
Englishwoman, and then spent his time working on his writing full time.  This
book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in 1916, was an autobiographical
novel about his youth and his home life. The main character's name in this is
Stephen Dedalus.  It shows a clear cut , advocary of an artists right to defy
inhibiting forces like, family, church and nation.  When Stephen, was in the
university he talks about hi dislike for his classmates who just bend their
heads and write in their notebooks, "the points they were bidden to note,
nominal definitions, essential definitions and examples or dates of birth or
death, chief works, a favorable and unfavorable criticism side by side," Joyce's
views of Irish education weren't very good.  Stephen in this book scorns his
family, and his fathers attributes.  He thinks that he has failed in his effort
to unite his will and the will of God, to love God the way he feels is expected.
He feels this because he will not serve God.  He wants to live his life his way.
He talks about how he knew he couldn't be accepted, "it wounded him to think
that he would never be but a shy guest at the feast of the world's culture and
that the monkish learning, in terms of which he was striving to forge out an
esthetic philosophy, was held no higher by the age he lived than the subtle and
curious jargons of heraldry and falconry."  He feels that he has been taught
nothing, he must seek out and learn on his own.   Joyce feels very dedicated to
himself as a literary artist and dedication to God and family  is next to
nothing.  He says this through Stephen, "Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for
the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my
soul the uncreated conscience of my race."   He has a dedication that lets his
writing take over and he  waits to see what his soul will create.
	Joyce's feelings toward Ireland are very strong.  He voluntarily exiled
himself  from Ireland and forced himself to forget about it all together.  He
had a very small knowledge of life in Dublin, but what he did have he used to
his full extent.  He was not effected  by the intense Irish  nationalism that he
felt most Irish people had.    In his novel, The Dead, he uses the character
Gabriel to get his feelings on this across.  He says this, "to live successfully
in a land where the unhappy past is always felt and the presence of shades and
spirits is compelling and obtrusive one must vigorously affirm the life of fact
and enlightened action."  Joyce feels that Ireland is filled with past events
that now haunt its future and nothing good can happen while there are still bad
feelings.  He also says " I'm sick of my country, I'm sick of it."  Joyce is
sick of his country and has intense feelings of hatred for it.  He expresses
these feelings for Ireland the most in The Dead.   The Dead may have been
Joyce's picture of himself if he had not left Ireland when he did.  Joyce left
Ireland after college, he says through Gabriel, "the time had come for him to
set out on his journey westward.  Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was
general all over Ireland.  It was falling on every part of the dark central
plain, on the treeless hills, falling softly upon the Bog of Allen and, farther
westward, softly falling into the dark mutinous Shannon waves.  It was falling,
too, upon every part of the lonely churchyard on the hill where Michael Furey
lay buried."  Through Joyce's description of the landscape of Ireland he  shows
how he feels that Ireland is an evil place.  The snow is almost the purity of
Ireland falling onto the landscape.  He goes on to talk about how it melted into
these places and washed away into the evil atmosphere.   Joyce intended to
demonstrate the characteristics of Irish life  and to hope that Gabriel would
escape his own ego and that life in Ireland would start anew.  Joyce states in
his critical writings that "the economic conditions that prevail in my own
country do not permit the development of individuality."  He felt very
constricted as an artist in Ireland.  He also states that, "the soul of the
country is weakened by centuries of useless struggle and broken treaties, and
individual initiative is paralysed by the influence and admonitions of the
church, while its body is manacled by the police, the tax office, and the
garrison.  No one who has any self respect stays in Ireland, but fleas afar as
though from a country that has undergone the visitation from an angry Jove."
Ireland to him is the place where censorship and pain over old struggles that
should be forgotten prevail over new ideas.  He believes that his artistic
abilities are being choked and that the bureaucracy of  life in Ireland is too
great for him for him to overcome.
	At one time Joyce thought he wanted to be a Monk for the Catholic Church.
 After he estranged himself from the church, he tried to get as far away from it
as he possibly could.  Joyce saw the church as a prison.  He writes in Araby
about young boys in a Catholic school.  He says this, "North Richmond street,
being blind was a quiet street except at the hour the Christians Brothers School
set the boys free."  Joyce himself spent much of his youth in a Catholic School,
in which he felt later as an adult that it had been almost a prison for his mind,
telling him how to think and act.    He often writes about how he would like to
see the strict church open up it's mind to new ideas.  He says this in Araby
also, " In time, perhaps there will be a gradual reawakening of the Irish
conscience, and perhaps four or five centuries after the Diet of Worms, we will
see an Irish Monk throw away his frock, run off with some nun, and proclaim in a
loud voice the end of coherent absurdity that was Catholicism and the beginnings
of the incoherent absurdity that is Protestantism."  Joyce felt that the
restraints placed on thinking was absurd and that people should think on their
own, without the church telling you how to think.
	James Joyce's was interested in discovering the truth in his writings
and revealing it.  He was a good observer of reality, which he loved, and he
always wanted to get at the truth behind the appearance.  Joyce voluntarily
exiled himself from Ireland, but still Ireland was never far from his mind, and
his writing.  He also exiled himself from the church yet wrote about it and it's
constraints often.  He left his childhood behind and chose to write his
childhood autobiography under a different name.  He observed other people's
reality and yet choose to ignore his own.  He left Ireland, the church, and his
childhood, psychically, but he never left them in his own unconscious.  He
choose to write about his life and feelings in other peoples words and in other
peoples mouths.  Still wishing to exile himself from his life, he almost felt as
if by leaving all these places on the outside he would leave all his feelings
behind also.  He wrote about the topics he choose to distance himself from, as
if to get an unbiased look at them, and to write about the real truth.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Jim Bridger Essay.TXT
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Jim Bridger


Jim Bridger A trail guide, a fur tracker and hunter and a fur trader.  Jim
Bridger may have been one of the best outdoorsmen of all times.  James
Bridger was born on March 17, 1804.  In 1812 Jim's parents moved to the
vicinity of St. Louis.  He was orphaned at age 12 and became a blacksmiths
apprentice.  In 1822, attracted by an ad in the Missouri Republican, 18
year old Jim, joined Gen. William H. Ashley's fur tracking expedition to
the head waters of Missouri.  In 1824 while searching for fur in the Rockey
Mountains, Jim,  allegedly became the first person to see the Great Salt
Lake.  Later on, he and a friend were one of the first white men to see the
place which became Yellow Stone Park.  During the next 20 years Jim trapped
in the west as a partner in fur companies.

In 1843 when fur sales declined he set up a fort in southwest Wyoming as a
way station to supply immigrants on the Oregon trail.  In the next 40 years
he married 3 times to American Indian women, none of whom  survived with
him.  Bridger's vast knowledge of many trails gave him a job as a scout and
he helped the army  when fighting the Indians. Bridger strongly opposed the
Mormons and guided United State troops into Utah during a conflict that has
been called the Utah war or Mormon war.  In 1865 he guided the powder river
expedition.  And also became the first person to measure the bozeman trail
(600 miles) from fort laramie, Wyoming to Virginia City, Montana.


James Bridger was just about the most famous explorer of the American West.
In honor of his travels, The Bridger Mountains, Bridger pass and Bridger
National Forest are among the places named for him. And on July 17, 1881
James Bridgers life came to an end, just near Kansas City.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Joan of Arc Essay.TXT
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Joan of Arc


	A French saint and a heroine in the Hundred Years' war was Joan of Arc.
This farm girl helped save the French from English command and was often called
the Maid Orleans and the Maid of France.  Her inspiration led the French to many
victories.
	Joan Of Arc (In French Jeanne d'Arc) was born around 1412, in the
village of Domremy, France.  She was a peasant girl who, like many girls of that
time, could not read or write.  Her father, Jacques, was a wealthy tenant farmer
and her mother, Isabelle Romee, taught her how to sow, spin, and cook which she
was proud of.  She also spent much of her time praying to and serving God.  She
lived like most children did at that time, until when she was about thirteen.
According to Wagenknecht: "The Vision first came when she was first
thirteen...." 1   The vision was Saint Michael who said she should be a good
girl and go to church. When more and more Visions had come it started coming
clearer to her and when she saw Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret her duty was
clear, she was the chosen one to crown Charles the VII. 2
	Since France had been fighting with England in what was called the
Hundred Years' War, much of Northern France was captured by the English,
including Reims where the coronation for kings had been held for over centuries
before him.  Since Reims was captured, Charles the VII, who had not yet been
crowned; was still called the Dauphin.  When Joan had these visions of Saint
Catherine and Saint Margaret, she told her family and friends.  When she told
her father, he would not let her go.  After when these Visions told her that
England and Burgundy, England's ally, were going to capture Orleans, one of
France's last strong forces, she knew she had to react.  She needed to go to the
governor of Vaucouleurs, an agent of the Dauphin, and convince him to give her
an army to escort her to the Dauphin.
	She first needed an escort to come with her to see the governor so she
asked her cousin, Durand Laxart.  He, at first, was skeptical about it, but then
he soon came to Joan's side.  When she told the governor, Robert de Baudricourt,
he said she was a fool and she should go home.  But after some time of waiting,
Baudri-court let her go, under his protection, to the Dauphin with male
clothing,  a sword, 3 a safe conduct pass, and a small escort.  They departed
February 23.  They safely traveled at night on byroads for eleven days from
Vacouleurs to Chinon.  They slept in the open air and disguised Joan, so the
English would not notice her when she attended Mass in the towns they went
through.
	After some time arriving in Chinon, she was escorted to where the
Dauphin was.  The Dauphin was among his courtiers and she carefully picked him
out, while he was among his courtiers.  She went there.

Jean Benedetti described it:

	Joan made her entrance and according to Jean Cartier, Charles VII's
official historian, curtsied as though she had been doing it her whole life.
She was a striking woman who dressed, and in many ways behaved, like a man and
yet had feminine qualities of compassion and tenderness.  Everyone who met was
impressed the force of  her personality.  She had 'charisma'.  Moreover she
provided a minor wonder by recognizing the king who was hiding among his
courtiers, trying to look inconspicuous, and doubtless succeeding.  When she
addressed him he de denied that he was the king, pointing to one of his
courtiers with the words, 'You are mistaken,  there is the king.'  But Joan
persisted, calling him 'Gentle Dauphin'. 2

Joan and the Dauphin spent some time together talking together and she told him
4 that God has sent her there to tell him that God has said that he will be
anointed and crowned king in Reims.
	The decision was to be postponed for a few months.  There was a
commission to inspect Joan's history; to make sure that she was really sent by
God and not the devil.  And Joan herself was questioned and tested at the
University of Poitiers and she also had to have a verification by matron to
prove that she was a virgin.  After three weeks the court claimed that she was
acceptable.  Even though there were myths said about the situation, they wanted
her story to be true.  If it was not true, than who would save them?   As Pierre
Goubert stated, "She won the confidence  and respect of rough soldiers and
chiefs, who knew the legend that a maiden would save the kingdom that had been
lost by a woman- Isabeau.  To these people, what we regard as extraordinary, the
marvelous or divine appeared normal." 3
	The appointed rendezvous for the troops was Blois.  Joan made sure that
all the men in the army obeyed the Ten Commandments and kicked out all the loose
5 women.  They had to confess their sins to a priest and receive Eucharist.
Wagennecht pointed out that "And LaHire himself, that good-hearted roughneck,
whose every word was an oath, was forbidden to swear except by his baton!" 4
Even though the army was living by religious rule, they did have fun.  The
Dauphin furnished her with armor, attendants, and horses before they left.
Compton's Living Encyclopedia states that, "A special banner was made for Joan
to carry in battle.  On one side were the words 'Jesus Maria' and a figure of
God, seated on clouds holding a glove.  The other side had a figure of the
Virgin and a shield, with two angels supporting the arms of France" 5
	When Joan and her army arrived in Orleans on April 29th, she was not in
command but her being there fired the army with confidence.  Joan did not find
the plans on how they were going to enter the enclosed city of Orleans
acceptable so they used the plans she made up.  Joan had helped save the
enclosed town of Orleans from the English.  The Voices still guided Joan and
they told her very precise information on what to do but she often lost her
sanity in battle.  But for the fact 6 that these Voices guided her, and how she
often got pulled away from certain death or pulled away from being captured made
the English think that they were dealing with the supernatural.  As Jean
Benedetti said:

	Certainly the sight of a woman dressed in white armour, carrying a white
banner and leading troops into battle, must have been impressive, whatever abuse
they might throw at her.  Besides her frequent trips to the fortifications, her
summons to the English to surrender must have taken an magic aura, as though she
had been trying to put a spell on them, or conjure them to surrender. 6

 	On May 4th, Joan took command with the attack at the Bastille of Saint
Loup, and they conquered it easily because the English had not enough time to
get equipped; this attack cleared the eastside of Orleans. They planned an
attack to take the fortress of Les Tourelles, the key point in the disposition
of the English.  If they could take back Les Tourelles, the French could control
the river again.  In doing this, Joan was injured by an arrow that made a deep
wound in her shoulder.  They treated it with a dressing of lard and olive oil
and Joan went back into battle.  On an attack at Dunois, they had started
attacking in the morning and by sunset they had made no progress and  were about
to retire when something miraculous 7 happened.  Joan had went into a vineyard
and prayed, then the fort opened and the army entered and they captured the fort.
	On May 8th, 1429, the English left their fortress and the siege of
Orleans was over.  That night victory was celebrated, the army went from church
to church and was cheered by the town.  But still the Dauphin had not been
crowned yet. Joan was excluded from the meetings but she always ended up
figuring what was happening, and there was a delay. Joan wanted him to be
crowned right away and not after Paris was liberated, which was what Charles
wanted.  So Charles agreed to go to Reims for the coronation but during the
planning time, he would campaign in Loire valley which was consolidated.
	On July 16, the army, Joan, and Charles entered Reims.  And on July 17,
1429, the Dauphin was crowned king of France, with Joan stood by by the king
holding her banner.  This was her golden hour; she achieved her miraculous task
her Visions set her out to do, and she was recognized for it.
	They French decided to attack Paris, but the king's procrastination
warded 8 Joan and her army from accorded attack.  But Compiegne, Senilus, and
Beauvais were all captured.  On August 28, an armistice was signed between
France and Burgundy, which Joan did not favor.  On September 8th, Joan attacked
the Porte Saint Honore, Paris and failed.  Here Joan, once again, was wounded,
but this time in her thigh.  Joan was taken away from Paris and Charles VII
disbanded his army, from autumn of 1429 until the end of the following May.  She
participated in taking Saint Pierre le Moutier in autumn.  And on May 23, 1430
Joan went out to Compiegne, which was then sieged by the Duke of Burgundy.  When
she entered the Burgundian lines, she was taken away from her soldiers and was
caught.
	While being a prisoner at Beaurevoir, she tried to escape twice.   Once
she locked her jailer in but they found her out and sent her back.  The second
time she wanted to go back to Compiegne, and since she was scared she would fall
into the English's hands, she jumped sixty feet from her tower at Beaurevoir,
without listening to her Voices.  A leap from that height would have ended any
other human life but she survived with no broken bones and only minor injuries.
When found she 9 was taken to Crotoy on the Somme, and there she was sold to the
English to be tried as a witch under an ecclesiastical court.
	She was handed over to Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, on January
3rd, 1431.  The sittings had begun on February 21 and continued over a period of
months.  She was held in chains, harassed by countless questions, and threatened
with torture over this period of months; Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret
still gave her advice through all this.  On May 24, 1431, Joan was taken to the
cemetery where she she was to been burned at the stake unless she recanted,
which she did.  This is not really to clear to historians why she did that, but
many believe that she did not understand what the recant meant.  Wagenknecht
stated that "Her own view, after she was herself again, or perhaps one should
say her report and interpretation of the view of her Voices in that matter, was
that she had imperiled her soul to save her life: 'It was the fear of the fire
which made me say what I did." 7  After her recanting she was sentenced from
death to life of imprisonment. Of her being treated so softly, the English were
furious.  Joan had thought she was going 10 to be sent free but instead Cauchon
sentenced her to perpetual imprisonment



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another John Adams Essay.TXT
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John Adams


	John Adams, who became the second president of the United States, has
been accused by some historians of being the closest thing America ever had to a
dictator or monarch (Onuf, 1993). Such strong accusations should be examined in
the context of the era in which Mr. Adams lived and served. A closer examination
of the historical events occurring during his vice presidency and his term as
president, strongly suggests that Adams was not, in fact, a dictator. Indeed,
except for his lack of charisma and political charm, Adams had a very successful
political career before joining the new national government. He was, moreover,
highly sought after as a public servant during the early formation of the new
federal power (Ferling, 1992).
	Adams was a well educated, seasoned patriot, and experienced diplomat.
He was the runner-up in the election in which George Washington was selected the
first United States President. According to the electoral-college system of that
time, the second candidate with the most electoral votes became the Vice
President (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). As president, Washington appointed, among
others, two influential political leaders to his original cabinet; Thomas
Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson, a veteran politician became the
Secretary of State and Hamiliton, a young, outspoken New Yorker lawyer, became
the Secretary of the Treasury (Ferling, 1992). Jefferson, like Adams, had also
signed the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, however, was the only cabinet
member relatively unknown to Adams (Ferling, 1992). It was Hamilton, nonetheless,
who excelled during this new administration by initiating numerous, innovative,
and often controversial programs, many of which were quite successful. Adams and
Hamil ton were both Federalists. Unlike Hamiliton, Adams was more moderate
(Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). During this first administration, Adams and
Hamilton quarreled (Washington Retires, 1995), and Adams contemptuously began
referring to Hamilton as "his puppyhood" (DeCarolis, 1995). This created a rift
in the administration, for Washington generally favored Hamiliton (Smelser &
Gundersen, 1975), and disregarded Adams (Ferling, 1992). Hamilton also went to
great lengths to drive Jefferson out of the cabinet (Allison, 1966). Jefferson
did finally, indeed, resign from the cabinet. The Federalists "party," of which
Hamiliton was the leader (DeCarolis, 1995) was greatly divided and even violent,
at times, under his leadership (Allison, 1966). This is significant in assessing
Hamilton's and others' arguments of Adams being a dictator after his
presidential victory in 1796 A.D.
	There are several traits that were conspicuous about John Adams. First,
he was known as an honest man of integrity (Ferling, 1992; Smelser & Gundersen,
1975). He was also often described as "stubborn," quick-tempered, and even
cantankerous at times (Liesenfelt, 1995; Smelser & Gundersen, 1975; Wood, 1992).
He was, however, quite intelligent and apparently had a secure self-esteem,
being quite willing the challenge tradition (Wood, 1992). Adams was an intensely
self-introspective man, though confident (Calhoon, 1976).
	By 1795, conflict was raging with France. Washington made it clear that
he was not returning to office. This, for the first time, provided the impulse
for the two differing political philosophies to align into separate parties,
even though the Federalists never considered themselves to be a party (Wood,
1992). Hamilton tried to by-pass Adams by nominating Carolinian Thomas Pickney
(Ferling, 1992). He had instigated a similar conspiracy to keep Adams from
defeating Washington in the second national election, as Adams had discovered
(DeCarolis, 1995). In spite of the divided Federalists, Adams defeated Thomas
Jefferson by three electoral votes. He became the second president and Jefferson,
having the second largest number of votes, became vice-president. This event,
too, is significant because for the first time in office here were two men of
totally different philosophies of government, attempting to run the country
together. Adams' presidency was stressful from the moment of his inauguration.
In his address, he sought to make it clear that he was not a monarchist
(Allison, 1966).
	France had decreed to seize American ships. The country was divided over
whether to be pro-British (as was Hamilton) or pro-France (as was Jefferson).
Hamiliton eventually resigned the position of inspector general, but continued
to send Adams unsolicited recommendations regarding foreign policy issues
(DeCarolis, 1995). Adams resented Hamilton's meddling in his executive
prerogatives. He eventually expelled two other Hamiltonian cabinet members. The
height of Adam's presidency and popularity came primarily from the victories the
navy had over French vessels, and the exposure of the scandal called the XYZ
Affair, in which Adams was applauded for revealing the dishonesty and corruption
of the French officials, and French insistence on demanding bribes.
	This period, however, was very unstable and uncertain, both at home and
abroad. Hamilton made bitter attacks on Adams' policies (Elser, 1993). The
fiscal situation was desolate. The national debt and the threat of what appeared
to be inescapable war caused great stress, opposition, and even occasional
violence (Onuf, 1993). Matters only became worse. The Federalist Congress
created a provisional army which, though needed, added to the financial strain.
Congress then passed three major oppressive measures all within a two-week
period: the Alien Act, the Naturalization Act, and the Sedition Acts, all of
which caused Adam's popularity to decrease and his political direction to be
questioned (Ferling, 1992). The army, needed because of the French conflict, was
very expensive to maintain. The Alien Act permitted the president to deport
those who are considered a threat to the government. Many immigrants did return
to Europe because of fear. The Naturalization Act placed new stipulations on
becoming a citizen and required fourteen years of residency. The last, and most
offensive act, the Sedition Act, was purely a censorship tactic, which did
result in several anti-federalists (Republicans) being indicted for printing
criticisms against the government (Ferling, 1992). Adams never recommended any
such measures, but he did sign the bill (Allison, 1966). This law prohibited
attacks on the government,  oral or written, and upon arrest the defendant had
to prove his innocence (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). Due to these congressional
measures, citizens, including Jefferson, began to fear that the provisional army
would not just fight France, but also use their military strength to attack
protesting Americans, hence beginning a civil war. That Sedition Act had no
immediate impact may be evidence that the Federalists were acting out of
paranoia in their immediate frenzy to stop domestic opposition (Ferling, 1992).
	These events, along with the establishing of political parties, as well
as John Adam's non-charismatic political style, increased tensions that lead
some to accuse the second president of being a dictator. Adams was proactive,
but he was not a dictator. According to Ferling, "President Adams sought to
control events rather than to be controlled" (1992). At the approach of the 1800
election, Jefferson and Burr entered the presidential race against Adams. This
eventually resulted in a tie between Jefferson and Burr, upon which the Congress
chose Jefferson. Consequently, the election was not a landslide, nor did Adams
do poorly. He received 65 of the electoral votes, or 24 percent. The
significance of this election is not necessarily that Adams lost, but that the
votes were divided almost equally among the candidates, with no one gaining a
decisive victory. This first suggests that the people were quite disunited, or
undecided, about which political direction the country should go. Second, Adams
received almost as many votes as his opponents, suggest that he may not have
made such a poor political performance, as has been suggested.
	In this writer's opinion, the Federalistic Congress probably did over-
react, as well as obscure their democratic aims. It was, however, these
described events, and the fact of Adams' lack of political charisma, that proved
unproductive in building support and popularity in the latter part of his term.
It should also be pointed out that though the Sedition Act was anti-democratic
in practice, Thomas Jefferson, who defeated Adams, used it against the
Federalists in 1803 (People v. Croswell) and indicted a publisher (DeCarolis,
1995). Jefferson was not accused of being a dictator for such non-democratic
actions. Adams was neither dictatorial in his conduct, or imperial in his
policies. He appeared to have had the interest of the common people at heart.
The conflict with France, the high taxes needed to keep the army and navy
operating, and the poor legislative faux pas Congress made during period time,
all cast a negative reflection on President Adams. This provided his opponents,
like Hamilton, Burr, and even J efferson, with political leverage to use against
him, just as politicians and political parties do in our own modern era. If
Adams were a dictator, then one must ask would the citizens elect his son to be
the future president, twenty-four years later? Or, how his grandson, Charles
Francis Adams, became America's minister to London. Apparently the citizenry
remembered President Adams in a positive, democratic way, and not as a dictator.



References:

Allison, J. M. (1966). Adams and Jefferson: The story of a friendship. Norman,
     OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Calhoon, R. M. (1976). John Adams and the psychology of power. Review of
     American History, December 1976, 520-525.

DeCarolis, L. M. (1995). The precipice of power: The quasi war with Adams, 1789-
     1800. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~
     welling/usa/hamilton/hamil36.htm.

Esler, L. A.. (1993). Presidents of our United States. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Ferling, J. E. (1992). John Adams: A Life. Knoxville, TN: The University of
     Tennessee Press.

Liesenfelt, J. (1995). John Adams (1735-1826): Childhood. A biography of John
     Adams. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~welling/usa/adams/ad_
     ch1.html

Onuf, P. S. (1993). Thomas Jefferson: Federalist. Essays in History, 35, n.p.
     [On-line], Available: http://www.lib.virginia.edu/journals/EH/EH35/onuf1.html#26

Smelser, M. & J. R. Gundersen. (1978). American history at a glance. (4th ed.).
     New York: Barnes and Noble Books.

Washington Retires. (1995). [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~
     weling/usa/ch3_p8.html

Wood, G. S. (1992). The radicalism of the American revolution. New York: Alfred
     A. Knopf.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another John Lennon Essay.TXT
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John Lennon


BY: ASHLEA LINDSEY


	John Lennon was a great song writer and musician.  He played the rhythm
guitar, the piano, and sang.  He was in the most popular group in the history of
rock music.  In 1959, John founded this group, called The Beatles.
	The original Beatles were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison,
and Pete Best.
	Brian Epstein became the manager of the Beatles in 1961.  Epstein made
many changes in the group.  John rebelled and did not want to "package" and
"clean up" the group in order to please fans.  These changes were made anyway
despite John's protests.
	The Beatles had signed a contract with EMI records and were beginning to
record with them.  On August 16, 1962, Pete Best, the drummer was suddenly fired
from the group.  Ringo Starr was inducted into the Beatles two days after Best
was fired.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney shared the credit of songs written by
either one of them.  The credit simply read Lennon-McCartney.  The two as song
writers were a perfect mix.  John had a quick artistic sense and he was easily
excited by new challenges, he projected a sarcastic and rebellious tough-guy
personality, who was actually a vulnerable romantic.  While Paul projected the
sweet image and who was underneath an injured, controlling, perfectionist.
	By 1964, The Beatles arrived at JFK Airport.  They were greeted with
mass hysteria.  Two days later, more than 73 million people watched them perform
live on the Ed Sullivan Show.  Four weeks later, The Beatles held the top five
music singles in America at the same time.
	John was influenced by many things in 1965-1966 such as psychedelia,
marijuana, and Bob Dylan.  Many felt that these years were the best song writing
years of John Lennon's life.
	1966---The Beatles had been touring for over four years, and they,
especially John were tired of it.  John wanted to spend more time with his wife,
Cynthia, and his song, Julian.  At one time, they had to do 32 concerts in 19
days.  On their next album, Beatles For Sale, the material reflected how unhappy
John and Paul were with life on the road.  Songs like "I'm a Loser" and "No
Reply" spoke of depression and the frenzy of life in the spotlight.  John once
said, "It's like we're four freaks being wheeled out to be seen, shake our hair
about, and get back into our cage afterwards."
	The Beatles felt that they needed to work only in the studio now.  So,
on August 29, 1966, The Beatles performed their last live performance ever at
Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California.
	Almost a year later, Brian Epstein, the Beatles Manager was found dead
in his apartment of a suicidal overdose.  This caused many problems for the
group.  John later admitted that "The Beatles were finished when Eppy died.  I
knew, deep inside me, that that was it, without him, we'd had it."
	John met a Japanese artist name Yoko Ono in 1967.  In just a few weeks,
the two were inseparable.  This new relationship destroyed John's marriage with
Cynthia and eventually destroyed his relationship with Paul McCartney, and the
other Beatles.  After John's divorce from Cynthia, John Winston Lennon changed
his name to John Ono Lennon in honor of Yoko Ono.  He insisted on using
"JOHNANDYOKO" as his official signature and identity.  John and Yoko were
married in the year of 1969.
	John released his first solo single in 1969, "Give Peace a Chance."  He
did not credit this song to Lennon-McCartney, but to The "Plastic Ono Band."
	On April 10, 1970, Paul McCartney resigned from the Beatles.  The group
dissolved officially in 1971.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney became rivals after the Beatles broke up.
They were at constant competition with records.  John released his "Signature"
solo album: Imagine in 1971.  One song on the record, entitled "How do you
Sleep?" includes the lines:

		The only thing you done was Yesterday
		And since you've gone you're just
			Another Day
		How do you sleep?

	These lines were directed to Paul McCartney.
	John Lennon recorded seven albums during 1970-1975 which included
Imagine--1971 and Rock and Roll--1975.
	John semi-retired from music in 1975-1980.  He was raising his son, Sean,
with wife, Yoko Ono.
	In 1980, John and Yoko released Double Fantasy.  By November, their
album was climbing to the top of the charts.
	On December 8, 1980, John Lennon and Yoko Ono left their Dakota
apartment to go to the recording studio.  A young man named Mark David Chapman
approached John, wanting to get his picture taken with im.  The two were
photographed together.  At 10:49 p.m. that night, John and Yoko were returning
from the studio when Chapman stepped out of the shadows and gunned down John Ono
Lennon at the age of 40.
	The world mourns the loss of John Lennon.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another John Muir Essay.TXT
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John Muir


The story takes place at Yosemite National Park from 1838-1914.  John Muir
was a botanist, geologist, and writer.  He had overcome earthquakes, glaciers,
and he climbs mountains.  John Muir had impressed by overcoming all the
dangers like animals.  He was an expert on wilderness.  He knows survival
skills to stay alive.  He studies nature and he writes about nature.  He made a
national park system as well as the Sierra Club.  He knew that the Native
Americans called the place "Pohono," or spirit of the puffing wind.  At first he
called it a "dainty little fall...only about fifteen or twenty feet high."  John
laughed after discovering that Bridalveil Fall drops 620 feet.  He writes all
kinds of quotes about nature, for example: "I am captive, I am bound.  Love of
pure unblemished Nature seems to overmaster and blur out of sight all other
objects and considerations." John works in his "scribble den."  John had two
brothers and five sisters and their names are: Margaret, Sarah, David, Dan, Mary,
Annie, and Joanna.  For several years, he had toyed with writing up his findings
for publication.  Jeanne Carr was the one that encouraged him.  She even
suggested titles and copied his notes.  John decided to send an article to the
New York Tribune.  To his surprise, the newspaper published "Yosemite Glaciers"
on December 5, 1871, and paid him $200, that was a lot of money back then.  On
New Year's Day in 1872, the same newspaper printed "Yosemite in Winter."  John
thought that he might be able to earn his living by writing, what he called "pen
work."  He stayed in his cabin for the winter and wrote it. He went through a
couple of earthquakes.  He joined his valley neighbors and suggested they smile
a little and clap their hands.  He said that Mother Earth is only trotting them
on Earth's knee to amuse them and make them good!  Everyone thought John was a
little crazy when he said that.  He also farmed a lot.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another John Napier Essay.TXT
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John Napier


	John Napier was a Scottish Mathematician who was born in Merchiston
Castle in Edinburgh in the year 1550.  He briefly attended St. Andrew's
University, but for some unknown reason, left without obtaining a degree,
which didn't seem to have any relevance to him.  He returned home in 1571 as
a scholar competent in Greek. He was an ardent Presbyterian who wrote A
Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of Saint John, the first Scottish
interpretation of the bible, in 1593 to demonstrate that the Catholic Church
was the beast.  He was interested in mathematics at an early age and set forth
the concept of logarithms and published the first table of them. While doing
this, he also systematized trigonometry and was important in the acceptance
of systematic use of decimal notation.

     He also invented many mechanical devices used for math, such as "Napier's
Bones", which were devices used to aid multiplication.  His father, Sir
Archibald Napier, was a wealthy Gentry and government official who left his
estate to his son.  John Napier then lived out his life until 1617, when he
died at the age of sixty-seven.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Jonas Salk Essay.TXT
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Jonas Salk


     From the beginning of mankind, man has looked for cures of illness.  Jonas
Salk found a cure for one of the worst illnesses in the history of man, polio.
Jonas Salk's polio vaccine was a great discovery of his time, and it is still
being used today to eradicate polio worldwide.  Dr. Salk is also known for other
medical discoveries.  He was a quiet man who lived a rough childhood.  He was
not looking for fame, instead, it found him.  During the time before the vaccine,
many people, mostly parents with young children, were very scared.  Dr. Salk's
vaccine was a great relief to everyone.  Yet, today polio is still affecting
people, even after receiving the vaccine.  Just as polio is still around today,
so is the flu virus.  Dr. Salk did invent a flu vaccine to help in keeping the
flu virus at a low.  At this time, Jonas Salk is working on a vaccine for the
most feared disease of today, AIDS.
	Jonas Edward Salk was born to Polish-Jewish immigrants, Daniel B. and
Dora Salk, on October 28, 1914.  Dr.  Salk was born in upper Manhattan, but then
moved to the Bronx where he went to school.  "His first spoken words were, 'Dirt,
dirt,' instead of the conventional, uninspired 'No, no' or 'Momma.'  He was a
responsive child."  Dr. Salk was "raised on the verge of  poverty."  Although
his family was poor, he did do exceptionally well in all the levels of education.
 He graduated from Townsend Harris High School in 1929 and then went on to the
College of the City of New York where he received his B.S. in 1934.  He finally
earned his M.D. degree in June of 1939 from the New York University College of
Medicine.  Jonas Salk was "a somewhat withdrawn and indistinct figure" but was
always reading whatever he could lay his hands on.  Dr. Salk went on to intern
for two years at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York.  He then moved on to the
University of Michigan in Ann Arbor as a research professor in the Department of
Epidemology.  It was here that he found a vaccine for influenza, commonly called
the flu, while he worked with Dr. Thomas Francis Jr.  In 1947, when the
University of Pittsburgh expanded, he went to work there with a part in his
contract that said he could go back to Ann Arbor if things didn't work out, no
questions asked.  At this school he became what he is known as today, a
bacteriologist.  It was here that he developed the polio vaccination.  Dr. Salk
then left his field of endeavor because of all the fame and ridicule from his
colleagues.  In 1963, Jonas Salk set up the Salk Institute for Biological
Studies in La Jolla, California.  This facility was made possible through funds
from the March of Dimes.  At this time, he is eighty years old and working on a
cure for AIDS.
	"Poliomyelitis, commonly known as polio, is an acute viral infection."
Polio is the "inflammation of the gray anterior matter of the spinal cord."  The
inflammation would destroy the nerve cells.  As a result of the lost nerve cells,
the muscles that those nerve cells controlled would no longer be functional.
	Polio has long been a disease in this world.  Mummies with one leg
shorter than the other, and a memorial that shows a priest with one leg withered
are two examples of ancient artifacts possibly proving the polio virus's
existence as far back as 1500 B.C.  The first written record of an outbreak of
polio is in 1835.  It occurred in Workshop, England with the record stating,
"Four remarkable cases of suddenly induced paralysis, occurring in children..."
Nevertheless, it was not until 1916 that the United States became well aware of
the polio dilemma.  In that year, there were 27,363 cases of polio with 7,179
resulting in death.  Unfortunately, the problem didn't go away; in New York City
there were 9,023 cases with 2,448 deaths.  "The epidemics peaked in the United
States from 1942 to 1943,...In 1950, there were more than 33,000 United States
cases."  The state of Florida was one of the many states that was hit hard with
polio.  The director of the Florida Department of Public Health, Dr. Wilson
Sowder, said, "I have not seen a communicable disease that has disrupted a
community...as this has."  The disease "was communicable as an intestinal virus
that would spread from the stomach to the nervous system."  It was "transmitted
in fecal matter or in secretions of the nose and throat, the virus enters its
victim by way of the mouth..."  It was not only the fact that it was so easy to
get that made it terrifying, but it was the effects the disease had on its
victim.  There would be those that somehow recovered completely, yet that was
not the usual.  Some would die, others would not be able to use their legs or
both their legs and arms.  Even more staggering, there were those that could
only move an arm, or just their fingers and eyes. "Some would remain in an iron
lung--a great, 1,800-pound casketlike contraption...The iron lung hissed and
sighed rhythmically, performing artificial respiration by way of air pressure",
said Charles L. Mee.  During the summers in Florida, kids would not be allowed
to go to the movies or to the pools because of the parents fear of them
contracting the virus.  Due to the consequences, polio "aroused as much alarm in
that era as does AIDS today."
	Finally, on April 12, 1955 it was announced that Dr. Jonas Salk, using a
technique reported by Dr. John F. Enders in 1949,  had discovered a cure that
could be depended upon to immunize humans from polio.  "Overnight, Jonas E. Salk
was a hero," said Kathleen Arsenault, a librarian at the University of South
Florida at Bayboro.1  Everyone was so relieved that a vaccine had been found
that they "observed moments of silence, rang bells, honked horns, blew factory
whistles, fired salutes, kept their traffic lights red in brief periods of
tribute, took the rest of the day off, closed their schools or convoked fervid
assemblies therein, drank toasts, hugged children, attended church, smiled at
strangers, forgave enemies."  It "consummated the most extraordinary undertaking
in the history of science."  Although Dr. Salk tried to take no credit for what
he and his fellow workers had accomplished, the public ignored his words and
gave all the credit to him. Jonas Salk "awakened that morning as a moderately
prominent research professor on the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh
School of Medicine.  He ended the day as the most beloved medical scientist on
earth."  Dr. Salk did not patent his vaccine, therefore, he did not receive any
royalties for it, though he could have been a millionaire.  As it was though, he
received many tokens of gratitude.

	"The ardent people named schools, streets, hospitals, and new-born
infants after him.  They sent him checks, cash, money orders, stamps, scrolls,
certificates, pressed flowers, snapshots, candy, baked goods, religious medals,
rabbits' feet and other talismans, and uncounted thousands of letters and telegrams, both
individual and round-robin, describing their heartfelt gratitude and admiration.
They offered him free automobiles, agricultural equipment, clothing, vacations,
lucrative jobs in government and industry, and several hundred opportunities to get
rich quick. Their legislatures and parliaments passed resolutions, and their heads
of state issued proclamations.  Their universities tendered honorary degrees.  He
was nominated for the Nobel prize, which he did not get, and a Congressional
medal, which he got, and membership in the National Academy of Sciences, which
turned him down.  He was mentioned for several dozen lesser awards of
national or local or purely promotional character, most of which he turned down."

	Dr. Salk is thought of most for his polio vaccine, yet he is the
scientist who invented the flu shot.  The flu virus is an illness that affects
the digestive track, most often the stomach walls.  He and Dr. Francis developed
the vaccine in 1976 at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.  That vaccine
helps many people today to get through the flu season without any or little
suffering.
	The United States has been free of polio since September of 1991.  The
United Nations agency stated that this was true in all of the Western
Hemisphere:  the United States, Canada, the Caribbean, and Latin America.  Even
though the Western Hemisphere is polio free, the rest of the world is very far
from it.  There are still approximately 120,000 cases a year.  That number is
decreasing:  in 1992 there where a reported 15,911 cases in a total of 58
countries, whereas in 1993 there where only 7,898 cases reported in a total of
46 countries.  That is a 50 percent decrease in only one year.  There was also
141 countries that reported no cases of polio in all of 1993.  One organization
affiliated with polio elimination is The Rotary Foundation.  This group has
developed a program called PolioPlus.  This program's goal is to eradicate polio
worldwide by the year 2005. This goal will prove to be a very expensive
endeavor; over 10 years it could cost up to as much as 1.4 billion dollars.
One event that has helped make the United States polio free is that children
must have received the polio vaccination before they can enter the public school
system.  Everyone is working together, though, to try and eradicate polio
worldwide.  Japan and the United States have agreed to a joint health program
for children to do away with polio by the year 2000.  Although the whole world
seems to be on its way to being polio free, the polio survivors are still
suffering.  "Nearly a third of the 1.6 million polio survivors have begun to
develop puzzling ailments, such as fatigue, muscle weakness and atrophy, and in
some cases difficulty breathing."  This "ailment" is known as post-polio
syndrome.  The theory behind this problem is "the initial viral attack kills a
number of motor neurons and weakens some of the surviving nerve cells.  As the
post-polio patient ages, these damaged neurons increasingly lose their
connections to muscles, which stop responding."  Other symptoms that accompany
post-polio syndrome are as follows:  chronic muscle pain, sensitivity to cold
weather, and sleeping problems. Of all the polio survivors, ninety percent of
them are predicted to contract post-polio syndrome.  It has been found that from
the time of the original disease to the time of the contraction of post-polio
syndrome is about thirty years.  Herman Oliger had to quit work because of post-
polio syndrome.  "Any strenuous activity would have to be followed with more
than eight hours of sleep and in some cases, two days of rest."  As a result of
this debilitating illness, some people must go back to the use of leg braces or
wheelchairs or even the iron lung.  The only organization that has been formed
to help this type of people is the Arkansas League of Polio Survivors located in
Little Rock.  This organization was founded by Margie R. Loschke who is a post-
polio sufferer herself.  It is a non-profit establishment,  there are no dues,
and they give moral support to those who are suffering. Post-polio syndrome is
an inept thing to happen, yet there are no doctors that are capable of helping
these people.  "Polio hasn't been taught in medical school since the vaccine
came out, so there's not but a very few doctors (and) therapists who know
anything about polio and the polio muscles," said Margie Loschke.  As a result
of the polio survivors, physical therapy was born.  "And now they've pushed them
away and forgotten all about them."  If there were to be an accident involving a
post-polio syndrome person "there'd be nobody in that hospital, no medical
personnel...that would know how to handle a post-polio body without injuring
it," said Loschke.
	Not only are there people being affected by polio in one way or the
other, there are still people being affected by the flu.  Jonas Salk also
invented a flu vaccine, however, it is more on a temporary scale.  Another
reason the flu is still around is that there are many different strains of the
flu, and doctors have a hard time predicting the ones that will be infecting
people in the up and coming flu seasons.
	Lastly, Jonas Salk is now working on a vaccine for the polio of today,
AIDS. He is working on a vaccine made of killed viruses, but so far he has not
acquired any substantial results.  In the summer of 1994, the United States did
conduct a large-scale test of Dr. Salk's proposed AIDS vaccine.  This vaccine
has shown the "growth of the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, slowed
substantially in infected volunteers given three injections of the vaccine."
However, Dr. David Ho of the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center said, "There's
absolutely no evidence that the vaccine did any good."  Dr. Ho is not alone in
his thoughts, many experts on the Food and Drug Administration panel feel the
same.  This panel also said that this has "lowered the standards" and has caused
more confusion on how to treat AIDS patients.  It is ironic, in a way, that Dr.
Salk is working on a vaccine for AIDS.  Some scientists truly believe that "the
AIDS epidemic was sparked 30 years ago by a polio vaccine, which was
accidentally contaminated with a monkey virus."   Through all the criticism
though, Dr. Salk said, " My job, at the moment, is to help people see what I see.
 If it's of value, fine.  And if it's not of value, then at least I've done what
I can do."
	Jonas Edward Salk may be the most well known scientist because of his
polio vaccine.  Although he was poor growing up, he did well in school.  This
standard was continued into his employment as a bacteriologist.  During his stay
at Pittsburgh University, the world was suffering immensely from the polio
disease.  Dr. Salk was named a hero when he found the vaccine for it.  He also
helped in the suffering from the flu viruses.  Dr. Salk has attributed to the
polio free Western Hemisphere of today, yet another problem has arisen in the
post-polio syndrome ailment.  Now, Jonas Salk is working on a vaccine for the
dreaded disease at this time, the AIDS virus.  It might be possible for one man
to save two generations of people in one lifetime.  As Dr. Salk says, "I have
this way of being right."



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Karl Marx Essay.TXT
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Karl Marx


Karl Marx was a German scholar who lived in the nineteenth century. He
spent most of his life studying, thinking and writing about history and
economics. A many years of study, much of it spent in England, he believed
that he understood more deeply than anyone who had ever lived before him
why there is injustice i world.

He said that all injustice and inequality is a result of one
underlying conflict in society. He called it a 'class struggle', that is,
a conflict bet the class of people who can afford to own money- producing
businesses, whom he called 'capitalists' or 'the bourgeosie', and the
class of people who do not surplus money to buy businesses and who are
therefore forced to work for wage whom he called 'workers'.

Marx said that, because it was always in the economic interest of
capita to take advantage of or 'exploit' workers, nothing could persuade
capitalists change their ways. In other words, peaceful progess toward
equality and social justice was impossible. The only way to establish
justice, he said, was for t workers to overthrow the capitalists by means
of violent revolution. He urged workers around the world to revolt against
their rulers. "Workers of the world unite!" he wrote. "You have nothing to
lose but your chains."

Another thing Marx taught was that organized religion, the churches,
help capitalists to keep the workers quiet and obedient. Religion,
according to Mar 'the opiate of the masses'. The church tells working
people to forget about the injustice they meet in their lives and to think
instead of how wonderful it will in the after- life when they go to heaven.

Marx, with his colleague, Engels, spread his ideas in two famous
books, Capital' and 'The Communist Manifesto'.

In the early years of the twentieth century, Russia was ready for the
ide Marx. The Russian people were extremely discontented with their ruler,
Tsar Nicholas II, who had little interest in governing and was neglecting
the count badly. Making conditions even more miserable for the people were
the hardships the First World War and a particularly cold winter.

By 1917, the Russian people were desperate enough to accept a
revolution. fact, they got two for the price of one, the first in March
when the Tsar was deposed and a provisional government was set up. Then in
November a political called the Bolsheviks led a further rebellion which
ousted the provisional government. The leaders of the Bolsheviks, Lenin and
Trotsky, began to build a Russia, one built on the ideas of Marx, where
everyone was equal, where all property was owned by 'the people' rather
than by capitalists and where the two were in control of the government.

Not long afterward, Communist Russia was attacked by Britain, America
and France, who wanted to get rid of the communist government. They were
afraid the workers in their own countries might be inspired to imitate the
example of Rus Trotsky, a highly intelligent and energetic communist
leader, led the defence Russia with great success.

After Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle began between Trotsky
and a leader within the Communist Party named Stalin. While Trotsky was a
brilliant intellectual and an idealist, Stalin was a simpler, quieter sort
of person, who based his power not so much on plans and ideas as on
alliances with other member of the Communist Party. While Trotsky believed
in Russia's trying to assist two all over the world to rise up in communist
revolutions against their bosses, S wanted Russia to take care of its own
business.

The rivalry between the two leaders went on for several years.
Eventually 1929 Stalin gained the upper hand and drove Trotsky from Russia.
Stalin later up a scheme to industrialize the backward country which he
called the Five-Yea Plan. It included a number of Trotsky's ideas which
Stalin had previously opposed.

As Russia developed under Stalin, members of the Communist Party took
for themselves many privileges. All the original communist ideals of Marx
received service, but it became clearer and clearer that members of the
Communist Party becoming a ruling class that was not equal to non-members.

Most important of all to Stalin was ensuring that he remained in
power. H often used the most brutal tactics. Chief among his creations were
two highly effective political weapons - an efficient propaganda machine
which more and m promoted the idea of Stalin as a great, nearly god-like
leader, and a secret p force which kept the country quiet through the use
of terror. At one point during his rule, he organized 'Show Trials' in
which many of the people he did not lie strangely 'confessed' to very
serious crimes and were executed or sent to harsh prison camps.

Eventually Stalin began trading with non-communist countries of
western Europe, although he continued to be hostile to Germany. Then, in a
shocking ab face in 1939, he suddenly signed a non-aggression pact with
Hitler. Not long afterward, though, Hitler broke this agreement and
attacked Russia. In 1941 St was forced to enter World War II and make an
alliance with Britain and America

=============================================================

This takes us up to the time of the writing of Animal Farm - 1944. As
you see, nearly every event in the novel can be traced directly to an event
in Rus during the period from 1900- 1943. An interesting project is to list
the events the novel and match them up with the real events which Orwell
intended to sati In fact, the story has many, many similarities to the real
historical events, of them very detailed. For example, the digging up of
Major's skull, and the h destroying their own eggs, both refer to specific
events that took place during rule of Stalin.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another King Henry VIII Essay.TXT
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King Henry VIII


Henry VIII (born 1491, ruled 1509-1547). The second son of Henry VII
and Elizabeth of York was one of England's strongest and least popular
monarchs. He was born at Greenwich on June 28, 1491. The first English
ruler to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, he was a
gifted scholar, linguist, composer, and musician. As a youth he was gay and
handsome, skilled in all manner of athletic games, but in later life he
became coarse and fat. When his elder brother, Arthur, died (1502), he
became heir apparent. He succeeded his father on the throne in 1509, and
soon thereafter he married Arthur's young widow, Catherine of Aragon.
During the first 20 years of his reign he left the shaping of policies
largely in the hands of his great counselor, Cardinal Wolsey (See Wolsey,
Cardinal). By 1527 Henry had made up his mind to get rid of his wife. The
only one of Catherine's six children who survived infancy was a sickly
girl, the Princess Mary, and it was doubtful whether a woman could succeed
to the English throne. Then too, Henry had fallen in love with a lady of
the court, Anne Boleyn.

When the pope (Clement VII) would not annul his marriage, Henry turned
against Wolsey, deprived him of his office of chancellor, and had him
arrested on a charge of treason. He then obtained a divorce through Thomas
Cranmer, whom he had made archbishop of Canterbury, and it was soon
announced that he had married Anne Boleyn.

The pope was thus defied. All ties that bound the English church to
Rome were broken. Appeals to the pope's court were forbidden, all payments
to Rome were stopped, and the pope's authority in England was abolished. In
1534 the Act of Supremacy declared Henry himself to be Supreme Head of the
Church of England, and anyone who denied this title was guilty of an act of
treason. Some changes were also made in the church services, the Bible was
translated into English, and printed copies were placed in the churches.
The monasteries throughout England were dissolved and their vast lands and
goods turned over to the king, who in turn granted those estates to
noblemen who would support his policies. In the northern part of the
kingdom the people rose in rebellion in behalf of the monks, but the
Pilgrimage of Grace, as it was called, was put down.

Although Henry reformed the government of the church, he refused to
allow any changes to be made in its doctrines. Before his divorce he had
opposed the teachings of Martin Luther in a book that had gained for him
from the pope the title Defender of the Faith--a title the monarch of
England still bears. After the separation from Rome he persecuted with
equal severity the Catholics who adhered to the government of Rome and the
Protestants who rejected its doctrines.

Henry was married six times. Anne Boleyn bore the king one child, who
became Elizabeth I. Henry soon tired of Anne and had her put to death. A
few days later he married a third wife, Jane Seymour. She died in a little
more than a year, after having given birth to the future Edward VI.

A marriage was then contracted with a German princess, Anne of Cleves,
whom the king had been led to believe to be very beautiful. When he saw her
he discovered that he had been tricked, and he promptly divorced this wife
and beheaded Thomas Cromwell, the minister who had arranged the marriage.
Henry's fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was sent to the block for misconduct.
In 1543 he married his sixth wife, the tactful and pious Catherine Parr.
Catherine, who survived Henry, lived to marry her fourth husband.

During Henry's reign the union of England and Wales was completed
(1536). Ireland was made a kingdom (1541), and Henry became king of
Ireland. His wars with Scotland and France remained indecisive in spite of
some shallow victories. Although he himself opposed the Reformation, his
creation of a national church marked the real beginning of the English
Reformation. He died on Jan. 28, 1547, and was buried in St. George's
Chapel in Windsor Castle.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Mark Twain Essay.TXT
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Mark Twain


     Mark Twain's works are some of the best I've ever read.  I love the way he
brings you into the story, especially with the dialogue  used, like in Tom
Sawyer or Huckleberry Finn.  Mark Twain is my favorite dead author.
     Mark Twain was never "Mark Twain" at all.  That was only his pen name.  His
real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens.  Samuel was born in Florida, Missouri in
1835.  He accomplished worldwide fame during his lifetime for being a great
author, lecturer, satirist, and humorist.  Since his death on April 21, 1910,
his great literary reputation has further increased. Many writers such as Ernest
Hemingway and William Faulkner have declared his work-especially Huckleberry
Finn- a major influence on 20th-century American fiction.
     Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, a town on the Mississippi river.
After the death of his father in 1847, Twain joined his brother Orion's
newspaper, the Hannibal Journal.  During this time he became accustomed with
much of the frontier humor of the time.
     From 1853 to 1857, Twain worked in many cities as a printer, and wrote
articles for  his brother's newspapers under various nicknames.  After a visit
to New Orleans, he learned how to pilot a steamboat.  That became his job until
the Civil War closed the Mississippi River, and
 it set him up for "Old Times on the Mississippi" and "Life on the Mississippi."
     In 1861, Twain traveled to Carson City, Nevada, with his brother Orion.
After attempts for silver and gold mining had failed, he continued to write for
newspapers.  It was in 1863 when Samuel Clemens adopted the name "Mark Twain", a
riverman's term for "two fathoms" deep.
     In 1884 Twain went to San Francisco and reached national fame with his
story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."  He then took a trip
to Hawaii which started him on  a very successful career as a public speaker.
His trips to the Mediterranean and the Holy Land were recorded in letters to a
San Francisco newspaper, and later formed into The Innocents Abroad, which was
popular all over the world.
     In 1870 Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon.  He then abandoned journalism to
focus on serious literature.  From 1870-1875, Twain produced many novels,
including the famous tale, Tom Sawyer.
     A European vacation in 1878-1879, inspired novels like The Prince and the
Pauper and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.  Meanwhile, he
established his own firm, Charles L. Webster and Co., and after that, completed
his masterpiece, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, in 1884.
     In 1891, Twain was forced to move to Europe because of financial problems.
In 1894, because of the failure of his firm and other reasons, he had to declare
bankruptcy.  During this time he produced many works, but they were not some of
his best.  To help his situation, he commenced a world lecture tour.
     Even though his financial situation rapidly improved, much stress and
sorrow came to Twain following the death of first his daughter, in 1896, then
his wife in 1904.  His writings in the late 1890's and 1900's became
increasingly gloomy.  One of his accomplishments during these years is "The Man
Who Corrupted Hadleyburg", a pessimisstic examination of human nature.
     After these bleak years Twain died in 1910.  Yet his reputation as a writer
did not die along with him.  Instead it rose as people began to look at his
works differently.  Mark Twain has become an embedded part of America's history.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Martin Luther Essay.TXT
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Martin Luther


   Martin Luther was a German theologian and religious reformer, who started the
Protestant Reformation, and whose vast influence during his time period made him
one of the crucial figures in modern European history.  Luther was born in
Eisleben on November 10, 1483 and  was descended from the peasantry, a fact that
he often stressed. Hans Luther, his father, was a copper miner. Luther received
a sound primary and secondary education at Mansfeld, Magdeburg, and Eisenach. In
1501, at the age of 17, he enrolled at the University of Erfurt, receiving a
bachelor's degree in 1502 and a master's degree in 1505 . He then intended to
study law, as his father had wished. In the summer of 1505, he abandoned his
studies and his law plans, sold his books, and entered the Augustinian monastery
in Erfurt. The decision surprised his friends and appalled his father. Later in
his life, Luther explained his suprising decision by recollecting several
brushes with death that had occurred at the time, making him aware of the
fleeting character of life. In the monastery he observed the rules imposed on a
novice but did not find the peace in God he had expected. Nevertheless, Luther
made his profession as a monk in the fall of 1506, and his superiors selected
him for the priesthood. Ordained in 1507, he approached his first celebration of
the mass with awe. After his ordination, Luther was asked to study theology in
order to become a professor at one of the many new German universities staffed
by monks. In 1508 he was assigned by Johann von Staupitz, vicar-general of the
Augustinians and a friend and counselor, to the new University of Wittenberg
(founded in 1502) to give introductory lectures in moral philosophy. He received
his bachelor's degree in theology in 1509 and returned to Erfurt, where he
taught and studied.
   In November 1510, on behalf of seven Augustinian monasteries, he made a visit
to Rome, where he performed the religious duties customary for a pious visitor
and was shocked by the worldliness of the Roman clergy. Soon after resuming his
duties in Erfurt, he was reassigned to Wittenberg and asked to study for the
degree of doctor of theology. In 1512, after receiving his doctorate,  he took
over the chair of biblical theology which he held till his death.
   Although still uncertain of God's love and his own salvation, Luther was
active as a preacher, teacher, and administrator. Sometime during his study of
the New Testament in preparation for his lectures, he came to believe that
Christians are saved not through their own efforts but by the gift of God's
grace, which they accept in faith. Both the exact date and the location of this
experience have been a matter of controversy among scholars, but the event was
crucial in Luther's life, because it turned him decisively against some of the
major tenets of the Catholic church. Luther became a public and controversial
figure when he published his Ninety-Five Theses on October 31, 1517.
   His main purpose of writing the theses was to show his opposition for the
corruption and wealth of the papacy and to state his belief that salvation would
be granted on the basis of faith alone rather then by works.  Although it is
generally believed that Luther nailed these theses to the door of All Saints
Church in Wittenberg, some scholars have questioned this story, which does not
occur in any of his own writings. Regardless of the manner in which his
propositions were made public, they caused great excitement and were immediately
translated into German and widely distributed .
   Luther's spirited defense and further development of his position through
public university debates in Wittenberg and other cities resulted in an
investigation by the Roman Curia that led to the condemnation of his teachings
and his excommunication.  Summoned to appear before Charles V at the Diet of
Worms in April 1521, he was asked before the assembled secular and
ecclesiastical rulers to recant. He refused firmly, asserting that he would have
to be convinced by Scripture and clear reason in order to do so and that going
against conscience is not safe for anyone. Condemned by the emperor, Luther was
spirited away by his prince, the elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and kept
in hiding at Wartburg Castle. There he began his translation of the New
Testament from the original Greek into German, a seminal contribution to the
development of a standard German language. Disorders in Wittenberg caused by
some of his more extreme followers forced his return to the city in March 1521,
and he restored peace through a series of sermons.
   Luther continued his teaching and writing in Wittenberg but soon became
involved in the controversies surrounding the Peasants' War (1524-26) because
the leaders of the peasants originally justified their demands with arguments
somewhat illegitimately drawn from his writings. He considered their theological
arguments false, although he supported many of their political demands. When the
peasants turned violent, he angrily denounced them and supported the princes'
effort to restore order. Although he later repudiated the harsh, vengeful policy
adopted by the nobles, his attitude toward the war lost him many friends. In the
midst of this controversy he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun. The
marriage was happy, and his wife became an important supporter in his busy life.
After having articulated his basic theology in his earlier writings, he
published his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. By commenting
briefly in question and answer form on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed,
the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper, the Small Catechism explains
the theology of the evangelical reformation in simple yet colorful language. Not
allowed to attend the Diet of Augsburg because he had been banned and
excommunicated, Luther had to leave the presentation of the reformers' position
to his friend and colleague Melanchthon. In 1532 Luther's translation of the Old
Testament from the original Hebrew was published. Meanwhile, his influence
spread across northern and eastern Europe. His advocacy of the independence of
rulers from papal supervision won him the support of many princes. His fame made
Wittenberg an intellectual center.
   By 1537, Luther's health had begun to deteriorate, and he felt burdened by
the resurgence of the papacy and by what he perceived as an attempt by Jews to
take advantage of the confusion among Christians and reopen the question of
Jesus' messiahship. Apprehensive about his own responsibility for this situation,
he wrote a violent polemic against the Jews, as well as polemics against the
papacy and the radical wing of the reformers, the Anabaptists. In the winter of
1546, Luther was asked to settle a controversy between two young counts who
ruled the area of Mansfeld, where he had been born. Old and sick, he went there,
resolved the conflict, and died on February 18, 1546, in Eisleben. Luther left
behind a movement that quickly spread throughout the Western world.  His
doctrines, especially justification by faith and the final authority of the
Bible, were adopted by other reformers and are shared by many Protestant
denominations today.  As the founder of the 16th-century Reformation, he is one
of the major figures of Christianity and of Western civilization.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Martin Luther King Essay.TXT
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Martin Luther King


The most important person to have made a significant change in the
rights of Blacks was Martin Luther King. He had great courage and passion
to defeat segregation and racism that existed in the United States, and it
was his influence to all the Blacks to defy white supremacy and his belief
in nonviolence that lead to the success of the Civil Rights movement.

Martin Luther King was born on January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia
where the city suffered most of the racial discrimination in the South,
and, in addition, the Ku Klux Klan had one of it's headquarters there. But
it was his father, Martin Luther King Sr. who played an important role in
shaping the personality of his son. M.L. Sr. helped to advocate the idea
that Blacks should vote. He was involved with the National Association for
the Advancement of Coloured People, an important Civil Rights group. These
efforts to improve the way of life for Blacks could be seen by his son.

In December 5, 1955 King began to be significant in the changing of
the Black man's way of life. The boycott of the Montgomery Bus was begun
when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on a bus to a white man on
December 1st. Two Patrolmen took her away to the police station where she
was booked. He and 50 other ministered held a meeting and agreed to start a
boycott on December 5th, the day of Rosa Parks's hearing. This boycott
would probably be successful since 70% of the riders were black. The bus
company did not take them seriously, because if there was bad weather, they
would have to take the bus. The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
was established to co-ordinate the boycott. They had a special agreement
with black cab companies, in which they were allowed to get a ride for a
much cheaper price than normal. Blacks had to walk to work, and so they did
not have time to do any shopping and therefore the sales decreased
dramatically. On January 30, while M.L was making a speech, his house was
bombed. Luckily his wife and baby had left the living room when the bomb
exploded, but a black mob formed and was angry about what had happened, and
Policemen were sent to the scene to control the situation, even though they
were outnumbered. King, however, because of his strong belief in
nonviolence, urged the crowd to not use their guns and to go home.

The news coverage increased on the Montgomery boycott as months
passed. He travelled to many places and made speeches in order to raise
money for the MIA's legal fees. When he returned he found that he was
charged for breaking an anti-boycott law. He and the others were found
guilty, but they appealed the sentence. When in November 13, the MIA was
fined $15,000, at the same time, the Supreme Court found the Alabama's
segregation laws were unconstitutional. That night the KKK looted 40 cars
in hopes of scaring the Blacks. But the black people did not hide in their
homes and turn the lights off. They stayed on their porches and waved
showing that they were not afraid of them at all. By 1957 Martin Luther
King became a national figure. Time magazine wrote a story on him, and his
ideology of nonviolence began to spread throughout the country. The boycott
gave a strong psychological push of courage that would continue until
Blacks obtained what was morally right.

What made Martin Luther King striking was his conviction on
non-violence. He believed that this belief could give blacks a superior
level of morality over whites. This ideology was important for his success
in later years. As a result, it helped restrain the use of violence from
whites to blacks and vice versa. This philosophy was tested during the
Montgomery bus boycott. Before the successful boycott, blacks used violence
in order to protest racism. During the boycott, however, on both sides
violence was not a measure to be taken. When someone bombed King's home,
the fact that violence was used against a nonviolent group made the idea of
the black man's cause more agreeable.

Whites, as a result of the boycott, realised the threat for blacks to
be equal was increasing. They used legal measures to break up the NAACP
(National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People). In time the
NAACP became very weak, and so the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership
Conference) became more significant to the black man's cause. It was lead
by King, Rustin, Levison, and Baker, and was a Negro church which
represented "the most stable institution of the Southern Negro community".
The party gave a tremendous morale strength in the goal for the equality of
blacks. The SCLC was stronger than the NAACP because it did not depend on
state officials. Because there were no membership lists, it was difficult
to single out individual black followers.

It is noteworthy to mention one incident that occurred in 1958 when he
made visits to promote his book. A demonic woman attempted to stab him.
When he was rushed to a hospital, he later found out that if he had tried
to take out the knife or if it moved in any way, he would have died because
the tip of the knife was touching the aorta of his heart. King's will and
courage to fight for civil rights was affected by the achievements of
Gandhi's philosophy. On February 10, 1959, he toured India and admired
Gandhi for his achievements in breaking down the caste system, which was a
system in which the hierarchy of social classes dominated the country.

His influence onto black students was incredible. They felt the
courage to revolt against segregation. For example, on February 1, 1960,
there was a group of black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina,
who sat down in a lunch room for whites. This tactic became popular and was
being used everywhere. As a result, King suggested that they create a
permanent organization. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC) was formed.

One of the instrumental factors which aided King to his role in the
Civil Rights Movement was Senator John F. Kennedy's support for his
beliefs. Kennedy showed his support when King, for example, was found
guilty of driving with an invalid license, and was find $25 plus one year's
probation. When police arrested him again during the probationary period,
he was sentenced to four months in a jail which demanded heavy labour. This
jail was also the home of KKK criminals. Senator Kennedy promised to help
King and by doing so, won the support of 75% blacks. King urged for Kennedy
to help the Civil Rights Movement, and so the Congress of Racial Equality
(CORE) decided to see for themselves whether the banning of segregation was
actually working. These civil rights activists were called Freedom Riders.
But white activists beat them and burnt the buses they were on. King
realised that the media was a very powerful tool when they covered the use
of violence by the KKK.

The continual effort to strengthen the message for rights can be
outlined in Birmingham, Alabama. After King and three other leaders were
released from jail (they were arrested because during one of his organized
protests), they were surprised to find that 1000 youths were protesting.
Though 900 were arrested, the next day 2500 children were protesting. Water
hoses were used by authorities to fight the blacks. Attack dogs were also
used to control the mob. But when the public was shown of the violent
methods, it increased the sympathy onto King's cause. Despite this, 3000
youngsters demonstrated the next day. There was no more space in the jails
and finally the business leaders of the community realized that the would
need to start negotiating, or they would suffer financially.

The height of King's career was in 1964, when the Civil Rights Act was
enacted. It was sent through Congress by President Kennedy in 1963, but he
did not live to see it go through. He was assassinated on November 22,
1963. His successor, President Johnson, passed it through Congress. It
allowed the federal government to enforce any racial discrimination in
public areas like restaurants and hotels. It allowed the government to hold
federal funds from places where racism existed. It also prohibited
discrimination in the voter-registration procedures. Whites previously
discriminated Blacks from voting if they were illiterate, but the Act
forbade this. M.L.'s success was acknowledged when he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in the same year.

A tragic day struck on April 4, 1968 in Memphis, Tenn.. He was
planning to participate in a Poor People's March to Washington. While
standing on the balcony of the motel where he was staying with his
partners, he was killed by a bullet which was shot by James Earl Ray. On
March 10, 1969, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced 99 years in prison.

Martin Luther King was able to achieve the impossible. He was an
ambitious man who wanted to make a difference in the lives of every
American Black. Step by step, he organized demonstrations and made speeches
to further strengthen his cause. His philosophy of non-violence played a
key role in the success of the right to be free. Carved on his crypt is a
phrase he said many times:

Free at last, free at last
Thank God Almighty
I'm free at last.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Michael Jackson Essay.TXT
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Michael Jackson


          My topic for my report is Michael Jackson.  Michael Jackson is a
longtime pop music star, known as the King of Pop.  Michael is a winner of many
Grammys and other music awards.  My first subtopic goes into his music.  The
details giong into Music are his many albums, the many awards Michael Jackson
has won, and the songs he has written. My second subtopic goes into the history
of Michael Jackson.  The details going itno History are Michael's family members,
the places he has lived, and Michael Jackson's family life. My third subtopic
goes into his tours.  The details going itno Tours are the places he has given
concerts, the incidents that happened on his tours, and the kinds of people that
were at his concerts.  My fourth subtopic goes goes into the interviews of
Michael Jackson.  The details going into Interviews are the television
interviews, the magazine interviews, and the newspaper interviews.  To find all
of this out, you have to be patient and read this report!

     Michael Jackson is the King of Pop music.  When Michael Jackson was nine
years old, he started being the lead singer of the Jackson 5.  The Jackson 5
also consisted of his older brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon.
(Jackson: 8)  The Jackson 5 had many songs. Michael Jackson's first solo album
is called "Off the Wall," and it first released in 1979. The songs on "Off The
Wall" include "Don't Stop Till You Get Enough" and "Rock With You." His
following albums include "Bad," "Thriller," and "Dangerous."  Michael had a 2 CD
album called "HIStory Past, Present, and Future Book 1," and it first released
in 1995. The first CD has his most popular songs from the past.  The second CD
has his newest including "Scream," which is a duet with with his younger sister
Janet Jackson, "You Are Not Alone," which was a 1996 Grammy Awards nominee, and
"Childhood," which is the theme to "Free Willy 2."  Some of his past songs
include "Black And White," "Billie Jean," "Thriller," "Beat It," "Remember The
Time," and "Heal The World."  Michael Jackson has been famous for so long that
he has won many awards, especially Grammys.

     Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, in Gary, Indiana.  His
Mother's name is Katherine and his father's name is Joseph. Michael's older
siblings are Maureen, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, La Toya, and Marlon. (Jackson: 8)
Michael's younger siblings are Randy and Janet. (Jackson: 8)  Janet is a famous
pop music star just like her older brother Michael.  Tito's sons Taj, Taryll,
and T.J. are a famous music group called 3T.  The Jackson family lived in a
small home in Gary, Indiana.  Michael's mother Katherine was crippled by polio
since she was a child. (Jackson: 12)  When she was a child, she partially
recovered from polio when many died from the disease at that time. (Jackson: 12)

     Michael has been on his "World Tour" for a few years.  Lately, he has to
wear something over his face during concerts because of his skin condition
called vitiligo. (Carlson: 6)  In 1984, Michael and his brothers from the
Jackson 5 reunited for their "Victory" tour. (Anonymous: 519)  There were many
different kinds of people at his concerts, all Michael Jackson fans.

     Michael Jackson has had many interviews.  Some are true, and some are trash.
 There have been interviews on him in magazines from People to Enquirer.
Michael has been on many television shows and networks, including MTV and VH1.
He has been interviewed by newspapers worldwide.  Lately, most interviews have
been about him being a father-to-be and his recent marriage to Debbie Rowe, the
mother of his child.  Past interviews have been about his marriage in 1994 and
his divorce in the summer of 1996 from Lisa Marie Presley, Elvis Presley's
daughter.  Another subject of his past interviews have been about his alleged
rape a few years ago.

     That was my report on Michael Jackson.  I enjoyed writing it.  I hope you
enjoyed reading it!  Some additional information I'd like to add is that that
Jackson 5's first recorded song is "Big Boy," wich was the beginning of their
stardom. (Jackson: 42)

Bibliography

 1. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia, Copyright
     1991, p. 1
 2. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Microsoft Encarta '95, Copyright 1994, p. 1
 3. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia,
     Copyright 1993, p. 1
 4. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson," http://yoyo.cc.monash.edu.au/~
frestlyz/mj/mjbio.html
     Copyright February 3, 1996, p. 1
 5. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson The King Of Pop," http://lottoworldmagazine.com/
     jackson.html, Copyright 1996, p. 2
 6. Anonymous, The New Lexicon Webster's Dictionary Of The English Language 1988
     Edition, Lexicon Publications, Inc., New York, Copyright 1987, p. 519
 7. Anonymous, "3T Biography," http://www.sony.com/Music/Artist
Info/3Tsite/Artist
     Info/3TBio.html, Copyright 1996, p. 3
 8. Carlson, Jan, "MJ Biography," http://www.ozemail.com.au/~
~gwoody/biography.html#
     beginning, Copyright July 31, 1996, p. 6
 9. Grun, Bernard, The Timetables Of History 3rd Revised Edition, Simon &
Schuster,
     New York, Copyright 1991, pp. 611, 613 10. Jackson, Michael, Moonwalk,
Doubleday, New York, Copyright 1988, pp. 8, 12, 42 11. Mc Leese, Don, "Jackson,
Michael," The World Book Encyclopedia 1995 Volume 11,
     World Book, Inc., Chicago, Copyright 1994, p. 15



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Miguel de Cervantes Essay.TXT
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Miguel de Cervantes


     Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, born September 29, 1547, was a Spanish novelist,
dramatist, and poet.  Cervantes was the author of the novel Don Quixote, a
masterpiece of world literature that was a great influence to other renaissance
writers. Cervantes was born to a poor family in a town called Alcala de Henares.
His father was a surgeon who made little money to support the family .  Without
the means for much formal education, Cervantes became a soldier. On his return
to Spain he worked at a series of government jobs that involved extensive travel
in Andalucia. (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia) . His career as a public servant
was marked by as much misfortune as was his military career. Not till his later
years did Cervantes find a patron.  It was then that he had the time to devote
to his writing.
	Cervantes was a literary experimenter. In 1568, when Cervantes was a
student, a number of his poems appeared in a volume published in Madrid to
commemorate the death of the Spanish queen Elizabeth of Valois. In 1569 he went
to Rome, where in the following year he entered the service of Cardinal Giulio
Acquaviva. Soon afterward Cervantes joined a Spanish regiment in Naples. He
fought in 1571 against the Turks in the naval battle in Lepanto, in which he
lost the use of his left hand. While returning to Spain in 1575, Cervantes was
captured by Barbary pirates. He was taken to Algeria as a slave and held there
for ransom. (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). He did however make several
unsuccessful escape attempts, but  he was finally ransomed in 1580 by his family
and friends. Returning to Spain at the age of 33, Cervantes, despite his wartime
service and Algerian adventure, was unable to obtain employment with a noble
family. This was usually the gift presented to military veterans for their
distinguished courage. Deciding to become a writer, he turned out poems and
plays at a prodigious rate between 1582 and 1585 (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia).
Few of these are still existent.  His pastoral novel La Galatea (1585) gained
him a reputation, but the proceeds from its sale were insufficient to support
him. Cervantes then took government jobs, first furnishing goods to the fleet of
the Armada and later collecting taxes. The government imprisoned him several
times because he failed to give a satisfactory explanation of his tax-collecting
activities. While in prison Cervantes conceived the idea for a story about a
madman who imagines himself a knight-errant performing the splendid feats
described in medieval tales of chivalry. The first part was issued under the
title The History of the Valorous and Wittie Knight-Errant Don Quixote of the
Mancha (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). It became such an immediate success that
within two weeks after publication three pirated editions appeared in Madrid.
Partly because of the pirating and partly because of his lack of financial
acumen, Cervantes never gained substantial wealth from the enormous success of
the work. His Novelas ejemplares (Exemplary Novels, 1613), a collection of 12
short stories, includes romances in the Italian style, descriptions of criminal
life in Seville, and sketches of unusual events and characters (Funk & Wagnalls
Encyclopedia). One of these stories, "El coloquio de los perros" (The Talking
Dogs), is particularly renowned for its satirical prose style. The second part
of Don Quixote was published in 1615. Cervantes completed the fantastic
allegorical novel Persiles y Sigismunda (1617) four days before he died in
Madrid on April 23, 1616 (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). Cervantes's most
influential work, Don Quixote, is generally regarded as the first modern novel.
It is a brilliant satire, not only of the chivalric romances of the Middle Ages
and early Renaissance but also of the sentimental and pastoral novels popular in
Cervantes's own time (Byron, 24). The principal character of the novel is Don
Quixote, an elderly village gentleman of modest means. An enthusiastic reader of
old-fashioned tales of chivalry, he becomes obsessed with the idea of
reintroducing the practice of knight-errantry into the world. In Part I Don
Quixote equips himself with arms and armor and rides forth on Rosinante, a
broken-down horse, to challenge evil wherever he may find it. He is accompanied
by the loyal and shrewd, but credulous, peasant Sancho Panza, who serves him as
squire.  In his deranged state, Don Quixote sets himself the task of defending
orphans, protecting maidens and widows, befriending the helpless, serving the
causes of truth and beauty, and reestablishing justice. His adventures and
skirmishes are often grotesquely inappropriate to the situation; for example, he
attacks a windmill, thinking it a giant, and a flock of sheep, thinking it an
army. The obstinacy of his illusions never permits him to heed the warnings of
Sancho Panza, whose attitude is as realistic as that of his master is idealistic
(Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). The philosophical perception of the novel lies
in the suggested balance of their contrasting views; realism verses idealism. In
Part II the contrast between the romanticism of Don Quixote and the practical
wisdom of Sancho Panza is less striking. Don Quixote becomes a trifle more
reasonable, and Sancho Panza begins to understand rather dimly the illusions of
his master. In the end Don Quixote returns to his village and abandons
knighthood. He realizes the error of his ways, declaring that "in the nests of
yesteryear there are no birds today," falls ill, and dies. Critics generally
agree that Part II of Don Quixote is superior because of its compact
organization (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). Don Quixote has had a tremendous
influence on the development of prose fiction. It has been translated into all
modern languages and has appeared in some 700 editions. The theme of realism
verses idealism, brought forth by this novel, shaped and were major influences
of other renaissance writers and artists. Cervantes was truly a renaissance mind
at it's best.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Mohandas Gandhi Essay.TXT
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Mohandas Gandhi


	Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,  also known as mahatma Gandhi,  was a Indian
nationalist leader, who established his country's freedom through a nonviolent
revolution.

	Gandhi became a leader in a difficult struggle, the Indian campaign for
home rule. He believed and dedicated his life to demonstrating that both
individuals and nations owe it to themselves to stay free, and to allow the same
freedom to others.  Gandhi was one of the gentlest of men, a devout and almost
mystical Hindu, but he had and iron core of determination.  Nothing could change
his convictions.  Some observers called him a master politician. Others believed
him a saint.


	Gandhi became a leader in a difficult struggle, the Indian campaign for
home rule.  He worked to reconcile all classes and religious sects.  Gandhi
meant not only technical self-government but also self-reliance.   After World
War I, in which he played an active part in recruiting campaigns, he launched
his movement of  passive resistance to Great Britain.  When the Britain
government failed to make amends, Gandhi established an organized campaign of
noncooperation.  Through India, streets were blocked  by squatting Indians who
refused to rise even when beaten by the police.  He declared he would go to jail
even die before obeying anti-Asian Law.  Gandhi was arrested, but the British
were soon forced to release him.  Economic independence for India, involving the
complete boycott of  British goods, was made a result of Gandhi's self-ruling
movement.  The economic aspects of the movement were serious, for the
exploitation of Indian villagers by British industrialists has resulted in
extreme poverty in the country and the virtual destruction of Indian home
industries.  As a  solution for such poverty, Gandhi supported revival of
cottage industries; he began to use a spinning wheel as a token of the return to
the simple village life he preached, and of the renewal of native Indian
Industries.

	Gandhi became the international symbol of a free India.  He lived a
spiritual and ascetic life of prayer, fasting, and meditation.  He employed
propaganda, agitation, demonstration, boycott, noncooperation, parallel
government, and strikes.  He refused earthly possessions, he wore the loincloth
and shawl of the lowliest Indian and lived on vegetables, fruit juices, and
goat's milk. Indians thought of him as a saint and began to call him Mahatma.
Mahatma meant great soul, a title reserved for the greatest leaders. Gandhi's
nonviolence was the expression of a way of life understood in the Hindu religion.
 By the Indian practice of nonviolence, Gandhi said, Great Britain would
eventually consider violence useless and would leave India.

	The Mahatma's political and spiritual hold on India was so great that
the British authorities dared not to interfere with him.  In 1921 the Indian
National Congress, the group that spearheaded the movement for nationhood, gave
Gandhi complete executive authority, with the right of naming his own successor.
A series of armed revolts against Great Britain broke out, culminating in such
violence that Gandhi confessed failure of the civil-disobedience campaign he had
called, and ended it.  The British government again seized and imprisoned him in
1922.

	In 1930 the Mahatma proclaimed a new campaign for civil disobedience,
calling upon the Indian population to refuse to pay taxes, particularly the tax
on salt. The campaign was a two hundred mile march to the sea, in which
thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from Ahmadabad to the Arabian Sea, where
they made salt by vaporating sea water.  Once more Gandhi was arrested, but he
was released in 1931, halting the campaign after the British made compromises to
his demands.  In the same year Gandhi represented the Indian National Congress
at a conference in London.

	In 1932, Gandhi began new civil-disobedience campaigns against the
British.  Gandhi fasted for long periods several times; these fasts were
effective measures against the British, because revolution might well have
broken out in India if he had died.  In September 1932, while in jail, Gandhi
undertook a fast unto death to improve the status of the Hindu Untouchables.
The British, by permitting the Untouchables to be considered as a separate part
of the Indian voters, were, according to Gandhi, aid an injustice.  Although he
was himself a member of the Vaisya (merchant) caste, Gandhi was the great leader
of the movement in India dedicated to terminating the unjust social and economic
aspects of the caste system.

	In 1934 Gandhi formally resigned from politics.  He raveled through
India, teaching nonviolence.  A few years later, in 1939, he again returned to
active political life because of the pending federation of Indian principalities
with the rest of India.  Public unrest caused by the fast was so great that the
colonial government intervened and the demands were granted.  The Mahatma again
became the most important political figure in India.

	When World War II broke out, the congress party and Gandhi demanded a
declaration of war aims and their application to India.  As a reaction to the
unsatisfactory response from the British, the party decided not to support
Britain in the war unless the country was granted complete and immediate
independence.  The British refused, offering compromises that were rejected.

	By 1944 the Indian struggle for Independence was in its final stages,
the British government having agreed to independence on condition that the two
contending nationalist groups, the Muslim league and the Congress party, should
resolve their differences.  Gandhi stood steadfastly against the partition of
India but ultimately had to agree, in the hope that internal peace would be
achieved after the Muslims demand for separation had been satisfied.  India and
Pakistan became separate states when the British granted India its independence
in 1947.  During the riots that followed the partition of India, Gandhi pleaded
with Hindus and Muslims to live together peacefully. Riots engulfed Calcutta,
one of the largest cities in India, and the Mahatma fasted until disturbance
ceased.  On January 13, 1948, he undertook another successful fast in New Delhi
to bring about peace.

     Religious violence soon declined in India and Pakistan, and the teachings
of Gandhi came to inspire nonviolent movements elsewhere. Within fifty five
years of his self awakening after being evicted from South Africa train
compartment, Gandhi managed to evict the British Empire from India. 


 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Napoleon I Essay.TXT
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Napoleon I


Napoleon's life was a very interesting one.  Starting a poor boy, hated by most,
rising to rule a huge empire, and then finally being destroyed by his own
arrogance and ending his life humbled, remembering what he had doe, and leaving
it all in his memoirs for the world to read.

Napoleon was born in 1769, on the Island of Corsica.  His parents, Carlo and
Letizia Bonaparte, were poor nobles.  When Napoleon was just 10 years old, his
father helped to get him a mathematical scholarship to a military school at
Brienne.  In the school, Napoleon was hated and considered a foreigner.  With no
friends, Napoleon concentrated on academics, but still only graduated 42nd in us
class of 58.  he then continued his education at the Military academy of Paris.
After one year there, he became second Lieutenant of artillery, at the age of 17.
 As a Lieutenant, Napoleon did a lot of reading, mainly in the subjects of
history, geography, economic affairs, and philosophy. Napoleon was assigned to a
post at the Valence garrison when he became a Lieutenant, but spent most of his
time in Corsica, without permission.  During one of these visits, Napoleon had
trouble with a Corsican nationalist, named Pasquale Paoli, and Napoleon and his
family fled to Marseille in 1793.

Later in 1793, the beginning of the French revolution, Napoleon led an
artillery brigade to push out a British fleet that the Royalists had allowed
in.  Napoleon's mission was a success, and he was promoted to general, and
was assigned to the army in Northern Italy. During the early part of the
revolution, Napoleon had supported Maximilien Robespierre's revolutionary
group, and when Robespiere was overthrown in 1794, Napoleon spent two months
in jail for being associated with him. When he was released from jail,
Napoleon refused to fight a rebellion in Vandee, and he lost his military
position for it.

In 1795, Paul Barras, the military leader of a soon to be implemented
government, asked Napoleon to fight a revolt in Paris, Napoleon accepted,
and quickly ended the revolt.  When the directory, the government Barras
was part of, came into power, they rewarded Napoleon by appointing him
the commander of the army of the interior in 1796.  He also married Josephine de
Beauharrais in the same year. Later in 1796, Napoleon launched a campaign to
push the Austrian and Sardinian armies out of Northern Italy.  Napoleon quickly
defeated the Sardinians at Mandovi (about 25 miles from current French borders).
In a treaty with the Sardinians, France was given Nice and Savoy.  He then went
further into Italy, pushing into the Lombardy region.  He took the stronghold at
Mantua after a long siege, and was heading toward Venice with little resistance
when the Austrians surrendered, and Napoleon negotiated the treaty of Campo
Formio, which ended what is now called the war of the first coalition.  While in
Italy, Napoleon took large amounts of money and art to bring to France. When
Napoleon returned from Italy, it was suggested that he invade England.  Instead,
he decided to invade British-owned Egypt.  After sneaking by the British navy,
Napoleon landed in Egypt, and quickly carried out the occupation.  While
Napoleon as inland, the British destroyed the French fleet, leaving Napoleon
stuck in Egypt.

In early 1799, the Ottoman empire declared war on France.  To stop the
Ottoman's from invading Egypt, Napoleon invaded Syria, but was turned
back by Turkish troops. By mid-1799, the second coalition (formed by the
Ottoman's and Austrians)  were defeating French forces in Europe, so Napoleon
decided to return to France. When Napoleon arrived in Paris, he began a
conspiracy to overthrow the government.  He succeeded, and created a new
government called the consulate, of which Napoleon became the first consul. As
consul, Napoleon made many good changes in France.  He created the Napoleonic
code, which set up a complex code of civil law in the nation.  He worked with
the Pope to reestablish the Roman Catholic faith in France.  He also stabilized
the French economy, balancing the budget, established a national bank, and
restored the value of French bonds. In the mean time, Napoleon defeated Austria
in Marengo, Italy, and signed the treaty of Luneville, ending the war of the
second coalition.  He also made peace with Britain with the treaty of Amiens.
For his accomplishments in his first years in office, Napoleon was made consul
for life in late 1802. In this time of peace, Napoleon began to try to gain more
territory, and exert influence on Europe.  He started to attempt control in
Holland, Switzerland, and an area called Savoy-Piedmont.

In 1804, a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon drove the senate to tell
Napoleon to begin a hereditary dynasty, making him emperor.  At his
crowning, Napoleon took the crown from the Pope and crowned himself.  This
shows the arrogance that Napoleon was capable of.  As an emperor, he began
to value family ties, and he put much of his family in high positions,
and had many of them marry people of power. Even Napoleon himself divorced
Josephine and Married the daughter of Emperor Francis of Austria, Marie
Louise, who he quickly had a male heir with. In 1803, Britain once again
became angry with Napoleon's actions, and war began again. Napoleon took the
offensive and took an army of 170,000 to invade Britain.  He failed to draw
the British navy away from Britain, and didn't have enough power to face
them.  This, combined with Austria renewing war, forced Napoleon to return
to France. Toward the end of 1805, the fleet Napoleon had taken was destroyed
by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending the threat of a
French invasion of Britain. After this victory, Britain formed the third
coalition and was preparing revenge for the attempted invasion of Britain.
However, Napoleon had created the extremely powerful grand army, and, after
easily pushing through southern Germany, crushed the Austrians and Russians at
Ulm. After taking Ulm, Napoleon went on to occupy Vienna, one of his largest
victories came soon after.  The Austrian and Russian forces attacked Napoleon in
Austerlitz, in an attempt to cut him off from Vienna.  However, Napoleon easily
defeated the combined forces in what is now called the battle of Austerlitz.  In
the treaty of Pressburg, the Austrians gave Venice and Dalmatia to the kingdom
of Italy, owned by France.

In 1806, not long after the defeat of the third coalition, Prussia organized
the fourth coalition.  In the battles of Jena-Auerstadt, Eylau, and
Friedland, Napoleon completely annihilated the Prussians and Russians,
forcing them to surrender and sign the treaties of Tilsit, giving more land
to France. Angry at the power and defiance of Britain, Napoleon decided to
eliminate their economic influence on the mainland.  His plan was called the
continental system.  It was a blockade of British trade.  Portugal refused
to follow this policy, and France sent troops into the Iberian Peninsula,
starting the Peninsular war. Austria took advantage of the conflict in Portugal
and started the fifth coalition.  Napoleon quickly won many battles and finally
defeated the Austrians at Wagram.  The treaty of Schonbrunn ended the fifth
coalition in 1809, only four months after it had begun.

In 1802, Napoleon made the decision to invade Russian, in spite of the raging
war in Iberia.  The Russians fell back and allowed Napoleon to take Moscow
with little resistance. While in Moscow waiting for a Russian surrender,
Russian reinforcements surrounded the city while arsonists set much of it
on fire.  Famine and the onset of winter made Napoleon's only option to break
out of the city and retreat. Napoleon's army narrowly escaped, and he quickly
went to Paris to renew his forces. The nations of Europe once again took
advantage of Napoleon's time of weakness.  The Prussians, Russians, British,
and Swedes organized the sixth coalition in 1813.  Napoleon had foreseen such
an attempt, and had rebuilt his grand army.  Napoleon's victories at Lutzen
and Bautzen brought about a short peace, but later in the year, Austria
joined the coalition, and war began again. Napoleon won the battle of
Dresden, but was defeated while outnumbered two to one in the Battle of
the Nations near Leipzig.  He then fled to Paris, refusing to give up
any territory, fearing that doing so would result in an overthrow.

In 1814, the coalition invaded France.  Napoleon tried to take advantage of
the distance between the armies approaching Paris by picking them off one by one,
but was eventually outnumbered.  Napoleon gave up his rule and was exiled to the
island of Elba, and giving small amounts of governmental power there.  Louis
XVII took the crown of France.  Aware of the French peoples dissatisfaction with
Louis XVII's rule, Napoleon returned to France in 1815.  Napoleon marched toward
Paris, going through areas in which he was popular, and King Louis fled the
nation. Napoleon said that he wished to return in peace, but the allies prepared
to push him out.  Napoleon won several early victories against the rush of
allied attackers, but was defeated for the last time at the battle of Waterloo.
Fleeing back to Paris, Napoleon once again stepped down, and surrendered to the
British ship Bellerophon.  The British exiled him to the Island of Saint Helena.
Napoleon spent the remaining six years of his life living with his secretary and
a few friends.  There, he dictated his memoirs.  He died on May 5, 1821.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Neil Armstrong Essay.TXT
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Neil Armstrong


Background


     Neil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio in the year 1930.  His
services as a pilot were called upon during the Korean War.  Shortly after
graduating from Purdue University in 1955, Armstrong joined the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, then known as the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics.  At the time the functions of the N.A.C. were to plan,
direct, and conduct all United States aeronautical and space activities, except
for those that were primarily military.  Armstrong served as a civilian test
pilot at Edwards Air Base in Lancaster, California.  In 1962 Armstrong became
the first civilian to enter the astronaut-training program.

Gemini VII Mission

	In March of 1966, Armstrong completed his training and became the
command pilot of the Gemini 8 mission.  The crew of this mission was made up of
David R. Scott and himself.  In case of any emergencies with the two men before
the launch, either physical or mental, a backup crew was made.  The backup crew
consisted of Charles Conrad Junior, and Richard Gordon Junior.  The objectives
of the mission were:
	A. (Main) Rendezvous and dock with Gemini Agena target vehicle (GATV)
and conduct  EVA operations.
	B. (Secondary) Rendezvous and dock in the 4th revolution.  Perform
docked-vehicle maneuvers, Evaluate systems and conduct 10 experiments.
The mission was set to launch on March 15, 1966.  Due to minor problems with the
spacecraft and launch vehicle hardware the launch was delayed one day.  The
launch was successful.  Because of problems with the spacecraft control system,
the crew was forced to undock after approximately thirty minutes.  The
spacecraft-target vehicle combination had begun to encounter increasing yaw and
roll rates.  The crew regained control of their spacecraft by using the reentry
control system, which prompted and early landing in a secondary landing area in
the Pacific after 10 hours, 41 minutes, and 26 seconds.  No EVA was performed.
An electrical short caused the failure in the control system.  Docking and re-
rendezvous secondary objectives were not achieved due to the shortened mission.

Apollo 11 mission

	The Apollo 11 mission was funded under the Nixon administration during
the heat of the space race with the Russians.  The main purpose of this launch
was to put a man on the moon, and successfully back down to Earth.  The crew
consisted of three men, two of which would walk on the moon.  Edwin Aldrin
Junior of the United Stated Air Force, Armstrong, and Lieutenant Colonel Michael
Collins, also of the U.S. airforce made up the crew.  Collins remained in the
Lunar Orbit following the separation, piloting the command and service module.
The Lunar Module descended to the surface of the moon on July 20, landing at the
edge of Mare Tranquilitatis.  A few hours later, Armstrong, in his somewhat
bulky space suit, descended the latter and, at 10:56 PM (Eastern Standard Time)
stepped onto the surface of the moon.  His first words, which will forever go
down in history were, "That's one small step for man.... One giant leap for
mankind."  Aldrin soon joined him, and the two astronauts spent more then two
hours walking on the lunar surface.  They gathered 47 pounds of soil samples,
took photographs, and set up solar wind equipment, a laser beam reflector, and a
seismic experiment package.  The two men also put up an American flag, and
talked, by satellite communications, with United States President Richard Nixon
in the White House.  The men found that walking and running at one-sixth the
gravity of Earth was not difficult.  Also by satellite communication, millions
of people watched live television broadcast from the moon.   Returning to the
Lunar Module, and taking off their space suits, the two astronauts rested
several hours before takeoff.  They left the moon in the ascent stage of the
Lunar Module, after docking with the command and service module and the transfer
of the astronauts to the spacecraft.  The return flight of the Apollo 11 was
without mishap and the vehicle splashed down and was recovered on July 24 in the
Pacific Ocean, close to Hawaii.
	Due to fears of terrestrial contamination by living lunar organisms, the
astronauts put on biological isolation garments before leaving the spacecraft.
They were placed under quarantine for three weeks.  Both men remained in good
health.  The mission was completely successful.  It also set the stage for
future space exploration and lunar landings.
     Life after Apollo 11 After his years as a pilot during the Korean War, and
becoming commander of both the Gemini 8 and the Apollo 11 missions, not to
mention being the first civilian to enter NASA's astronaut program, and the
first man to walk on the moon, Neil Armstrong retired from the space program.
In 1971 he became a professor of Aerospace engineering at the University of
Cincinnati.  Neil Armstrong still lives today, a very proud and accomplished man.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Nicholas Ferrar Essay.TXT
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Nicholas Ferrar


Christian History 102

Nicholas Ferrar was assumed to be born in 1592. I have found that his most
probable birth date was in February of 1593. This is due to the usual calendar
confusion: England was not at that time using the new calendar adopted in
October 1582. It was 1593 according to our modern calendar, but at the time the
new year in England began on the following March 25th. Nicholas Ferrar was one
of the more interesting figures in English history. His family was quite wealthy
and were heavily involved in the Virginia Company, which had a Royal Charter for
the plantation of Virginia. People like Sir Walter Raleigh were often visitors
to the family home in London. Ferrars' niece was named Virginia, the first known
use of this name. Ferrar studied at Cambridge and would have gone further with
his studies but the damp air of the fens was bad for his health and he traveled
to Europe, spending time in the warmer climate of Italy.

On his return to England he found his family had fared badly. His brother John
had become over extended financially and the Virginia Company was in danger of
loosing its charter. Nicholas dedicated himself to saving the family fortune and
was successful. He served for a short time as Member of Parliament, where he
tried to promote the cause for the Virginia Company. His efforts were in vain
for the company lost their charter anyway.

Nicholas is given credit for founding a Christian community called the English
Protestant Nunnery at Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, England. After Ferrar
was ordained as a deacon, he retired and started his little community.  Ferrar
was given help and support with his semi-religious community by John Collet, as
well as Collet's wife and fourteen children. They devoted themselves to a life
of prayer, fasting and almsgiving (Matthew 6:2,5,16).

The community was founded in 1626, when Nicholas was 34 years old. Banning
together, they restored an abandoned church that was being used as a barn. Being
of wealthy decent, Ferrar purchased the manor of Little Gidding, a village which
had been discarded since the Black Death (a major outbreak of the bubonic plague
in the 14th century), a few miles off the Great North Road, and probably
recommended by John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln whose palace was in the nearby
village of Buckden. About thirty people along with Mary Ferrar (Ferrars' mother)
moved into the manor house. Nicholas became spiritual leader of the community.

The community was very strict under the supervision of Nicholas. They read daily
offices of the Book of Common Prayer, including the recital of the complete
Psalter. every day.



Day and night there was at least one member of the community kneeling in prayer
at the alter, that they were keeping the word, "Pray without ceasing". They
taught the neighborhood children, and looked after the health and well being of
the community. They fasted and in many ways embraced voluntary poverty so that
they might have as much money as possible for the relief of the poor. They wrote
books and stories dealing with various aspects of Christian faith and practice.
The memory of the community survived to inspire and influence later undertakings
of Christian communal living, and one of T.S. Eliots' Four Quartets is called
"Little Gidding."

Nicholas was a bookbinder and he taught the community the craft as well as
gilding and the so-called pasting printing by means of a rolling press. The
members of the community produced the remarkable "Harmonies" of the scriptures,
one of which was produced by Mary Collet for King Charles I.. Some of the
bindings were in gold toothed leather, some were in velvet which had a
considerable amount of gold tooling. Some of the embroidered bindings of this
period have also been attributed to the so-called nuns of Little Gidding.

The community attracted much attention and was visited by the king, Charles I.
He was attracted by a gospel harmony they had produced. The king asked to borrow
it only to return it a few months later in exchange for a promise of a new
harmony to give his son, Charles, Prince of Wales. This the Ferrars did, and the
superbly produced and bound manuscript passed through the royal collection, and
is now on display at the British Library.

Nicholas Ferrar, who was never married, died in 1637, and was buried outside the
church in Little Gidding. Nicholas's brother John assumed the leadership of the
community.

John did his best to make the community thrive. He was visited by the king
several times. At one time the king came for a visit with the Prince of Wales,
he donated some money that he had won in a card game from the prince.  The kings
last visit was in secret and at night. He was fleeing from defeat from the
battle of Naseby and was heading north to try to enlist support from the Scots.
John brought him secretly to Little Gidding and got him away the next day.

The community was now in much danger. The Presbyterian Puritans were now on the
rise and the community was condemned with a series of pamphlets calling them an
"Arminian Nunnery" (Ariminius was a Dutch reformer and theologian who opposed
the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and election)

In 1646 the community was forcibly broken up by Parliamentary soldiers. Their
brass baptismal font was damaged, cast into the pond and not recovered until 200
years later. The village remained in the Ferrar family but it was not until the
18th century that the church was restored by another Nicholas Ferrar. Ferrar
restored the church, shortened the nave by about 8 feet and built the "dull
facade" that Eliot spoke of.

In the mid 19th century, William Hodgkinson came along and restored the church
more. He installed the armorial stain glass windows, (4 windows with the arms of
Ferrar, Charles the 1st and Bishop Williams inserted). He then put in a rose
window at the east end (this rose window was later replaced by a Palladian-style
plain glass window). Hodgkinson recovered the brass font, restored it and
reinstalled it in the church. An elaborate 18th century chandelier now hangs in
the church, installed by Hodgkinson.

from _Little Gidding_ by T.S. Eliot

     If you came this way,
     Taking any route, starting from anywhere,
     At any time or at any season,
     It would always be the same: you would have to put off
     Sense and notion. You are not here to verify,
     Instruct yourself, or inform curiosity
     Or carry report. You are here to kneel
     Where prayer has been valid. And prayer is more
     Than an order of words, the conscious occupation
     Of the praying mind, or the sound of the voice praying.
     And what the dead had no speech for, when living,
     They can tell you, being dead: the communication
     Of the dead is tongued with fire
     beyond the language of the living.
     Here, the intersection of the timeless moment
     Is England and nowhere. Never and always.


Bibliography

Etherington & Roberts. Dictionary--Ferrar, Nicholas - Bookbinding and the
     Conservation of Books A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology.

Ferrar, Nicholas ( 1592- 1637 ) Columbia Encyclopedia - Table Of Contents -
     Columbia Encyclopedia. F. Faber, Frederick

William. Faber, Johannes. Fabian, Saint. Fabian Society. Fabius. Fabius,
     Laurent. fable. fabliau, plural...

Christian Biographies Commemorated in November - FOR THE FEAST OF ALL SAINTS
     (1 NOV) FIRST READING: Ecclesiasticus 44:1-10,13-14 ("Let us now praise
     famous men...."; a commemoration of patriarchs,...

A History Of The Church In England, J.R.H.Moorman,  Morehouse Publishing
     copyright 1980

The Story Of Christianity, Justo L Gonzalez, Harper Collins Publishers copyright
     1984

The Episcopal Church, David Locke Hippocrene Books, New York copyright 1991



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Nostradamus Essay.TXT
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Nostradamus


	Michel De Nostradame, otherwise known as Nostradamus was born December
14, 1503.  His family was of Jewish ancestry.  His grandfather, Pierre de
Nostradame, had settled in Provence because by the mid-1400s,  many Jews had
come to live there.
     Nostradamus' father was Jacques de Nostradame.  Jacques worked as a
scholary, since most people didn't know how to write he wrote things for them,
from love letters to formal documents.  Jacques' income provided a good home at
the time. Nostradamus' earliest recollection of his home was the following:

	Typical of all provençal homes in the sixteenth century was the room
     where both domestic and social life was carried on.  The center and
     symbol of the room's activity was the great fireplace, majestic, caver-
	nous, holding a banked fire that never went out since his mother and
	father moved in.  Shining pots and pans of brass hung low from the
	mantle shelf.  At either angle of the fireplace was an oak settle were
     his grandfathers liked to laze and talk when they came to visit.  On the
     walls hung light cabinet shelves holding salt and spices.

	Nostradamus had one definite brother, Cèsar who wrote Histoire de
Provence, a book which sustains the myth of the Nostradamus royal line.
Historians think Nostradamus had three other brothers, Bertrand, Hector, and
Antoine, but they are not sure and almost nothing is known about them besides
their names.
	Nostradamus was educated by his grandfathers.  First Peyrot, who had
been a great traveler, brought Nostradamus up in his home.   He taught
Nostradamus the basics of mathematics, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Astrology.
After Peyrot de Nostradamus' death Nostradamus moved back in with his parents,
Jacques and Reynière.  It is thought that his other grandfather took over his
education for a while, but the family decided to send Nostradamus to Avignon,
which at that period was the center of Renaissance learning.   At Avignon,
Nostradamus spent many hours at University libraries.
     Nostradamus' biggest interest was astrology.  His interest in astrology
began to worry his parents, and by the advice of his grandfather he was sent to
the University of Montpellier to study medicine.  The University of Montpellier
was regarded as second only to that of  Paris in all of France.
Nostradamus arrived there in 1522 at nineteen years of age.  In three years he
studied all the subjects needed for his bachelor's degree.  He was tutored by
some of the finest doctors in Europe.  The process of getting a degree was far
more arduous than in the present day, and lasted much longer.  A successful
candidate was given his license to practice by the bishop of  Montpellier.
Nostradamus achieved this in 1525.
	Nostradamus left the University and acquired a great reputation as a
doctor by treating victims of the plague that ravaged that part of Europe, he
would return later to get his doctorate.  He was widely known for his use of his
own formulas and prescriptions.  He was recorded as being very successful.  He
made his medicines according to the patient; the richer the patient, the more
expensive the ingredients were.
     One of Nostradamus' medicines used for tooth decay consisted of the
following, it was not at all unusual for the time:

	300-400 red roses, picked before dawn.
	1oz. Sawdust from green fresh Cyprus.
	6oz. Iris of Florence.
	3oz. cloves.
	3 drams sweet smelling calamus, tiger lily.
	6 drams lignaloes. Pulverize the rose petals, in a mortar, mixed with a
powder made from the above.  Make the mixture in to lozenges , dry and keep
enclosed, away from the air.  Keep one in the mouth at all times.

	Nostradamus got married in 1547 to a woman named Anne Ponsarde Gemelle,
a rich woman and a widow.  Even though Nostradamus was Christian he had not
always been that way, and the townspeople abused him as a Jew.  His reputation
decreased.  It was around this time that he started writing books called
Almanachs.  The first one, which came out in 1550, had information on things
like the weather and crops.  Many of these things were wrong, but the book was a
success.
	In 1555 Nostradamus completed a series of books of prophecies, each
containing 100 predictions about the future.  They were joined in a book for the
first time in 1568, the book contained 1000 predictions.  Nostradamus predicted
a lot of things.  The following are several:
	In prophecy number I.XXVI he says that in mid-day a great man, one that
promises change to the world will be struck and killed in front of thousands of
people.  This is thought to explain John F. Kennedy's death.  In prophecy number
II.V Nostradamus predicts a third World War.  He says a great country in the
north will be struck by a great blast from the sky, plague and blood.  Many will
suffer.
     The books of prophecies are very interesting to read and are very accurate.
     Starting in 1561 a streak of prophecies became true and Nostradamus'
reputation grew so much that Jean Aymes de Chavigny the ex-mayor Beaunne, a city
in France was quoted as saying "People came to France and sought Nostradamus as
the only thing to be seen."
     By the end of 1565 Nostradamus was seriously ill suffering from arthiritis
and gout, a painfull swelling of the joints.  On June 17, 1566 he wrote his
will; a couple of days later he died.  He lived 62 years, 6 months, 7 days.  He
was very old if you consider the fact that he lived in the 1500's when the life
expectancy was around 43 years.  When he was 57 Chavigny described him as the
following:
	He was a little under medium height, robust, nible, and vigorous.  He
had a large open forehead, a straight nose and  gray eyes which were usually
pleasant, but blazed when he was angry.  His cheeks were red even at his old
age.  He spoke little, but thought a great deal.  He slept only four or five
hours a night.  I can remember his charity to the poor	towards whom he was
very generous.
	Nostradamus had a great life he had everything he wanted besides that
fact that his family was killed by the plague and he was not able too help them.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Ray Bradbury Essay.TXT
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Ray Bradbury


	Ray Bradbury was a dreamer. Bradbury had a skill at putting his dreams
onto paper, and into books. He dreams dreams of magic and transformation, good
and evil, small-town America and the canals of Mars. His dreams are not only
popular, but durable. His work consists of short stories, which are not hard to
publish, and keep in the public eye. His stories have stayed in print for nearly
three decades.

	Ray Bradbury was born on August 22, 1920, in a small town of Waukegan,
Illinois. His parents were Leonard Spaulding and Esther Moberg Bradbury. His
mother, Esther Moberg loved films, she gave her son the middle name Douglas
because of Douglas Fairbanks, and she passed her love of films to her son. "My
mother took me to see everything....." Bradbury explains, "I'm a child of motion
pictures." Prophetically, the first film he saw, at the age of three, was the
horror classic "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", staring Lon Chanley. His teenage
Aunt Neva gave the boy his appreciation of fantasy, by reading him the Oz books,
when he was six. When Bradbury was a child he was encouraged to read the classic,
Norse, Roman, and Greek Myths. When he was old enough to choose his own reading
materials, he chose books by Edger Rice Burroughs and the comic book heroes
Flash Gordon, Buck Rogers, and Prince Valiant. When Bradbury was in Waukegan he
developed his interest in acting and Drama. After seeing a magician, known as
Blackstone, he became fascinated with magic also.

	In 1932, his family moved to Tucson Arizona. With his talents he learned
in Waukegan (amateur magician) he got a job at the local radio station. "I was
on the radio every Saturday night reading comic strips to the kiddies and being
paid in free tickets, to the local cinema, where I saw 'The Mummy', 'The Murders
in the Wax Museum', 'Dracula', .....and 'King Kong'." His family only stayed in
Tuscan for a year, but Bradbury feels: "It was one of the greatest years of my
life because I was acting and singing in operettas and writing, my first short
stories."

	In 1934 his family moved to Los Angeles, where Bradbury has remained. He
attended Los Angeles High School, where he wrote and took part in many dramatic
productions. His literary tastes were broadened to include Thomas Wolfe and
Ernest Hemingway when he took a creative writing course. In 1938 Los Angeles
High School yearbook, the following prediction appeared beneath his picture:

Likes to write stories Admired as a thespian Headed for literary distinction

	After graduation Bradbury sold newspapers until he saved up enough money
to buy a typewriter and rent a small office. In the early 1940's his stories
appeared regularly in Weird Tales. "I sold a story every month there for three
or four years when I was (in my early twenties).  Made the magnificent sum of
twenty dollars for each story." Bradbury sold his first stories in 1945 to
"slick" magazines - Collier's, Charm, and Mademoiselle.

	Shortly after his marriage to Marguerite Susan McClure in 1947,
Bradbury's first book, Dark Carnival, was published by Arkham House. About this
time, the idea for an important book about Mars, a collection of loosely
connected stories, came to Bradbury.

	The subjects that engage Bradbury's pen are many: magic, horror, and
monsters; rockets, robots, time and space travel; growing up in the Midwest town
in the 1920's, and growing old in an abandoned Earth colony on another planet.
Despite their themes, his stories contain a sense of wonder, often a sense of
joy, and a lyrical and rhythimic touch that sets his work apart.

     Using an analytical approach to such stories is to do a kind of violence to
them, but between the dream and the finished story is a considerable amount of
craftsmanship. The illustration of that craftsmanship, along with some
clarification of the writer's themes, hopefully will enrich the reader's
understanding and appreciation of one of the major artists in his feild.

	The approach here is topical: the various collections of Bradbury's
stories have been "taken apart", and the stories regrouped and compared with
another in terms of elements and common themes.

	Generally speaking, Bradbury's handling of a given theme in am early
story is essentially the same. That is, his themes do not display a growth in
emotional depth or logical complexity as time goes on. Instead, Bradbury treats
his themes in what might be called a Baroque manner - changing the orientation,
emotional tone, or relative prominence of the theme from story to story. In a
way, this is like the variations on a theme in music. For example, "The Next
Line" and "The Life Work of Jaun Diaz" both center around the mummies in the
cemetery at Guanajauto in Mexico. The former is a horror story as well as a
psychological study of a marital relationship. The latter describes a very
different marital relationship and concludes on a note of whimsical irony. Both
stories may be compared in terms of the mummies or in larger context of
Bradbury's visit to Mexico in 1945. But little understanding is added from a
critical standpoint in knowing that "The Next in Line" was published in 1947 and
"The Life Work of Jaun Diaz" in 1963. For the purpose of this study, then, the
order in which the stories were written or published has been largely ignored.
Readers wishing to pursue a chronological study of a given topic or topics will
want to consult the helpful chronolgy complied by William F. Nolan for the 1973
Doubleday & Co., Inc. education of The Martian Chronicles.

	As a partical matter, consideration here is limited primarily to fiction
available to the general reader. Though this qualification includes the vast
bulk of Bradbury's output, certain stories not included in the major collections,
as well as Bradbury's nonfiction, are either not mentioned at all or briefly
mentioned where relevant. Bradbury's poetry, screenplays, plays, and children's
books are touched upon elsewhere.

	I have referred above to Bradbury being one of the major artists in his
feild. It should be understood at the outset that there is a considerable amount
of confusion as to just what this feild is. The demands of the commercial
marketplace and the need to confine a popular writer and his within an easy
recognizable image have resulted in Bradbury's being jammed uncomfortably into a
box labeled "Science Fiction". No definition of science fiction exists that
pleases everybody, and even if it did, to apply it casually to the work of Ray
Brabdbury would be inaccurate and unfair. H.G. Wells, whom many regard as a
classical science fiction writer, had this to say about his own novels "They are
all fantasies; they do not aim to project a serious possibility; they aim indeed
only at the amount of conviction as one gets in a good gripping dream. They have
to hold the reader to the end by art and illusion and not by proof and argument,
and the moment he closes the cover the reflects he wakes up to their
impossibility." Wells here is contrasting his stories with those of Jules Verne,
wich he calls,  'anticipatory inventions." Viewed this way, virtually all of
Bradbury's stories are fantasies, with Wells's concept of the "good gripping
dream" coming closest to describing their effect. Even today Ray Bradbury's
place in literature is not clear. 


 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Rene Descartes Essay.TXT
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Rene Descartes


     Rene Descartes was born March 31, 1596 in La Haye, Touraine.  Descartes was the
son of a minor nobleman and belonged to a family that had produced a number of
learned men.  At the age of eight, he was enrolled in the Jesuit school of La
Fleche in Anjou, where he remained for eight years.  Besides the usual classical
studies, he received instruction in math and in Scholastic philosophy.  Roman
Catholicism exerted a strong influence on Descartes throughout his life.  Upon
graduation from school, he studied law at the University of Poitiers, graduating
in 1616.  He never practiced law, however--in 1618 he entered the service of
Prince Maurice of Nassau at Breda, Netherlands, with the intention of following
a military career.  In succeeding years Descartes served in other armies, but
his attention had already been attracted to the problems of mathematics and
philosophy to which he was to devote the rest of his life.  He made a pilgrimage
to Italy in 1623-24, and spent the years from 1624 to 1628 in France.  While in
France, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and also experimented in
optics.  In 1628, having sold his properties in France, he moved to the
Netherlands, where he spent most of the rest of his life.  He lived for varying
periods in a number of different cities in the Netherlands, including Amsterdam,
Deventer, Utrecht, and Leiden.
	It was probably during the first years of his residence in the
Netherlands that Descartes wrote his first major work, Essais philosophiques,
published in 1637.  The work contained four parts:  an essay on geometry,
another on optics, a third on meteors, and Discours de la methode (Discourse on
Method), which described his philosophical theories.  This was followed by other
philosophical works, among them Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (Meditations
on First Philosophy, 1641) and  Principia Philosophiae (The Principles of
Philosophy, 1644).  The latter volume was dedicated to Princess Elizabeth Stuart
of Bohemia, who lived in the Netherlands and with whom Descartes had formed a
deep friendship.  In 1649, Descartes was invited to the court of Queen Christina
of Sweden in Stockholm to give the queen instruction in philosophy.  The rigors
of the northern winter brought on the pneumonia that caused his death on
February 1, 1650.
	The most notable contribution that Descartes made to mathematics was the
systematization of analytic geometry.  He was the first mathematician to attempt
to classify curves according to the types of equations that produce them.  He
also made contributions to the theory of equations and succeeded in proving the
impossibility of trisecting the angle and doubling the cube.  Descartes was the
first to use the last letters of the alphabet to designate unknown quantities
and the first letters to represent the known ones.  He also invented the "method
of indices" to express the powers of numbers.  In addition, he formulated the
rule, which is known as Descartes' rule of signs, for finding the number of
positive and negative roots for any algebraic equation.
     Descartes' philosophy, sometimes called Cartesians, carried him into
elaborate and erroneous explanations of a number of physical phenomena.  These
explanations, however, had value, because he substituted a system of mechanical
interpretations of physical phenomena for the vague spiritual concepts of most
earlier writers.  Although he had at first been inclined to accept the theory
proposed by Copernicus regarding the universe as a heliocentric one, he
abandoned this theory when it was pronounced heretical by the Roman Catholic
church.  In its place he devised a theory of vortices in which space was
entirely filled with matter, in various states, whirling about the sun.  In the
field of physiology, Descartes held that part of the blood was a "subtle fluid,"
which he called animal spirits.  He believed the animal spirits came into
contact with "thinking substances" in the brain and flowed out along the
channels of the nerves to animate the muscles and other parts of the body.  His
study of optics led him to the independent discovery of the fundamental law of
reflection:  that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
His essay on optics was the first published statement of this law.  Descartes'
treatment of light as a type of pressure in a solid medium paved the way for the
"undulatory theory of light."
	Descartes attempted to apply the rational inductive methods of science,
and particularly of mathematics, to philosophy.  Before his time, philosophy had
been dominated by the method of Scholasticism, which was entirely based on
comparing and contrasting the view of recognized authorities.  Rejecting this
method, Descartes stated, "In our search for the direct road to truth, we should
busy ourselves with no object about which we cannot attain a certitude equal to
that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry."  He therefore determined
to hold nothing true until he had established grounds for believing it true.
The single sure fact from which his investigations began was expressed by him in
the famous words Cogito, ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am."  In saying that a
clear consciousness of his thinking proved his own existence, he argued the
existence of God.  God, according to Descartes' philosophy, created two classes
of substance that make up the whole of reality.  One class was thinking
substances or minds, and the other was extended substances or bodies.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Robert E Lee Essay.TXT
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Robert E. Lee


	Robert E. Lee was born on January 19, 1807 in Stafford, Virginia. The
son of Lighthorse Harry Lee and was educated at the U.S. Military academy.
	In 1829 he graduated  second in his class receiving a commission as
second lieutenant in 1836 and captain in 1838.  He distinguished himself in the
Mexican War and was wounded in the storming of Chapultepec in 1847; for his
meritorious service  he received his third promotion in rank.
	He became superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy and later
appointed colonel of calvery.  He was in command of the Department of Texas in
1860 and early the following year was summoned to Washington, D.C., when war
between the states seemed imminent.
	President Abraham Lincoln offered him the field of command of the Union
forces but Lee refused.  On April, 20 when Virginia succeeded from the Union, he
submitted his resignation of the U.S. Army.
	On April 23 he became commander in chief of the military and naval
forces of Virginia.  For a year he was military adviser to Jefferson Davis,
president of the Confederate States of America, and was then placed in command
of the Army in northern Virginia.
	In February 1865 Lee was made commander in chief of all Confederate
armies; two months later the war was virtually ended by his surrender to General
Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House.
	The masterly strategy of Lee was overcome only by the superior resources
and troop strength of the Union.  His campaigns are almost universally studied
in military schools as models of strategy and tactics,  He had a capacity for
anticipating the actions of his opponents and for comprehending their weaknesses.
	He made skillful use of interior lines of communication and kept a
convex front toward the enemy so that his reinforcements, transfers, and
supplies could reach their destination over short, direct routes.  His greatest
contribution to military practice however was his use of field fortifications as
aids to maneuvering.
	 He recognized that a small body of soldiers protected by entrenchments
can hold an enemy force of many times their number, while the main body
outflanks the enemy attacks a smaller force elsewhere.  In his application of
this principle Lee was years ahead of his time; the tactic was not fully
understood or generally adopted until the 20th century.
	He applied for but was never granted the official postwar amnesty.  He
accepted the presidency of Washington College, now Washington and Lee University.
In the fall of 1865 within a few years it had become and outstanding
institution.
	On October 12, 1870 Lee died at the University and has long been revered
as an ideal by southerners and as a hero by all Americans.  His antevellum home
is now known as Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee Memorial, and is a national
memorial.  In 1975 Lee's citizenship was restored posthumously by an act of the
U.S. Congress.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Sir Francis Bacon Essay.TXT
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Sir Francis Bacon


		Sir Francis Bacon was born January 22, 1561.  He died April 9,
1626. He was an English essayist, lawyer, statesman, and philosopher . He had a
major influence on the philosophy of science.  When he was 12 years old, he
began studies at Trinity College, Cambridge.  In 1576 he entered Gray's Inn to
pursue a career in law.  He was first elected in 1584.

     Bacon's opposition to royal tax measures would probably have brought an
end to his political advancement, but he had the support of the Earl of Essex,
whose prosecution for treason he later managed.  He was knighted in 1603 after
the succession of James I. Bacon and he became solicitor-general in 1609,
attorney-general in 1613, lord keeper of the great seal in 1617, and lord
chancellor in 1618; he was also created Baron of Verulam I 1618, and Viscount St.
 Albans in 1621.  Bacon retained James's favor by steadfast defense of royal
prerogative, but in 1621 he was found guilty of accepting bribes and was removed
from his office.  Retiring to Gorhambury, he devoted himself to writing and
scientific work.

	Philosophically, Bacon wrote marks such as the Instauratio Magna (Great
Restoration), setting forth his concepts for the restoration of humankind to
mastery over nature.  It was intended to contain six parts: first a
classification of sciences; second a new inductive logic; third a gathering of
empirical and experimental facts; fourth examples to show the effectiveness of
his new approach; fifth generalization derivable from natural history; and a new
philosophy that would be a complete science of nature.

	Bacon completed only two parts, however, the Advancement of Learning in
1605, later expanded as De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum (On the Dignity
and Growth of Sciences, 1620);  and the Novum Organum (The New Organon, 1620),
which was to replace Aristotle's Organon. Sciences were under the general
headings of history, poetry, and philosophy. Their culmination was an inductive
philosophy of nature, in which proposed to find the natural laws, of bodily
action.  To this end, he devised so-called tables of induction designed to
discover such forms with the goal of mastery over nature.

	Although Bacon was not a great scientist, he gave impetus to the
development of modern inductive science.  His works were held in esteem by
Robert Boyle, Robert Hook, Sir Isaac Newton, and Thomas Hobbes.  In the
eighteenth century, Voltaire and Diderot considered him the father of modern
sentence.  Other works of Bacon's include his essays from 1597-1625 and the New
Atlantis in 1627.  So nineteenth century writers suggested that Bacon was the
real author of Shakespeare's plays, but this theory is discounted by most
scholars.


Bibliography:

	 World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational
Corporation, 1962. Volume B Pp. 18.
	Wegman, Richard J., Medical and Health Encyclopedia, New York: Ferguson
Publishing Company, 1992, Pp. 491-492.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Swahili Essay.TXT
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Swahili


	The name Swahili derives from an Arabic word Swahili, the plural of
sahel, which means coast.  The Swahili are the descendants of the Arabs who came
to the East African coast and intermarried with the Local Bantu-speakers.  Arab
traders sailed down to the coast on the north-east monsoon winds, between
November and April, and sailed back up to south-west on the reverse monsoon
winds, between June and October, already in pre-Islamic times.
	The coast, the land of Zenj to the Arabs, was inhabited by peoples of
undetermined origin-perhaps by Bushmanoid groups, by Bantu speakers, perhaps by
Cushitic-speakers, perhaps even by people of Indonesian ancestry(who had settled
in Madagascar as early as the first millennium A.D. and conceivably could have
settled further north as well).  Initially Arab immigration was scarce,
settlement was sparse and it was limited to the islands.  But it did occur,
marriage with the women of the coast took place and the first seeds for the
eventual emergence of a Swahili culture were sown.
	The shirazi are also descendants of interracial marriages but in this
case it was the Persians who came to the coast.  Shirazi is derived from the
Persian word Shiraz, the capital of faz in Persia.  The Swahili and Shirazi
people have almost indistinguishable from each other.  They are mainly traders
and small businessmen.  Trade was increasing.  The material attractions of East
Africa were ivory, rhino horn, turtle shell, and slaves.
	The three most important dialects of Swahili are Kiunguja, spoken on
Zanzibar and in other mainland areas of Tanzania; Kimvita, spoken in Mombasa and
other areas of Kenya; and Kiamu, spoken on the island of Lamu and adjoining
parts of the coast.  Standard Swahili is based on the Kinguja dialect.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Ted Bundy Essay.TXT
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Ted Bundy


Ted Bundy's Trail of Terror From the Beginning of Taking Life Until The End of
His Life

        Serial killers tend to be white heterosexual males in their twenties and
thirties. While it is impossible to predict who will become a serial killer
there are traits that appear to be similar in all killers. These behaviors
include cruelty to animals, bedwetting, lying, drug and alcohol abuse, and a
history of violence. According to Robert Ressler et al., "serial homicide
involves the murder of separate of separate victims with time breaks between
victims, as minimal as two days to weeks or months. These time breaks are
referred to as a cooling off period." Because homicides involving multiple
victims is gradually becoming more commonplace, and to facilitate an
understanding of the aforementioned definition, it is helpful to differentiate
serial murder from other types of murder, such as mass murder, which
involves,"four or more victims killed within a short time span," and spree
killings, which Ressler et al. defines as "a series of sequential homicides
connected to one event committed over a time period of hours to days and
without a cooling off period."

        Ted Bundy is one of the worst serial killers in history. His antisocial
personality and psychotic character made him feared across the country.  After
all was said and done Ted left behind a trail of bloody slayings that included
the deaths of 36 young women and spanned through four states. The biggest
question in many people's mind was how could someone as intelligent,highly
accomplished, and praised as Bundy do such a thing?
        Theodore Robert Bundy was born November 24th, 1946 in Burlinton, Vermont
to a 21 year old mother. Ted's mom  never told him much about his father except
that he was in the armed forces and they had only dated a few times. Ted was
left in foster care for two months while his mom and parents decided what to do
with him. In 1946 an illegitimate child was extremely looked down upon by
society. Once they decided to keep Ted his grandparents told everyone he was
their adopted son. Ted knew who his biological mom was, but outsiders were told
that she was his sister.
        Ted adored his grandfather. His grandfather was also particularly fond
of Ted. He remembered camping and fishing trips he and his grandfather would go
on.  Other family members describe his grandfather as an ill-tempered tyrant. He
was racist, intolerant, and a perfectionist. He expected everyone to meet his
demands. His grandfather  was also verbally abusive toward other family members
and physically abusive toward his wife.  He also physically mistreated animals
including the family pet.
        Ted's grandmother suffered from depression. It got so bad that she was
eventually treated with electroshock therapy. She also suffered from agoraphobia
and never left the house.
        When Ted was three years old, his Aunt, age 15, said she awoke to find
him slipping butcher knives into the bed beside her under the covers. She told
him to leave and took the knives back. She said no one in the family did
anything about this. (Time Life)
        The older Ted got, it became more difficult to hide his family's
identity and his secret mother. With this his mother moved to Washington where
she met and married John Bundy. At the time Ted was four years old. He was
adopted by John and his new parents had four children together.
        From the beginning Ted did well in school. His teachers complimented him
on his good grades. But they also commented on Ted's inability to control his
violent temper. Friends recall  Ted as one who would usually avoid fights,
though when provoked could explode with frightening violence and anger.  Ted was
active in Boy Scouts and attended church regularly. He also held a part-time job
and made excellent grades. Ted just dated once during high school and was
described as shy.
        It was around this time that Ted began sneaking out of the house and
peeping into windows. He became a "Peeping Tom." He occasionally disabled a
woman's car to make her more vulnerable, without actually doing anything to
her(Time Life). He found these behaviors sexually arousing and masturbated while
doing them. He also began shoplifting for expensive items and told his mom that
they  were gifts. He was picked up at least twice by juvenile authorities for
suspicion of auto theft and burglary, but nothing came of it.
        While Ted was on death row he once told an interviewer that he knew he
was different from other people.  He was quoted as having trouble knowing  what
appropriate social behaviors were.  His own needs and desires were all that
mattered. Ted recognized that he did not have remorse the way  other kids did so
he learned to mimic normal emotions.
        Ted participated in many respectable behaviors that helped make it so
unbelievable to accept his guiltiness. He caught a purse snatcher and was given
a commendation from the police department. He also saved a drowning toddler once
by diving into a lake after him. Ted also worked for a suicide prevention
hotline talking others out of killing themselves. He also wrote rape-prevention
books and became active in politics gaining the attention of very important,
highly known people.
        Ted worked many low paying jobs to pay for college. He was a busboy at a
hotel, a messenger, and clerks at various stores. He left most jobs after only a
few months. Some employers said he was a good worker while others gave him less
than favorable comments.
        It is likely that Ted killed his first victim while in his teens. A
young schoolmate disappeared at this time.  He is said to have begun his serial
killings in his late twenties in 1974. However many people believe that he
started earlier than this. He is said to be the suspect in numerous unsolved
murders (Wellard).
        In January of 1974, an 18 year old student was found unconscious in her
bedroom.  Ted had beaten her with a metal rod and then inserted it in her vagina.
The woman survived but was in a coma for several months and had no memory of the
event at all.  A month later he abducted and killed a 21 year old woman named,
Lynda Ann Healy.  When police entered her room they found blood all over her bed,
her nightgown stiff with blood, and her clothes and backpack from the night
before were missing.
        Six weeks later, a 19 year old college student never arrived at a jazz
concert she was going to.  The next month a freshman girl disappeared on the way
to a movie. Three other women disappeared over the next two months (Time Life)
        Ted would  use fake casts, splints, and crutches to get his victims to
help him. He would use  little things like how he needed help to carry his books
or load up his car. In July of 1974 though, he was able to convince a young
woman to help him load a sailboat up at his parent's house. The girl was never
seen again. That same day he abducted an 18 year old secretary while at a park.
        Ted had now abducted two people in broad daylight using his real name.
People would not believe that a killer would actually use his real name. This
lead the press to call these cases the "Ted" cases.  In 1974 the first pieces of
bodies were slowly being found. The police began to discover the severity and
scope of the killer.
          Ted Bundy had now moved to Utah where he became a dormitory manager at
the University of Utah. Here in Utah he killed 16 year old Nancy Wilcox. Three
weeks later he killed 17 year old Melissa Smith.  Ted had killed at least 11
times in Utah and nearby Colorado.
        In August 1975 Ted was stopped for driving suspiciously. When the trunk
was searched the police found an ice pick, ski mask, a mask made of pantyhose,
rope and handcuffs. These are the items Ted used in his "rape kit."
        Ted was convicted of kidnapping and sentenced to prison.  Unfortunately
his parents bailed him out.  In 1977 he was transported to Colorado to stand
trial for one of the murders when Ted escaped out of the courthouse.  Ted was
picked up a few days later for driving recklessly and taken back to jail. It was
in December of that same year when Ted again managed to escape and took off
toward Florida.  It was January when Ted committed the Chi Omega murders.
Upstairs in the sorority house the police found one woman with her nipple bit
off her breast and bite marks on her buttocks. Two women were dead from blows to
the head while the other two were barely alive.  Right after these clubbing Ted
attacked another woman in her apartment down the road from the Chi Omega house
and left her for dead.
        Ted Bundy's last victim was a 12 year old girl  he had taken from school.
Her body was found two months later in April of 1978. When Ted Bundy was brought
to trial he acted as his own lawyer.  Ted managed to have the original judge
removed due to prejudice, he won a change of venue from Tallahassee to Miami,
and he managed to have his leg shackles removed so he could walk around the
courtroom. In the end Ted was found guilty and sentenced to die.
        While on death row Ted conducted many interviews. Ted seemed surprised
at the anger about the killings and that the women he had killed were mourned so
deeply."What's one less person on the face of the earth anyway?"(Time Life)
        In October of 1982 Ted's daughter was born while he was on death row. It
would be seven years later before Ted would die though. On the eve of his
execution Ted told an evangelist that watching pornography had led him to commit
his crimes. Theodore Robert Bundy died January 1989. His last words were "I'd
like you to give my love to my family and friends."(Time Life)
        Using the DSM IV  Ted Bundy can be diagnosed as having Antisocial
Personality Disorder. One criteria used to determine this is showing behavior
that could be grounds for arrest, but usually are not. Examples of this criteria
are met when Bundy would peek into the women's rooms and masturbate. This is
trespassing and invasion of privacy. While you can be arrested for this, people
are usually not. Another part of the DSM IV criteria is lying and conning.  Ted
was constantly doing this. Every time he picked up a victim he was guilty of it.
He lied to women in order to pick them up using his fake splints and casts or
when he needed help loading his sailboat. Picking up women also fits the other
criteria of charming. Those who knew Ted stated the he was indeed charming. You
would have to charming to some extent in order  to pick up over thirty  women.
        Another criteria Ted met was,"consistent irresponsibility, as indicated
by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial
obligations." Bundy's  odd jobs and reports from employers hold this to be true.
The final criteria Bundy meets for antisocial personality disorder is,"Lack of
remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt,
mistreated, or stolen from another." Bundy most clearly sums this up when he is
quoted as saying,"What's one less person on the face of the earth anyway?"
        Besides his antisocial personality disorder Bundy also shows signs of
going through the seven phases of a serial killer. The aura or fantasy phase is
the one phase I cannot find any evidence of Bundy going through. For this phase
there is a withdraw from fantasy and Ted does not appear to do this anywhere.
The trolling phase is when Ted would stalk and pick his victims. He went through
this stage because the majority of his victims came from college campuses. Bundy
was a master at the wooing phase. Most of the time his victims went with him
voluntarily.  The capture phase really cannot be applied to Bundy. Sometimes he
was sudden about his crimes and sometimes he was not. Bundy always carried out
the murders and he also kept body parts to preserve the high he got from the
killings. This would be the totemic phase.  Bundy went through depression phase
because he was not able to quit. He began to kill as soon as he got to Florida.
        It is truly sad that a person with such great potential to do good
chooses to take a different path.(Holmes) As Judge Cowart said to Bundy
immediately after he passed the death sentence,"It's a tragedy for this court to
see such a total waste of humanity"(Rule,1980:394).



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Tennessee Williams Essay.TXT
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Tennessee Williams


	Tennessee Williams was born Thomas Lanier Williams on March 26, 1911 in
Columbus, Mississippi.  As a child, he lived with his mother and grandfather.
When he was fourteen, Williams too first place in an essay contest sponsored by
a national magazine, The Smart Set.  At the age of seventeen, his first
published story appeared in the August 1928 issue of Weird Tales.  A year later
Williams entered the University of Missouri but in 1932 he withdrew and took a
job at the shoe factory where his father held a job as a sales manager.     In
1935 Williams returned to college and graduated from the University of Iowa in
1938.  Williams had begun writing plays while attending the University of
Missouri and after his graduation he had supported himself doing a variety of
small jobs.  In 1939 he won a national drama award for a group of plays called
American Blues.  Williams achieved his first great stage success with The Glass
Menagerie, which was produced in New York City in 1945.  This play won the New
York Drama Critics' Circle Prize as the years best play.  Williams averaged two
plays a year since that time.  On February 4, 1983, Tennessee Williams died in
New York City.  Throughout Williams' lifetime he has put forth more than twenty-
five full-length plays, more than forty short plays, a dozen produced (and
unproduced) screenplays and an opera libretto.  These have been translated into
at least twenty-seven languages, including Tamil, Welsh, Marathi and Hindi.  In
addition, there are two novels, a novella, more than sixty short stories, more
than one hundred poems, an autobiography, a published volume of letters,
introductions to plays and books by others, and occasional pieces and reviews.


PLAYS Baby Doll & Tiger Tail Camino Real Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Clothes for a
Summer Hotel Dragon Country The Glass Menagerie A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur
The Read Devil Battery Sign Small Craft Warnings Stopped Rocking and Other
Screenplays A Streetcar Named Desire Sweet Bird of Youth THE THEATER OF
TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME 1 Battle of Angels, A Streetcar Named Desire, The
Glass Menagerie THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME II The Eccentricities
of a Nightingale, Summer and Smoke, The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real THE THEATER OF
TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME III Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Orpheus Descending,
Suddenly Last Summer THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME IV Sweet Bird of
Youth, Period of Adjustment, The Night of the guana THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE
WILLIAMS, VOLUME V The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore, Kingdom of Earth
(The Seven Descents of Myrtle), Small Craft Warnings, The Two-Character Play THE
THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VI 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other
Short Plays THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VII In the Bar of a Tokyo
Hotel and Other Plays THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VIII Vieux Carre,
A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur, Clothes for a Summer Hotel, The Red Devil
Battery Sign 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Plays The Two-Character Play
Vieux Carre POETRY Androgyne, Mon Amour In the Winter of Cities PROSE Collected
Stories Hard Candy and Other Stories One Arm and Other Stories The Roman Spring
of Mrs. Stone Where I Live: Selected Essays -----------------------------



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another The Body Essay.TXT
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The Body


	In Castel Rock Maine,  There were four boys Vern Tesio,  Gordie La
Chance,  Chris ,  and Teddy Duchamp.

	They have a tree house in a abandon parking lot where they  play cards
and hang out.

	Vern comes and tells the gang that when he was under his portch looking
for his penneys that he had burried when he was eight he over heard his brother
talking to his friend charlie hogan about the child that was missing but they
said that they did it and they said where the body was.

	Gordie's brrother died in car crash.

	Gordies parents never paid any attention to Gordie.

     There was a story that started in the book,and I didn't get it.  It
was a nudity scene, like a story but just started in the middle of the book.

	So they each told there mom's and dad's that they were camping out in
the field when they where realy going to find the dead child.

	Chris brought a gun that he stole off of his dads bureau.  He let Gordie
see it and he told Gordie that it wasn't loaded.  So Gordie pulled the trigger.
And KA-BLAM.  The gun was loaded and he shot the trashcans behind the diner.
The waitress came out but she thought it was fircrackers.

     They started out on there mission walking along the train tracks.

	Teddy Duchamp played chicken with the train pretending he was a
paratrooper,  but Chris pushed him out off the way in the nick of time.  They
get into a fight but settle it.

	They go into the town dump to get a drink of water.  It is restrickted
to go in there when the dump isn't open.  They fliped to see who goes to the
store to get the food.  when they fliped they got a goocher which vern says is
bad luck,  so they flip again ang Gordie looses.

	Gordie goes to the store to get the food and he gets in a fight with the
clerk about being gipped on the money because when Gordie add it up it came out
to be less then what the clerk said.

	When Gordie came back to the dump he couldn't find the guys and he
noticed that the owner of the junkyard was here because his car was here.  So he
tried to make a run to the opposite side of the junk yard.  But the man noticed
him a sicked his dog Chopper after him.  He made it to the other side to find
his friends standing there telling him to come on.

	The owner of the junk yard was really mad at th kids for trespasing.
But the kids just kept calling the owner names.

	The owner got realy mad and called Teddy's dad a looney.  Teddy got
really mad and said that his dad stormed the beachs of Normady.

	They had to cross this train bridge the only problem was that they
didn't know when the next train was due.  They started to cross the bridge when
they noticed a train was comming so they started running.  Vern and Gordie were
in the back when chris and Teddy were up front.  Chris and Teddy made it easely
but Vern and Gordie made it by the skin of the teeth.

	Gordie told a story when they camped out.  It was about this pie eating
contest.  This looser in the school was called Lardass.  Everyone hated him so
he wanted revenge.  He ate a egg and some alchole to make him throw-up before
the contest.  He ate 6 pies and then through-up on the person who was the
returning campion.  Then everyone started trowing-up.

	They took a short cut through a field to make better time.

	In there short cut they had to pass a swampy area.  when they crossed
the water they noticed leaches all over their bodies.  Gordie passed out when he
found a leach in his underwear.

	When they arrived at the dead childs body along came Verns brother billy
with his gang wanting to take away the body and get credit it for finding it but
Gordie shot the gun into the air and made everyone leave so no one could take
credit for finding the body.

	 The figured the best way to help the police was by a anonymous call to
tell them where the body was.

	Vern was killed in a house fire in a appartment building in 1966.  Teddy
went in a car crash.  Chris was stabbed in a chicken store.  And Gordie is a
writer with a family.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another The First Time Essay.TXT
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The First Time


Slush, Slush, Slush, "Ahhhhhhhhhh!" "Well, there goes another graceful one," I
looked admirably down the slope, "How do they do that?" "With lots of
practice?!"  Veronica replied sarcastically. "No kidding!" I gave her a look.
Then with a unsure voice I said, "I'm going to try it myself, wish me luck."
"Break a leg?!" "Ha, Ha, very funny." Slowly, I crabbed walked up the slope.
Shaking all over, I was afraid to look down. Yet, I still had the courage to
stagger myself to the top. Feeling a little dizzy by the high altitude, I took a
deep breath of the cold frost bitten air. Then without a second thought, I
lowered my knees and gave it a quick push. "Ahhhhhhhh!" Oh my God, what have I
put myself through. Is this what I really came here for? Why do I feel like I'm
flying, like a 747, heavy but still floating in the air. Have I died and left my
body? No, No, I'm to young to die. Give me another chance to live. Please, let
me go. Suddenly, I felt myself swaggering. The air pressure pushing harder below
me. No, No, I take it back, don't let me go. Thoughts that were racing through
my mind were blown away by a sudden "Thud!" like all those times I've dived off
a diving board with my belly down. "Where am I?" I whispered to myself, " Why is
it so cold?" "Hey Jo! Get up!" "Uh?" "Hurry, before someone accidentally skis
over you," Veronica cried dragging me with her. "Veronica? Is that you?" My
friend gave me one of her questioning looks. "Has your mind been blown away by
the wind?"

"I'm still alive?" I cried gratefully. "I guess so." "How did I look when I
came down?" "You looked magnificent, and I got it all on film," Veronica said
proudly, "Even the part when you landed flat on your face buried down in the
snow," she laughed. I groaned. "There is one part that I don't understand
though," she said puzzled. "Oh? What is that?" "Why were your arms flying all
over the place when you came down?" she looked at me, "Like a frantic baby
birdie who's just learning how to fly." Grinning mysteriously, I remembered my
thoughts of how my spirt had float away from my body. "That was a high leveled
stunt my dad taught me when I was little," I lied. "Really?!" "Ya! Want me to
teach you?" "And end up with my face in the snow? That's okay." "Well, at least
try skiing down the slope like I did." "Are you sure?" "Ya! Come on," I said
excitedly as I grabbed her arm, sliding into the distance, leaving narrow
roadways in the snow. Hey, what do you expect from a first time skier. It wasn't
so bad though. At least I got a feeling of what flying was like without sitting
uncomfortably in the plane. Maybe next time I go back to see my folks in Taiwan,
I'd be able to get through with the flight without feeling air sick all the time.
I sure hope so, because I wouldn't want to run into the bathrooms and barf all
over their toilets again, then have the next little girl going into that
bathroom and run out with her nose pinched tightly saying, "Mommy



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another The Life of John F Kennedy Essay.TXT
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The Life of John F. Kennedy


    John F. Kennedy was born in Brookline Massachusetts on May 29, 1917.
He attended Harvard University and graduated in 1940. From 1941-1945 he
served in the United States Navy, during World War II. In 1946 he was
elected to the United States House of Representatives. Then in 1952 he
was elected to the United States Senate. On September 12, 1953 he was
married to Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. Then in 1960 he was elected President
of the United States. On November 22, 1963 he was assassinated in Dallas,
Texas.

    John grew up in Boston, Massachusetts. His father Joseph P. Kennedy,
was a self-made millionaire. During the administration of President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, he served as the first chairman of the Securities
and Exchange Commission, and as United States Ambassador to Great Britain.
During John's childhood, his family often moved. Some of these moves sent
the family into New York. All of the Kennedy children developed a strong
competitive spirit. The boys enjoyed playing touch football together.

    John Kennedy's education included elementary schools in Brookline
and Riverdale. By the age of thirteen his father sent him to the
Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. He then transferred to
Choate Academy in Wallingford, Connecticut, and graduated in 1935 at
eight-teen years old. In 1936, after a summer in England, John entered
Princeton University. After Christmas, of that same year, he developed
jaundice. Then in 1936 he entered Harvard University. At Harvard he
majored in government and international relations. In 1940 he graduated
from Harvard. He then enrolled at Stanford University, but dropped out
after only six months.

    After serving in the United States Navy, where he won the Navy and
Marine Corps Medal as the skipper of a PT boat in World War II, John
decided to enter government. In 1946, he ran for the House of
Representatives and won the election over his Republican opponent. He
was reelected to the House in both 1948 and 1950. In 1952, he ran for
the United States Senate. He defeated his opponent Henry Lodge, who was
a popular and experienced legislator. After the 1956 Presidential election
he decided to try to run for the upcoming 1960 Presidential election.

    In 1960 John Kennedy ran in the Presidential Election. His opponent,
Richard M. Nixon, was a popular person, he had previously been the
vice-president under Dwight Eisenhower. Together they became the first
Presidential opponents to debate face-to-face on television. John Kennedy
won the election. During his years as president, John helped pass a number
of laws. He also established the United States Peace Corps, through
executive order. On November 22, 1963 Kennedy went to Dallas Texas with
his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, and with Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife to
Dallas, Texas. There, while in a motorcade going through the streets of
Dallas, he was shot by an assumed gunman by the name of Lee Harvey Oswald.
After his death in Dallas, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United
States, on the plane back to Washington. Kennedy's funeral was held on
November 25, 1963 where he was then buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
An eternal flame was lit over his grave, where it is still burning today.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Thomas Jefferson Essay.TXT
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Thomas Jefferson


	"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal; that they are endowed unalienable rights; that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."  These famous lines of the Declaration
of Independence was written in the front parlor of a second floor rented
apartment by the American, Thomas Jefferson.  These few words show what ideas
and beliefs Thomas Jefferson stood for, and how he continuously fought for these
words to become fulfilled in his country.
	This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albermarle County,
Virginia.  From his father he inherited some 5,000 acres of land, and from his
mother, a high social ranking.  He studied at the College of William and Mary,
then read the law.
	Thomas Jefferson was a man of many different talents.  He knew several
languages, including Latin and Greek.  He was an expert mathematician who was
even able to calculate when eclipses of the sun and moon would occur.  He could
design buildings, perform medical operations like an experienced surgeon, survey
land, and play the violin.  Despite his thinness, he was strong enough to tame a
wild horse and chop wood like a lumberjack.  Most important of all, he was know
to be a superb writer.
	Though surprisingly, Thomas Jefferson was not a man of many words.  Not
known for his speaking abilities, he was shy and seldom spoke in public.  When
delegates at the Congress gave long speeches, Thomas Jefferson oftentimes just
listened.  John Adams said of Jefferson, "During the whole time I sat with him
in Congress, I never heard him utter three sentences together."
	Instead, this Virginian contributed his pen rather than his voice to the
patriotic cause.  Being known throughout the colonies as a fine writer on
political questions, he received the most votes to become the chairman of the
committee elected to write a Declaration of Independence.  The other members of
the committee asked him to write a first draft of the Declaration.  Jefferson
began his work in the parlor of his apartment.  For several days, he worked long
hours at a desk, writing this Declaration for which he is widely known.  He
described that his words were not meant to be original or creative, but "to be
an expression of the American mind."
	Thomas Jefferson was a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, and
came within three votes of election.  However in 1800 he did become the third
president of the United States.  As president Jefferson slashed Army and Navy
expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated tax on whiskey, and reduced the
national debt by a third.  Although the Constitution made no provisions for the
acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality
and acquired the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.
	Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand
designs for the University of Virginia.  As a French nobleman observed, he had
placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might
contemplate the universe."
	Truly, Thomas Jefferson was an American.  He had endless devotion and
love for his country, and helped establish what the American experience stood
for.  He had a great impact on how the young nation grew into the powerful
country it is today.  Not only did he physically double the size of the United
States, he played a key role in making the nation independent.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Thomas Paine Essay.TXT
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Thomas Paine


     In September of 1776, on the outskirts of Newark, among the tired,
discouraged, soldiers, as they paused from their daily retreat, sat Thomas Paine.
He wrote many papers that would have a major effect on the outcome of the quest
for independence. Born the son of a  Quaker Laymaker on January 29th, 1737 at
Thetford, Norfolk England. He received a basic elementary education, and started
to work for his father as an apprentice, and later as an excise officer. He was
not a huge success at either, and was in fact fired twice from the job as an
excise officer. When he arrived in Philadelphia on November 30th 1774,
he was sick and feverish, and had to be carried on a stretcher. With a letter of
recommendation from Ben Franklin, he was accepted into a hospital and given
special care, until he recovered. With that same letter from Ben Franklin, he
found many doors opened for him, including jobs tutoring many of the sons of the
wealthiest men in Philadelphia.
	Paine started over again, by publishing African Slavery In America, in
the spring of 1775, in which he criticized slavery in America as being unjust
and inhumane. At about this same time, he became the co-editor for the
Pennsylvania Magazine. When he arrived in Philadelphia, Paine noticed the
tension, and the rebellious attitude, that was continually getting larger, after
the Boston Tea Party.
     In Paine's opinion, the Colonies had all the right to revolt against a
government that imposed taxes on them, and which did not give them the right of
representation in the Parliament at Westminster. Then he went one massive step
further, he decided there was no reason for the Colonies to stay dependent on
England. He published his opinions in the American independence pamphlet Common
Sense.
	In Common Sense Paine states that sooner or later Independence from
England must come, because America had lost touch with the mother country. He
felt that the function of government in society was to only be a regulator, and
thus pretty simple. His strong beliefs made him a major influence on the
Declaration Of Independence.
 	 He joined General Washington in his battle against General Howe in the
War of Independence. Where he motivated many downhearted soldiers who needed
reassurance. The retreating of General Washington's army was a slow, daily
affair. Being an Englishman himself, Paine knew that the British enemy, would
not take the Revolutionary Army seriously and was familiar with tactics of the
English Army, and could advise the Revolutionary Army of what was to be expected.
The English were polite in the way that they did not attack at night. They were
slow to rise in the mornings, and early to retire for the evenings. Their
strategy on the battlefield was very formal and exact. The English would march
in tight ranks, which was perfect for European battles, but senseless in the New
World, where they would easily be taken out by Revolutionary sharpshooters. The
bright red military uniforms that they wore looked great, but made them extra
easy targets, in the misty New England days. While under General Washington's
command, Paine started work on the first of  his American Crisis papers, which
were later published between the years of 1776 and 1783 In these papers he wrote
of how Americans must be willing to give it their all... "These are the times that
try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot, will, in this
crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now,
deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." He also wrote of how the
Americans would not win easily, for if they did, they would not respect it with
the respect if they had a hard time overcoming it. "Tyranny, like hell, is not
easily conquered... What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly."
     In 1787 Thomas Paine left for England, when the French Revolution broke out.
Originally intending to raise money for a bridge he was building, Paine was
sidetracked and became deeply involved in the French Revolution. He began
publishing The Rights Of Man in which he defended the Revolution and attacked
the English monarch. His book was banned in England, naturally, and he was to be
arrested, but was not on account he had left for France. When he returned to
America in 1802, under invitation by Thomas Jefferson, he learned that he was
considered a hindrance to America, or altogether forgotten. He died on June 8,
1809 in New York City, from dropsy. Truly Thomas Paine was the Most Loved and
Most Hated Man in America. He had motivated the young nation to free itself from
a monarchic rule. And was a thorn in the side of England, as they continued to
lose their grip of control, on America.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Van Gogh Essay.TXT
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1639
Most casual art lovers see Van Gogh as a troubled but successful artist. This is far from the actual truth of his chaotic life which was filled with failure in every occupational pursuit he attempted including painting, and was marked by episodes of depression, violence, and abnormal behavior. Thanks to the preservation of thousands of letters Van Gogh had written to friends and family, especially to his brother Theo, we have a nearly complete understanding of his feelings, experiments, and views on every aspect of his life. Surprisingly, his incredible artistic talent went unnoticed and unrecognized until he was 27 years old, after he had already failed at two other career choices as an art dealer and a Protestant minister. Following his failure as a preacher, he began to study art. He obsessively began thousands of sketches and oil paintings. Many observers of Van Gogh's life believe that his oddities, which were apparent from early childhood, built up to create many experiences that directly impacted the development of Expressionistic painting. Therefore, a look into his childhood will give us an understanding of Van Gogh's creative expression. Vincent's sister, Elizabeth Van Gogh, described his behavior as a child (1) "he was intensely serious and uncommunicative, and walked around clumsily and in a daze with his head hung low." She continued by saying, (1) "Not only were his sister and brothers strangers to him, but he was a stranger to himself." A servant who worked for the Van Gogh family when Vincent was a child described his as an (1) "odd, aloof child who had queer manners and seemed more like an old man," than the child he was. Vincent later described his childhood as (2) "gloomy, cold, and sterile." Unaware of his own artistic ability, Vincent Van Gogh first tried to learn the art of selling art work. At the age of 16, he became the apprentice of an art dealer at the firm Goupil and Co. located at the Hague in Belgium and was later transferred to the London and Paris galleries. He quickly learned all the painters and their personal styles, along with what makes a piece of art valuable. In fact, he actually learned too well! If a customer became interested in purchasing a poorly done painting, Van Gogh would explain why it was junk. He was even known to be argumentative with clients. Van Gogh was fired from the art firm and with the help of his relatives, he temporarily took a position as an assistant teacher and curate. Following his failure as an art dealer, Van Gogh wrote to his sister, Wilhelmina Van Gogh, that the galleries and art firms (1) "are in the clutches of fellows who intercept all the money" and that only "one-tenth of all business that is transacted... is really done out of belief in art." During this period he fell in love for the first time and openly showed his love for Eugenia, a respectable, upperclass woman. Eugenia was insulted by his unwanted advances and harshly refused him. Van Gogh's inability to read the intent and emotions of others caused him to fail to see that she had no feelings for him. This made the second major failure for Van Gogh. After his short period as a teacher he returned home to Holland for a visit to his parents and decided to stay. While working as a clerk for a bookseller, he rented a room with a family named Rijken. Mrs. Rijken said that she had to scold numerous kids for taunting Vincent, calling him(3) "a queer freak." He was only 24 years old at the time. When Vincent realized that he was inadequate as a teacher and bookseller, he became desperate to find work. His parents didn't want to continue supporting their oldest son, who was a failure in their eyes. This made Van Gogh decide ro fulfil his father's wish of him becoming a minister. In Amsterdam he began studying for the University entrance exams in theology, but soon found he couldn't learn the required math and foreign languages. With a relative's help he entered an evangelical school in Brussels and became a missionary in the Borinage,a mining district in Belgium. Van Gogh found his personal calling working with the miners and their families, and was known to give away his clothing and money to help the poor living in shacks. Nonetheless, he couldn't communicate his religious beliefs to is followers. Seeing the pride that the poor in this community could maintain in spite of their miserable living conditions, influenced Vincent to take on their lower class beliefs. Living in the same filth and poverty that his fellow man was forced to experience, he lost religion but gained a new fascination in his charcoal drawings of the personal class living around him. Vincent returned home for an extended visit and fell deeply in love with his first cousin Kee Vos, who had also been staying with his family. Kee, like Eugenia his first love, had no interest in Vincent. Unaffected by her obvious disinterest in him, Vincent attempted to visit her at her family's home, but was refused. Kee's father repeatedly told him that she wasn't home. Vincent thought that her family was keeping her away from him against her will. He then impulsively attempted to show his affections for Kee by holding his hand in the flame of a kerosene lamp and said to Kee's father,(4) "let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame!" After blowing out the flame, Kee's father took Vincent to a nearby pub to get him drunk to calm his agitation. Then he convinced Vincent that Kee couldn't see him and that their relationship had no future. When Vincent's father, a devoted Christian minister, found out that Vincent had fallen in love with his first cousin, a bitter fight caused a life-long break in their father / son relationship. Kicked out of his family's home, Van Gogh threw himself into his art work and began a relationship with a low class prostitute named Sien. She moved in with him and he became very empathetic to her personal suffering. Van Gogh lovingly sketched her image and because she was in poor health he also took care of all her needs. This caused even more friction between Vincent and his family. Van Gogh's eccentric behavior increased as did his hate for the middle class and soon alienated anyone who would attempt to help him. He began wearing ragged, unwashed clothes and loving an isolated existence. His only activity was to draw and paint in ways that showed his sympathy for the peasants. One of his greatest paintings, "The Potato Eaters" was a result of this stage of his life. In his many letters it's clear that Van Gogh was aware of his depressive tendencies and that he had experienced them most of his life. After one of his mental crises he wrote, (2) "well, even in that deep misery I felt my energy revive and I said to myself: in spite of everything I shall rise again, I will take up my pencil, which I have forsaken in great discouragement, and I will go on with my drawing, and from that moment everything has seemed transformed in me." Van Gogh seemed to use the incredible high spirits that followed his severe depression as a source of creative energy. In 1886, at the age of 33, Van Gogh went to Paris and rubbed elbows with Toulouse-Lautrec, Gauguin, Seurat, and other painters who were later considered among the best. His painting techniques were influenced by these Impressionists and their use of bright colors and less sentimental subjects, and changed the direction his style would take. He stopped painting dank canvases and subjects that were impoverished. After two years of working among the Impressionistic art community, Van Gogh's nervous system began to collapse. His friendship with Paul Gauguin was in Van Gogh's words(5) "electric." On December 24, 1888, in an argument between Gauguin and Van Gogh, he unsuccessfully attacked Gauguin. Later that night he cut a large part of his ear off and gave it to a prostitute. When his brother, Theo, learned of the incident, he had Vincent institutionalized for two weeks in Aries, France. This was followed by several more breakdowns in 1890. Psychologists studying Van Gogh's history of mental breakdowns have theorized that each psychotic episode was preceded by a supposed threat to his deep attachment to a loved one. Vincent saw the relationship between Theo and his new wife Joanna, as a loosening of the bond he had with his brother. Vincent was mainly worried about the allowance of 100 francs per month for living expenses while he painted. Vincent painted "The Undergrowth With Two Figures" in June 1890, one month before his death. He then wrote to he brother saying,(1) "I feel... a failure. That's it as far as I'm concerned... I feel that this is the destiny that I accept, that will never change." On July 27, 1890 Vincent Van Gogh went out to the countryside at a place where he was staying and shot himself inn the chest. He then walked up to his room and began bleeding to death. Although he only sold one painting during his life time, he is considered the most powerful Expressionist, and his paintings now sell for millions of dollars. Ironically, Van Gogh is deemed by society to be one of our greatest and most successful artists.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Walt Whitman Essay.TXT
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Walt Whitman


Walt Whitman wasn't a very big fan of war.  He thought everything about it was
negative.  We can see this in his poetry. In "Beat! Beat! Drums!", he expresses
his feelings toward war using symbolism.  The drums and the bugles are examples
of two symbols.  He is using these objects as representing war. Whitman starts
off each stanza with the same line every time.  "Beat! Beat! drums! - blow!
bugles! blow!"  He uses this symbolism of war to show the effects it has on the
world. The drums and the bugles are always interrupting things.  This is seen
clearly in the first stanza.  The drums and bugles are interrupting the church
and the farmer can't be peaceful.  Whitman continues this symbolism throughout
the rest of the poem. Whitman also speaks of how he doesn't like the war in
other poems of his.  He does this in "The Wound-Dresser."  He speaks of the war
as his strangest days.  They were long days of sweat and dust.  The reader can
tell by the explanations by Whitman that he doesn't appreciate war. He also
talks about the people who got wounded from the war.  He feels bad for them and
wants to save them desperately.  This shows that he dislikes the war because he
felt there was no need for them being injured.  If it wasn't for the war, the
people wouldn't be that way.  He doesn't state these beliefs directly, however
it is easy to see through his words. Walt Whitman mentions his dislike of war
throughout his poems.  He may do this indirectly but his message is abundantly
clear.  He is obviously anti-war and has only negative aspects of it.  He hates
the idea of war and shows it in his poetry.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Wayne Gretzky Essay.TXT
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Wayne Gretzky: Comparing Two Biographies


	In this essay, I need to compare two biographies of a famous person. I
will plot out the difference and compare the two books considering point of
view, bias, aim, omission, interest and interpretation. This person is my hero
and idol. He is one of the great player in the history of hockey. He set the
all-time NHL scoring record in 26 seasons and got four Stanley cup in a row
from 1984-1988. He is Wayne Gretzky, the most brilliant and talent hockey
player in this century. Ichose the "Gretzky and Taylor" and "Gretzky with Rick
Reilly.
	The book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly was an autobiography. It showed how
Wayne Gretzky from his AHL to a famous NHL player. In this book, there were a
lot of Gretzky's childhood. We knew that Wayne Gretzky could skate at two years
old. He was well known by people at six. When he was ten, he was signing
autographs and had a national magazine article written about him. A thirty-
minutes national television show done on him at fifteen. It also talk about
Gretzky's hero when he was a kid. He was a funny guy. He was Gretzky's hockey
instructor. He was also his lacrosse, baseball basketball and cross country
coach. He was not only coach, but also trainer and chauffeur. Gretzky called
him dad, his name was Walter. However, in the book "Gretzky and Taylor", it did
not  show anything in Gretzky's childhood. It was started when Gretzky became
the NHL player, a member of Edmonton Oiler's rookie. How he became the hall of
the frame. The description of this book was very interesting. The writer show
the thing through the game. For example the first chapter was talking about
the 1984 Stanley Cup final between the Edmonton Oilers and New York Islander.
	"Wayne," he said, "don't worry about not scoring so far. Just make sure
that when you do get a  goal for us is a big one. " (Page 15 Gretzky and Taylor
) From this conversation, we could know what had happen at that time. So, there
was different between the point of view of those two books.
	Although this two books had the different point of view, they both had
the same aim. They also showed to young people that worked hard was the only
source  of success. In the book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly", Gretzky showed his
talent when he was young. He was national knew at six. There was even a wild
rumors  that the New York Rangers were going to buy the entry Brantford Pee Wee
franchise, so that they had the right to take him when he turn the greater. But
behind the success, did you know how much Gretzky put on the hockey. In the
winter, Gretzky would get in the mourning, skated from seven o' clock to eight-
thirty, went to school, came back home at three thirty, stayed on the ice until
his mother ready the dinner, ate in his skater, then went back out until nine
o' clock. On Saturday and Sundays, he would have games played with his
neighborhood. So looked how much times that Gretzky put on the practice and
that time he was six. Also in the book "Gretzky and Taylor", because of
Brantford, the home of Wayne Gretzky. He left home at fourteen. He moved to
Toronto, playing with the Toronto Young Nationals, Junior B. The years in
Toronto were no way for a kid. He was lonely, living without family. But why
Gretzky chose to do this? It was because he could go to school and nobody knew
who he was and he would play better hockey. So now we can see how Gretzky was
so successful.
       We could clearly see the omission between these tow book. It was because
the "Gretzky and Taylor" was published in 1984, there was a great omission in
Gretzky's life. This thing happened in 1988, the Edmonton Oilers wanted to
tread Gretzky to L.A. Kings. That was the most important trade in the NHL. The
book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" was published in 1900. So it had some more
detail in this event. After the Oilers had won the fourth Stanley Cup in last
five years. The owner of the Oilers Nelson Skalbania wanted Oilers to go public,
so he could raise money easily. In order to go public, he had to get Gretzky
out of the personal service contract and make Gretzky property of the team.
Because Skalbania knew what he needed wasn't more Stanley Cups. He didn't need
to sell more ticket. His arena was already sold out. He need cash. So, now
Gretzky became a LA. Kings after this huge deal in the NHL history.     Talking
about the bias, I didn't think there had a lot of bias in this two books. I
could only find a little bias in the book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" it was
because this book was a autobiography, it may had a little  bit subjective. The
part that a felt subjective was the huge deal. In the book, it only had people
who supported Gretzky to give their comments, no one was on the side owner .May
be the thing was what the people had said, but you should also had the comment
of other side. So that people can compare by themselves.
	Both two books were very interesting, not only the words but a lot of
pictures. These pictures could make the books more interested but also gave
readers the image how Gretzky played hockey. And the interpretation, both two
books had some statistic in the back. It showed how many goals, assists, points
and many other statistic of Wayne Gretzky. (see note 1)
	 Compare of these two books, I could find both very interested and
excllent. However, I thought the "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" was a liitle bit
better than the other because of the more specify details.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Wendell Phillips Essay.TXT
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Wendell Phillips


	Wendell Phillips was born on November 29, 1811.  He was a well-known
American reformer. His career of attempting to reform American society spanned
47 years.  He put most of his energy into opposing slavery and supporting
women's right's, labor reform, and temperance.  In 1865 he attacked the
Constitution. He attacked it because it supported slavery.

	He had married Ann Terry Greene. Greene had been taught by William Lloyd
Garrison.  Garrison and Phillips became friends.
	As the Civil War approached he became more and more certain that
violence must be employed to abolish slavery.  When the war came he was at the
head of the emancipation movement.

	In the years after the war Wendell Phillips demanded that actions be
taken to protect blacks and loyal whites in the South.            He also became
more involved in workers rights.  His speeches and lectures soon became
published.  On February 2, 1884 Wendell Phillips died.

	In conclusion I believe that a soldier would be a good symbol for
Wendell Phillips. It would be a good symbol because soldiers fight hard for what
they believe in. This is what Wendell Phillips did.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Werner Heisenberg Essay.TXT
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Werner Heisenberg


	One cannot fully appreciate the work of Werner Heisenberg unless one
examines his contributions in the context of the time in which he lived.  Werner
Karl Heisenberg was born in Wuerzburg, Germany, on December 5, 1901, and grew up
in academic surroundings, in a household devoted to the humanities.  His father
was a professor at the University of Munich and undoubtedly greatly influenced
young Werner, who was a student at the Maximilian Gymnasium.
	  Heisenberg had the opportunity to work with many of the top physicists
in the world including Niels Bohr and Max Born.  Like many of the top physicists
of the time Heisenberg received his doctorate at an early age.  In Heisenberg's
case he received it at the young age of twenty three.  Heisenberg was not just a
researcher.  He was also a professor and author.  During his career he taught at
many prestigious universities, including the Universities of Leipzig, Goettingen,
and Berlin.  He also wrote many important books including, Physical Principles
of the Quantum Theory, Cosmic Radiation, Physics and Philosophy, and
Introduction to the Unified Theory of Elementary Particles.  In 1932 he won the
Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in Quantum Mechanics.
	With the Nazi's in power, and World War two on the horizon it was
inevitable that his German heritage would play a crucial role in his career.
Before Germany's blitzkrieg on Poland Heisenberg decided to make one final visit
of his friends in the West.  Many tried to convince him to stay and accept a
professorship at Columbia, but Heisenberg declined.  He felt that it was his
duty to preserve the foundation of science in Germany during the war.  He also
believed that by staying in Germany during the war, he could help individual
German scientists.  In fact, he did offer jobs to Jewish scientists when they
were fired from their posts at other universities.  As time passed, Heisenberg
found that he was powerless to protect his friends.  Heisenberg himself was
personally attacked, and his appointment at the University of Munich was blocked.
 For over a year Heisenberg was attacked in the SS newspaper, which referred to
him as a "white Jew."  The attack became so threatening that Heisenberg's mother,
who had a slight connection to Himmler's family, wrote to Himmler's mother
asking Himmler to intercede.  Himmler personally cleared Heisenberg of the
charges leveled against him a year later, but he was told to study science and
avoid discussing  scientists.  The strain of the investigation surely affected
Heisenberg's creativity.
	During the war Heisenberg worked on the German A-bomb project along with
a number of other German scientists.  It has been proposed in the novel
Heisenberg's War, written by Thomas Powers, that Heisenberg deliberately
sabotaged this project to keep the bomb out of Hitler's hands.  After the war
was over, all of the scientists in Germany working on the A-bomb project,
including Heisenberg, were interned in England to be questioned about their work
on the project.
	Heisenbergs nationalism eventually ruined many of his academic
friendships.  His close relationship with Neils Bohr was destroyed by his
decision to remain in Germany during the war.  His failure to be more specific
about his stand in whether or not to seriously work to develop a German bomb
played an important part in his inability to reestablish ties with friends who
moved to the West.  The creative interaction with many leading scientists prior
to the war was not resumed at the war's end.
	Heisenberg's most important finding, the Uncertainty Principle is the
corner stone of Quantum Mechanics.  However, many advances in Quantum Mechanics
had to be made before Heisenberg found it.  Everything started with Rutherford's
model of the atom.  Consisting of a positively charged central nucleus,
surrounded by orbiting planetary electrons.  Around the same time that
Rutherford was discovering the basic structure of the atom, Plank did some
important work also.  Finding that energy from an oscillating particle is
emitted not continuously, but in packets of energy he developed the Quantum
Theory of Radiation.  From this came the universal constant h which played a
large role in Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.  Neils Bohr then made a new
model of the atom, which combined both Rutherford's and Plank's work.  This new
model accounted for known patterns of atomic radiation as seen in spectra.
However, what Bohr wrote on paper about the electron activity and what other
physicists were observing were two different things.  Bohr had developed his
quantum theory of the atom by discarding the idea of a classical frequency
associated with the orbit of an electron, but he still retained the concept of
the classical orbit.  Heisenberg went one step further and discarded the concept
of the orbit itself.  Rather than the classical idea of the position and the
motion, or momentum, of the electron at each instant in time, Heisenberg
introduced his square arrays or matrices, which depict the electron  as existing
simultaneously in all possible Bohr orbits.  After Heisenberg's discovery, the
classical concept of the electron as a particle was no longer justifiable.
	Heisenberg was led to these revolutionary ideas by his insistence on
utilizing only those quantities in a theory that are directly observable.  Since
the orbit of an electron is not observable, it can have no place in a theory.
Only the spectral lines are observed, and, since these involve pairs of orbits,
all quantities that are used to describe the electron inside the atom should be
associated with such pairs.
	Such thinking led to Heisenberg's matrices.  One of the important
features of matrices is that it is not commutative.  If the array representing
the position of an electron is q and an array representing its momentum is p,
then the product pq is not the same as the product qp.
	This showed Heisenberg that the uncertainty relationship is purely an
algebraic consequence of his matrix theory.  If you picture the product pq as
representing a measurement of the position of the electron followed by a
measurement of its momentum; qp, on the other hand, represents the measurement
of the momentum of a particle followed by at the measurement of its position.
That these two sets of measurements give different results simply means that the
measurement of the momentum of a particle destroys our knowledge of its position,
and vice versa.  It follows that it is impossible to obtain or to have precise
knowledge of the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously; this is
the essence of the uncertainty principle.
	Its significance for the structure of the atom is that we have no way of
determining the orbit of an electron inside the atom observationally.  As
Heisenberg pointed out in his analysis of the Copenhagen interpretation of
quantum theory, an electron can be observed inside an atom only with a gamma-ray
microscope which, because of the short wavelength of gamma rays, has a high
resolving power.  This microscope shows us where the electron is at any moment,
but at least one gamma-ray photon must be reflected from the electron.  In this
very process the electron is knocked out of the atom.  It is senseless then to
speak of its orbit.
	Although the uncertainty relations can be derived mathematically from
theory, it is much more instructive to derive them from the physical picture.
This method shows clearly the interrelationship between the wave and the
particle.  In fact, it is clear from Heisenberg's analysis that wave and
particle are complementary aspects, as are position and momentum.  It was from
considerations such as these that Bohr developed his theory of complementarily,
which is essential for an understanding of modern atomic theories.
	The uncertainty relations completely change our ideas of causality.  If
we cannot determine the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously
to any desired degree of accuracy, we cannot determine its future course.  We
can solve equations for the motion of the particle.  However, these solutions
can tell us its future history only if at some moment in the past or at the
present instant we know its position and momentum.  The farther we try to look
into the  future, the less accurate our predictions become because our present
uncertainty, however small leads to greater deviations from the predicted
pattern of the motion as the time increases.  We can understand this situation
by considering the lunar missile probes carried out by the United States and
Soviet Union.  To hit a target as gar away as the moon involves extreme accuracy
in aiming the rocket and giving it the correct initial momentum; if we wish to
hit targets at greater distances, our accuracy will have to be increased
considerably because the further the distance, the greater the multiplication of
any initial error.
	Today we use the term quantum mechanics for the entire mathematical
scheme that is used to treat problems in atomic, nuclear, elementary-particle,
and field physics.  The mathematics of quantum mechanics stems directly from
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and is a consequence of his uncertainty principle.
If anyone were to prove his uncertainty principle wrong the foundations of
quantum mechanics would fall.
	Heisenberg spent the final years of his career trying to derive the
properties of such elementary particles as electrons, protons, and so on, from a
departure from quantum field theory by having the field itself construct its own
particles.  Unfortunately, this approach led to a very complex mathematical
formulation which some say spoiled the great beauty of quantum mechanics.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another William Faulkner Essay.TXT
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William Faulkner


     William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha County, with Jefferson as its county seat, is
both a mythical and actual place.  Yoknapatawpha  county is 2400 square miles in
area and has a population of 15,611 persons.  Jefferson has an actual jail, town
square, old houses, and Old Frenchman's Place, even a railroad.  Faulkner's
"Yoknapatawpha County" is in reality Lafayette County, and "Jefferson"  is
actually Oxford.  The  Faulkner family lived there since before the Civil War.
This is where most of his stories take place.  He pondered the family history
and his own personal history; and he used both in writing his stories.
(American Writers; 54)
     Faulkner born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897.  In 1902 they moved to
Oxford ("Jefferson"), the seat of the University of Mississippi.  His father,
Murray C. Falkner, (the u was added to the family name by the printer who set up
William's first book, The Marble Faun) ran a livery stable and a hardware store.
Later he became business manager of the University.  Maud Butler was his mother
and Murray, John, and Dean were his three brothers. (American Writers; 55a)
     Faulkner's great-grandfather was William C. Falkner.  He was born in 1825.
He was a legendary figure in Northern Mississippi.  Many details of his life
have shown up in Faulkner's writings.  He was twice acquitted of murder charges.
He was a believer in severe discipline and was a colonel of a group of raiders
of the Civil War.  He began as a poor youngster trying to take care of his
widowed mother, but ending his career as the owner of a railroad and a member of
the state legislature.  He was killed by his former railroad partner shortly
after he had defeated the other for a seat in the legislature.  There is a
statue of William C. Falkner facing his railroad today. (American Writers; 55b)
     J. W. T. Faulkner was a lawyer, a banker, and assistant United States
attorney.  He was an active member of "rise of the "rednecks"", the political
movement that gave greater suffrage to tenant farmers.  The people of Oxford say
he had and explosive temper. (American Writers; 55c)
     The  characters Colonel Sartoris and Bayard Sartoris portray Faulkner's
great-grandfather and grandfather.  These characters show up in many of his
stories such as Sartoris and The Unvanquished.  They are a part of the Old South
legend and they play an important role in the saga of Yoknapatawpha. (American
Writers; 55d)
     William was a poor student.  He left highshool in the tenth grade to work
in his grandfather's bank.  He liked to read, and wrote some poetry of his own.
He also tried painting.  The towns people said he was a moody boy, and seemed as
a puzzle to them.  He began a friendship with Phil Stone in 1914.  Phil was a
young lawyer.  This gave him a chance for literary discussions and helped
acquaint him with such rising reputations as Conrad Aiken, Robert Frost, Erza
Pound, and Sherwood Anderson. (American Writers; 55e)
     William was underweight and only five feet tall.  Because of this, he was
turned down by the United States Army.  He did, however, join the Royal Flying
Corps in Toronto, Canada, and a cadet.  On December 22, 1918, the date of
demobilization, he became an honorary second lieutenant.  He was often
preoccupied with both the events and the implications of World War I, like most
other writers of his age.  Many of his earlier books deal with this. (American
Writers; 55f)
     As a veteran, he was allowed to enroll at the University of Mississippi.
There he studied English, Spanish, and French, but he was only in residence for
one full academic year.  He took a job in a bookstore in New York City, but he
soon returned to Oxford.  He did odd jobs such as a carpenter of house painter
for two years, then became postmaster at the university.  He soon resigned,
saying in his letter of resignation, " I will be damned if I propose to be at
the beck and call of every itinerant scoundrel who has two cents to invest in a
postage stamp."  This same year, 1924, The Marble Faun was publicized, a book of
poems.  Stone had subsidized its publication. (American Writers; 55g)
     Faulkner decided to go to Europe by means of New Orleans.  Once he reached
Now Orleans, he ended up staying for six months.  He wrote a few sketches for
Times-Picayune entitles "Mirrors of Charles Street," contributed to the Double
Dealer, and important "little magazine," and became friends with Sherwood
Anderson.  At that time, Anderson was one of the most admired of American
writers.  Faulkner also wrote his first novel, Soldier's Pay, which Anderson
helped him get published.  He and Anderson remained friends despite differences
in temperament and despite Faulkner's having written a parody of Anderson's
style in Sherwood Anderson and other Famous Creoles, a volume of drawings by
William Spratling, one of his Mew Orleans friends.  In his book there is a
drawing by Spratling of Faulkner and himself sitting at a table painting,
writing, and drinking.  On the wall there is a sigh reading "Viva Art".  Beneath
Faulkner's chair are three gallons of corm liquor.  In June 1925, Faulkner and
Spratling shipped on a freighter for Italy and a walking trip through France and
Germany. (American Writers; 56a)
     Faulkner went back to New York in March 1926, for the publication of
Soldier's Pay.  Thematically the novel comes to very little, but the young man
had obvious talent.  Soldier's Pay received favorable reviews, and its publisher
signed a contract for a second novel.  Faulkner went off to Pascagonla,
Mississippi, to write it. (American Writers; 56b)
     Mosquitoes, published in 1927, used New Orleans as a setting.  Mosquitoes
says that "actions are more important than words and doers are more important
than talkers."  It is a satirical novel.  One of the characters, Dawson
Fairchild, is based on Anderson.  One part of his book contains a series of
"tall tales" which Faulkner later said he and Anderson had worked up together.
Mosquitoes was less well received than Soldier's Pay. (American Writers; 56c)
     While writing Sartoris, Faulkner had also been working on The Sound and the
Fury.  They were published within a few months of each other.  Sartoris marks
the end of an apprenticeship.  The Sound and the Fury is the work of a major
writer. (American Writers; 57a)
     In June of 1927, Faulkner married Estelle Oldham and settled down to a
career as a writer.  Within a ten year span he wrote and published most of what
has come to be regarded as his major work.  He made trips to Hollywood to work
on movie scripts, he made trips to New York, but he mainly resided in Oxford.
Sanctuary brought him notoriety.  Critical acclaim, however, came more slowly.
Oddly, the French recognized Faulkner's power more quickly and more widely than
Americans did.  In 1946, Malcolm Cowley published his influential Portable
Faulkner.  At this time all of Faulkner's books were out of print and there had
been very little serious criticism devoted to Faulkner.  Valuable studies began
in 1946, and now there is hardly a critical or scholarly journal that has failed
to devote article after article to Faulkner.  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1950.  Faulkner, accompanied by his daughter, went to Sweden.  Many other awards
followed, including Pulitzer prizes for The Town and The Reivers.  Faulkner
visited European countries, especially France, spent some weeks in Japan in 1955,
and made occasional public appearances in the United States.  In 1957, he was a
writer in residence at the University of Virginia.  Three weeks after being
thrown from a horse, he died, from a heart attack, in Oxford, Mississippi.  July
6, 1962.  (American Writers; 57b)



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Another Woodrow Wilson Essay.TXT
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Wilson, Woodrow


Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States (1913-21), secured a
legislative program of progressive domestic reform, guided his country
during WORLD WAR I, and sought a peace settlement based on high moral
principles, to be guaranteed by the LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

Early Life and Career

Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born in Staunton, Va., on Dec. 28, 1856. He was
profoundly influenced by a devoutly religious household headed by his
father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, a Presbyterian minister, and his mother,
Janet Woodrow Wilson, the daughter of a minister. Woodrow (he dropped the
Thomas in 1879) attended (1873-74) Davidson College and in 1875 entered the
College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), graduating in 1879.
Wilson studied (1879-80) at the University of Virginia Law School, briefly
practiced law in Atlanta, and in 1883 entered The Johns Hopkins University
for graduate study in political science. His widely acclaimed book,
Congressional Government (1885), was published a year before he received
the doctoral degree. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson; they had three
daughters.

Wilson taught at Bryn Mawr College (1885-88) and Wesleyan University
in Connecticut (1888-90) before he was called (1890) to Princeton as
professor of jurisprudence and political economy. A popular lecturer,
Wilson also wrote a score of articles and nine books, including Division
and Reunion (1893) and his five-volume History of the American People
(1902). In 1902 he was the unanimous choice of the trustees to become
Princeton's president. His reforms included reorganization of the
departmental structure, revision of the curriculum, raising of academic
standards, tightening of student discipline, and the still-famous
preceptorial system of instruction. But Wilson's quad plan--an attempt to
create colleges or quadrangles where students and faculty members would
live and study together--was defeated. Opposed by wealthy alumni and
trustees, he also lost his battle for control of the proposed graduate
college.

The Princeton controversies, seen nationally as a battle between
democracy and vested wealth, propelled Wilson into the political arena.
George Harvey, editor of Harper's Weekly, with help from New Jersey's
Democratic party bosses, persuaded Wilson to run for governor in 1910.
After scoring an easy victory, he cast off his machine sponsors and
launched a remarkable program of progressive legislation, including a
direct-primary law, antitrust laws, a corrupt-practices act, a workmen's
compensation act, and measures establishing a public utility commission and
permitting cities to adopt the commission form of government.

Success in New Jersey made him a contender for the Democratic
presidential nomination. Although Wilson entered the 1912 Democratic
National Convention a poor second to Speaker of the House Champ Clark, his
strength increased as Clark's faded, and he won the nomination after 46
ballots. Offering a program of reform that he called the New Freedom,
Wilson ran against a divided Republican party. In November, with only 42
percent of the popular vote, he won 435 electoral votes to 88 for
Progressive candidate Theodore Roosevelt and 8 for the Republican
candidate, President William Howard Taft.

Progressive as President

By presenting his program personally before the Democratically
controlled Congress, employing personal persuasion as well as patronage,
and appealing to the American public with his stirring rhetoric, Wilson won
passage of an impressive array of progressive measures. The Underwood
Tariff Act (1913), the first reduction in duties since the Civil War, also
established a modest income tax. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) provided
for currency and banking reform. Antitrust legislation followed in 1914,
when Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act and the CLAYTON
ANTI-TRUST ACT. In 1915, Wilson supported the La Follette Seamen's bill,
designed to improve the working conditions of sailors. The following year
he signed the Federal Farm Loan Act, providing low-interest credit to
farmers; the Adamson Act, granting an 8-hour day to interstate railroad
workers; and the Child Labor Act, which limited children's working hours.
In foreign policy, Wilson was faced with greater problems than any
president since Abraham Lincoln. He attempted to end U.S. dollar diplomacy
and promote the mediation of disputes. He rejected a loan to China on the
grounds that it impaired Chinese sovereignty, and he helped thwart Japanese
designs on the Chinese mainland. He approved Secretary of State William
Jennings BRYAN's efforts to minimize the danger of war through a series of
"conciliation treaties" and joined him in an unsuccessful attempt to
negotiate a Pan-American pact guaranteeing the integrity of the Western
Hemisphere. In attempting to deal with revolutionary Mexico, Wilson first
sought to promote self-government by refusing to recognize the military
usurper Victoriano HUERTA and forcing him to allow free elections. When
Huerta resisted, Wilson tried to force him out by ordering (April 1914)
limited American intervention at Veracruz and by supporting
constitutionalist Venustiano CARRANZA. Mediation by Argentina, Brazil, and
Chile helped to prevent a general conflict and led to Huerta's resignation
in July 1914.

A year later, Wilson recognized Carranza's provisional government, and
in 1916 he intervened again after Carranza's rival, guerrilla leader Pancho
VILLA, had raided a town in New Mexico, killing several Americans. In 1915
and 1916 he reluctantly sent troops to Haiti and Santo Domingo to establish
U.S. protectorates.

After the outbreak of the European war in August 1914, Wilson
struggled with considerable success to fulfill the obligations of
neutrality, to keep trade channels open, and to prevent any abridgement of
U.S. rights, all in the face of the British blockade of Germany and the
latter's introduction of submarine warfare. He warned Germany in February
1915 that it would be held to "strict accountability" for the loss of
American lives in the sinking of neutral or passenger ships. After the
LUSITANIA was sunk in May 1915 (with the loss of 128 Americans), he
negotiated with such firmness that Secretary Bryan, fearing a declaration
of war, resigned in protest. In September 1915, Wilson won pledges from
Germany to provide for the safety of passengers caught in submarine
attacks, and in May 1916 the Germans agreed to abandon unrestricted
submarine warfare.

Running on his record of reform and with the slogan "He kept us out of
the war," Wilson sought reelection in 1916 against Republican Charles Evans
Hughes. The president won a narrow victory, receiving 277 out of 531
electoral votes.

Wartime Leader

When Germany renewed all-out submarine warfare in 1917, Wilson severed
diplomatic relations. In April he asked Congress for a declaration of war,
asserting that "the world must be made safe for democracy."
As war president, Wilson made a major contribution to the modern
presidency as he led Americans in a spectacular mobilization of the
nation's resources. Establishing a series of war agencies, he extended
federal control over industry, transportation, labor, food, fuel, and
prices. In May 1917 he forced through Congress a Selective Service bill
under which 2.8 million men were drafted by war's end. He sought and
received legislative delegation of increased powers, thus leaving for his
successors the precedents and tools to meet future crises.

Wilson the Peacemaker

From 1914, Wilson had sought ways to mediate the conflict. In 1915 and
1916 he sent his advisor and confidant, Col. Edward M. HOUSE, to Europe to
work toward a negotiated peace and postwar cooperation. In the spring of
1916, Wilson joined the call for a postwar association of nations; on Jan.
22, 1917, he called for a peace without victory and reaffirmed his support
for a league of nations.

With the United States in the war, Wilson hoped to have a stronger
influence on the peace settlement. On Jan. 8, 1918, he presented his
FOURTEEN POINTS, a comprehensive statement of war aims. It became at once a
war weapon and a peace program, inspiring the peoples of the Allied powers
while undermining the confidence of the Germans. Germany made its peace
overture in the hope of obtaining just treatment under Wilson's proposals.

Wilson headed the American delegation to the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE.
He erred seriously, however, by not developing bipartisan support for his
peace plans; he did not appoint a prominent Republican to the delegation,
and he called on voters to reelect a Democratic Congress in 1918 as a vote
of confidence. Most contests were decided on local issues, and when
Republicans captured both houses of Congress, his leadership seemed
repudiated.

Wilson was hailed as a hero upon his arrival in Europe. At the
conference (January-June 1919) Allied leaders Georges CLEMENCEAU, David
LLOYD GEORGE, and Vittorio ORLANDO favored a traditional settlement. Wilson
worked tirelessly for a peace along the lines of his Fourteen Points; only
his shrewd bargaining prevented even harsher terms from being imposed on
Germany. Wilson characterized the Versailles Treaty as the best obtainable
compromise and put his hopes in the League of Nations, an integral part of
the treaty, as the institution through which inequities could be later
rectified.

Senate Republicans, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, refused to approve the
peace treaty without significant modifications of the U.S. commitment to
the League. Wilson accepted some compromise but then turned to the people.
In a national speaking tour he eloquently defended the League and U.S.
membership as essential to lasting world peace. Long months of exhausting
labor had weakened the president, however, and he collapsed on Sept. 25,
1919, following a speech in Pueblo, Colo.

A week later Wilson suffered a stroke that left him partially
incapacitated for the remainder of his life. From his bed he continued to
oppose severe restrictions to the League. The Senate, meanwhile, rejected
the treaty in November 1919 and March 1920. Wilson urged that the 1920
presidential election be a referendum on the League. Republican Warren G.
Harding, who had established a reputation as an opponent of the League, won
in a landslide.

In December 1920, Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for 1919. The
former president and his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, whom he
married in 1915, after the death of his first wife, continued to make their
home in Washington, D.C. Wilson died there on Feb. 3, 1924.

 Bibliography:

Baker, Ray S., Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters, 8 vols. (1927-39; repr. 1968);

Bell, Herbert C. F., Woodrow Wilson and the People (1945);

Blum, John M., Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality (1956);

Bragdon, Henry W., Woodrow Wilson: The Academic Years (1967);

Cooper, John M., The Warrior and the Priest (1983);

Ferrell, Robert H., Woodrow Wilson and World War I: Nineteen Seventeen to
     Nineteen Twenty-one (1986);

Heckscher, August, Woodrow Wilson (1991);

Latham, Earl, ed., The Philosophy and Policies of Woodrow Wilson (1975);

Levin, N. Gordon, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (1968);

Link, Arthur S., Wilson, 5 vols. (1947-65), Woodrow Wilson: A Brief
     Biography (1963), and Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World,
     1913-1921 (1982);

Hirst, David W., et al., eds., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 55 vols. (1966-86);

Walworth, Arthur, Woodrow Wilson, 3d ed. (1978).



NAME: Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States (1913-21) Nickname:
"Schoolmaster in Politics" Born: Dec. 28, 1856, Staunton, Va. Education: College
of New Jersey (now Princeton University; graduated 1879) Profession: Teacher,
Public Official Religious affiliation: Presbyterian Marriage: June 24, 1885, to
Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914); Dec. 18, 1915, to Edith Bolling Galt (1872-1961)
Children: Margaret Woodrow Wilson (1886-1944); Jessie Woodrow Wilson (1887-
1933); Eleanor Randolph Wilson (1889-1967) Political Affiliation: Democrat
Writings: George Washington (1896); A History of the American People (5 vols.,
1902); Constitutional Government in the United States (1908); Papers of Woodrow
Wilson (1966- ), ed. by Arthur S. Link, et al. Died: Feb. 3, 1924, Washington,
D.C. Buried: National Cathedral, Washington, D.C. Vice-President: Thomas R.
Marshall

Cabinet Members:^ Secretary of State: William J. Bryan (1913-15); Robert Lansing
(1915-20); Bainbridge Colby (1920-21) Secretary of the Treasury: William G.
McAdoo (1913-18); Carter Glass (1918-20); David F. Houston (1920-21) Secretary
of War: Lindley M. Garrison (1913-16); Newton D. Baker (1916-21) Attorney
General: James C. McReynolds (1913-14); Thomas W. Gregory (1914-19); Alexander M.
Palmer (1919-21) Postmaster General: Albert S. Burleson Secretary of the Navy:
Josephus Daniels Secretary of the Interior: Franklin K. Lane (1913-20); John B.
Payne (1920-21) Secretary of Agriculture: David F. Houston (1913-20); Edwin T.
Meredith (1920-21) Secretary of Commerce: William C. Redfield (1913-19); Joshua
W. Alexander (1919-21) Secretary of Labor: William B. Wilson




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Anthony Burgess.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Anthony Burgess
John Anthony Burgess Wilson was an
English novelist and critic. He was born in a small house in
Harpurhey and was the son of a bookkeeper and part-time
pianist. He was found lying in his cot when he was a baby
with his mother and sister dead beside him. They were said
to have been victims of the Spanish Flu. Anthony attended
the Bishop Bilsborrow- Primary School, Moss Side,
Xavier College and lastly Manchester University. He then
spent six years as a wartime soldier and after he went into
education, he became an education officer in Malaya and
Brunei. In 1959 he was diagnosed with a terminal illness,
so he became a professional writer, hoping to provide for
his wife. The diagnoses turned out to be wrong; however,
he decided to stick with it and he wrote over thirty novels.
Anthony Burgess was a very well-rounded artist. He drew,
wrote novels, was a musician and produced a lot of works.
At the age of twelve, his drawings were being accepted by
national newspapers and at fourteen, he taught himself to
play the piano and compose music. He wrote two
symphonies, concertos, songs, sonatas and incidental music
for plays. In his very first year he wrote five novels, a
couple of plays and several radio scripts and stories. He
had all sorts of different topics, themes and styles. Of all his
writings, the most well-known was and still is A
Clockwork Orange. It is also his most controversial work.
A Clockwork Orange was his eighth novel and was
published in 1962. Although this was among his best
works, he had his own thoughts on it. In an interview done
in 1981 in "Modern Fiction Studies" Burgess was quoted,
"I'm not particularly proud of A Clockwork Orange
because it has all the thoughts I rail against in fiction. It's
didactic. It tends to pornography." John Anthony Burgess
Wilson died in 1993 and will always be remembered by the
remains of some of his classic works.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Are you a shopaholic.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Are you a shopaholic?


1. Shopaholics found their compulsion to spend by creating false
identities to obtain more creditcards. They often hide bank statements from
their spouses and try in any way possible to conceal their abuse. In some
extreme cases shopaholics has even turned prostituted in order to finance their
spending.

2. The group Walletwatch was made by Lawrence Michaels who is a Shopaholic. He
spends thou-sands of pounds on albums he don´t like and clothes which don´t fit
him. The reason why he started the group was because he wanted to help other
people who have the same tendencies as himself. Walletwatch  was started because
shopaholics need to be under some kind of surveillance.

3. Richard Elliot wanted to proof that Britain was les consumption-minded
than the US. But what he found out was quite different. He found many examples
of consumption-crazy Britons who had ran up huge bills and driven their family
into oppressive debt. Another thing he found out was that their shopping was
used as a therapy to give their mood a lift. They got their support from shop
assis-tants. This may be one way of buying social support.

Shopaholics

Shopaholics is becoming a more and more frequently known disease. It is not only
found in the US, but all over the world including Denmark. In Britain a nation
wide survey revealed that addicts will stop at nothing to found their desire to
spend money. They will do anything from stealing to prosti-tution. One out of
20 adults is found to be obsessed by spending. But why do people become sho-
paholics? I think when you are being a shopaholic you often don´t realise it or
won´t admit it. At one time or another though will you find out that you spend
too much money on things you don´t even need. Most people love spending money
this is one cause of shopaholism, another could be that shopping is used as
therapy to better ones mood and confidence. Richards Elliots study of 63
shopaholics show that shopaholics are more likely to suffer from a lack of self-
esteem or confidence. They use shopping as a form of social support, which they
get from the shop-assistants. Afterwards they feel guilty of cause, risking both
life and marriage, but this normally doesn't stop them. I think we all have an
urged to go crazy and start throwing money around. There is a shopaholic in
every on of us, who haven´t tried buying thinks they dont really need. I see
shopaholics as people who have trouble controlling themselves. It is the same
way with alcoholics. Most people like a beer once in a while but alcoholics over
do it. They have problems that I would determine to be self-control. I feel
sorry for shopaholics and therefore I think it is a great idea with these self-
help groups. These groups may the only way out of shopaholism.

Walletwatch 61 Whitehouse Way Souhgate London N14 7LX

Mr. Richard Elliott The Management School Lancaster University Lancaster LA
4YX					4. July 1994

Dear Mr. Elliott

We have read the article concerning shopaholics in the Sunday Express, and we
have become aware of Your research on this subject.

Therefore our self-help group would like too invite you to London to give a
lecture in this illness.

We are interested in knowing more about the results you have discovered during
your research, and we would also ask you to focus on the cause of this so-called
shopping mania.

We are 20 shopaholics in the group. We meet 1 or 2 a week to talk about our
abuse of consumption and discuss in which way we can help each other best. We
all need to bolster our self-esteem up, and that is why we have used shopping as
a kind of therapy.

The group represents different sort of work and all social classes: We have bank
managers, techni-cians, and house wifes and people from both the middle- and
working classes. But despite the dif-ferences we all agree about one thing: We
want to get out of our abuse!

We hope that you can accept our invitation, and if you can, then please call us
on phone no. 081-361 2411, so that we can arrange a time for your lecture.

Yours Sincerely

Lawrence Michaels



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Aristotle vs Copernicus.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Aristotle vs. Copernicus

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist, who shared with Plato the distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers. Aristotle was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for about 20 years, as a student and then as a teacher. When Plato died in 347 bc , Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor, where a friend of his, Hermias (d. 345 bc ), was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythias. After Hermias was captured and executed by the Persians, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he became the tutor of the king's young son Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great. In 335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took place while teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds, Aristotle's school came to be known as the Peripatetic ("walking" or "strolling") school. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 bc , strong anti-Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to a family estate in Euboea. He died there the following year. 

His works on natural science include Physics, which gives a vast amount of information on astronomy, meteorology, plants, and animals. His writings on the nature, scope, and properties of being, which Aristotle called First Philosophy ( Prote philosophia ), were given the title Metaphysics in the first published edition of his works (c. 60 bc ), because in that edition they followed Physics. His treatment of the Prime Mover, or first cause, as pure intellect, perfect in unity, immutable, and, as he said, "the thought of thought," is given in the Metaphysics. To his son Nicomachus he dedicated his work on ethics, called the Nicomachean Ethics. Other essential works include his Rhetoric, his Poetics (which survives in incomplete form), and his Politics (also incomplete). Some of the principal aspects of Aristotle's thought can be seen in the following summary of his doctrines, or theories. Physics, or natural philosophy. 

In astronomy, Aristotle proposed a finite, spherical universe, with the earth at its center. The central region is made up of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. In Aristotle's physics, each of these four elements has a proper place, determined by its relative heaviness, its "specific gravity." Each moves naturally in a straight line-earth down, fire up-toward its proper place, where it will be at rest. Thus, terrestrial motion is always linear and always comes to a halt. The heavens, however, move naturally and endlessly in a complex circular motion. The heavens, therefore, must be made of a fifth, and different element, which he called aither. A superior element, aither is incapable of any change other than change of place in a circular movement. Aristotle's theory that linear motion always takes place through a resisting medium is in fact valid for all observable terrestrial motions. Aristotle also held that heavier bodies of a given material fall faster than lighter ones when their shapes are the same; this mistaken view was accepted as fact until Galileo proved otherwise. 

In his metaphysics, Aristotle argued for the existence of a divine being, described as the Prime Mover, who is responsible for the unity and purposefulness of nature. God is perfect and therefore the aspiration of all things in the world, because all things desire to share perfection. Other movers exist as well-the intelligent movers of the planets and stars (Aristotle suggested that the number of these is "either 55 or 47"). The Prime Mover, or God, described by Aristotle is not very suitable for religious purposes, as many later philosophers and theologians have observed. Aristotle limited his "theology," however, to what he believed science requires and can establish. 

Many, many years after Aristotle died, a Polish astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus, formulated his own theories about best known for his astronomical theory that the sun is at rest near the center of the universe, and that the earth, spinning on its axis once daily, revolves annually around the sun. This is called the heliocentric, or sun-centered, system. In 1500 Copernicus lectured on astronomy in Rome. The following year he gained permission to study medicine at Padua, the university where Galileo taught nearly a century later. It was not unusual at the time to study a subject at one university and then to receive a degree from another-often less expensive-institution. And so Copernicus, without completing his medical studies, received a doctorate in canon law from Ferrara in 1503 and then returned to Poland to take up his administrative duties. After moving to Frauenburg in 1512, Copernicus took part in the Fifth Lateran Council's commission on calendar reform (1515); wrote a treatise on money (1517); and began his major work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), which was finished by 1530 but first published by a Lutheran printer in Nuremberg, Germany, just before Copernicus's death on May 24, 1543. The cosmology that was eventually replaced by Copernican theory postulated a geocentric universe in which the earth was stationary and motionless at the center of several concentric, rotating spheres. These spheres bore (in order from the earth outward) the following celestial bodies: the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and, finally, the finite outermost sphere bearing the so-called fixed stars. (This last sphere was said to wobble slowly, thereby producing the precession of the equinoxes.)One phenomenon had posed a particular problem for cosmologists and natural philosophers since ancient times: the apparent retrograde, or backward, motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. From time to time the daily motion of these planets through the sky appears to halt and then to proceed in the opposite direction. In an attempt to account for this retrograde motion, medieval cosmology stated that each planet revolved on the edge of a circle called the epicycle, and the center of each epicycle revolved around the earth on a path called the deferent. The major premises of Copernicus's theory are that the earth rotates daily on its axis and revolves yearly around the sun. He argued, furthermore, that the planets also circle the sun, and that the earth precesses on its axis (wobbles like a top) as it rotates. The Copernican theory retained many features of the cosmology it replaced, including the solid, planet-bearing spheres, and the finite outermost sphere bearing the fixed stars. On the other hand, Copernicus's heliocentric theories of planetary motion had the advantage of accounting for the apparent daily and yearly motion of the sun and stars, and it neatly explained the apparent retrograde motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and why Mercury and Venus never move more than a certain distance from the sun. Copernicus's theory also stated that the sphere of the fixed stars was stationary. 

Another important feature of Copernican theory is that it allowed a new ordering of the planets according to their periods of revolution. In Copernicus's universe, unlike Ptolemy's, the greater the radius of a planet's orbit, the greater the time the planet takes to make one circuit around the sun. But the price of accepting the concept of a moving earth was too high for most 16th-century readers who understood Copernicus's claims. Instead, parts of his theory were adopted, while the radical core was ignored or rejected. There were but ten Copernicans between 1543 and 1600. Most worked outside the universities in princely, royal, or imperial courts; the most famous were Galileo and the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. These men often differed in their reasons for supporting the Copernican system. In 1588 an important middle position was developed by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe in which the earth remained at rest and all the planets revolved around the sun as it revolved around the earth. 
After the suppression of Copernican theory occasioned by the ecclesiastical trial of Galileo in 1633, some Jesuit philosophers remained secret followers of Copernicus. Many others adopted the geocentric-heliocentric system of Brahe. By the late 17th century and the rise of the system of celestial mechanics propounded by the English natural philosopher Sir Isaac Newton, most major thinkers in England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark were Copernicans. Natural philosophers in the other European countries, however, held strong anti-Copernican views for at least another century. R.S.W. 

	Aristotle and Copernicus held differing views on how the planets moved but that was because they lived in vastly different times. Without Aristotle, Copernicus may never had something to disprove. Copernicus' fight for what he believed in, truly helped mankind realize certain truths. It is these people who really make the world go around and will carry us through to the next millenium.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Aristotle vs.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Aristotle vs. Copernicus


Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist, who shared with Plato the
distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers. Aristotle was born
at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age
of 17, he went to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for
about 20 years, as a student and then as a teacher. When Plato died in 347 bc ,
Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor, where a friend of his, Hermias
(d. 345 bc ), was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and married his niece and
adopted daughter, Pythias. After Hermias was captured and executed by the
Persians, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he became the
tutor of the king's young son Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great. In
335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established
his own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took
place while teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds,
Aristotle's school came to be known as the Peripatetic ("walking" or
"strolling") school. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 bc , strong anti-
Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to a family estate
in Euboea. He died there the following year.

His works on natural science include Physics, which gives a vast amount of
information on astronomy, meteorology, plants, and animals. His writings on the
nature, scope, and properties of being, which Aristotle called First Philosophy
( Prote philosophia ), were given the title Metaphysics in the first published
edition of his works (c. 60 bc ), because in that edition they followed Physics.
His treatment of the Prime Mover, or first cause, as pure intellect, perfect in
unity, immutable, and, as he said, "the thought of thought," is given in the
Metaphysics. To his son Nicomachus he dedicated his work on ethics, called the
Nicomachean Ethics. Other essential works include his Rhetoric, his Poetics
(which survives in incomplete form), and his Politics (also incomplete). Some of
the principal aspects of Aristotle's thought can be seen in the following
summary of his doctrines, or theories. Physics, or natural philosophy.

In astronomy, Aristotle proposed a finite, spherical universe, with the earth at
its center. The central region is made up of four elements: earth, air, fire,
and water. In Aristotle's physics, each of these four elements has a proper
place, determined by its relative heaviness, its "specific gravity." Each moves
naturally in a straight line-earth down, fire up-toward its proper place, where
it will be at rest. Thus, terrestrial motion is always linear and always comes
to a halt. The heavens, however, move naturally and endlessly in a complex
circular motion. The heavens, therefore, must be made of a fifth, and different
element, which he called aither. A superior element, aither is incapable of any
change other than change of place in a circular movement. Aristotle's theory
that linear motion always takes place through a resisting medium is in fact
valid for all observable terrestrial motions. Aristotle also held that heavier
bodies of a given material fall faster than lighter ones when their shapes are
the same; this mistaken view was accepted as fact until Galileo proved otherwise.


In his metaphysics, Aristotle argued for the existence of a divine being,
described as the Prime Mover, who is responsible for the unity and
purposefulness of nature. God is perfect and therefore the aspiration of all
things in the world, because all things desire to share perfection. Other movers
exist as well-the intelligent movers of the planets and stars (Aristotle
suggested that the number of these is "either 55 or 47"). The Prime Mover, or
God, described by Aristotle is not very suitable for religious purposes, as many
later philosophers and theologians have observed. Aristotle limited his
"theology," however, to what he believed science requires and can establish.

Many, many years after Aristotle died, a Polish astronomer named Nicolaus
Copernicus, formulated his own theories about best known for his astronomical
theory that the sun is at rest near the center of the universe, and that the
earth, spinning on its axis once daily, revolves annually around the sun. This
is called the heliocentric, or sun-centered, system. In 1500 Copernicus lectured
on astronomy in Rome. The following year he gained permission to study medicine
at Padua, the university where Galileo taught nearly a century later. It was not
unusual at the time to study a subject at one university and then to receive a
degree from another-often less expensive-institution. And so Copernicus, without
completing his medical studies, received a doctorate in canon law from Ferrara
in 1503 and then returned to Poland to take up his administrative duties. After
moving to Frauenburg in 1512, Copernicus took part in the Fifth Lateran
Council's commission on calendar reform (1515); wrote a treatise on money
(1517); and began his major work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), which was finished by 1530 but first
published by a Lutheran printer in Nuremberg, Germany, just before Copernicus's
death on May 24, 1543. The cosmology that was eventually replaced by Copernican
theory postulated a geocentric universe in which the earth was stationary and
motionless at the center of several concentric, rotating spheres. These spheres
bore (in order from the earth outward) the following celestial bodies: the moon,
Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and, finally, the finite
outermost sphere bearing the so-called fixed stars. (This last sphere was said
to wobble slowly, thereby producing the precession of the equinoxes.)One
phenomenon had posed a particular problem for cosmologists and natural
philosophers since ancient times: the apparent retrograde, or backward, motion
of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. From time to time the daily motion of these
planets through the sky appears to halt and then to proceed in the opposite
direction. In an attempt to account for this retrograde motion, medieval
cosmology stated that each planet revolved on the edge of a circle called the
epicycle, and the center of each epicycle revolved around the earth on a path
called the deferent. The major premises of Copernicus's theory are that the
earth rotates daily on its axis and revolves yearly around the sun. He argued,
furthermore, that the planets also circle the sun, and that the earth precesses
on its axis (wobbles like a top) as it rotates. The Copernican theory retained
many features of the cosmology it replaced, including the solid, planet-bearing
spheres, and the finite outermost sphere bearing the fixed stars. On the other
hand, Copernicus's heliocentric theories of planetary motion had the advantage
of accounting for the apparent daily and yearly motion of the sun and stars, and
it neatly explained the apparent retrograde motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn,
and why Mercury and Venus never move more than a certain distance from the sun.
Copernicus's theory also stated that the sphere of the fixed stars was
stationary.

Another important feature of Copernican theory is that it allowed a new ordering
of the planets according to their periods of revolution. In Copernicus's
universe, unlike Ptolemy's, the greater the radius of a planet's orbit, the
greater the time the planet takes to make one circuit around the sun. But the
price of accepting the concept of a moving earth was too high for most 16th-
century readers who understood Copernicus's claims. Instead, parts of his theory
were adopted, while the radical core was ignored or rejected. There were but ten
Copernicans between 1543 and 1600. Most worked outside the universities in
princely, royal, or imperial courts; the most famous were Galileo and the German
astronomer Johannes Kepler. These men often differed in their reasons for
supporting the Copernican system. In 1588 an important middle position was
developed by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe in which the earth remained at
rest and all the planets revolved around the sun as it revolved around the earth.
After the suppression of Copernican theory occasioned by the ecclesiastical
trial of Galileo in 1633, some Jesuit philosophers remained secret followers of
Copernicus. Many others adopted the geocentric-heliocentric system of Brahe. By
the late 17th century and the rise of the system of celestial mechanics
propounded by the English natural philosopher Sir Isaac Newton, most major
thinkers in England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark were Copernicans.
Natural philosophers in the other European countries, however, held strong anti-
Copernican views for at least another century. R.S.W.

	Aristotle and Copernicus held differing views on how the planets moved
but that was because they lived in vastly different times. Without Aristotle,
Copernicus may never had something to disprove. Copernicus' fight for what he
believed in, truly helped mankind realize certain truths. It is these people who
really make the world go around and will carry us through to the next millenium.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ayn Rand.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Ayn Rand
This essay will discuss the life and works of Ayn Rand. The
woman who would become Ayn Rand was born Alice
Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905. (Branden, Barbara pg.3
1986). She was born during the eleventh year of Nicholas
II's reign in Russia.(Baker pg.1 1987). Rand's birth was
just before a revolution in Russia, however this revolution
was put down by her first year.(Branden, Barbara pg.3
1986). The Rosenbaum's lived quite comfortably under the
czar.(Baker pg.1 1987). Beneath their large apartment was
Fronz Rosenbaum's chemist shop.(Branden, Barbara pg. 4
1986). Rand's father was a serious man whom she never
knew very well.(Branden, Barbara pg.4 1986). Ayn's
mother, Anna Rosenbaum, was the opposite of her father
and was very sociable. (Branden, Barbara pg. 4-5 1986).
As a child, Rand did not have a true sense of affection with
her father. (Branden, Barbara pg.5 1986). However, she
did develop a strong bond of love with him as she grew
older. (Branden, Barbara pg. 4 1986). Ayn did not get
along well with her mother. (Branden, Barbara pg.5 1986).
Although the Rosenbaum family was traditionally Jewish, it
is said that Rand really did not have a religious upbringing.
(Baker pg.2 1987). As a result, she became atheist as a
child after coming to the conclusion that believing in God is
degrading to humans in the sense that man should live for
no one else but himself. (Baker pg.3 1987). Rand
discovered a passion for upbeat, lively music which she
began collecting on records. (Branden, Barbara pg.8
1986). By the time she was five years of age, she had two
little sisters, Natasha and Elena. (Branden, Barbara pg.7
1986). As a whole, Ayn's childhood was not a pleasant
experience for her; in later years it proved to be an
unhappy memory as well. (Branden, Barbara pg.34 1986).
Ayn Rand received a good education and learned to read
and write at age six. (Baker pg.2 1987). She found her
classes boring and too easy. (Baker pg.2 1987). This led
her to begin writing simple short stories and novels. (Baker
pg.2 1987). Rand's inability to fit in socially at school and
her boredom with the education she was receiving led her
to become somewhat of a recluse with one exception: her
passion for literature. (Branden, Barbara pg.11 1986).
Literature seemed to absorb Ayn more than any other
thing; it intrigued her and gave her much pleasure to read
and soon, to write. (Branden, Barbara pg.11 1986). "She
would sit in school, barricaded behind a book, scribbling
furiously at her latest adventure, wanting only to be alone,
to write, to devise dangerous exploits for her characters."
(Branden, Barbara pg.11 1986). Rand's decision to
become a writer became certain at age nine. (Baker pg.2
1987). The decision was made while walking down a
London street that she would devote her life to writing.
(Branden, Barbara pg.14 1986). When the great war in
Russia began, Ayn started writing stories with "the intensity
that the times demanded". (Baker pg.2 1987). Rand
enrolled herself in a university at Petrograd, previously
known as St. Petersburg and her place of birth, at age
sixteen. (Baker pg.3 1987). Although she did not write any
creative, fictional works during her years at the university,
an outline for a play was later used as inspiration for her
novel, Anthem. (Baker pg.3 1987). Rand read many
literary works while she was at the university and gained a
lot of knowledge from them. (Baker pg.3 1987). Ayn Rand
graduated the university in 1924. (Baker pg.4 1987). In
1926, Ayn Rand celebrated her twenty-first birthday.
(Baker pg.4 1987). However, she did not feel that it was
her twenty-first birthday, to her it signified the beginning of
her life. (Branden, Barbara pg.62 1986). Rand arrived in
New York on a February evening at seven o' clock p.m.
(Branden, Barbara pg.63 1986). She had with her only fifty
dollars in her pocket, a typewriter in her arms, stories
etched in her mind and "the sense of life as exaltation."
(Branden, Barbara pg.63 1986). From New York, Rand
went on to Chicago to stay with some relatives there.
(Baker pg.5 1987). Ayn disliked Chicago very much and
went straight to work on writing scenarios and film ideas.
(Branden, Barbara pg.69 1986). Over this summer in
Chicago, Rand worked to improve her English, wrote
manuscripts and her film ideas. (Baker pg.5 1987). She
was ecstatic to finally be free and to be able to achieve all
the things she had always wanted. (Branden, Barbara
pg.71 1986). At the end of the summer in Chicago, Rand
set out for Hollywood with only her manuscripts and a
recommendation from DeMille's Chicago Distributors to
the Cecil B. DeMille Studio in Hollywood. (Baker pg.5
1987). Ayn's relatives sent her off with a train ticket and
one-hundred dollars. (Branden, Barbara pg.73 1986). She
was ready to go out on her own and truly begin her life.
(Branden, Barbara pg.73 1986). Alice Rosenbaum
re-named herself Ayn after a Finnish writer she adored.
(Baker pg.4 1987). It appealed to her because Ayn
rhymed with mine and promised she would be recognized
and admired. (Baker pg.4 1987). Rand came from her
"Remington-Rand" typewriter. (Baker pg.4 1987). Ayn
decided this name sounded more American than Alice
Rosenbaum. (Baker pg.4 1987). Furthermore, it signified
new-life and a relief from Russia's system. (Baker pg.4
1987). Lastly, Ayn did not want to endanger the lives of
her relatives in communist-Russia by her anti-communist
feelings. (Branden, Barbara pg.72 1986). Ayn Rand
moved into a room at the new Studio Club which was a
"...haven for young aspirants come to conquer
Hollywood..." and housed many actresses, dancers, studio
clerks and the like. (Branden, Barbara pg.73 1986). On
her first day looking, Ayn found a job working at the
DeMille Studio. (Baker pg.5 1987). Rand was hired as an
extra at the studio for seven dollars and fifty cents a day
which seemed to be a fortune to her. (Branden, Barbara
pg. 77 1986). She worked for DeMille for nine years until
his studio closed and remained in Hollywood for nine more
years. (Baker pg.5 1987). Ayn Rand met what was to
become her future husband after her second week in
Hollywood; his name was Frank O' Connor. (Branden,
Barbara pg.79 1986). Rand says her feelings for O'
Connor were love at first sight. (Branden, Barbara pg.80
1986). They were great companions and were married in
1929. (Baker pg.6 1987). Because she was now married
to an American citizen, Ayn applied for citizenship and was
naturalized in 1931. (Baker pg.7 1987). The two remained
married for fifty years until O' Connor's death in 1979.
(Baker pg.6-7 1987). Rand began working in the
wardrobe department of R.K.O. studios in the summer of
1929. (Baker pg.7 1987). She began writing We The
Living, which was published in 1936. (Baker pg.7 1987).
"With the Hollywood success under her belt, Rand felt
confident to take on Broadway..."(Baker pg.9 1987). Her
play, Night of January 16th was a great success and ran for
seven months. (Baker pg.9 1987). Ayn spent six years
writing her next novel, The Fountainhead. (Baker pg.11
1987). In late 1935, Rand was finally able to devote all of
her time to writing The Fountainhead. (Branden, Barbara
pg.36 1986). At long last, in December of 1942, Rand
completed The Fountainhead, (Branden, Barbara pg.174
1986), and the book was published in 1943.(Baker pg.13
1987). Atlas Shrugged was to be Ayn Rand's next novel.
(Baker pg.17 1987). She was aware that it would take
awhile to be accepted but that eventually, Atlas Shrugged
would have an influence. (Branden, Barbara pg.294 1986).
Atlas Shrugged is a philosophical novel which began with
the question: "What if all the creative minds of the world
went on strike?" (Branden, Nathaniel pg.79-80 1989).
When it came time to find a publisher for Atlas Shrugged,
Rand wanted to make sure that, because of the
controversy her book would inevitably cause, the publisher
would stand by her. (Branden, Barbara pg.294 1986).
Finally, the book was published by Random House
Publishers on October 10, 1957. (Baker pg.17 1987).
"Rand supporters and critics alike agree that this is the
essence of her philosophy of life, politics and economics."
(Baker pg.17 1987). Although Atlas Shrugged was
reviewed negatively for the most part, it sold extremely
well, with sales of 125,000 in just the first year. (Baker
pg.17 1987). "Whether it [Atlas Shrugged] takes its place
as a classic piece of American fiction or is judged merely a
huge burst of ideological wind depends on the taste of
future generations."(Baker pg.64 1987). Ayn Rand
referred to Atlas Shrugged as her finest novel, it was the
largest at 1,168 pages and took her nine years to complete.
(Baker pg.58 1987). Atlas Shrugged has become "the holy
text of the objectivist movement." (Baker pg.63 1987).
From Atlas Shrugged, Ayn Rand was able to present the
essence of her philosophy, Objectivism. (Ayn Rand
column). This book became her last novel of fiction
because by 1958 she had become a philosopher. (Baker
pg.17 1987). In 1961, Ayn published her first non-fiction
philosophic novel, For The New Intellectual. (Baker pg.19
1987). In 1962, Ayn Rand began the Objectivist
Newsletter, in which she was able to further her influence
of Objectivism. (Baker pg.20 1987). The four basics of
Objectivism are: Objective Reality, Reason, Self-interest,
and Capitalism. (Ayn Rand Column). Objectivism is against
altruism which "...holds that man has no right to exist for his
own sake, that service to others is the only moral
justification of his existence..." (Ayn Rand Column). During
the height of the Objectivist movement in 1968, Rand had
gathered a very devoted group of followers and believers
of her philosophy. (Baker pg.22 1987). The motto that
these followers lived by was: "I swear--by my life and my
love of it--that I will never live for another man nor ask
another man to live for mine." (Baker pg.22 1987).
Between the years of 1970-1971, Ayn Rand published
four more books on her philosophy: The Virtue of
Selfishness, Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal, The Romantic
Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature and The New Left:
The Anti-Industrial Revolution. (Baker pg.22 1987 and
Branden, Barbara pgs. 324-325 1986). Rand expresses
the controversy of education given by the government.
(Ayn Rand Column). Education is said to be extremely
important by the government and the government plans on
spending millions of tax dollars under new programs for
education. (Ayn Rand Column). On the contrary, many
families who pay taxes cannot afford to send their children
to college, and they are not allowed to take away
educational costs from their taxes. (Ayn Rand Column).
Rand believed that the American school system is like the
situation brought up in Victor Hugo's, The Man Who
Laughs. (Baker pg.90 1987). "It is a story about a society
that kept children in oddly shaped pots until they were so
monstrously stunted and deformed that they could be used
to entertain dignitaries." (Baker pg.90 1987). Rand felt this
action is similar to that of nursery schools, where children
are taught to play fairly, and not to use imaginary or
conceptual skills. (Baker pg.90 1987). In addition, it
continues in higher grades and even in college. (Baker
pg.90 1987). Students are taught at these levels that " the
human mind is incapable of knowing anything for certain."
(Baker pg.90 1987). "....young Americans are so
intellectually mutilated that they are incapable of
identification..." (Baker pg.90 1987). The tormentors are
the "...Kantian professors who train teachers to suppress
individuality in children, who demonstrate by their own lives
that knowledge is beyond the grasp of the human mind."
(Baker pg.90 1987). Ayn Rand died on March 6, 1982 at
the age of seventy eight. (Baker pg.28 1987 and Branden,
Nathaniel pg.1 1989). Her health had been rapidly
deteriorating for a few months prior to her death; she had
developed cardio-pulmonary problems. (Branden,
Nathaniel pg.1 1989). Ayn was buried next to her
husband, Frank O' Connor, at the Kensico Cemetery in
Valhalla, New York. (Baker pg.28 1987). "Ayn had begun
life with a single passionate goal--to create her ideal world
and her ideal man. And at the end of her life--despite the
odds against her, despite the pain and the losses, despite
the illness and anguish and death--it was done." (Branden,
Barbara pg.404 1986). "It's a benevolent universe, and I
love it, and any struggle was worth it. Struggle or
unhappiness are so enormously unimportant. I don't regret
a minute of my life." (Branden, Barbara pg.404 1986 [said
by Ayn Rand]). Rand led an eventful and memorable life.
She inspired many with her novels and her philosophy. The
world has gained tremendous insights and knowledge from
the philosophy and intriguing novels of Ayn Rand.
Bibliography: Branden, Barbara The Passion of Ayn Rand
1986 Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group Inc. New
York, N.Y. Nathaniel, Branden Judgement Day: My Years
with Ayn Rand 1989 Houghton Mifflin Company Boston,
Massachusetts James T. Baker Ayn Rand 1987 G.K. Hall
and Co. Boston, Massachusetts The Ayn Rand Column: A
Collection of her Weekly Newspaper Articles Written for
the Los Angeles Times. With additional, little-known
essays by Ayn Rand 1971, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979,
1991 Second Renaissance Books Oceanside, CA
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\B F Skinner.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
B. F. Skinner


      Burris Frederic Skinner was born on March 20th, 1904 in Susquehanna,
Pennsylvania. His mother, Grace M. Burrhus, was a stenographer and a secretary,
in a law office and later in a railroad chief executive's office. His father,
William A. Skinner, was an attorney, who studied law with another local attorney
at a New York Law School. Skinner's parents were both good students. His father
had bought several sets of books, so there was a lot of reading material their
children. Skinner said that his parents never used physical punishment, except
for the time they washed his mouth out with soap for bad language. (Ulrich,
1997) B. F. Skinner was very adventurous child. He lead a 300 mile canoe trip
down the Susquehanna River when he was only 13 years old. He was a natural
inventor and he loved build things. One of his inventions included a device that
automatically reminded him to hang up his pajamas in the morning. He played the
saxophone in a jazz band during high school and played piano until his failing
eyesight made it hard for him to read the music.  In college, he was very
independent, and sometimes even a prankster. He graduated from Hamilton College
in 1926 and later received his P.h.D. in psychology at Harvard University.
(Ulrich, 1997)

John B. Watson

	John Broadus Watson was born in Greenville, South Carolina on January
9th 1878. He went to college at Furman University and the University of Chicago.
Watson created "Psychological behaviorism" in 1912. He told the world about his
theory of behaviorism in a 1913 paper entitled ``Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It.'' In the paper he described Behaviorism as the part of psychology that
shows behavior as "a series of observable movements in time and space". (Turner,
1997)  He rejected both conscious and unconscious mental activities and defined
behavior as a response to a stimulus. A few of John B. Watson's literary works
include the following books and papers: Animal Education, Behavior, Psychology
from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, Behaviorism, and Psychological Care of
Infant and Child. (Turner, 1997)
	Along with his own theories of behaviorism, Skinner developed the theory
of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is based on the idea that "we
behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences
in the past." (Demar, 1996) For example, if your parents give you a present when
you do what your told, you will be likely to behave when you want to get a
present. This means that basically- you do something to get a reward. Like
Watson, Skinner denied that feelings play any part in determining behavior.
Instead, he claimed that the drive to be rewarded determines our behavior.
(Demar, 1996)
	Some critics feel that operant conditioning was a dangerous technique
because Skinner was controlling people and could have manipulated them. In reply
to their criticism, Skinner argued that control is not wrong. Control is very
important and sometimes unavoidable in education, government, and therapy.
(Bijou, 1994) What Skinner objects to is the fact that control is usually used
in negative ways which include the use of threat, punishment or to use other
people. Skinner argues that because of this, people are against control, because
the people in control use their power it in a negative way.  For instance, In
the family, a child is controlled by the fear of  punishment from his parents.
In school, the students are placed in a threatening environment in which they
can escape only by learning. Our government controls us through laws, rules, and
regulations. Skinner claims that what is needed is not less control but better
control. Better control could be used if society had adopted his psychological
theories. If this where to happen there would be better ways of teaching, better
working conditions, and a better system of government. (Skinner, 1938) Skinner
had many inventions that pertained to behaviorism. One of his most famous
inventions was called a "Skinner box." A Skinner box is a chamber made by
Skinner which helps control animal behavior in laboratory experiments.  In one
experiment using the skinner box, he made it so if the chicken pecks on the
yellow, green, or red buttons, he gets nothing. But if he hits the blue button,
a small amount of food comes down the chute; therefor, the chicken is reinforced
with food for hitting the correct button. He also created other inventions,
including an air-crib for babies and the first cumulative recorder. (Bjord,
1990) Skinners experiments with rats and pigeons raise the following question;
Can rats and other animals replace human behavior in a laboratory? Critics claim,
that the differences between humans and animals are large enough to make the
results of some of his experiments highly reliable. (Henderson, 1990) Positive
Reinforcement Skinner claims that positive reinforcement "strengthens and
preserves the kind of behavior that produces the reward." (Skinner, 1938) For
example, when Skinner's cat rings a bell from the inside door knob Skinner knows
that the cat  wants to go for a walk. His behavior (ringing the bell) is
reinforced by Skinner taking him for a walk. Also, he notes that behavior that
happens frequently must have been rewarded almost each time. (Skinner, 1938)
Negative Reinforcement Skinner defines negative reinforcement as "something that
strengthens and maintains the kind of behavior that reduces the
stimulus."(Skinner, 1938) For Skinner's Behaviorism Page 7 example, Skinners cat
tries to remove his flea collar because it irritates his sensitive skin. Skinner
removes the collar from the cat as a form of negative reinforcement. (Skinner,
1938) In his time, B. F. Skinner attempted to make a lot of changes in modern
psychology. Made people didn't agree with his changes because he didn't think
that psychology had to do with feels or emotions. He felt that psychology had
suffered in the past because it tried to explain human behavior in terms of
feelings and states of mind. Skinner thought that psychology had wasted a lot of
time making theories about the mind and personality. He suggested that
psychology should only deal with behavior that is "observable in the world in
which it occurs." (Henderson, 1990) In conclusion, B. F. Skinner was a very
intelligent man that viewed behavior as "a response to a stimulus." Though he
may have based his theories mostly on animal testing and he many have even
portrayed man as a being without feelings, creativity, or morality, he was truly
great and saw behaviorism like no one had seen it before. (Skinner, 1938)



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\B F Skinners Behaviorism.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Skinner's Behaviorism
Page 3

B. F. Skinner
	
Burris Frederic Skinner was born on March 20th, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. His mother, Grace M. Burrhus, was a stenographer and a secretary, in a law office and later in a railroad chief executive's office. His father, William A. Skinner, was an attorney, who studied law with another local attorney at a New York Law School. Skinner's parents were both good students. His father had bought several sets of books, so there was a lot of reading material their children. Skinner said that his parents never used physical punishment, except for the time they washed his mouth out with soap for bad language. (Ulrich, 1997)
B. F. Skinner was very adventurous child. He lead a 300 mile canoe trip down the Susquehanna River when he was only 13 years old. He was a natural inventor and he loved build things. One of his inventions included a device that automatically reminded him to hang up his pajamas in the morning. He played the saxophone in a jazz band during high school and played piano until his failing eyesight made it hard for him to read the music.  In college, he was very independent, and sometimes even a prankster. He graduated from Hamilton College in 1926 and later received his P.h.D. in psychology at Harvard University. (Ulrich, 1997)




Skinner's Behaviorism
Page 4
John B. Watson
	John Broadus Watson was born in Greenville, South Carolina on January 9th 1878. He went to college at Furman University and the University of Chicago. Watson created "Psychological behaviorism" in 1912. He told the world about his theory of behaviorism in a 1913 paper entitled ``Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.'' In the paper he described Behaviorism as the part of psychology that shows behavior as "a series of observable movements in time and space". (Turner, 1997)  He rejected both conscious and unconscious mental activities and defined behavior as a response to a stimulus. A few of John B. Watson's literary works include the following books and papers: Animal Education, Behavior, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, Behaviorism, and Psychological Care of Infant and Child. (Turner, 1997)
	Along with his own theories of behaviorism, Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is based on the idea that "we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past." (Demar, 1996) For example, if your parents give you a present when you do what your told, you will be likely to behave when you want to get a present. This means that basically- you do something to get a reward. Like Watson, Skinner 
denied that feelings play any part in determining behavior. Instead, he claimed that


Skinner's Behaviorism
Page 5
the drive to be rewarded determines our behavior. (Demar, 1996)
	Some critics feel that operant conditioning was a dangerous technique because Skinner was controlling people and could have manipulated them. In reply to their criticism, Skinner argued that control is not wrong. Control is very important and sometimes unavoidable in education, government, and therapy.  (Bijou, 1994) What Skinner objects to is the fact that control is usually used in negative ways which include the use of threat, punishment or to use other people. Skinner argues that because of this, people are against control, because the people in control use their power it in a negative way.  For instance, In the family, a child is controlled by the fear of  punishment from his parents. In school, the students are placed in a threatening environment in which they can escape only by learning. Our government controls us through laws, rules, and regulations. Skinner claims that what is needed is not less control but better control. Better control could be used if society had adopted his psychological theories. If this where to happen there would be better ways of teaching, better working conditions, and a better system of government. (Skinner, 1938)
Skinner had many inventions that pertained to behaviorism. One of his most famous inventions was called a "Skinner box." A Skinner box is a chamber made by Skinner which helps control animal behavior in laboratory experiments.  In one


Skinner's Behaviorism
Page 6

experiment using the skinner box, he made it so if the chicken pecks on the yellow, green, or red buttons, he gets nothing. But if he hits the blue button, a small amount of food comes down the chute; therefor, the chicken is reinforced with food for hitting the correct button. He also created other inventions, including an air-crib for babies and the first cumulative recorder. (Bjord, 1990)
Skinners experiments with rats and pigeons raise the following question; Can rats and other animals replace human behavior in a laboratory? Critics claim, that the differences between humans and animals are large enough to make the results of some of his experiments highly reliable. (Henderson, 1990)
Positive Reinforcement
Skinner claims that positive reinforcement "strengthens and preserves the kind of behavior that produces the reward." (Skinner, 1938) For example, when Skinner's cat rings a bell from the inside door knob Skinner knows that the cat  wants to go for a walk. His behavior (ringing the bell) is reinforced by Skinner taking him for a walk. Also, he notes that behavior that happens frequently must have been rewarded almost each time. (Skinner, 1938)
Negative Reinforcement
Skinner defines negative reinforcement as "something that strengthens and
maintains the kind of behavior that reduces the stimulus."(Skinner, 1938) For
Skinner's Behaviorism
Page 7
example, Skinners cat tries to remove his flea collar because it irritates his sensitive skin. Skinner removes the collar from the cat as a form of negative reinforcement. (Skinner, 1938)
In his time, B. F. Skinner attempted to make a lot of changes in modern psychology. Made people didn't agree with his changes because he didn't think that psychology had to do with feels or emotions. He felt that psychology had suffered in the past because it tried to explain human behavior in terms of feelings and states of mind. Skinner thought that psychology had wasted a lot of time making theories about the mind and personality. He suggested that psychology should only deal with behavior that is "observable in the world in which it occurs." (Henderson, 1990) 
In conclusion, B. F. Skinner was a very intelligent man that viewed behavior as "a response to a stimulus." Though he may have based his theories mostly on animal testing and he many have even portrayed man as a being without feelings, creativity, or morality, he was truly great and saw behaviorism like no one had seen it before. (Skinner, 1938)
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Babe Ruth 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Babe Ruth is an American hero. He transformed baseball from a sport, to a national pastime when it needed it the most. Coming off of the wake of the Black Socks scandal, baseball was headed downhill. It had a bad reputation, and interest was waning. The dead-ball era was dragging on, and there were to few baseball "purists" left to support it. Baseball was in search of a new audience, and Babe Ruth handed it to them on a silver platter. Babe Ruth started the Home run era of baseball. In the dead-ball scores of 2-1 1-0 was the norm. With the advent of the Home run era, games that averaged 1-2 runs an inning were common. What once took a couple hits, walks, and a stolen base to accomplish were being done with the single swing of a bat. Baseball was now much more enjoyable to watch. Then  with the invention of the radio, millions of people enjoyed listening to it.

	George Herman Ruth was born in the early 1890's to a couple of German immigrants who ran a local bar. His parents had there hand's full with the bar, and had very little time to tend to young George. His trouble making, and lack of time on his parents part eventually landed him in St. Mary's Boys school. It was here that he met the man who Babe claimed to be the greatest man who ever lived, Brother Mathias. Brother Mathias was the one who handed Babe his punishments, and it was Babe who always touted his strong, yet caring hand that led him to baseball. It was also at St. Mary's that Babe started his life of giving. He would save up his money from his job in the Tailor shop and often spend it on large amounts of candy to give away to the little boys at St. Mary who were poor, or orphans.

	Brother Mathias was the one who introduced Babe to baseball, as a recreational game to play during the spring. It wasn't long until Babe was the only 13 year old playing on the 16 years and older team. First as a catcher, then later as a Pitcher. It was here that he first established a prowess for hitting. His long home runs would leave local audiences speechless. It was his pitching, however that landed him his first professional job. Jack Dunn of the then minor league Baltimore Orioles signed him at the young age of 17. He played a few years for the Orioles, until Dunn sold him to the Boston Red Sox. Babe pitched well, finally breaking into the Red Sox starting rotation in 1918. Then the Red Sox ran into some hard luck, and in search of money sold him for the then huge amount of money, 125,000. 

	It is often said that New York and Babe Ruth were made for one another, and by the way Babe took New York by storm, it is hard to dispute the saying. He took an instant liking to the big city, enjoying bars, dance clubs and people in general. It was in New York that Babe started the long ball game. In the early twenty's Babe's home run totals usually eclipsed that of any other TEAM  in baseball. After a few years however, people began to pattern there swing after babe, and pretty soon each team had their own home run experts. The boom in run scoring also equated to a boom in attendance and revenue. It wasn't long until Babe started to cash in on this, with  his salary soon surpassing that of then President Grover Cleveland. In a Characteristic Ruth remark, Babe Responded "Why not I had a better year than him!" When asked by a reporter if he should be making more money than the president. 

	Babe's way of life was Characteristic of the time period, The Free willing 20's. Babe frequented speakeasies (a place to get illegal alcohol during the prohibition. He was often at odds with his teams manager, owner, and even police. This was Characteristic of the Rebellious 20's. He would often weasel his way out of speeding tickets by offering a signed baseball if the officer let him go. The Yankee's owner was often reluctant to suspend Ruth, knowing the negative effect it would have on his team's performance. In this particular Biography, the author's intent is to provide the most detailed, in depth Biography on Ruth ever. That he does, in masterful accounts of Babe's most heroic Games, and World series. Even his personal life is told in great detail and accuracy. Controversies such as Babe's actual date of birth are presented, debated, then concluded with the authors opinion. 

	I choose this book because I am fascinated by Babe Ruth. I have read many biographies on him, and this is by far the most in depth and detailed. I really admire Babe's love for life, and people. He gave to those less fortunate, and did everything in his power to make sure he enjoyed his life to the fullest. Sometimes that meant bending a few rules, and even laws, but Babe realized you only get one crack at life, and he made it worth it.

	In all the biographies I have read before, I did not know  Babe made an unsuccessful bid to be a manager. It was details like this, and many more that made this book very interesting. This book didn't really change my view on Babe, it just broadened my horizon as to the many aspects of his life and career in the major leagues. I would not however recommend this book to someone just looking to learn a little about this American icon. There are many books that would do this in far fewer pages, and most would probably consider this book boring with it's many little story's it delves into with great detail. However for the baseball enthusiast who has time on his hands, or for someone who just can't get enough of Babe Ruth; I strongly recommend this book as the most informative piece of work on the Greatest Baseball Player to have walked the earth, George Herman (Babe) Ruth.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Babe Ruth.TXT
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Babe Ruth is an American hero. He transformed baseball from a sport, to a national pastime when it needed it the most. Coming off of the wake of the Black Socks scandal, baseball was headed downhill. It had a bad reputation, and interest was waning. The dead-ball era was dragging on, and there were to few baseball "purists" left to support it. Baseball was in search of a new audience, and Babe Ruth handed it to them on a silver platter. Babe Ruth started the Home run era of baseball. In the dead-ball scores of 2-1 1-0 was the norm. With the advent of the Home run era, games that averaged 1-2 runs an inning were common. What once took a couple hits, walks, and a stolen base to accomplish were being done with the single swing of a bat. Baseball was now much more enjoyable to watch. Then  with the invention of the radio, millions of people enjoyed listening to it.

	George Herman Ruth was born in the early 1890's to a couple of German immigrants who ran a local bar. His parents had there hand's full with the bar, and had very little time to tend to young George. His trouble making, and lack of time on his parents part eventually landed him in St. Mary's Boys school. It was here that he met the man who Babe claimed to be the greatest man who ever lived, Brother Mathias. Brother Mathias was the one who handed Babe his punishments, and it was Babe who always touted his strong, yet caring hand that led him to baseball. It was also at St. Mary's that Babe started his life of giving. He would save up his money from his job in the Tailor shop and often spend it on large amounts of candy to give away to the little boys at St. Mary who were poor, or orphans.

	Brother Mathias was the one who introduced Babe to baseball, as a recreational game to play during the spring. It wasn't long until Babe was the only 13 year old playing on the 16 years and older team. First as a catcher, then later as a Pitcher. It was here that he first established a prowess for hitting. His long home runs would leave local audiences speechless. It was his pitching, however that landed him his first professional job. Jack Dunn of the then minor league Baltimore Orioles signed him at the young age of 17. He played a few years for the Orioles, until Dunn sold him to the Boston Red Sox. Babe pitched well, finally breaking into the Red Sox starting rotation in 1918. Then the Red Sox ran into some hard luck, and in search of money sold him for the then huge amount of money, 125,000. 

	It is often said that New York and Babe Ruth were made for one another, and by the way Babe took New York by storm, it is hard to dispute the saying. He took an instant liking to the big city, enjoying bars, dance clubs and people in general. It was in New York that Babe started the long ball game. In the early twenty's Babe's home run totals usually eclipsed that of any other TEAM  in baseball. After a few years however, people began to pattern there swing after babe, and pretty soon each team had their own home run experts. The boom in run scoring also equated to a boom in attendance and revenue. It wasn't long until Babe started to cash in on this, with  his salary soon surpassing that of then President Grover Cleveland. In a Characteristic Ruth remark, Babe Responded "Why not I had a better year than him!" When asked by a reporter if he should be making more money than the president. 

	Babe's way of life was Characteristic of the time period, The Free willing 20's. Babe frequented speakeasies (a place to get illegal alcohol during the prohibition. He was often at odds with his teams manager, owner, and even police. This was Characteristic of the Rebellious 20's. He would often weasel his way out of speeding tickets by offering a signed baseball if the officer let him go. The Yankee's owner was often reluctant to suspend Ruth, knowing the negative effect it would have on his team's performance. In this particular Biography, the author's intent is to provide the most detailed, in depth Biography on Ruth ever. That he does, in masterful accounts of Babe's most heroic Games, and World series. Even his personal life is told in great detail and accuracy. Controversies such as Babe's actual date of birth are presented, debated, then concluded with the authors opinion. 

	I choose this book because I am fascinated by Babe Ruth. I have read many biographies on him, and this is by far the most in depth and detailed. I really admire Babe's love for life, and people. He gave to those less fortunate, and did everything in his power to make sure he enjoyed his life to the fullest. Sometimes that meant bending a few rules, and even laws, but Babe realized you only get one crack at life, and he made it worth it.

	In all the biographies I have read before, I did not know  Babe made an unsuccessful bid to be a manager. It was details like this, and many more that made this book very interesting. This book didn't really change my view on Babe, it just broadened my horizon as to the many aspects of his life and career in the major leagues. I would not however recommend this book to someone just looking to learn a little about this American icon. There are many books that would do this in far fewer pages, and most would probably consider this book boring with it's many little story's it delves into with great detail. However for the baseball enthusiast who has time on his hands, or for someone who just can't get enough of Babe Ruth; I strongly recommend this book as the most informative piece of work on the Greatest Baseball Player to have walked the earth, George Herman (Babe) Ruth.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bach.TXT
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Bach
Music History 1
Johann Sebastian Bach
A Great Contributor Of Music
Throughout the history of music, many great composers, theorists, and instrumentalists have left indelible marks and influences that people today look back on to admire and aspire to. No exception to this idiom is Johann Sebastian Bach, whose impact on music was unforgettable to say the least. People today look back to his writings and works to both learn and admire. He truly can be considered a music history great.
Bach, who came from a family of over 53 musicians, was nothing short of a virtuosic instrumentalist as well as a masterful composer. Born in Eisenach, Germany, on March 21, 1685, he was the son of a masterful violinist, Johann Ambrosius Bach, who taught his son the basic skills for string playing. Along with this string playing, Bach began to play the organ which is the instrument he would later on be noted for in history. His instruction on the organ came from the player at Eisenach's most important church. He instructed the young boy rather rigorously until his skills surpassed anyone's expectations for someone of such a young age. Bach suffered early trauma when his parents died in 1695. He went to go live with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who also was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. He continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as introducing him to the harpsichord. The rigorous training on these instruments combined with Bach's masterful skill paid off for him at an early age. After several years of studying with his older brother, he received a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Germany, which is located on the northern tip of the country. As a result, he left his brother's tutelage and went to go and study there.
The teenage years brought Bach to several parts of Germany where he mainly worked as an organist in churches, since that was the skill he had perfected the best from his young training. However, a master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a violinist in a court orchestra in Weimar. Although he did not remain there terribly long, he was able to make good money playing for the king. He soon after accepted a position as a church organist in Arnstadt. It was here that Bach would soon realize his high standards and regards that he had for music. In Arnstadt as well as in many other places that Bach worked he was notorious for getting into fights over the quality of music that was being produced. A perfect example of this can be seen in Arnstadt. Previous accounts of history claim that Bach was upset with the performance of the church choir for which he played for. He claimed that "the voices could never make the music soar to the sky as it should" (loosely translated). Here Bach realized the high level of music and perfectionism that he wanted. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach moved on from Arnstadt to another organist job, this time at the St. Blasius Church in Muhlhausen. Once again he did not remain there too long, only a little over a year, when he moved again to Weimar where he accepted the position of head concertmaster and organist in the Ducal Chapel. It was here that Bach settled himself and began to compose the first collection of his finest early works which, included organ pieces and cantatas.
By this time Bach had been married for several years. He actually became married to his cousin Maria Barbara. They, for the most part, had a happy marriage. He was happy. By this stage of his life he had "composed" for himself a wonderful reputation of being a brilliant musical talent. Along with that his proficiency on the organ was unequaled in Europe by this time. In fact, he toured regularly as a solo virtuoso, and his growing mastery of compositional forms, like the fugue and the canon, were already attracting interest from the musical establishment, which, in his day, was the Lutheran church. The church began to look at Bach's writings and saw the opportunity to possibly use his music in their masses. Thus was the slow birth of the German chorale, which Bach later became renowned for. Bach's virtuosic career did suffer minor setbacks along the way. He occasionally would be passed over for deserved positions within the court that he worked. However, in 1715 when he did not receive a truly desired position of "Kapellmeister" (choral master) of Weimer, he was insulted and left the city. He accepted a position as a court conductor in Cothen, where he began to work on another part of his musical genre, that of instrumental music. Up until this point, Bach was mainly writing organ pieces and church cantatas. One of his most famous, "Wachet auf ruft uns die Stimme," became well known around the world and is still looked upon as a classic today. However, when he arrived in Cothen he began to focus on all other instruments and used his talents as a string player and knowledge of "wind & brass" instruments to begin composing instrumental pieces. It was during his stay here in Cothen that the orchestral masterpiece known as the "Brandenburg Concerto" was born.
Bach's tenure in Cothen lasted approximately seven years. In that time his wife Mara became ill and died. Although distraught, he soon remarried to Anna Magdalena. It was during this time that Bach had several children, three in particular would grow to become talented musicians like their father. Wilhelm Friedmann, C.P.E. Bach, and J.C. Bach. They to became virtosos of the organ and later the harpsichord, much like their father was. After Bach left Cothen, he received a prestigious position as music director at the St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, Germany. Here Bach accepted his most demanding position of all. He had the responsibility of composing cantatas for the St. Thomas and St. Nicholas churches, conducing the choirs, overseeing the musical activities of numerous municipal churches, and teaching Latin in the St. Thomas choir school. Although demanding, Bach persisted and succeeded in Leipzig and continued to write music of various kinds with a level of craft and emotional profundity that was his alone. Bach remained at his post in Leipzig until his death in 1750. Although he was blinded by cataract problems in the early 1740s, he still managed to compose masterful pieces up until days before his death. His last musical composition that he crafted happened to be a choral prelude, which was dedicated to his son-in law. To this day more than 1,000 of Bach's accomplished compositions survive. Some of his most famous works include the "Brandenburg Concerto," The "Mass In B Minor," "The Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord," his vast amount of toccatas, especially his "Toccata In F Major," his collection of variations on organ preludes captured in the "Well Tempered Clavier," his immense amount of fugues and chorales including his "Fugue in G minor," major as well as his tremendous amount of chorales, and his Christmas and Easter oratorios, which was another schism in his music genre. Quite frankly, the list goes on and on and on. Surely, Johann Sebastian Bach never believed that his success would become so heroic and monumental. However, we today perceive him to be one of the key individuals to shape the music we listen to. It is no secret that his writings, especially chorale writings, are used to illustrate the principles of our functional system of harmony. It is in this example alone that it can be seen that Bach's works have not only survived to the point where they are still heard and listened to, but they also still provide us with knowledge and understanding from which we can learn and discover music. It is for these reasons that the life of Johann Sebastian Bach was truly a great one and it is without any apprehension that he can be considered a musical great.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Barry Sanders.TXT
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Barry Sanders
My article that I choice was about one of the most
interesting sports player's of our time. Barry Sanders
arguably the best back ever to play the game of football.
Barry is not one of those players who is just out there to
make money, no he loves the game and is always trying his
hardest when he is out there. In my paper there is allot
interest information about Barry that not every one knows
about him. Barry Sanders was born July 16th, 1968 in
Wichita, Kansas. He grew up in a family being one of
eleven other children. When Barry was a kid he was
considered to be too short to play football well at the
college level. In fact, his 1,417 yards rushing in his senior
year of high school wasn't enough to impress college
recruiters. One recruiter told Barry's coach, "We don't
need another midget." Only two colleges offered Barry a
football scholarship. Barry accepted a scholarship from
Oklahoma State University and the rest is now history.
Here are some of Barrys career achievements that he has
done in the short time he has played the game. Which has
made him such the over achiever that he is. 1988, won the
Heisman Trophy Award for best player in the nation. 1989,
lead the NFC in rushing and was Rookie of the Year.
1992, became the Lions' All-Time leading rusher. 1994,
rushed for the fourth best NFL season record of 1,883
yards and included a 237 yards in week 11 vs. Tampa
Bay. In 1996, became the first player in NFL history to
rush for over 1,000 yards in his first eight seasons, won the
NFL rushing title, selected to the Pro Bowl for the eighth
time and became the first player to rush for over 1,500
yards in three consecutive seasons. Sanders continues
adding to his extraordinary numbers on the field. He has
run for 1,300 yards and now stands seventh among the
NFL's all-time rushers with 11,472, having surpassed Ottis
Anderson, O.J. Simpson and John Riggins. He's 128 yards
behind Kansas City's Marcus Allen, Sanders'
boyhoodhero when he was growing up in Wichita, Kan.,
and Allen was a Los Angeles Raider. Next year, providing
he keeps up this trend of 1,000-yard seasons, Sanders will
pass Franco Harris (12,120), Jim Brown (12,312) and
Tony Dorsett(12,739) and slide into third place behind Eric
Dickerson (13,259) and Walter Payton (16,726). Sanders
is the first player in league history to rush for at least 1,000
yards in eight straight seasons, and Thursday he was named
to his eighth straight Pro Bowl. "Anytime he touches the
ball, it's a highlight reel," says Allen, now in his 15th NFL
season. "The player most fun to watch, and by far, the most
dangerous player in the game today, is Barry Sanders. He
is jus! t remarkable. He is also, in my opinion, the guy
everyone's still trying to crack." Mention any of this to
Sanders, and you would expect him to be bemused,
wearing the kind of bored look people get when they're
waiting in line at the grocery store. You've seen him being
interviewed on TV, standing or sitting in that same spot in
front of his locker, avoiding eye contact with the camera
and speaking in that unhurried monotone. There has always
been a kind of perceived uneasiness about him. But rattle
off a few of the aforementioned tales of change-especially
what his teammates and family have noticed about him
lately-and he nods knowingly and begins, very
un-Sanders like, by answering a question with a question.
"When I first came into the league, I was 20 years old," he
starts out saying. "Now I'm 28. So wouldn't you expect
there to be some changes between 20 and 28?" Sure, you
say. He continues. "I know I'm more outgoing, especially
publicly," Sanders says. "I don't think any! of my brothers
or sisters, though, would ever term me as quiet or reserved.
Whenever I become more comfortable with people, I get
more open. And now, I just think I'm more comfortable
outside of my own little environment and people can see
more of me, more inside of the person. Before, I was a
person who felt out of their element and was just kind of
being, sitting back and watching everything. "At home, they
knew I wasn't just this quiet and reserved person, the way
people thought I was here. It's just a matter of comfort,
that's all it is. Even in the locker room, people that I'm not
real close with I can laugh and joke. And now, I'm more
prone to try to defend myself from attacks from Brett
Perriman and Herman Moore." Sanders starts cracking up.
Get it? He has just made a joke. "I can sit and talk with my
oldest son for hours and hours. Barry and I could never do
that. But the last time he called, he asked to talk tome. We
talked for quite a while. Barry, he used to make me mad
because he was just like his mother. Looks like her. Quiet
like her. I wanted him to have something of me. But I
wouldn't let him be outgoing. 'Barry,' I said, 'you've got to
be different.' Ask him. He'll remember."-William
Sanders, Barry's father Peter Schaffer, one of Sanders'
agents, lives in Denver. He belongs to a health club where
Sanders and former Michigan receiver Mercury Hayes
joined a pick up basketball game last year. Sanders! ,
who's 5-feet-8 and 203 pounds, wore a plain T-shirt and
shorts. Hayes' shirt said"Michigan" on the front. The next
day, a couple of Schaffer's friends who played in the game
sought him out. "Hey, it was sure fun playing basketball
with Mercury Hayes!" they said. Schaffer didn't have the
heart to tell them who the other guy was. Stories like that
one are still as popular as they were in 1988 -- the year
Sanders won the Heisman Trophy as a junior at Oklahoma
State and turned down an invitation to the White House
because he said he had to study. Or how about the time
two years ago in Miami when Sanders spent the evening in
the lounge at the Marriott? Think you're onto some juicy
gossip, right? Well, Sanders wasn't attached to any bar
stool. He and Steve Atwater of the Denver Broncos were
in a corner, playing Pop-A-Shot basketball all night.
Former Lions offensive tackle Lomas Brown has a good
one, too. He can list the times Sanders has been over to his
house for dinner, but you! wouldn't have known he was
there. "You know how it's kids in one room, adults in
another?" says Brown, who spent 11 years with the Lions
before he signed with the Arizona Cardinals last February.
"Well, most of the time Barry would be with my kids, sitting
on the floor playing a video game or eating off their plates
watching a movie." Sanders, who has one year left on a
four-year, $17.2-million contract he signed in December
1993, still lives in the $175,000 house in Rochester Hills he
bought in 1989 after the Lions made him their first-round
draft pick. But back in Wichita, he moved his parents into a
new 7,000-square-foot house three years ago. The white
brick home, which sits on 11 acres with a private pond
stocked with bass, crappie and catfish, replaces the
three-bedroom, 850-square-foot home Barry and his 10
brothers and sisters grew up in. "You do what's right,"
Sanders says with a shrug. Well, that includes everything
from paying the college tuitions for his brothers! and sisters
to making sure his Nike contract still has a clause that says
the company must supply his former high school football
coach with 60 pairs of shoes a year. One person who
knows Sanders best outside his family is Mark
McCormick, a newspaper reporter at the Wichita Eagle.
They grew up on the same street, Volutsia, on the city's
north side, and have been friends since McCormick got
over the day Sanders beat him up in kindergarten. When
Sanders was attending Oklahoma State, McCormick was
studying journalism at the University of Kansas. He was on
a tight budget and got sick, losing 30 pounds one semester.
"Dang, what's going on with you?" Sanders asked. "I'm in
college," McCormick replied. "I'm starving." Sanders
wanted to help and offered his Pell Grant money, which
McCormick refused. A few years later, after Sanders
joined the Lions, he heard that McCormick was evicted
from an apartment after getting his first job. He mailed him
$500. "I'm at the point now in our rel! ationship that I can
never repay him unless I give him a lung or a kidney,"
McCormick says. "And he still calls me all the time." After
rushing for 1,470 yards and breaking Billy Sims'
single-season club record his rookie year, Sanders gave
each of the Lions' offensive linemen a Rolex watch, valued
at more than $10,000. On the back was the inscription:
"Thanks for a great '89 season. Barry Sanders." When
center Kevin Glover came home one day last February, a
box the size of a small refrigerator was sitting in the
driveway near his garage. In it was a big-screen TV and a
thank-you note from Sanders. "It's not expected, but he
does it," Glover says. The TV "is something I'm going to
cherish. When I retire, I plan on getting a plaque for it that
will say, 'A gift from Barry Sanders.' " All of this giving, all
of this helping, and Sanders still turns down most of the
endorsement offers that come his way, deals that could
bring him an additional $4 million to $5 million a year, Sc!
haffer says. "You can put $1 million in front of him that he
turns down, but he'll say yes to the Michigan state seat-belt
patrol campaign," Schaffer says. "A lot of football players
have tremendous egos. They like to see themselves on TV.
Not Barry." Sanders doesn't decline everything, though.
He has endorsement deals with more than a half-dozen
companies, including many of the prized ones-Nike,
McDonald's, Cadillac, 7-Eleven, and, soon to be
announced, Little Caesars. "He needs to let himself take
off," Perriman says. "He should be the Michael Jordan of
football. He could be that. Playing eight years, he knows
he's not going to be playing forever. I tell him, 'You better
get what you deserve and what you can while you can.' He
needs to be as large in commercials as he is a player." But
Sanders won't. He is doing more, but he won't do it all. "I
wish there were another way of doing it," Sanders says of
endorsements. "I'm definitely more comfortable with the
game being bigger than the person." That has been
Sanders' philosophy since the fourth grade. That year, in
his first football game ever, the first time he touched the
ball, he scored on a 70-yard sweep. The next Saturday, his
coach tried him out on kickoffs. He ran the first one back
for a touchdown. His father was there. "It was 1977 and I
was sitting in my '63 Pontiac listening to Texas beat
Oklahoma, 13-6," William Sanders says. "Must have run
for three or four touchdowns that day." In his first few
years with the Lions, much was made about Sanders'
upbringing, about the stern father and quiet mother, par!
ents who had their own distinct ways of raising their
children. "Growing up, the kids would get together and just
kind of ask the question, 'How in the world did these two
get together?' " Barry says with a laugh. Barry was
especially close to his mother-and still is. Shirley Sanders
had children spanning three decades, beginning with Diane,
born in 1959, and ending with Krista, the youngest of the
eight girls, born in 1974. Shirley delivered Barry, No. 7 on
the family's roster, on July 16, 1968. His mother speaks in
a soft voice and is bashful around strangers. "I love it when
he comes home," she says. "We sit and talk for hours. I
miss him. I feel for him sometimes-all the attention he gets
and doesn't want." When her husband pipes up and offers
one of his gruff opinions ("I don't like boys to be close to
their mothers because it makes sissies out of them," he
says), Shirley smiles and rolls her eyes. Last month at the
Sanders home in Wichita, Shirley spent part of the eveni!
ng in her kitchen listening to Christian music while her
husband sat on his leather recliner watching a basketball
game. Indiana was beating up Princeton. Shirley says she
missed many of Barry's football games when he was
growing up, mainly because Friday night was reserved for
choir practice at Paradise Baptist Church. Religion is a
central theme of the Sanders family. One of the proudest
moments in her life came when Barry sent $200,000 of his
$2.1-million signing bonus to Paradise his rookie year.
While Shirley is quiet and unassuming, her husband is
anything but. William Sanders listens to Rush Limbaugh and
Dr. Laura, smokesWhite Owl cigars and rarely leaves
home without his Cleveland Browns jacket. His favorite
college remains Oklahomabecause he listened to the
Sooners broadcasts on the radio when he was growing up.
He points out that he has collected only two autographs for
himself through the years-Troy Aikman (because he
played two seasons at Oklahoma) and Bernie Kosar!
(Cleveland). In 1994, William Sanders brought a football
to Dallas, where the Cowboys were playing the Lions.
When the teams were warming up, he was introduced to
Emmitt Smith. Sanders asked if Smith could do him a favor
and sign his football for a friend. "He said he'd get me after
the game," William Sanders says, angry as he tells the
story. As it turns out, the Lions won the game in overtime.
When he asked Smith to sign the ball, he refused. "My
Barry would never do that," Sanders says. Until this past
summer, William Sanders was working six days a week as
a freelance roofer and remodeler. Before that, he worked
on the beef-kill line at a rendering plant, firing .22s into the
skulls of cattle, among other jobs. "Barry came into money
in '88," William Sanders says, walking up the private drive
that leads to their home. "You know, we'll be here four
years on Memorial Day. I was never hung up on moving
out of the ghetto just to say I moved out. Money can be a
curse and a nigh! tmare if you let it control you." As nice as
his new house is, William Sanders misses his old
neighborhood. "I bought that house (on Volutsia) for
$8,200 in 1964," he says. "I paid it off in February 1984 --
$77.50 a month on a 20-year note." In those days, sleeping
arrangements were eight girls in one bedroom, three boys
in another. William was the neighborhood's master builder
of bunk beds. And also, the chief disciplinarian. "I
remember in Barry's senior year in high school he had on a
pair of Converse All-Stars for basketball, "William Sanders
says. "He came in one day and his shoes were untied. I told
him if he ever comes in the house again with his shoes
untied I'd break both his legs. "I was such a sergeant over
my kids. I felt I had to be." Barry's brother Byron, who
played football at Northwestern, says, "My father doesn't
realize that although we appear to be reserved, no one in
the world can intimidate any of his children because of the
way he was. He loved us, and ! that's the difference."
Today, the children all grown and gone, William Sanders
misses the full house. He's planning a family reunion for
next summer. "Let me tell you how I feel about things now,"
William Sanders says. "God told Abraham that he was a
blessing to many nations. Well, we're thankful for the
blessings of Barry. I remember I wanted one of my sons to
go to Oklahoma so bad, so that I could go down in peace.
Now, if Barry goes into the Hall of Fame, when he's
standing up there, on the steps in Canton, I can lay down
right there and die." "I think a lot of things that I believe
have changed, or I have just adjusted some. I think if that's
what you really want to do, then I think you should. What
the other players around the league think about him. You
could call him the best running back, and there would be no
real argument. But you could go even further: Barry
Sanders of the Detroit Lions might be, quite simply, the
best player in the game. Were he to be judged only for the
magic he creates with a hand off, his supremacy would end
at his position. but Sanders has accomplished something
remarkable, if not unprecedented, since the days of Jim
Brown. The current of terror that begins to flow in the days
and hours before a game usually emanates from vicious
defenders and flows white-hot into the rattled psyches of
the players who earn their pay with the ball in their hands.
But alone among his offensive fellows, Sanders has
reversed that current. Sanders has a whole breed of men
best known for barking like dogs instead praying out loud.
In a week of preparing for Sanders, says Chicago Bear
linebacker Vinson Smith, "You have to not sleep for a
couple of nights." Re! ally? "Yes. Yes. "And even during
fitful dozing, says Minnesota Viking defensive tackle Henry
Thomas, who usually dreams of sacks and motor cycles,
"you sit up in the middle of the night hollering, 'Barry!
Sanders!' " Most people don't just think Barry is a great
football player they also think he is a great person too.
Barry Sanders is simply the most exciting sports player to
watch. Not to mention that he has a great personality and is
a class act. This guy is so good at what he does it's scary
and he doesn't even have a trace of ego in him. When
Barry runs the ball he defies the laws of gravity and physics
of a moving object. He makes moves that make your eyes
pop out of their sockets and leave your mouth hanging
wide open. To me this report help my find out that Barry is
more than just a good ball player he also is a good person
that most people don't see. Barry does not let all the
money he earns get to his head he act like you and me. At
the end of Barrys career he will probably own every single
record there is. He is on the pace to do that with no
problem. There is no doubt in my mind that Barry will be in
the Hall of Fame with ease. To bad all the sports players
are not like Barry if they were all the games you watch
would be ten times better then what they are now.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bejamin Franklin.TXT
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Bejamin Franklin -- A Life Of A Great Man
Benjamin Franklin During the period after America's "birth" there were many incredible people but none more so than Benjamin Franklin. Ben is considered one of America's greatest citizens. He accomplished many things in his lifetime; he was a scientist, an inventor, a politician, a printer, a philosopher, a musician, and an economist. In the 1700s, a scientist was someone who thought about the way things work and tried to figure out ways to make things work better. Every time Ben Franklin saw a question and tried to answer it, he was a scientist. Ben is most famous for his questions about electricity, but he also experimented with many other ideas in nature. Ben did many studies on electricity, not just lightning. Franklin received an electricity tube from his friend Peter Collinson and began to play around with it, performing a vast amount of experiments (FISM). However, it is Ben's interest in lightning that is best remembered. Ben hypothesized that lightning was an electrical current. To test his theory he needed to see whether or not lightning would pass through metal. So he attached a metal key to a kite and flew it in a storm. His experiment proved that lightning was a stream of electrified air, known as plasma (Lemay) Ben realized that lightning was immensely powerful, so he invented the lightning rod. After Franklin did many studies with lightning and electricity, he realized it was a very powerful force. It was this that motivated him to invent the lightning rod. The lightning rod is a piece of metal attached to a building, house, boat, etc. When lightning strikes the building the rod will attract it and channel the electricity down to the ground where it will do much less damage. This invention has help protect buildings of today greatly. In 1743, Ben Franklin was watching a storm move in. He wondered why the storms were moving the opposite direction from where the wind was blowing. Franklin believed that a storm course could be plotted. Ben chased the storm on horseback 3/4 of a mile to see how it worked. He later printed weather forecasts in his almanac (FISM). In his travels across the Atlantic Ocean he became interested in ocean currents and shipbuilding. He measured temperatures on each of his eight trips to Europe and eventually plotted a Gulf Stream. Ben was one of the first people to work on gulf streams (FISM). In November of 1783, Ben was in Paris, France working on a Peace Treaty to end the American war against England. From his window, he saw the worlds first known hot air balloon flight. The balloon lifted the Montgolfier brothers off of the ground as the first human beings ever known to fly (Lemay). Ben was very interested in the idea of flight. He predicted that balloons would eventually be used for military spy flights and dropping bombs during battle (FISM). Ben's natural curiosity about things and the way they work made him try to find ways to make things work better. A list of Benjamin Franklin's inventions reveals a brilliant man. Ben was cursed with poor vision, both farsighted and nearsighted. Franklin got frustrated with having to take off his glasses every time he needed to read something. He wished his glasses could make him see far and near. In order to accomplish this, Franklin cut two pairs of lenses in half and put half of each lens in one frame, inventing what we call today, bifocals. Though Ben is not known for studding bioscience, he was interested in how the human body works. His contribution to the study of the body was his invention of the flexible catheter, an instrument for showing the blood's circulation (FISM). During his long trips across the ocean he had time to study ships and how they worked. He derived a way to make ships more sturdy and safe by inventing "watertight bulkheads". This greatly improved the safety of sea travel (FISM). At the time people were using their fireplaces to heat there house. All that wood in an unprotected area cause many fires. Ben decided there was a better and safer answer, so he invented the "Franklin stove". As the head postmaster of Philadelphia, Ben had to figure out routes for delivering the mail. He went out riding in his carriage to measure the routes and needed a way to keep track of the distance. He invented a simple odometer. When Ben had retired from politics and other activities he was very old and loved to read. But he couldn't reach most of the books because he was weaker and shorter, so he invented the long arm. The long arm is a poll with a grasping claw at the end of it (FISM). Benjamin Franklin is one of our founding fathers. His skill in negotiating and writing helped us become a nation. Ben stands alone as the only person to have signed all four of the documents which helped to create the United States: the Declaration of Independence (1776), the Treaty of Alliance, Amity, and Commerce with France (1778), the Treaty of Peace between England, France, and the United States (1782), and the Constitution (1787) (Esmond). No other person was so involved in the making of our nation. He not only helped make America but he helped make life better here. Along with his many inventions he also helped set up a postal system and started the first fire insurance company. At the age of twelve, Ben Franklin first began to learn the business of printing. As an apprentice to his older brother James, who had set up a printing office in Boston, Ben learned quickly. By the time Ben was seventeen, he was a fully skilled printer able to work in any print shop. With this skill, Ben was able to leave Boston and find work in both Philadelphia and London. In 1728, at the age of twenty-two, Franklin opened his own printing office in Philadelphia. He published a newspaper called The Pennsylvania Gazette and his annual Poor Richard's Almanac (Esmond). He published cartoons and illustrated news stories, and letters to the editor. He believed in the power of the press, using his printing press as a way to bring the news to all people. He used cartoons and pictures so that everyone could understand the news, especially to people who had not learned to read. In 1731, Franklin set up the first ever circulating library where people could checkout books so they could read even if they couldn't afford to buy books (FISM). Ben Franklin had many other ideas about our nation. His essays and books about the economy help shape it to what it is today, he strictly believed in hard work. There was no shortage of that in his life; Benjamin Franklin is clearly one of America's greatest citizens. We honor him as one of our founding fathers and his face is on the one hundred-dollar bill.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Beloved And Toni Morrison.TXT
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Beloved And Toni Morrison
Toni Morrison, the first black woman to receive Nobel Prize in Literature, was born Chloe Anthony Wofford on February 18, 1931 in Lorain, Ohio, U.S.A. She was the second of four children of George Wofford, a shipyard welder and Ramah Willis Wofford. Her parents moved to Ohio from the South to escape racism and to find better opportunities in the North. Her father was a hardworking and dignified man. While the children were growing up, he worked three jobs at the same time for almost 17 years. Her mother was a church-going woman and she sang in the choir. At home, Chloe heard many songs and tales of Southern black folklore. The Woffords were proud of their heritage. Chloe attended an integrated school. In her first grade, she was the only black student in her class and the only one who could read. She was friends with many of her white schoolmates and did not encounter discrimination until she started dating. She hoped one day to become a dancer like her favorite ballerina, Maria Tallchief, and she also loved to read. Her early favorites were the Russian writers Tolstoy and Dostoyevski, French author Gustave Flaubert and English novelist Jane Austen. She was an excellent student and she graduated with honors from Lorain High School in 1949. Chloe Wofford then attended the prestigious Howard University in Washington, D.C., where she majored in English with a minor in classics. Since many people couldn't pronounce her first name correctly, she changed it to Toni, a shortened version of her middle name. She joined a repertory company, the Howard University Players, with whom she made several tours of the South. She saw firsthand the life of the blacks there, the life her parents had escaped by moving north. Toni Wofford graduated from Howard University in 1953 with a B.A. in English. She then attended Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, and received a master's degree in 1955.

At Howard she met and fell in love with a young Jamaican architect, Harold Morrison. They married in 1958 and their first son, Harold Ford, was born in 1961. Toni continued teaching while helping take care of her family. She also joined a small writer's group as a temporary escape from an unhappy married life. Each member of this group was required to bring a story or poem for discussion. One week, having nothing to bring, she quickly wrote a story loosely based on a girl she knew in childhood who had prayed to God for blue eyes. The story was well received by the group and then Toni put it away thinking she was done with it. Her marriage deteriorated, and while pregnant with their second child she left her husband, left her job at the university, and took her son on a trip to Europe. Later, she divorced her husband and returned to her parents' house in Lorain with her two sons. In the fall of 1964 Morrison obtained a job with a textbook subsidiary of Random House in Syracuse, New York as an associate editor. Her hope was to be transferred soon to New York City. While working all day, the housekeeper took care of her sons and in the evening Morrison cooked dinner and played with the boys until their bedtime. When her sons were asleep, she started writing. She dusted off the story she had written for the writer's group and decided to make it into a novel. She drew on her memories from childhood and expanded them with her imagination so that the characters developed a life of their own. She found writing exciting and challenging. Other than parenting, she found everything else boring by comparison. In 1967 she was transferred to New York and became a senior editor at Random House. The Bluest Eye was eventually published in 1970 to much critical acclaim, although it was not commercially successful. From 1971-1972 Morrison was the associate professor of English at the State University of New York at Purchase while she continued working at Random House. In addition, she soon started writing her second novel where she focused on a friendship between two adult black women. Sula was published in 1973. Song of Solomon, her third novel, was published in 1977. In 1981 she published her fourth novel, Tar Baby, where for the first time she describes interaction between black and white characters. In 1983, Morrison left her position at Random House, having worked there for almost twenty years. Morrison's next novel, Beloved, was influenced by a published story about a slave, Margaret Garner, who in 1851 escaped with her children to Ohio from her master in Kentucky. When she was about to be re-captured, she tried to kill her children rather than return them to life of slavery. Only one of her children died and Margaret was imprisoned for her deed. She refused to show remorse, saying she was "unwilling to have her children suffer as she had done." Beloved was published in 1987 and was a bestseller. In 1988 it won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction. In 1987, Toni Morrison was named the Robert F. Goheen Professor in the Council of Humanities at Princeton University. She became the first black woman writer to hold a named chair at an Ivy League University. While accepting, Morrison said, "I take teaching as seriously as I do my writing." She taught creative writing and also took part in the African-American studies, American studies and women's studies programs. She also started her next novel, Jazz, about life in the 1920's. The book was published in 1992. In 1993, Toni Morrison received the Nobel Prize in Literature. She was the eighth woman and the first black woman to do so. Beloved, her first novel, is set in Ohio during 1873, several years after the Civil War. The book centers on characters that struggle fruitlessly to keep their painful recollections of the past at bay. The whole story revolves around issues of race, gender, family relationships and the supernatural, covering two generations and three decades up to the 19th century. Beloved describes the horrendous consequences of an escape from slavery for Sethe, her children and Paul D. The narrative begins 18 years after Sethe's break for freedom. It gradually persuades the reader to accept the haunting of 124 Bluestone Road by a 2 year old child, killed by her mother Sethe.

The novel is divided into three parts. Each part opens with statements as to indicate the progress of the haunting--from the poltergeist to the materialized spirit to the final freeing of both the spirit and Sethe; Part I: "124 WAS SPITEFUL" (Page 1); Part II: " 124 WAS LOUD"(Page 169); Part III: "124 WAS QUIET" (Page 239). The narrative jumps from one setting to another, from the past to the present. However, the complex chronology is necessary to understand the psychological and emotional state of all the participants in the story. Events that occurred prior and during the 18 years of Sethe's freedom are slowly revealed and pieced together throughout the novel. Ever so painfully, Sethe is in need of rebuilding her identity and remembering the past and her origins. The author moves around the characters allowing each participant in the story a turn--Baby Suggs, Paul D, Stamp Paid, Denver, Sethe and Beloved--to convey their perceptions of events to the reader. These various voices act as witnesses to Sethe's experiences and showing how black women had no control over their husbands, children or own bodies. Racial issues are one of the main issues in Beloved. The story revolves around the life of a former slave and her attempts to get on with her life as best as she can, considering what the white slave owners have put her through. The cruelties of the slaves by the slave owners in this story are probably conservative compared to what really occurred in many cases. This novel is about emotions and perceptions of African-Americans and of the burden of sorrow that they have inherited from being deprived of their homeland and treated like animals. Sethe's mother threw away the children of the abusers, exercising the choice to kill as her daughter will do herself later. One did it for hate and the other one for love, but for both mother and daughter the choice to kill was the ultimate act of protection. Gender issues are also dominant in the story. Three of the four main characters are female, and it not only tells the story of an ex-slave but of a woman's life. Slavery is the cause of Sethe being in the situation she is. The bulk of the story deals with the relationship between a single mother (Sethe), her daughter (Denver) and a female stranger (Beloved). Sethe's relationship to Paul D is a source of contrast on the three women. Sethe and Paul D could symbolize the joint potential of a people united no longer held apart from slavery and a possible solution to heal everyone's pain. The freedom to love one another. The story revolves around the scars and the psychological state of African-Americans during and after slavery. Beloved materializes when Seth's plantation past re-emerges with a visit from a fellow ex-slave, Paul D. He offers her love and the possibility of a new life. This triggers Beloved incarnation who is extremely jealous to be recognized as the proof of her mother's deed. The signs indicating that the young woman was Seth's child materializing in flesh and blood were many, such as her name 'Beloved' and her weak neck: "Her neck, its circumference no wider than a parlor-service saucer, kept bending and her chin brushed the bit of lace edging her dress" (Page 50). The sudden emergency Sethe experienced as she noticed Beloved, remind the reader of Sethe giving birth. Beloved's struggle to reclaim connection with her mother, could symbolize their struggle for freedom by reclaiming their past. In order to never forget their enslaved history and confrontation could be the catalyst to growth. Although this novel is full of symbolism and metaphors, the ghost of Sethe's dead baby could reflect the author's beliefs in the paranormal. Anyone who enters the house on Bluestone Road actually witnesses the presence of this ghost which may symbolize slavery's "rememories" that haunt Sethe and her people throughout the story. All of the characters try to repress their memories, which need to be faced and exorcised as you would a ghost. The end of this novel emphasizes the importance of the community and the individual's search for self which characterizes the survival struggle of Black Americans. Sethe is destroyed by her memories and her isolation with the ghost of Beloved, (representing the memories of slavery) until the community intervenes and saves her. The black community and their cohesiveness and harmony is an essential factor to further the healing of 244 years of slavery and another 133 years of political abuse.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\ben franklin.TXT
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	Benjamin Franklin was a remarkably talented man.  He started his career as a simple printer apprentice, but went far beyond the printers shop.  He developed products that were far beyond the time.  The Franklin stove for example, for cold winter nights and bifocal lenses for reading.  Franklin tracked storm paths to help understand the wicked weather endured by the colonies.  His study of electricity made him most famous for he was known around the world as the inventor of the lightning rod.  Not only was Ben Franklin helpful in developing ideas for better living, he was also a strong force in developing the new nation of America.  Benjamin Franklin's political views showed him to be a man who loved freedom and self-government.  His views towards Britain gradually changed from favor to disfavor until he finally became a revolutionist at the age of 70.  But more than just his political views help in the formation of the United States.  His common sense, his whit, and his ability to negotiate behind the scenes, all lent a hand in the formation of the new country across the sea.  Franklin's good humor and gift for compromise often helped prevent bitter disputes which could have stalled the formation of the new government.
	Interestingly, Ben Franklin, who was a chief participant in the battle for independence, "had a lot to lose by it."  (Wright 1986, page 204).  He had a residence in London and was influential in England.  However, his love of liberty and his desire to promote the well being of Pennsylvania pushed him toward independence for the colonies.  Franklin had to wrestle with his conscience over his own private affairs.  Also, since he was well respected in England, he was "the Establishment man-even if he felt now a deep unease on the basic question:  What was the authority of Parliament over the American colonies?"  (Wright, page 205).  At first Franklin wanted the colonies to be and independent free nation under the caring and protecting umbrella of the British Empire.  "He had dream...of a great British Empire, gridding the globe, based upon a commonwealth of free nations, each with its own laws, its own government and freedoms, but bound together by compact with the Crown for mutual benefit, mutual defense, and the propagation of English freedoms."  (Schoenbrun 1976, page 5).  As stated earlier, Franklin did not contemplate separation from Britain for he regarded Britain as "having the freest, best government in the world."  (Ketcham 1993,page3).  Franklin proposed self-government for the American colonies.  Historically, Ben Franklin was in favor of self-government.  In fact, nearly forty years of service as a public official began when Franklin was elected for the Pennsylvania Assembly.  At first, he wanted to get support for various civic causes but soon partisan politics held his undivided attention.  Further, as the legislature strategist and writer for the weakly formed Quaker party, "he defended the powers of the elected representatives of the people.  Franklin thus the virtues of self-government a generation before the Declaration of Independence."  (Ketcham, page 3).
	Further, Benjamin Franklin's political views with regard to various British taxation upon the colonists show him leaning away from Britain.  The Townshend Acts, Stamp Act, and other taxes and duties on colonial goods were opposed by Franklin.  He wrote in connection with the American Stamp Acts, "The Sovereignty of the British Legislature out of Britain, I do not understand."  (Wright, page 207).  Franklin felt that the colonies were capable of writing their own legislation.  The colonies had their own parliaments and Franklin was confidant that these assemblies could properly legislate for the colony.  In one of Franklin's letters he writes that possibly an extreme case would be best.  "Either Parliament could make all the laws for the colonies on it could make none, and he preferred to latter view."  (Aldrige 1965, page 195).  The crisis brought about by the Stamp Act propelled Franklin into a new role as chief defender of American rights in Britain.  At first, Franklin urged to colonists to be obedient to the act until it could be repealed.  However, when Franklin beard of the violent protest against it in America, he became more opposed to it.  "After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Franklin reaffirmed his love for the British Empire and his desire to see the union of mother country and colonies, but he also warned that the colonist wanted liberty and would stop at nothing to achieve it."  (Ketcham, page 3).
	Not only did Benjamin Franklin love liberty, he also had great skill as a diplomat.  In this role, Franklin and his two grandsons sailed from France in 1776.  "He achieved an amazing personal triumph and gained critical French aid for the Revolutionary War."  (Ketcham, page 4).  Literary and scientific writers in Paris praised Franklin as a modern thinker.  As the war raged on and France made a positive impact favoring the colonist, it became more and more impossible for Britain to give the war its full attention.  Britain needed a way out and Franklin played a key role.  "Franklin was appointed in 1781 a commissioner to negoiate the peace with Britain.  (Ketcham 1994, page 1).  Franklin was a very good negotiator as "the North Ministry pushed through Parliament two conciliatory bills that gave the Americans everything that Franklin had demanded in his peace negoiations."  (Fleming 1972, page 299).  Franklin had common sense, whit, and skills that all helped bring favorable positions to the colonies against Britain.
	Finally, Benjamin Franklin portrays a man torn between his love of Britain and a desire for liberty for the people of the new world.  His greatest hope was for Britain to be the great, caring mother country that protected a young free nation across the sea.  He was each country benefiting the other.  Of course, this could not happen so he made sure that the best for America would be insured through his efforts to bring France to the aid of the Colonies and to finally bring about a livable peace between Britain and America. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ben Hogan 4.TXT
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   Ben  Hogan  had  more  dedication  than  any  athlete  today.  Throughout  his  life
Mr.Hogan  overcame  a  very  traumatic  childhood,   recovered  from  a  nearly  
fatal  head-on  collision  with  a  bus  and  built  a  golf  equipment  empire.

   Ben  Hogan  was  born  in  a  small  town  in  Texas  called  Dublin.  He was  one
of  three  children.  When  Ben  was  only  six  years  old  he  witnessed  his  father
commit  suicide  while  playing  in  the  same  room.  " At age  nine  my  childhood
was  shot  through  the  heart".(p.14)  obviously  Hogan  was  traumatize  by  the 
tragedy.
Hogan's  instinctive  reaction  was  to  become  protective  of  his  mother.  After  the
suicide  the  family  underwent  serious  financial  problems.  To  do  his  part  Ben
began  selling newspapers,  until  he  heard  that  their  was  big  money  to  be  made 
at  the  local  golf  club  for  caddies.  This  was  Hogan's  ticket  into  golf,  with  golf 
being  considered  a  "rich man's"  game  Hogan  probably  would  never  have 
started  playing
golf.  Because  of  the  poor  wages  the  caddies  recieved,  most  of  the  caddies 
made
money  by  gambling  on  golf,  this  was  where  Hogan's  dedication  was  shown 
even  as
a  child.  Hogan  was  much  smaller  than  any  of  they  other  caddies  so  they 
usually
beat  him.  But  Hogan  wouldn't  accept  it,  instead  he  would  show  up  for  work  a 
couple  of   hours  early  and  practice  his  heart  out, " Sometimes  I  practised  until 
my  hands  bled."(p.11)  Finally  he  began  winning  the  bets,  but  also  caddy  and 
junior  tournaments  too.


    Secondly,  on  February 1, 1949   Hogan  was  on  top  of  the  world,  having  won 
the
US OPEN,  the MASTERS  and  appearing  on  the  cover  of  Time  life  Magazine.
Until  he  collided  head  on  with  a  twenty  thousand  pound  passenger  bus.  Hogan 
suffered  a  broken  collarbone,  broken  left  ankle,  broken  right  leg,  broken  pelvis
and  a  few  broken  ribs.  In  the  weeks  after  the  accident  several  other 
complications  
occurred  like  blood  clots  in  his  lungs,  the  doctors  said  he  would  probably 
never
play  competative  golf  again.  However  in  the  months  of  recovery  that  followed, 
Hogan  practiced  the  things  he  could  do  with  his  injuries  like  practice  his  short 
game.  For  the  next  thirteen  months  Hogan  practiced  to  the  best  of  his  ability, 
gradually  improving.  Thirteen  months  later  he  entered  the  L.A  open  and 
finished  second  
this   demonstration  shocked  the  world,  for  it  was  only  thirteen  months  earlier
people  thought  they  would  never  see  Hogan  play  again.


  In  1953  Hogan  decided  to  produce  his  own  line  of  clubs.  In  1954,  after  a 
year  
of  struggling  sales,  Hogan  bought  out  his  partners  due  too  "creative 
differences".Hogan  took  time  off  his  regular  playing  schedule  in  order  to  over 
see
operations  of  his  plant  and  to,  "see  if  I  can  make  some  damn  money  out  of 
this 
thing."(p.207)  Hogan  worked  harder  than  anyone  in  '54  designing  clubs  that  he 
liked
and  felt  were  traditional.  But  it  wasn't  until  he  realized  people  wanted 
something  new,  that  he  made  money.  After  his  revolutionary  cavity  back 
design  made  his  
company  number  one  in  sales  he  decided  he  had  done  enough.  Hogan 
decided  to
sell  the  company.  He  sold  the  company  that  he  started  for  only  500 000
dollars
thirty  years  later,  for  approximately  210  million  dollars.


  In  conclusion,  Ben  Hogan  had  a  difficult  life  filled  with  adversity.  But  he 
made
the  best  of  what  was  given  to  him.  He  overcame  a  traumatic  childhood  too 
become    the  best  golfer  of  his  time.  When  doctors  told  him  he  probably 
wouldn't  play  golf  again  because  of  his  accident,  he  decided  he  wasn't 
finished  yet  and  practiced  his  way  back  to  his  old  form  and  in  to the  record 
books.  And  finally  when  his  own  friends  didn't  have  faith  in  the  company  he 
built  he  bought  them  out ,  put  a lot  of  hard  work  into  it  and  sold  it  for 
millions.  Ben  Hogan  was  a truly  dedicated  champion.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ben Hogan.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


   Ben  Hogan  had  more  dedication  than  any  athlete  today.  Throughout  his  life
Mr.Hogan  overcame  a  very  traumatic  childhood,   recovered  from  a  nearly  
fatal  head-on  collision  with  a  bus  and  built  a  golf  equipment  empire.

   Ben  Hogan  was  born  in  a  small  town  in  Texas  called  Dublin.  He was  one
of  three  children.  When  Ben  was  only  six  years  old  he  witnessed  his  father
commit  suicide  while  playing  in  the  same  room.  " At age  nine  my  childhood
was  shot  through  the  heart".(p.14)  obviously  Hogan  was  traumatize  by  the 
tragedy.
Hogan's  instinctive  reaction  was  to  become  protective  of  his  mother.  After  the
suicide  the  family  underwent  serious  financial  problems.  To  do  his  part  Ben
began  selling newspapers,  until  he  heard  that  their  was  big  money  to  be  made 
at  the  local  golf  club  for  caddies.  This  was  Hogan's  ticket  into  golf,  with  golf 
being  considered  a  "rich man's"  game  Hogan  probably  would  never  have 
started  playing
golf.  Because  of  the  poor  wages  the  caddies  recieved,  most  of  the  caddies 
made
money  by  gambling  on  golf,  this  was  where  Hogan's  dedication  was  shown 
even  as
a  child.  Hogan  was  much  smaller  than  any  of  they  other  caddies  so  they 
usually
beat  him.  But  Hogan  wouldn't  accept  it,  instead  he  would  show  up  for  work  a 
couple  of   hours  early  and  practice  his  heart  out, " Sometimes  I  practised  until 
my  hands  bled."(p.11)  Finally  he  began  winning  the  bets,  but  also  caddy  and 
junior  tournaments  too.


    Secondly,  on  February 1, 1949   Hogan  was  on  top  of  the  world,  having  won 
the
US OPEN,  the MASTERS  and  appearing  on  the  cover  of  Time  life  Magazine.
Until  he  collided  head  on  with  a  twenty  thousand  pound  passenger  bus.  Hogan 
suffered  a  broken  collarbone,  broken  left  ankle,  broken  right  leg,  broken  pelvis
and  a  few  broken  ribs.  In  the  weeks  after  the  accident  several  other 
complications  
occurred  like  blood  clots  in  his  lungs,  the  doctors  said  he  would  probably 
never
play  competative  golf  again.  However  in  the  months  of  recovery  that  followed, 
Hogan  practiced  the  things  he  could  do  with  his  injuries  like  practice  his  short 
game.  For  the  next  thirteen  months  Hogan  practiced  to  the  best  of  his  ability, 
gradually  improving.  Thirteen  months  later  he  entered  the  L.A  open  and 
finished  second  
this   demonstration  shocked  the  world,  for  it  was  only  thirteen  months  earlier
people  thought  they  would  never  see  Hogan  play  again.


  In  1953  Hogan  decided  to  produce  his  own  line  of  clubs.  In  1954,  after  a 
year  
of  struggling  sales,  Hogan  bought  out  his  partners  due  too  "creative 
differences".Hogan  took  time  off  his  regular  playing  schedule  in  order  to  over 
see
operations  of  his  plant  and  to,  "see  if  I  can  make  some  damn  money  out  of 
this 
thing."(p.207)  Hogan  worked  harder  than  anyone  in  '54  designing  clubs  that  he 
liked
and  felt  were  traditional.  But  it  wasn't  until  he  realized  people  wanted 
something  new,  that  he  made  money.  After  his  revolutionary  cavity  back 
design  made  his  
company  number  one  in  sales  he  decided  he  had  done  enough.  Hogan 
decided  to
sell  the  company.  He  sold  the  company  that  he  started  for  only  500 000
dollars
thirty  years  later,  for  approximately  210  million  dollars.


  In  conclusion,  Ben  Hogan  had  a  difficult  life  filled  with  adversity.  But  he 
made
the  best  of  what  was  given  to  him.  He  overcame  a  traumatic  childhood  too 
become    the  best  golfer  of  his  time.  When  doctors  told  him  he  probably 
wouldn't  play  golf  again  because  of  his  accident,  he  decided  he  wasn't 
finished  yet  and  practiced  his  way  back  to  his  old  form  and  in  to the  record 
books.  And  finally  when  his  own  friends  didn't  have  faith  in  the  company  he 
built  he  bought  them  out ,  put  a lot  of  hard  work  into  it  and  sold  it  for 
millions.  Ben  Hogan  was  a truly  dedicated  champion.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Benedict Arnold 4.TXT
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Benedict Arnold






          ARNOLD, Benedict  (1741-1801). The name Benedict Arnold has become a synonym for a traitor to one's country. In the first years of the American Revolution, however, Arnold was a brilliant and dashing general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause (see Revolution, American). 
   Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. His father, Benedict, was a well-to-do landowner. His mother was Hannah King Waterman Arnold. While a boy, young Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and Indian War. When he was 21 he settled in New Haven. In time he became a prosperous merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They had three sons. 
   Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major general in 1777. His wife had died in 1775. Early in 1779 he married Margaret Shippen, by whom he had four sons and one daughter. Arnold lived lavishly and soon found himself badly pressed for money.
   He then began his treasonable activities. Most historians agree that Arnold did so for money, though he may also have resented lack of further promotion. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In 1780 Arnold obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over the garrison to the British. He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made final plans. Andre was captured, however, and his papers indicated Arnold's treason. 
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York City. He was given a command and about  6,300. He served with the British for the rest of the war, leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut. After the war he lived with his family in England. He failed to obtain a regular commission in the British army and failed also in several business ventures, including land speculation in Canada. He died in London on June 14, 1801.
    
ARNOLD, Benedict  (1741-1801).  In the first years of the American Revolution,  Arnold was 
a brilliant and courageous general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause. 
     Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. He was a very daring boy. He 
once ran on a millwheel with another kid. He was also known to love fireworks and once was 
caught lighting a jug of gunpowder that would have resulted in a big explosion.  When he was a 
little older (about 17), Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and 
Indian War.  When he was 21 he moved to New Haven. In time he became a prosperous 
merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They 
had three sons. 
     Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major general in 1777. 
His wife had died in 1775 and early in 1779 he married Margaret Shippen, by whom he had four 
sons and one daughter. Arnold was not careful with his money and soon found himself hard up 
for cash. It was because of this that he began his treasonable activities. Most people think Arnold 
did it for the money. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the 
British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In 1780 Arnold 
obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over the garrison to the British. 
He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made final plans. Andre was captured, however, and 
his papers indicated Arnold's treason. 
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York City. He was 
given a command and about  6,300 men. He served with the British for the rest of the war, 
leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut. After the war he lived with his family in 
England. He failed in several business ventures, including land speculation in Canada. He died 
in London on June 14, 1801.
   


 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Benedict Arnold.TXT
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Benedict Arnold






          ARNOLD, Benedict  (1741-1801). The name Benedict Arnold has become a synonym for a traitor to one's country. In the first years of the American Revolution, however, Arnold was a brilliant and dashing general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause (see Revolution, American). 
   Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. His father, Benedict, was a well-to-do landowner. His mother was Hannah King Waterman Arnold. While a boy, young Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and Indian War. When he was 21 he settled in New Haven. In time he became a prosperous merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They had three sons. 
   Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major general in 1777. His wife had died in 1775. Early in 1779 he married Margaret Shippen, by whom he had four sons and one daughter. Arnold lived lavishly and soon found himself badly pressed for money.
   He then began his treasonable activities. Most historians agree that Arnold did so for money, though he may also have resented lack of further promotion. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In 1780 Arnold obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over the garrison to the British. He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made final plans. Andre was captured, however, and his papers indicated Arnold's treason. 
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York City. He was given a command and about  6,300. He served with the British for the rest of the war, leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut. After the war he lived with his family in England. He failed to obtain a regular commission in the British army and failed also in several business ventures, including land speculation in Canada. He died in London on June 14, 1801.
    
ARNOLD, Benedict  (1741-1801).  In the first years of the American Revolution,  Arnold was 
a brilliant and courageous general, highly respected for his service to the patriot cause. 
     Benedict Arnold was born on Jan. 14, 1741, in Norwich, Conn. He was a very daring boy. He 
once ran on a millwheel with another kid. He was also known to love fireworks and once was 
caught lighting a jug of gunpowder that would have resulted in a big explosion.  When he was a 
little older (about 17), Arnold twice ran away to join the colonial troops fighting in the French and 
Indian War.  When he was 21 he moved to New Haven. In time he became a prosperous 
merchant and a captain in the Connecticut militia. He married Margaret Mansfield in 1767. They 
had three sons. 
     Arnold played a gallant part in the American Revolution and became a major general in 1777. 
His wife had died in 1775 and early in 1779 he married Margaret Shippen, by whom he had four 
sons and one daughter. Arnold was not careful with his money and soon found himself hard up 
for cash. It was because of this that he began his treasonable activities. Most people think Arnold 
did it for the money. Whatever his motive, he regularly sent vital military information to the 
British and was well paid for it. His wife helped him, often acting as messenger. In 1780 Arnold 
obtained command of West Point and at once conspired to turn over the garrison to the British. 
He met Maj. John Andre, a British spy, and made final plans. Andre was captured, however, and 
his papers indicated Arnold's treason. 
   Arnold heard of the capture and fled to the British headquarters in New York City. He was 
given a command and about  6,300 men. He served with the British for the rest of the war, 
leading troops on raids in Virginia and Connecticut. After the war he lived with his family in 
England. He failed in several business ventures, including land speculation in Canada. He died 
in London on June 14, 1801.
   


 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Benjamin Frankli1.TXT
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Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin, born January 17, 1706, was the 10th son, and 15th child, of 17 children in the Josiah Franklin family. Josiah was a soap and candlemaker, who lived in Boston, Massachusetts with his second wife, Abiah Folger. Although Franklin learned to read at an early age, he only attended grammar school for two years. By the time he was 10 years old, Franklin was working for his father. However, he did not enjoy the candlemaking profession, and two years later, Franklin was apprenticed to his brother James, a printer.
 
For five years, Franklin sought to master the printers' trade. During this time, he also strove to improve his education. Franklin read numerous classics and perfected his writing style. One night, Franklin slipped a letter, signed "Silence Dogood," under the door of his brother's newspaper, the New England Courant. That letter and the next 13 written by Franklin were published anonymously. The essays were widely read and acclaimed for their satire.
 
After a quarrel with his brother in 1723, Franklin left Boston for Philadelphia, where he again worked in the printing industry. He established a friendship with the Pennsylvania governor, Sir William Keith, and at Keith's suggestion, Franklin decided to go into business for himself. Keith offered to arrange letters of credit and introduction for Franklin's trip to London to purchase equipment. Unfortunately, Keith proved unreliable, and Franklin arrived in London with no means. However, he quickly found employment in two of London's largest printing houses, and after two years, earned enough money to return to America.
 
Franklin returned to Philadelphia in 1726 and resumed his trade. By 1730, Franklin had his own business. That same year, he married Deborah Read, a woman he met before his trip to England. Together they had a son, who died at four years of age; and a daughter, who survived them both.
 
Franklin's business ventures included the purchase of the Pennsylvania Gazette, which, after his improvement, was considered one of the best colonial newspapers; Poor Richard's Almanac, written under the pseudonym, Richard Saunders, and published from 1732 to 1757; and the printing of Pennsylvania's paper currency. In 1731, Franklin founded what is considered the first public library. During the next several years, Franklin was instrumental in establishing the first fire department, a police force, and the Academy of Philadelphia, which became the University of Pennsylvania. Around 1744, Franklin invented a stove which reduced excessive chimney smoke. The Franklin stove is still in use today.
 
In the 1740's, Franklin began experimenting with electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod. By 1748, Franklin had sold his printing business to devote himself to his scientific experiments. His famous electricity experiment, which included flying a kite during a lightning storm took place in 1752. In addition to his science projects, Franklin was elected to the Pennsylvania assembly and held the post for 14 years. In 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster general. The following year, Franklin became a Pennsylvania delegate to the intercolonial congress, which met in Albany. His suggestion to unite the colonies as a defense against the French and natives was considered premature and rejected.
 
In 1757, Franklin was sent to England to petition the king for the right to levy taxes. He remained in England for the next five years, as the representative of the American colonies. Franklin returned to England in 1764 as an agent of Pennsylvania, to negotiate a new charter. He was able to secure the repeal of the Stamp Act, but Parliament continued to levy taxes on the colonies. In 1775, with war seemingly inevitable, Franklin returned to America. Shortly thereafter, he was made a member of the Second Continental Congress and helped draft the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson supposed stated that the only reason Franklin didn't write the entire Declaration was because he would include too many jokes.
 
In December, 1776, Franklin, age 71, traveled to France to successfully negotiate a treaty of commerce and defensive alliance. He remained in France for nine years, working on trade treaties. Franklin became a hero to the French, and diplomats and nobility sought his company. Louis XVI honored him, and his portrait was placed on everything from chamber pots to snuff boxes.
 
Franklin returned to Philadelphia in 1785. Two years later, he became a member of the Constitutional Convention. Franklin was bedridden during the final year of his life and died on April 17, 1790. As one of his final public acts, he signed a petition to the U.S. Congress urging the abolition of slavery, just two months before his death.
 
















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Benjamin Franklin 
The Personality of Benjamin Franklin
The autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is the story of his life written in the first person. All experiences in the book are told from Ben's point of view. There is a slight possibility that not all of this information is exactly true, or if all of the events in his life are accounted for. When writing this autobiography, Franklin had the power to choose what he wanted the readers to know and what he wanted to keep to himself. Although he admits to some mistakes that he has made, and usually tells how he corrected them, there is no definite way to ever know if these accounts of his personal life are necessarily true. There is historical evidence to many of his inventions and ideas, but some of the events that Ben writes about his life could all be sugarcoated coincidences or strokes of luck that he happened to come across through his many traveling excursions.
In knowing this before reading the autobiography, my mind was set on the fact that the truth of this book could possibly be stretched a little. Even though that was the case, I was intrigued by the wit and humor of Benjamin Franklin's personality. Just by reading his story, I could tell that his personality was fueled by an extremely intelligent and creative mind. He seemed to be a type of person who would not let anyone take advantage of him and, if they happened to, he knew exactly how to handle himself in any situation. He knew the right person to help him for any problem that should arise and he knew who to keep distant and who to keep near. Franklin quotes an old Maxim that he learned which says, "He that has once done you Kindness will be more ready to do you another, than whom you yourself have obliged" (105). This means that someone you have thanked and shown appreciation to for a favor they have done for you will be more likely to do another one for you rather than someone that you just say a quick "thanks" to and do not show them appreciation for the favor. Franklin never wanted to burn any bridges, so it seemed. He never knew when he might run into a problem and may need some help again.
In the beginning of Franklin's life, it seemed that he was somewhat self-centered and tried to do things so that they would eventually benefit him somehow in the long-run. It is apparent that he was very goal-oriented. He focused on the future of his work as a printer so diligently that eventually, after years and years of practice and determination, he mastered the art of printing. He eventually could write articles without writing them down on paper first. Ben could see the sentences in his mind and just line up the letters with out taking a second to think. Everything came naturally to him. Reading was one of his favorite pastimes. Reading could possibly be one of the roots to his advanced intelligence. Another root to his creative mind is how observant he was. Franklin was a person who knew how to read people and enjoyed doing it. He seemed to be constantly observing his surroundings and this led him to be able to adapt to all of what life had to give him. Franklin could take things in stride, learn from his mistakes and know how to operate correctly the next time. Although Ben Franklin was what seems to me to be self-centered, I believe that he had to be that way in order to be that successful and intelligent. His self-actualization led him to be successful, which created a path for him to walk on that would eventually benefit the nation.
As he grew older and, from the reader's perspective, wiser he liked to socialize with a group which Ben created called the Junto. The Junto was a place where men could write essays and hear the essays of others and have group discussions where everyone was free to express their own opinions. This benefited the education of the town that Franklin lived in at that time. The time Benjamin spent at the Junto was another opportunity for him to observe the people there and learn from their essays and experiences. This also gave Ben the chance to show off his intelligence and gain some respect from the other gentlemen who were interactive in the Junto. Ben tells about the Junto when he says, "I had form'd most of my ingenious Acquaintance into a Club, for mutual Improvement..." (72). Obviously this was a club for only the rich and/or the intelligent. Franklin always fell in the intelligent category and swayed in and out of the rich one.
Franklin was very intelligent and intriguing, yet there was always a slight sense of arrogance in his ways, especially when he was younger. One instance of arrogance on his part, or maybe even ignorance, was when he lost his son to a totally avoidable circumstance. Franklin's son died of smallpox and in that time there was a vaccination for smallpox but when a child received the vaccine there was a very small chance of getting smallpox. So, some parents would not pay to have their children get the vaccination and risk the chance of the children getting it on their own. This is the chance Ben took and his son contracted the disease. Whether it was ignorance or arrogance, Franklin should have known better then to take that risk. He admits that the death of his son was one of his biggest downfalls, and one of his biggest "Erratums," or mistakes that he has made. Unfortunately, he could not fix this Erratum. Franklin shows his regret when he says, "...my Example showing that the Regret may be the same either way, and that therefor the safer should be chosen" (104).
Benjamin Franklin was a man of great success in the eyes of readers of his autobiography and in the eyes of people all over the world. While reading the book, I often wondered if Franklin was so intelligent that he could accomplish almost anything, or if he was just extremely lucky throughout his whole life to fall into all of these opportunities to take control and show the world what he could do. My father had always told me throughout my whole life that, "Luck is when preparation and opportunity collide." Taking my father's advice, I applied it to the life of Ben Franklin. Although Franklin may have come across some lucky streaks throughout his life, he was always prepared mentally and physically to face the next obstacle to cross his path. This strategy of preparation made Benjamin Franklin who he was then and what he is remembered for today.
 
















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Benjamin Franklin - Scientist And Inventor
Benjamin Franklin has influenced American technology, and indirectly, lifestyles by using his proficiencies and intelligence to conduct numerous experiments, arrive at theories, and produce several inventions. Franklin's scientific and analytical mind enabled him to generate many long lasting achievements which contributed to the development and refinement of modern technology.
Few national heroes, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, played a more significant role in shaping the American way of life than Franklin. According to Fowler, "He personified the ideal of the self-made man, and his rise from obscurity to eminence exemplified the American dream" (32). Looby adds, "The study of Franklin's image for the past two centuries shows that his legacy had a distinctive place in American culture" (85). It has been felt by many people over the years that there was no United States inventor as great as Franklin until the time of Thomas A. Edison (Blow 24). Franklin's words to a friend in Pennsylvania, Joseph Huey, best explain his attitude not only toward what he considered his civic duties, but also his investigations as a scientist or philosopher. He made some of the most famous and certainly the most practical discoveries of his time. "For my own part, when I am employed in serving others, I do not look upon myself as conferring favours, but as paying debts. In my travels, and since my settlement, I have received much kindness from men, to whom I shall never have any opportunity of making the least direct return . . . I can therefore only return on their fellow men; and I can only show my gratitude for these mercies from God, by a readiness to help his other children and my Brethren" (Dineen 6). Wright quotes Franklin as saying, "As we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others," and, "we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours" (19).
Franklin summarizes his attitude toward his inventions by asking the question, "What signifies Philosophy that does not apply to some use?" (Fleming 21). Another time Franklin is quoted as saying, "Utility is in my opinion the test of value in matters of invention, and that a discovery which can be applied to no use, or is not good for something is good for nothing" (Burlingame 39). Franklin never claimed a penny for any of his inventions, devices or experiments. He even distributed detailed plans of some of his inventions so that anyone could own them. =
The Pennsylvania fireplace, sometimes called the Franklin stove, acquired its name from Franklin, its inventor. This device, he said, "made my living room twice as warm as it used to be with a quarter of the wood I formerly consumed . . . " (Donovan 55). The heating of houses was growing more expensive, the wood was being used extremely inefficiently, and much of the heat was lost up the chimney. Franklin's fireplace solved these problems by using a number of passages and vents so that the cold air was drawn in from outside the building, warmed in the air passages, and then blown into the room. He said "your whole room is equally warmed, so that the people need not crowd so close round the fire, but may sit near the window, and have the benefit of the light for reading, writing, and needlework. They may sit with comfort in any part of the room, which is a very considerable advantage in a large family, where there must often be two fires kept, because all cannot convenientl!
y come at one" (Seeger 166). Several people considered the fireplace a luxury for the wealthy.
One of the most important features of Franklin's fireplace was the flue. Meltzer points out that the flue spread heat by circulating it into the room rather than simply sending it up the chimney and out (110). The fireplace also featured a damper that can close the chimney off and keep out the cold. The fireplace soon became widely used, as it was efficient and available to anyone who could build one.
One of Franklin's most famous and notable experiments was his kite experiment. He first set out to establish if lightning was a form of electricity. With his kite, Franklin drew lightning down to the ground, thus determining that it was a form of electricity. The most important concepts of his experiments were the existence of positive and negative electricity, the fluidity of electricized particles and the identity of lightning and electricity (Cohen 48). The experiment with the kite is taught in school to nearly every American child. It sparked the birth of lightning rods. The rods kept people's homes from getting hit by lightning and catching fire. House fires caused by lightning were one of the most dangerous problems colonists had to face. "Soon after the rods were invented, all of Philadelphia, Boston, London, and Paris began using them" (Fleming 17).
Some of the new electricity related words conceived by Franklin included the condenser, conductor, electric shock, positive and negative electricity, and plus and minus charges. He wrote Poor Richard's Almanack in 1732 to explain the practical application of electricity. Both Harvard and Yale gave Franklin honorary degrees of Master of Arts even though his formal education ended in the second grade. After Franklin's experiments were successfully performed by French and English scientists, the King of France sent Franklin his personal congratulations. The Royal Society elected Franklin as a member by unanimous vote. They later awarded him the Society's highest honor, the Copley Medal, after learning of some of his other talents and distinguished accomplishments.
Some of Franklin's other inventions were the copying press, a musical instrument called the armonica, a rocking chair that fanned itself as it rocked, a long arm device for moving books on high library shelves, a combination footstool-ladder, a clock with internal workings, the odometer to calculate mileage, a combination chair-table which is now used as a school chair, bifocals, a rubber catheter, and a candle made of whale oil that gave a clean white light. All of these inventions became solutions to ordinary, everyday problems and needs.
Franklin was not only an inventor, he was a great improver. He analyzed the spoken part of the English language and produced a phonetic alphabet based on the different sounds in the language (Potter 121).
In letters to other scientists, Franklin wrote about his observations of everyday phenomena. Clark states about Franklin, "One sign of the scientific mind was Franklin's determination to question, to seek explanations of natural phenomena that could be checked by experiment of documentation" (54). Clark also believes that Franklin was intrigued by the processes of the natural world and he tried to interpret them. Franklin used his vast knowledge of geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, aeronautics, navigation, agriculture, medicine, hygiene, seismology, hydrography, ethnology, oceanography, and paleontology to come up with the theories about phenomena in these fields.
One of Franklin's theories in the field of meteorology was based on his observation of weather patterns. He concluded that northeast storms that move across the Eastern Seaboard in the summer begin first in the southwest. He proposed daylight-saving time, noted lunar rainbows and lunar and solar eclipses. Franklin also observed animals such as dolphins, sharks, shell fish, pilot fish, tropical birds and herons. He even examined fog and conceived several theories about it.
In addition to his research, Franklin was a prolific writer of scientific observations. He wrote about his observations on the effect of oil on water, the cause of the Aurora Borealis, water spouts, whirlwinds and thunderstorms, the direction of rivers and tides, salt and seawater, sunspots, heat absorption by the color of an object, magnetism and the theory of the earth, earthquakes, sound traveling in fluid like waves, prehistoric fossils, causes of colds, the tonic effects of cold air and ventilation, cooling by evaporation, and the course of the Gulf Stream and its effects on shipping.
As a complement to his work, Franklin studied the sources of lead poisoning, causes and cures of smokey chimneys, relationship of tobacco to hand tremors, effects of diet and activity on general health, and the depth of water and speed of boats. He wrote copiously on gout, temperature of the blood, physiology of sleep, deafness, nyctalopia, infection from dead bodies, infant mortality, and medical education.
Franklin bought a farm and experimented with grass culture. He advised the cultivation of native Indian corn and silkworms and introduced rhubarb to the colonies. His curiosity touched on nearly every part of eighteenth century intellectual pursuit. The University of St. Andrews awarded Franklin an honorary doctor's degree in 1759 and Oxford University matched it in 1762.
According to Clark, Franklin did much work to improve cities. He focused his improvements mainly on Philadelphia. In Clark's words, "Franklin was public spirited and worked constantly to make Philadelphia a better city" (26). Scholars in the colonies had no organization, so Franklin helped to establish the American Philosophical Society with headquarters in Philadelphia, making it the most advanced city in the colonies. The streets needed to be paved, cleaned, and lighted. Franklin started a program to improve and take care of them. Franklin redesigned the street lights to, as he said, have "four flat panes and a funnel on top to draw up the smoke" (Fleming 16). The globe-shaped lamps were replaced with Franklin's new ones so they stayed bright until morning.
When Franklin noticed that criminals were getting away without punishment, he sought to reform the city police. He then formed the Union Fire Company in 1736. He helped to organize fire companies into the "Philadelphia Contibutionship", which is deemed the first insurance company in America. He set up premiums and payments as president of the company.
Shortly after Franklin became clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly, he persuaded it to pass the first militia law in Pennsylvania's history, allocate money for defense and appoint officers to conduct full scale war. Franklin founded the Academy for the Education of Youth, which later became the University of Pennsylvania. The university's athletic field is named in Franklin's honor. He also founded a city hospital, the Pennsylvania Hospital, in 1751.
Franklin left five thousand dollars each to Boston and Philadelphia before he died. The money was to be used for public works, part after one hundred years and the rest after two hundred years. The money was used to establish the Franklin Technical Institute in Boston and the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia.
Therefore, Benjamin Franklin's influence on the American way of life is still felt today. His great mind enabled him to produce many long lasting achievements which contributed to the development and refinement of modern technology. Works Cited Blow, Michael. Men of Science and Invention. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co. Inc., 1960.
Burlingame, Roger. Benjamin Franklin: Envoy Extraordinary. New York: Coward-McCann, Inc., 1967.
Clark, Ronald W. A Biography: Benjamin Franklin. New York: Random House, 1983.
Cohen, I. Bernard. Benjamin Franklin: Scientist and Statesman. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975.
Dineen, Michael P. The Most Amazing American: Benjamin Franklin. Waukesha, Wisconsin: Country Beautiful, 1973.
Donovan, Frank R. The Many Worlds of Benjamin Franklin. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co., 1963.
Fleming, Thomas. The Man Who Dared The Lightning: A New Look At Benjamin Franklin. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1971.
Fowler, Mary J. Great Americans. Grand Rapids, Michigan: The Fideler Company, 1960
Looby, Christopher. Benjamin Franklin. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1990.
Meltzer, Milton. Benjamin Franklin: The New American. New York: Franklin Watts, 1988.
Potter, Robert R. Benjamin Franklin. New Jersey: Silver Burdett Publishers, 1991.
Seeger, Raymond J. Benjamin Franklin: New World Physicist. New York: Pergamon Press, 1973.
Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986.
 
















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Benjamin Franklin


	Benjamin Franklin was a remarkably talented man.  He started his career
as a simple printer apprentice, but went far beyond the printers shop.  He
developed products that were far beyond the time.  The Franklin stove for
example, for cold winter nights and bifocal lenses for reading.  Franklin
tracked storm paths to help understand the wicked weather endured by the
colonies.  His study of electricity made him most famous for he was known around
the world as the inventor of the lightning rod.  Not only was Ben Franklin
helpful in developing ideas for better living, he was also a strong force in
developing the new nation of America.  Benjamin Franklin's political views
showed him to be a man who loved freedom and self-government.  His views towards
Britain gradually changed from favor to disfavor until he finally became a
revolutionist at the age of 70.  But more than just his political views help in
the formation of the United States.  His common sense, his whit, and his ability
to negotiate behind the scenes, all lent a hand in the formation of the new
country across the sea.  Franklin's good humor and gift for compromise often
helped prevent bitter disputes which could have stalled the formation of the new
government.
	Interestingly, Ben Franklin, who was a chief participant in the battle
for independence, "had a lot to lose by it."  (Wright 1986, page 204).  He had a
residence in London and was influential in England.  However, his love of
liberty and his desire to promote the well being of Pennsylvania pushed him
toward independence for the colonies.  Franklin had to wrestle with his
conscience over his own private affairs.  Also, since he was well respected in
England, he was "the Establishment man-even if he felt now a deep unease on the
basic question:  What was the authority of Parliament over the American
colonies?"  (Wright, page 205).  At first Franklin wanted the colonies to be and
independent free nation under the caring and protecting umbrella of the British
Empire.  "He had dream...of a great British Empire, gridding the globe, based
upon a commonwealth of free nations, each with its own laws, its own government
and freedoms, but bound together by compact with the Crown for mutual benefit,
mutual defense, and the propagation of English freedoms."  (Schoenbrun 1976,
page 5).  As stated earlier, Franklin did not contemplate separation from
Britain for he regarded Britain as "having the freest, best government in the
world."  (Ketcham 1993,page3).  Franklin proposed self-government for the
American colonies.  Historically, Ben Franklin was in favor of self-government.
In fact, nearly forty years of service as a public official began when Franklin
was elected for the Pennsylvania Assembly.  At first, he wanted to get support
for various civic causes but soon partisan politics held his undivided attention.
 Further, as the legislature strategist and writer for the weakly formed Quaker
party, "he defended the powers of the elected representatives of the people.
Franklin thus the virtues of self-government a generation before the Declaration
of Independence."  (Ketcham, page 3).
     Further, Benjamin Franklin's political views with regard to various
British taxation upon the colonists show him leaning away from Britain.  The
Townshend Acts, Stamp Act, and other taxes and duties on colonial goods were
opposed by Franklin.  He wrote in connection with the American Stamp Acts, "The
Sovereignty of the British Legislature out of Britain, I do not understand."
(Wright, page 207).  Franklin felt that the colonies were capable of writing
their own legislation.  The colonies had their own parliaments and Franklin was
confidant that these assemblies could properly legislate for the colony.  In one
of Franklin's letters he writes that possibly an extreme case would be best.  "
Either Parliament could make all the laws for the colonies on it could make none,
and he preferred to latter view."  (Aldrige 1965, page 195).  The crisis brought
about by the Stamp Act propelled Franklin into a new role as chief defender of
American rights in Britain.  At first, Franklin urged to colonists to be
obedient to the act until it could be repealed.  However, when Franklin beard of
the violent protest against it in America, he became more opposed to it.  "After
the repeal of the Stamp Act, Franklin reaffirmed his love for the British Empire
and his desire to see the union of mother country and colonies, but he also
warned that the colonist wanted liberty and would stop at nothing to achieve it."
 (Ketcham, page 3).
	Not only did Benjamin Franklin love liberty, he also had great skill as
a diplomat.  In this role, Franklin and his two grandsons sailed from France in
1776.  "He achieved an amazing personal triumph and gained critical French aid
for the Revolutionary War."  (Ketcham, page 4).  Literary and scientific writers
in Paris praised Franklin as a modern thinker.  As the war raged on and France
made a positive impact favoring the colonist, it became more and more impossible
for Britain to give the war its full attention.  Britain needed a way out and
Franklin played a key role.  "Franklin was appointed in 1781 a commissioner to
negoiate the peace with Britain." (Ketcham 1994, page 1).  Franklin was a very
good negotiator as "the North Ministry pushed through Parliament two
conciliatory bills that gave the Americans everything that Franklin had demanded
in his peace negoiations."  (Fleming 1972, page 299).  Franklin had common sense,
whit, and skills that all helped bring favorable positions to the colonies
against Britain.
	Finally, Benjamin Franklin portrays a man torn between his love of
Britain and a desire for liberty for the people of the new world.  His greatest
hope was for Britain to be the great, caring mother country that protected a
young free nation across the sea.  He was each country benefiting the other.  Of
course, this could not happen so he made sure that the best for America would be
insured through his efforts to bring France to the aid of the Colonies and to
finally bring about a livable peace between Britain and America.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Benjamin Spock.TXT
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395
"Dr.Benjamin Spock, hailed as the grandfather of pediatrics, is known as the leading authority on child rearing." (Gale 1997) Dr. Benjamin Spock was born on May 2 1903 in New Haven Connecticut, The oldest of six children of a lawyer. Spock attended Yale university, where he became a member of the Yale rowing crew that won the gold metal at the 1924 Olympic games in Paris. Spock planned to pursue a career in architecture, but changed his mind after spending a summer as a camp counselor. From that point on he decided to become a doctor so that he could devote his life to helping children. From there on , Dr. Spock has been know as the authority on how to raise a child. Spock has written over 12 books on the subjects pertaining to child development and care. His first book Baby and Child Care published in 1945, has since sold more than 40 million copies., making it second only to the bible sales worldwide. The book has also been translated into 39 different languages. Not only is Spock known for being a great pediatrician and author, but he is known as a political activist as well. Spock was a high-profile political activist in the 1960's. Spock came under fire from critics like Vice president Spiro Agnew in the 1960's who branded him "The father of permissiveness" responsible for a generation of hippies. Spock joined those youths in protests against nuclear technology and the Vietnam war and in 1967 led a march on the Pentagon. He was arrested numerous times for civil disobedience, and even ran for U.S. president as a candidate for the people's party in 1972. Dr. Spock's last contribution to this society came out in 1994 in the form of his last book. A Better World For Our Children, which contained recommendations for making America a better and healthier place. This book was published when he was 91 years of age. Spock was quoted as saying "I've slowed down a lot .. It took me almost five years to write this book" to the Detroit Free Press. "But I'm still very concerned with the health of children and the need for more good day care and better schools." Dr. Spock died in San Diego with his family, cause unknown.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bill Gate1.TXT
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Bill Gates


	When one thinks of computer software, one must think of Microsoft.  In
fact if you use a computer, chances are that you will have some type of program
on there that is developed by Microsoft.  The CEO, chairman, cofounder, and
owner of 147 billion shares of Microsoft is Bill Gates.
	William Henry Gates III was born in the midst of a scenic Seattle on
Thursday, October 28, 1995 to his parents Mary and William Henry Gates Jr.  His
childhood was uneventful and was well raised.  He went to Sunday school at the
Congregational church and sang in the choir.  He was a Boy Scout but never
showed interest for either of these activities.  Gates was an unusual child who
spent long periods in his room in deep thought.  He loved science and showed
great skill in the area of math.  In fact he scored a perfect on the math
section of the SAT.  His high school English teacher Anne Stephens was amazed at
Gates' memory.  She commented on how Gates had remembered a 3-page soliloquy for
a school play in one reading.  He read often, tried to take up the trombone, had
no interest in philosophy but rather thought of himself as a "scientist."  His
science teacher, William Dougall, remembers if the teacher wasn't going fast
enough, "Bill always seemed on the verge of saying, 'But that's obvious.'" Gates
once said to a teacher that some day he would be a millionaire.  A grossly
underestimated statement.  Today Gates is one of the richest men in the world.
In the fall of 1968, Bill Gates was entering the 8th grade at lakeside School,
and his best friend Paul Allen, entered the 10th grade. Lakeside invested $3,000
into a Teletype machine which could connect to the business computer via a phone
line.  When the computer courses began in January 1969, both Gates and Allen
discovered their passion for programming.  Since very few teachers knew anything
about computers, the boys taught themselves with every manual they could get
their hands on. Some days both would cut gym to gain extra time on the terminal.
Gates first program was a ticktacktoe game.  Gates and Allen would soon be
restricted to time on the terminal because the school's electric bill was ever
increasing. In a long series of mishaps Gates and Allen would soon be
programming away at Lakeside.  The math teacher that had been assigned to do
class scheduling, manually, died in an airplane accident.  Gates and Allen were
offered $2,400 worth of computer time in exchange for a class scheduling program.
 The boys (Gates now 16 and Allen already graduating high school) worked day and
night.  Gates soon found out that he could put himself in an all girls classes
in every period. Soon Gates and Allen would found a company called Traf-O-Data.
The two made a program that would regulate traffic data generated by the gray
boxes on Seattle streets.  After entering Harvard with a major in law, Gates and
Allen contemplated the idea of starting a company.  Their vision soon expanded
into the multi-billion dollar empire. "Gates is to the software what Edison was
to the light bulb- part innovator, part entrepreneur, part salesman and full-
time genius."  Gates is the "Edison" of software.  If it wasn't for him we
wouldn't have Windows 95, Winword, Microsoft Internet Explorer, or countless
others.   In August, 24, 1995, Microsoft announces the availability of Microsoft
Windows 95, worldwide.  This new operating system would change the world's view
of computers drastically.  The computer would become a toy and using it would be
much easier than before.  Four days after the release, Microsoft announces that
it estimates that more than 1 million copies of Microsoft Windows 95 were
obtained by customers at retail stores in North America.  By October, 17, 1995,
7 million copies were purchased.  That means at least 7 million people were
becoming more computer literate. Although the practices of Microsoft have been
investigated by the Justice Department for monopolistic practices, it has been
the leading company for new ventures. On November  20, 1995, Microsoft announced
that MSN: The Microsoft Network, has enrolled more than 525,000 members in its
first three months of service. With the majority of members using MSN's full
Internet access, this makes it one of the largest Internet service providers.
With this development, half a million people were connect on-line and into the
new era of computers.  Recently Microsoft as tried to eliminate Netscape, the
leading developer of Internet exploration tools.   I do not believe in this move
that Microsoft is trying to implement because smaller companies might have a
fresh outlook on the world than the weathered Microsoft.
	I consider Bill Gates a genius.  I don't believe in his companies
practices like eating small software companies for lunch, but I do believe that
it has effected society as a whole.  Gates' vision of "A personal computer on
every desk, in every home" was the foundation of Microsoft and I believe should
be the foundation of the future.  I predict that Microsoft will be the leading
software developer going into the 21st century.  I believe by the year 2005,
that there will be a computer in every house and that Microsoft software will be
running on that computer. With Gates' leadership, Microsoft is on a mission is
to continually advance and improve software technology and they make it easier
and more enjoyable for people to use software.  That is The Gates Bill.

Bibliography

1. Microsoft History, Microsoft, http://library.microsoft.com/msinfo/mshist/
     histdoc.htm?

2. William H. Gates: Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Microsoft
     http://www.microsoft.com/corpinfo/bill-g.htm

3. Ichbiah, Daniel and Knepper, Susan L..  The making of Microsoft: How
     Bill Gates and His Team Created the World's Most Successful Software
     Company.  Rockline, CA: Prima Publishing.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bill Gate2.TXT
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Bill Gates


William H. Gates III and His Giant Bill Gates, cofounder of the Microsoft
corporation, holds 30.7 percent of its stock making him one of the richest
people in the United States. He was the marketing and sales strategist behind
many of Microsoft's software deals. Their software became the industry standard
in the early 1980s and has just increased in distribution as the company has
grown, so much that the Federal government is suggesting that Microsoft has
violated Sherman and Clayton antitrust acts.

Bill Gates' first interest in computers began at Lakeside, a private school in
Seattle that Gates attended. There he wrote his "first software program when I
was thirteen years old. It was for playing tic-tac-toe"(Gates 1). It was at
Lakeside that Gates met Paul Allen, who later became cofounder with Gates of
Microsoft. There they became friends and "began to mess around with the
computer"(Gates 2). Back in the sixties and early seventies computer time was
expensive. "This is what drove me to the commercial side of the software
business"(Gates 12). Gates, Allen and a few others from Lakeside got entry-level
software programming jobs. One of Gates early programs that he likes to brag
about was written at this time. It was a program that scheduled classes for
students. "I surreptitiously added a few instructions and found myself nearly
the only guy in a class full of girls"(Gates 12).

In 1972 Intel released their first microprocessor chip: the 8008. Gates
attempted to write a version of BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) for the new Intel chip, but the chip did not contain enough
transistors to handle it. Gates and Allen found a way to use the 8008 and
"started Traf-O-Data, a computer traffic analysis company"(Clayton 452) It
worked well however, marketing their new machine proved to be impossible. "No
one actually wanted to buy the machine, at least not from a couple
teenagers"(Gates 14). Gates and Allen had more less successful endeavors in
starting a software company. In 1974 Intel announced their new chip: the 8080.
The two college students sent off letters "to all the big computer companies,
offering to write them a version of BASIC for the new Intel chip. We got no
takers"(Gates 15).

While at Harvard, the cool thing to do was to slack off on classes for most of
the semester and try and see how well the student could do at the end. Steve
Ballmer and Gates "took a tough graduate- level economics course together-
Economics 2010. The professor allowed you to bet your whole grade on the final
if you choose"(Gates 40). They did that, did not do anything for the class all
semester, and studied and got A's. During one of these slack off periods, Gates
and Allen found a very small computer: the Altair 8800 "('Altair' was a
destination in a Star Trek episode)"(Gates 16). It had a few switches and lights
on the front that you could get to blink, but that was about all. This new chip
had great potential, but there was no way to program it. After five weeks of not
going to classes, not eating or sleeping regularly, their version of "BASIC was
written- and the world's first microcomputer software company was born. In time
we named it 'Microsoft'"(Gates 17).

Gates left Harvard on leave in 1975. Microsoft's big economic break came in 1980
when "IBM- the computer industry leader- asked Gates to develop an operating
system for its new personal computer"(Clayton 452). IBM usually did not use
external help in software design or hardware manufacture, but they wanted to
release the first personal computer in less than a year. "IBM had elected to
build its PC mainly from off-the-shelf components available to anyone. This made
a platform that was fundamentally open, which made it easy to copy"(Gates 47).
IBM bought the microprocessors from Intel and licensed the operating system from
Microsoft. Microsoft bought some work from another company in Seattle and hired
its top engineer, Tim Paterson. The system became known as the Microsoft Disk
Operating System, or MS-DOS.

Now because of the licensing agreement between IBM and Microsoft, IBM had no
control over Microsoft's distribution of its MS-DOS to other companies who
wanted to clone the IBM machine. This decision by IBM is still under great
debate. Many industry analysts argue that IBM should have waited for their own
software developers to develop an operating system or that IBM should have
purchased MS-DOS from Microsoft. However, from a more broad economic picture of
IBM's decision, it may have just turned out for the good of Microsoft, IBM and
the average computer user. Microsoft's "goal was not to make money directly from
IBM, but to profit from licensing MS- DOS to computer companies that wanted to
offer machines more or less compatible with the IBM PC"(Gates 49). By allowing
Microsoft to sell MS-DOS to other companies, this made IBM's PC the industry "de
facto" standard. With other companies scrambling to compete with IBM, Microsoft
licensed MS-DOS to these companies and fulfilled one of Microsoft's goals: "to
create the standard for the industry"(Jobs 50). Compaq Computer of Houston
"launched [the first] clone in 1982 and attained FORTUNE 500 status a scant four
years later"(Schlender 42). Hundreds of companies followed.

MS-DOS dominated the market much like VHS beat out Betamax and how early TV
sales boomed. The more people bought the product, the more companies produced it
and with the television, the more sets were sold, the more programming was
available. This was a main reason why Apple's Macintosh only controlled 9% of
the market(Schlender 40). "The PC story would be far different if Apple had
licensed its operating system software to other computer makers early on"(Cook
64). In effect, they had a monopoly on their own system and software. Their lack
of competition kept prices up and software selection down. Apple has just
recently licensed some Macintosh operating systems to other companies.

Microsoft has thrived on the ability to foresee and understand the computer
needs of the average user. After Microsoft made their name with MS-DOS, they
started work on a graphical based operating system much like Apple's Macintosh
computer. They called it Windows. Windows "swept the market"(Clayton 452). By
1993 it was selling over 1 million copies a month "and Microsoft operating
systems ran nearly 90 percent of the world's PC s"(Clayton). Microsoft had well
achieved their goal of creating the standard for the industry(Jobs 50). However,
because Microsoft enjoys a near monopoly, beginning in June of 1990, the
"Federal Trade Commission, which shares antitrust jurisdiction with the
Department of Justice, took the first crack, quietly opening an inquiry "(Cook
64). Many other software companies have "cheered"(Pain) the government and
offered a deluge of help. One of the big complaints of computer manufacturers is
that they "must agree to pay software royalties...for every computer they ship,
regardless of whether the computer is sold with any Microsoft software." It is
"an all or nothing deal"(Rohm 92). Steve Jobs, cofounder of Apple and founder of
Next, calls Microsoft the "'small orifice' through which every other company
must squeeze if it wants to participate in the PC market"(Schlender 41).

After two years of investigation, "commissioners were deadlocked on whether to
file an antitrust complaint"(Cook). However, antitrust chief Anne Bingaman
continued the process with a high-profile investigation. After collecting
information, conducting interviews, and talking to Gates, Microsoft signed an
agreement that would require Microsoft to make "minor changes in the way it
licenses DOS and Windows to computer manufacturers"(Cook). Federal District
Court Judge Stanley Sporkin rejected the proposed statement. Bingaman continued
the case. She hired Sam Miller, a trial lawyer from San Francisco law firm of
Morrison & Foerster. Miller was to head up litigation against Microsoft.

What will come of the lawsuit? If Microsoft agrees to the next settlement, it
will "level the playing field"(Rohm 94) or they could end up the next AT&T. It
is up to those in Washington and at Microsoft. If Microsoft looses, "instead of
just DOS with its huge share of the market, if you've got three or four
operating systems each having 25 or 30 percent of the market, you're going to
provide a lot more incentive for those people to predisclose or disclose
interface operations to everybody"(Rohm 94) said a lawyer for the case. The
operating system that works with all applications and other operating systems
wins. That is IBM and Apple's Taligent and OS/2's strategy.

Right now Bill Gates is building a multi million dollar water front home outside
of Seattle, equipped with all the technological luxuries that a few years ago
only science fiction writers could dream up, for he and his wife, Melinda French.
He has a 2.5 million dollar book deal that is selling now(Lyall 20). What is in
Gates future? He loves his work at Microsoft and continues to stay involved with
running the company. He has gotten with Craig McCaw and announced plans to
launch a 9 billion dollar satellite-communications by 2001. He is also working
with Sega, Time Warner and TCI just to name a few. As for his monopolistic image
in computer circles, only time will tell.


Bibliography

Cook, William J. U.S. News & World Report. "A Pain for Windows." Feb. 27,1995
     p64-66

Clayton, Gary E. Ph.D. Economics Principles and Practices. New York:
     Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 1995

Economist, The:The World This Week. March 26, 1994 p7

Economist, The: Business. January 22, 1994 p73

Fortune. June 28 1993

Gates, Bill. The Road Ahead. New York:Penguin Group 1995

Lyall, Sarah. Technos: "Are These Books, or What? CD-ROM and the Literary
     Industry." Winter 1994 p20-23

Quittner, Joshua. The Seattle Times. Seattle, "Electronic Peek into the
     Future."September 5, 1993 D1+

Rohm, Wendy Goldman. Wired:"Oh No, Mr. Bill!" April 1994. p90+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune. "Jobs and Gates Together." Aug. 26, 1991 p50+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune:"The Future of the PC." Aug 26, 1991, p40+



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bill Gates 3.TXT
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1103
Bill Gates is the Antichrist Ever since Microsoft was founded, Bill Gates has gained power over the people of the world by winning a monopoly in the computer-software industry. From the assistance Microsoft gave in the development of the personal computer, to the virtual monopoly that Windows 95 now has on most computers all over the world; Microsoft has controlled a major portion of the computer industry. In his repeated conquests over his competitors, Gates has left an increasingly obvious amount of evidence that proves that he is the fourth and final antichrist. Most of this evidence comes from Gates' computer products and is referred to in Revelations. This evidence may have been left on purpose, or was a careless mistake by the founder of Microsoft. Like the other men who have been considered antichrists, Gates has attempted to rule the world. The only difference between Gates and his predecessors is that he is trying to rule the world through computers, not through military force. ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code is a system of keeping track of letters, numbers and characters on a computer. When Bill Gates and IBM decided to use ASCII code in the IBM Personal Computer, many people didn't know what computers were, or care what ASCII code was. Many people who did know what ASCII code was didn't think that Bill Gates was evil. Today, now that more people use computers regularly, Bill Gates' evil secrets have been revealed to the public through the Internet and anti-Microsoft activists. "Here is wisdom. Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man : His number is 666." (Revelation 13:18) Bill Gates' full name is William Henry Gates III. If the ASCII codes of the letters in "BILLGATES" are added, plus three for the "III" in his name, then the sum is 666 (antichrist.txt). B I L L G A T E S 3 66+73+76+76+71+65+84+69+83+3 = 666 "Let him who has understanding calculate the number of the beast" refers to computer programmers and others who have knowledge in computers. Gates most likely did not expect for the people in his industry to divulge his secret identity to the public, but an increasing number of computer users have found and advertised the truth about him. Most computers sold today come with Windows 3.1 or Windows 95. Many people don't buy computer software unless it is designed specifically for Windows. If a company decides to make a program for an operating system other than Windows, then they will probably not sell as many copies of their software than if they had made a Windows version. Most companies want to make a large profit, so they are going to make Windows compatible software. "He causes all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and slave, to receive a mark on their right hand or on their foreheads. And that no one may buy or sell except one who has the mark or name of the beast, or the number of his name." (Revelation 13:16 and 13:17) The Microsoft and Windows symbols are the "mark or name of the beast," because they effectively prevent the sale of products for other systems. "Thus he said: The fourth beast shall be A fourth kingdom on Earth, which shall be different from all other kingdoms, And shall devour the whole Earth, Trample it and break it in pieces." Gates' Microsoft is the fourth beast, with its significant power of money. Microsoft has "devoured the Earth" by gaining a monopoly on the software industry, so that it could "Trample it and break it to pieces" if it felt the desire. Bill Gates can raise the prices of his software at any time because there is very little competition to prevent this. In the past few years, Microsoft has bought many smaller companies who produced products which they wanted. Gates probably didn't want to spend the money to develop competing products, so he bought the competing companies and sold their products under the Microsoft label. "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor's." (10thCommandment) He broke the Tenth Commandment by coveting his "neighbor's," or competing companies', products. Microsoft's purchases were also foretold in Revelation 12.4. "And his tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth: and the dragon stood before the woman which was ready too delivered, for to devour her child as soon as it was born." Microsoft has devoured its smaller competitors so that they could not harm Microsoft's profits and its rule over the computer industry. Another reference to Microsoft as the red dragon was in Revelation 12.3. "And there appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten dorns, and seven crowns upon his heads." These heads were Microsoft's various products : Word, Excel, Internet Explorer, Publisher, Windows 95, DOS, and Encarta. These products are Microsoft's main arsenal against the rest of the software industry, just as the dragon's heads are its weapons. Microsoft Word has taken away many buyers for Corel's WordPerfect. Windows 95 has prevented other operating systems, such as IBM's OS/2 and Sun's Solaris, from becoming popular among many home-computer users. Excel has defeated Lotus' spreadsheet, Lotus 1-2-3. Most of these Microsoft products come pre-packaged on computers, so consumers most likely won't feel compelled to buy their competitors' products. These competing products are similar, and sometimes superior to, Microsoft's products. In Revelation 12.9, the dragon is referred to specifically as the Devil. "And the great dragon was cast out (from heaven), that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world..." Bill Gates is deceiving the world with his products by including them with all new computers. These free products imply to the consumer that Microsoft products are superior to other products, when the only major benefit that the consumer gets is a free product. The prophecies in Revelations foretold the coming of Bill Gates and his evil empire named Microsoft. His demonic number 666, which was encoded inside the programs that he wrote, and his aggressive actions were also foretold in Revelations. His corporate takeovers were excellent examples of his coveting what he didn't have plus his intentions to stifle any new competition. There are too many similar references in the Bible for this to be a coincidence. Bill Gates is the fourth and final antichrist.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bill Gates 4.TXT
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William H. Gates III and His Giant
Bill Gates, cofounder of the Microsoft corporation, holds 30.7 percent of its stock making him one of the richest people in the United States. He was the marketing and sales strategist behind many of Microsoft's software deals. Their software became the industry standard in the early 1980s and has just increased in distribution as the company has grown, so much that the Federal government is suggesting that Microsoft has violated Sherman and Clayton antitrust acts.

Bill Gates' first interest in computers began at Lakeside, a private school in Seattle that Gates attended. There he wrote his "first software program when I was thirteen years old. It was for playing tic-tac-toe"(Gates 1). It was at Lakeside that Gates met Paul Allen, who later became cofounder with Gates of Microsoft. There they became friends and "began to mess around with the computer"(Gates 2). Back in the sixties and early seventies computer time was expensive. "This is what drove me to the commercial side of the software business"(Gates 12). Gates, Allen and a few others from Lakeside got entry-level software programming jobs. One of Gates early programs that he likes to brag about was written at this time. It was a program that scheduled classes for students. "I surreptitiously added a few instructions and found myself nearly the only guy in a class full of girls"(Gates 12).

In 1972 Intel released their first microprocessor chip: the 8008. Gates attempted to write a version of BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for the new Intel chip, but the chip did not contain enough transistors to handle it. Gates and Allen found a way to use the 8008 and "started Traf-O-Data, a computer traffic analysis company"(Clayton 452) It worked well however, marketing their new machine proved to be impossible. "No one actually wanted to buy the machine, at least not from a couple teenagers"(Gates 14). Gates and Allen had more less successful endeavors in starting a software company. In 1974 Intel announced their new chip: the 8080. The two college students sent off letters "to all the big computer companies, offering to write them a version of BASIC for the new Intel chip. We got no takers"(Gates 15).

While at Harvard, the cool thing to do was to slack off on classes for most of the semester and try and see how well the student could do at the end. Steve Ballmer and Gates "took a tough graduate- level economics course together- Economics 2010. The professor allowed you to bet your whole grade on the final if you choose"(Gates 40). They did that, did not do anything for the class all semester, and studied and got A's. During one of these slack off periods, Gates and Allen found a very small computer: the Altair 8800 "('Altair' was a destination in a Star Trek episode)"(Gates 16). It had a few switches and lights on the front that you could get to blink, but that was about all. This new chip had great potential, but there was no way to program it. After five weeks of not going to classes, not eating or sleeping regularly, their version of "BASIC was written- and the world's first microcomputer software company was born. In time we named it 'Microsoft'"(Gates 17).

Gates left Harvard on leave in 1975. Microsoft's big economic break came in 1980 when "IBM- the computer industry leader- asked Gates to develop an operating system for its new personal computer"(Clayton 452). IBM usually did not use external help in software design or hardware manufacture, but they wanted to release the first personal computer in less than a year. "IBM had elected to build its PC mainly from off-the-shelf components available to anyone. This made a platform that was fundamentally open, which made it easy to copy"(Gates 47). IBM bought the microprocessors from Intel and licensed the operating system from Microsoft. Microsoft bought some work from another company in Seattle and hired its top engineer, Tim Paterson. The system became known as the Microsoft Disk Operating System, or MS-DOS.

Now because of the licensing agreement between IBM and Microsoft, IBM had no control over Microsoft's distribution of its MS-DOS to other companies who wanted to clone the IBM machine. This decision by IBM is still under great debate. Many industry analysts argue that IBM should have waited for their own software developers to develop an operating system or that IBM should have purchased MS-DOS from Microsoft. However, from a more broad economic picture of IBM's decision, it may have just turned out for the good of Microsoft, IBM and the average computer user. Microsoft's "goal was not to make money directly from IBM, but to profit from licensing MS- DOS to computer companies that wanted to offer machines more or less compatible with the IBM PC"(Gates 49). By allowing Microsoft to sell MS-DOS to other companies, this made IBM's PC the industry "de facto" standard. With other companies scrambling to compete with IBM, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to these companies and fulfilled one of Microsoft's goals: "to create the standard for the industry"(Jobs 50). Compaq Computer of Houston "launched [the first] clone in 1982 and attained FORTUNE 500 status a scant four years later"(Schlender 42). Hundreds of companies followed.

MS-DOS dominated the market much like VHS beat out Betamax and how early TV sales boomed. The more people bought the product, the more companies produced it and with the television, the more sets were sold, the more programming was available. This was a main reason why Apple's Macintosh only controlled 9% of the market(Schlender 40). "The PC story would be far different if Apple had licensed its operating system software to other computer makers early on"(Cook 64). In effect, they had a monopoly on their own system and software. Their lack of competition kept prices up and software selection down. Apple has just recently licensed some Macintosh operating systems to other companies.

Microsoft has thrived on the ability to foresee and understand the computer needs of the average user. After Microsoft made their name with MS-DOS, they started work on a graphical based operating system much like Apple's Macintosh computer. They called it Windows. Windows "swept the market"(Clayton 452). By 1993 it was selling over 1 million copies a month "and Microsoft operating systems ran nearly 90 percent of the world's PC s"(Clayton). Microsoft had well achieved their goal of creating the standard for the industry(Jobs 50). However, because Microsoft enjoys a near monopoly, beginning in June of 1990, the "Federal Trade Commission, which shares antitrust jurisdiction with the Department of Justice, took the first crack, quietly opening an inquiry "(Cook 64). Many other software companies have "cheered"(Pain) the government and offered a deluge of help. One of the big complaints of computer manufacturers is that they "must agree to pay software royalties...for every computer they ship, regardless of whether the computer is sold with any Microsoft software." It is "an all or nothing deal"(Rohm 92). Steve Jobs, cofounder of Apple and founder of Next, calls Microsoft the "'small orifice' through which every other company must squeeze if it wants to participate in the PC market"(Schlender 41).

After two years of investigation, "commissioners were deadlocked on whether to file an antitrust complaint"(Cook). However, antitrust chief Anne Bingaman continued the process with a high-profile investigation. After collecting information, conducting interviews, and talking to Gates, Microsoft signed an agreement that would require Microsoft to make "minor changes in the way it licenses DOS and Windows to computer manufacturers"(Cook). Federal District Court Judge Stanley Sporkin rejected the proposed statement. Bingaman continued the case. She hired Sam Miller, a trial lawyer from San Francisco law firm of Morrison & Foerster. Miller was to head up litigation against Microsoft. 

What will come of the lawsuit? If Microsoft agrees to the next settlement, it will "level the playing field"(Rohm 94) or they could end up the next AT&T. It is up to those in Washington and at Microsoft. If Microsoft looses, "instead of just DOS with its huge share of the market, if you've got three or four operating systems each having 25 or 30 percent of the market, you're going to provide a lot more incentive for those people to predisclose or disclose interface operations to everybody"(Rohm 94) said a lawyer for the case. The operating system that works with all applications and other operating systems wins. That is IBM and Apple's Taligent and OS/2's strategy.

Right now Bill Gates is building a multi million dollar water front home outside of Seattle, equipped with all the technological luxuries that a few years ago only science fiction writers could dream up, for he and his wife, Melinda French. He has a 2.5 million dollar book deal that is selling now(Lyall 20). What is in Gates future? He loves his work at Microsoft and continues to stay involved with running the company. He has gotten with Craig McCaw and announced plans to launch a 9 billion dollar satellite-communications by 2001. He is also working with Sega, Time Warner and TCI just to name a few. As for his monopolistic image in computer circles, only time will tell.



Bibliography

Cook, William J. U.S. News & World Report. "A Pain for Windows." Feb. 27,1995 p64-66

Clayton, Gary E. Ph.D. Economics Principles and Practices. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 1995

Economist, The:The World This Week. March 26, 1994 p7

Economist, The: Business. January 22, 1994 p73

Fortune. June 28 1993

Gates, Bill. The Road Ahead. New York:Penguin Group 1995

Lyall, Sarah. Technos: "Are These Books, or What? CD-ROM and the Literary Industry." Winter 1994 p20-23

Quittner, Joshua. The Seattle Times. Seattle, "Electronic Peek into the Future."September 5, 1993 D1+

Rohm, Wendy Goldman. Wired:"Oh No, Mr. Bill!" April 1994. p90+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune. "Jobs and Gates Together." Aug. 26, 1991 p50+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune:"The Future of the PC." Aug 26, 1991, p40+
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bill Gates.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
William H. Gates III and His Giant
Bill Gates, cofounder of the Microsoft corporation, holds 30.7 percent of its stock making him one of the richest people in the United States. He was the marketing and sales strategist behind many of Microsoft's software deals. Their software became the industry standard in the early 1980s and has just increased in distribution as the company has grown, so much that the Federal government is suggesting that Microsoft has violated Sherman and Clayton antitrust acts.

Bill Gates' first interest in computers began at Lakeside, a private school in Seattle that Gates attended. There he wrote his "first software program when I was thirteen years old. It was for playing tic-tac-toe"(Gates 1). It was at Lakeside that Gates met Paul Allen, who later became cofounder with Gates of Microsoft. There they became friends and "began to mess around with the computer"(Gates 2). Back in the sixties and early seventies computer time was expensive. "This is what drove me to the commercial side of the software business"(Gates 12). Gates, Allen and a few others from Lakeside got entry-level software programming jobs. One of Gates early programs that he likes to brag about was written at this time. It was a program that scheduled classes for students. "I surreptitiously added a few instructions and found myself nearly the only guy in a class full of girls"(Gates 12).

In 1972 Intel released their first microprocessor chip: the 8008. Gates attempted to write a version of BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for the new Intel chip, but the chip did not contain enough transistors to handle it. Gates and Allen found a way to use the 8008 and "started Traf-O-Data, a computer traffic analysis company"(Clayton 452) It worked well however, marketing their new machine proved to be impossible. "No one actually wanted to buy the machine, at least not from a couple teenagers"(Gates 14). Gates and Allen had more less successful endeavors in starting a software company. In 1974 Intel announced their new chip: the 8080. The two college students sent off letters "to all the big computer companies, offering to write them a version of BASIC for the new Intel chip. We got no takers"(Gates 15).

While at Harvard, the cool thing to do was to slack off on classes for most of the semester and try and see how well the student could do at the end. Steve Ballmer and Gates "took a tough graduate- level economics course together- Economics 2010. The professor allowed you to bet your whole grade on the final if you choose"(Gates 40). They did that, did not do anything for the class all semester, and studied and got A's. During one of these slack off periods, Gates and Allen found a very small computer: the Altair 8800 "('Altair' was a destination in a Star Trek episode)"(Gates 16). It had a few switches and lights on the front that you could get to blink, but that was about all. This new chip had great potential, but there was no way to program it. After five weeks of not going to classes, not eating or sleeping regularly, their version of "BASIC was written- and the world's first microcomputer software company was born. In time we named it 'Microsoft'"(Gates 17).

Gates left Harvard on leave in 1975. Microsoft's big economic break came in 1980 when "IBM- the computer industry leader- asked Gates to develop an operating system for its new personal computer"(Clayton 452). IBM usually did not use external help in software design or hardware manufacture, but they wanted to release the first personal computer in less than a year. "IBM had elected to build its PC mainly from off-the-shelf components available to anyone. This made a platform that was fundamentally open, which made it easy to copy"(Gates 47). IBM bought the microprocessors from Intel and licensed the operating system from Microsoft. Microsoft bought some work from another company in Seattle and hired its top engineer, Tim Paterson. The system became known as the Microsoft Disk Operating System, or MS-DOS.

Now because of the licensing agreement between IBM and Microsoft, IBM had no control over Microsoft's distribution of its MS-DOS to other companies who wanted to clone the IBM machine. This decision by IBM is still under great debate. Many industry analysts argue that IBM should have waited for their own software developers to develop an operating system or that IBM should have purchased MS-DOS from Microsoft. However, from a more broad economic picture of IBM's decision, it may have just turned out for the good of Microsoft, IBM and the average computer user. Microsoft's "goal was not to make money directly from IBM, but to profit from licensing MS- DOS to computer companies that wanted to offer machines more or less compatible with the IBM PC"(Gates 49). By allowing Microsoft to sell MS-DOS to other companies, this made IBM's PC the industry "de facto" standard. With other companies scrambling to compete with IBM, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to these companies and fulfilled one of Microsoft's goals: "to create the standard for the industry"(Jobs 50). Compaq Computer of Houston "launched [the first] clone in 1982 and attained FORTUNE 500 status a scant four years later"(Schlender 42). Hundreds of companies followed.

MS-DOS dominated the market much like VHS beat out Betamax and how early TV sales boomed. The more people bought the product, the more companies produced it and with the television, the more sets were sold, the more programming was available. This was a main reason why Apple's Macintosh only controlled 9% of the market(Schlender 40). "The PC story would be far different if Apple had licensed its operating system software to other computer makers early on"(Cook 64). In effect, they had a monopoly on their own system and software. Their lack of competition kept prices up and software selection down. Apple has just recently licensed some Macintosh operating systems to other companies.

Microsoft has thrived on the ability to foresee and understand the computer needs of the average user. After Microsoft made their name with MS-DOS, they started work on a graphical based operating system much like Apple's Macintosh computer. They called it Windows. Windows "swept the market"(Clayton 452). By 1993 it was selling over 1 million copies a month "and Microsoft operating systems ran nearly 90 percent of the world's PC s"(Clayton). Microsoft had well achieved their goal of creating the standard for the industry(Jobs 50). However, because Microsoft enjoys a near monopoly, beginning in June of 1990, the "Federal Trade Commission, which shares antitrust jurisdiction with the Department of Justice, took the first crack, quietly opening an inquiry "(Cook 64). Many other software companies have "cheered"(Pain) the government and offered a deluge of help. One of the big complaints of computer manufacturers is that they "must agree to pay software royalties...for every computer they ship, regardless of whether the computer is sold with any Microsoft software." It is "an all or nothing deal"(Rohm 92). Steve Jobs, cofounder of Apple and founder of Next, calls Microsoft the "'small orifice' through which every other company must squeeze if it wants to participate in the PC market"(Schlender 41).

After two years of investigation, "commissioners were deadlocked on whether to file an antitrust complaint"(Cook). However, antitrust chief Anne Bingaman continued the process with a high-profile investigation. After collecting information, conducting interviews, and talking to Gates, Microsoft signed an agreement that would require Microsoft to make "minor changes in the way it licenses DOS and Windows to computer manufacturers"(Cook). Federal District Court Judge Stanley Sporkin rejected the proposed statement. Bingaman continued the case. She hired Sam Miller, a trial lawyer from San Francisco law firm of Morrison & Foerster. Miller was to head up litigation against Microsoft. 

What will come of the lawsuit? If Microsoft agrees to the next settlement, it will "level the playing field"(Rohm 94) or they could end up the next AT&T. It is up to those in Washington and at Microsoft. If Microsoft looses, "instead of just DOS with its huge share of the market, if you've got three or four operating systems each having 25 or 30 percent of the market, you're going to provide a lot more incentive for those people to predisclose or disclose interface operations to everybody"(Rohm 94) said a lawyer for the case. The operating system that works with all applications and other operating systems wins. That is IBM and Apple's Taligent and OS/2's strategy.

Right now Bill Gates is building a multi million dollar water front home outside of Seattle, equipped with all the technological luxuries that a few years ago only science fiction writers could dream up, for he and his wife, Melinda French. He has a 2.5 million dollar book deal that is selling now(Lyall 20). What is in Gates future? He loves his work at Microsoft and continues to stay involved with running the company. He has gotten with Craig McCaw and announced plans to launch a 9 billion dollar satellite-communications by 2001. He is also working with Sega, Time Warner and TCI just to name a few. As for his monopolistic image in computer circles, only time will tell.



Bibliography

Cook, William J. U.S. News & World Report. "A Pain for Windows." Feb. 27,1995 p64-66

Clayton, Gary E. Ph.D. Economics Principles and Practices. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 1995

Economist, The:The World This Week. March 26, 1994 p7

Economist, The: Business. January 22, 1994 p73

Fortune. June 28 1993

Gates, Bill. The Road Ahead. New York:Penguin Group 1995

Lyall, Sarah. Technos: "Are These Books, or What? CD-ROM and the Literary Industry." Winter 1994 p20-23

Quittner, Joshua. The Seattle Times. Seattle, "Electronic Peek into the Future."September 5, 1993 D1+

Rohm, Wendy Goldman. Wired:"Oh No, Mr. Bill!" April 1994. p90+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune. "Jobs and Gates Together." Aug. 26, 1991 p50+

Schlender, Brenton R. Fortune:"The Future of the PC." Aug 26, 1991, p40+
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\bio.TXT
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	My name is Derek Morris. I¹m a seventeen year old student. I enjoy playing baseball and that is my life. I have been playing since I was one and a half. I moved through the ranks of organized baseball and like other ball players hope someday to play at the utmost level, the pros. It probably won¹t come true but who knows. Being a student at Shrewsbury I have had much success. I have been on the honor roll many times and a few months ago I was accepted to Bryant College. On the baseball field I have also received various honors and awards. I was captain of the baseball team in my junior and senior year and was named most valuable player in my junior year. 
	Shrewsbury is not were I¹ve always lived. I was born in Natick, lived there for a few months then moved to Framingham. I lived in Framingham for eleven years then moved to this town I never heard of, Shrewsbury. I have now lived here for seven years. 
	I have two great parents George and Cindy with two sisters Jill, 15, and Kim, 1. Yes one. She was quite a surprise. When I heard my mom and dad were going to have another baby I thought the world was over. But, she turned out just fine and is quite a cool little person. 
	I enjoy females, music, partying, and baseball. The quote that is most meaningful is, ³The only place were success comes before work is in the dictionary.²  The holiday I enjoy the most would have to be Christmas because it is only three more months until baseball begins.  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Biography of Lynda Peagram.TXT
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Biography of Lynda Peagram




	Lynda Peagram was born on the 28th of December 1961 she weighed 8lb 3oz. She first started school at the age of 5 at lee chapel south in 1966. Then in 1973 she started secondary school at woodlands in Basildon. Lynda started work in 1978 in London in the bank of England. Then in 1982 she got engaged to Gary Peagram and a year later they got married at holy cross church in Basildon. They then got their dog Mac he was a boxer and as a puppy used to chew everything up. In 1989 she gave birth to her first child Clare michelle Peagram on the 3rd may. When Clare was born Mac looked after her. Also 5 months after Clare was born Lynda's dad Roy passed away he was and still is greatly missed. Then Lynda gave birth to jenny Nicole Peagram her second child. A year after jenny was born Lynda lost a baby but then two years later Charlie Michael Peagram was born since then Lynda has changed jobs and is happily married with three children.                   



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Biography of Oscar Wilde.TXT
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	Oscar Wilde (real name Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde) was born on
October 16th, 1854 in Dublin.  His father, William Robert Wilde, was an eminent eye
doctor, with an interest in myths and folklore.  He was the founder of the first eye and ear
hospital in Great Britain, as well as the appointed Surgeon Occultist to the Queen, who
knighted him.  His mother, Jane Francesca Elgee Wilde, was a poet who wrote patriotic
Irish verse under the pen name Speranza, and had a considerable following.  As a
youngster, Wilde was exposed to the brilliant literary talk of the day at his mother's Dublin
salon.

	In 1864 Wilde entered the Portora Royal School at Enniskillen, and in 1871
entered Trinity College in Dublin.  In 1874 he left Ireland and went to England to attend
Magdalen College at Oxford.  As a student there, he excelled in classics, wrote poetry,
and incorporated the Bohemian life style of his youth into a unique way of life.  He came
under the influence of aesthetic innovators such as English writers Walter Pater and John
Ruskin.  He found the aesthetic movement's notions of "art for art's sake" and dedicating
one's life to art suitable to his temperament and talents.  As an aesthete, Wilde wore long
hair and velvet knee breeches, and became known  for his eccentricity as well as his
academic ability.  His rooms were filled with various objets d'art such as sunflowers,
peacock feathers, and blue china.  Wilde frequently confided that his greatest challenge at
University was learning to live up to the perfection of the china.  Wilde won numerous
academic prizes while studying there, including the Newdigate Prize, a coveted poetry
award, for his poem Ravenna. 

	In 1879 Wilde moved to London to make himself famous.  He set about
establishing himself as the leader and model of the aesthetic movement.  Besides his hair
and breeches, he added loose-fitting wide-collared silk shirts with flowing ties and
lavender colored gloves.  He frequently carried a jewel-topped cane and was caricatured in
the press flamboyantly attired and holding an over-sized sunflower, an icon of the
movement.  Wilde quickly became well known despite having any substantial
achievements to build on.  His natural wit and good humor endeared him to the art and
theater world, and through his lover Frank Miles, he found it easy to become part of the
cliques that frequented London's theater circuit and drawing rooms.  He became a much
desired party guest, and eventually his popularity led to his being chosen as an advance
publicity man for a new Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, Patience, that spoofed aesthetes
like himself.

	In 1881,  Wilde's first book of poems, called Poems, was published.  In 1882, short
of money, he accepted an invitation to embark on a lecture tour of America.  He produced
his first play in New York City, called Vera, about nihilism in Russia.  According to some,
it was canceled at the last moment, probably for political reasons;  others say he saw it
performed there but that it ran unsuccessfully.  Throughout that year he lectured in 70
American cities as well as Ontario and Quebec in Canada on the arts and literature. The
tour was an unmitigated smash and Wilde returned to London in 1883 in triumph and
richer by several thousand pounds.

	By the time he returned from America he had already tired of being the Great
Aesthete and began dressing more conventionally.  He did a successful tour of the U.K. 
He also wrote his second unsuccessful play, The Duchess Of Padua.  In 1884, he married
Constance Lloyd, the daughter of an Irish barrister.  They had two sons, Cyril and
Vyvyan.  The family moved into a house in Chelsea, an artist section of London.  In 1887,
he took a job at  Woman's World, a popular magazine for which he wrote literary
criticism.  In 1888 he published The Happy Prince and Other Tales, a collection of
original fairy tales which he wrote for his sons.  Two years later he tired of journalism and
journalists.  He returned to partying and spending his time with friends and lovers, often
overstepping the bounds of what was considered morally and socially proper for the time.

	In 1890 his novel, The Picture Of Dorian Gray, was published in Lippincott's
Magazine. It raised a storm of protest to thinly veiled allusions to the protagonist's
homosexuality.  In 1891 he published Intentions, a collection of dialogues about the
aesthetic philosophy;  Lord Arthur Savile's Crime, a collection of short stories;  and A
House Of Pomegranates, a collection of children's' stories.  He also produced The
Duchess Of Padua.  In that same year he met and befriended Lord Alfred Douglas, the
son of the Marquess of Queensberry.  In 1892, he produced Lady Windermere's Fan;  in
1893, A Woman of No Importance; and in 1895, the Importance of Being Earnest, which
was  hailed as the first modern comedy in English, as well as An Ideal Husband.  All were
very successful, and Wilde became the toast of London.  His only setback in these years
was with his play Salome, originally written in French, which was banned by Lord
Chamberlain under an old law forbidding theatrical depiction of biblical characters. 
Renowned actress Sarah Bernhardt, who was to appear in the play, produced it in Paris in
1894.  Thirteen years later German composer Richard Strauss turned it into a successful
opera.

	In 1895, Wilde began flaunting his off-and-on relationship with Douglas in public. 
Outraged by this, the Marquess of Queensberry left a visiting card at Wilde's London club,
the Albemarle, upon which he had written, "To Oscar Wilde posing as a somdomite" (sic). 
Wilde sued him for libel but lost the case and was charged with homosexual offenses.  The
jury failed to reach a decision but at a second trial he was found guilty and sentenced to
two years in Reading Gaol, a labor prison.  There Wilde was declared bankrupt, and his
house and possessions were sold to pay off his debts.  An Ideal Husband and The
Importance of Being Earnest, which were both running very successfully, were closed.


	In 1897, while in prison, Wilde wrote a 30,000 word letter to Douglas, published
after his death with the title De Profundis, which was a moving description of his spiritual
progress to religious insight.  It is regarded as possibly being his most important and
mature statement on life and art in general, and his own life and art in particular. Wilde left
prison on May 19th, 1897 and left For France.  He began wandering around Europe using
the alias Sebastian Melmoth (Sebastian was the Christian martyr slain in a hail of arrows). 
In 1898 he published his best-known poem, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a gripping
account of prison brutality based on his own harrowing experiences with a plea for prison
reform.  This came that same year with The Prisons Act, which was partly due to his
writing.  Also that year came the death of his wife.

	During these last years Wilde sank deeper into a despair from which none of his
friends could extricate him.  He was in poor health,  living on borrowed money and the
kindness of friends and sympathetic hotel managers.  In 1899 he was baptized by the
Roman Catholic Church.  He died on November 30th, 1900, in Hotel d'Alsace in Paris,
suffering from cerebral meningitis.  Among his last words were, "It's the wallpaper or me -
one of us has to go."  He was buried at Pere LaChaise cemetery in Bagneaux. Lord Alfred
Douglas was one of the attendees at his funeral.  In 1912 a monument to him was erected
at the gravesite by an anonymous woman. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Biography of Plotinus.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
314
Plotinus was born in Upper Egypt, more specifically in Lycopolis in 204 CE. When he was twenty-eight he moved to Alexandria to study philosophy. While in Alexandria, he was tremendously influenced by Plato and Aristotle and therefore studied their works immensely. Subsequent to working under Ammonius for approximately ten years, he joined the Emperor Gordian's campaign against the Parthians (Persians) in 243 AD. He joined the campaign, partly because he was somewhat intrigued by the Persians' philosophies, but mainly because he was greatly interested in the philosophers of India and Persia. Plotinus's plan failed: the emperor was assassinated in Mesopotamia and he was coerced to escape to Antioch in order to save his life. In 244 AD, he made his way to Rome and started his own school of philosophy. He was such a distinguished teacher, that he received rave reviews from highly eminent people, including the Emperor Gallienus and his wife Salonina. Not long after the school was founded, he thought up the idea for a model city, Platonopolis, in a city called Campania in Southern Italy. His idea was for the city to live according to the laws of Plato. Even though Gallienus was completely supportive of this plan, the other "imperial counselors" were not; therefore, the idea did not go any further. He continued to teach at his school in Rome until 268 AD. From that point, he retired to a rural estate of one of his disciples in Campania. During the last few years of his life, he began to put down in writing, his responses to the most common questions that were raised during his seminars. These responses were written in essays, primarily because the extent of most of the answers could not fully be answered in depth in the seminars. It was there where he died, in 270, of what was thought to be leprosy. Although Plotinus wrote several of these essays, he did not publish them. Porphyry, one of his students, fifty four of these essays in six "Enneades." He put them in "logical order" and "chronological sequence." Marsilio Ficino in Florence printed the "Enneades" in Latin in 1492.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Biography of Shakespeare.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Biography_William Shakespeare
"More is known about Shakespeare than any other professional dramatist of his time (2)." He was born in the small English town of Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of seven, Shakespeare attended a strict, high-status grammar school. Students studied Latin, since it was necessary in the time to have a successful career, and attended classes nine hours per day, almost entirely year round. In November 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway. At the time, he was 18, and she was 26. In Early 1585, Anne gave birth to twins, a girl Judith, and a boy Hamnet (1). From the period of February 2, 1585 to 1592, there is little evidence explaining where Shakespeare was living. These years are sometimes referred to as "The Lost Years", since little is known about Shakespeare's life during this period. Shakespeare probably moved to London to work in theater sometime during "The Lost Years". While in London, Shakespeare joined a repertory theater company. These companies presented different plays regularly, and relied on the admission fees to operate. In 1594, Shakespeare was a stockholder in a theater company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men. The group performed for nobles such as Queen Elisabeth, and was one of the most popular acting companies in London. Shakespeare was an important member of this group for the rest of his career. By 1594, about six of his plays had been produced. From about 1592-94, many theaters were closed down to prevent further spreading of the plague. Because the demand for plays had diminished, Shakespeare began to write poems at this time. Some believe that Shakespeare hoped to gain the respect that he never received from playwriting. Shakespeare wrote two long plays during this period, "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece." "These were both dedicated to the Earl of Southampton, a young courtier and favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, who had become Shakespeare's patron (2)." A few years later when the theaters opened again, Shakespeare returned to writing plays. During his final years Shakespeare traveled to and from London. However, he was probably spending most of his time in Stratford in his house New Place. He continued to write plays during these years, and the exact time that he completely retired is debated. On February 10, 1616, Judith Shakespeare married a Stratford neighbor. Shakespeare revised his will to include the marriage. About a month later Shakespeare died on April 23, which is his most accepted date of death (1). Shakespeare was very famous in this period. His plays gained even more popularity, and he was considered the most popular playwright of the time. He remained a stockholder, an actor, and wrote about two plays per year for his company, the Chamberlain's Men. During the 1590's Shakespeare was not only famous, but he had also gained a great health. He bought two very expensive houses in Stratford. Records showed that he preferred to invest most of his money in Stratford. In 1599, Shakespeare and his company became the owners of a new theater in London, located in the suburb of Southwark, called the Globe Theater. The theater was outdoors, and could hold many spectators. In 1603, Shakespeare's company received the title Kings Men, which was issued to them by King James VI, whom actively supported theater. During this time Shakespeare was at the height of his career. At this point he wrote many of the plays that made him well known (1). Some of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies were written in the early 1600s, including "Hamlet" and, after James I's accession, "Othello", "King Lear" and "Macbeth." His late plays, often known as the Romances, date from 1608 to 1612 and include "Cymbeline", "The Winter's Tale" and "The Tempest (2)." Perhaps what makes Shakespeare such a genius is that his works gained popularity as time passed.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Biography of Stephen King.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

Stephen King is a well-known and talented horror/fiction author 
who has published over eleven books in the last two decades.  His 
great stories of horror and fantasy have been enjoyed by kids and 
adults starting from his first best-seller, Carrie.  King's wit and style of 
writing has made him one of the most popular horror story authors 
today.  
	Stephen King's life has not been an easy one.  he was born on 
September 21, 1947, in Portland Maine(Bleiler, 1038).  His father left 
when he was two and gave him only a collection of supernatural 
fiction stories(Bleiler, 1038).  By age twelve, he was submitting short 
stories into different magazines such as "The Glass Floor", in 
1967(Beacham, 747).  After his graduation from the University of 
Maine with a B.A. in English teaching(Bleiler, 1038), King published 
many best sellers that won these awards: The British Fantasy 
Award(1982), The World Fantasy Award(1982), and the Hugo 
Award(1985)(Beacham, 748).
	Stephen King written many great books throughout his writing 
career.  Carrie, King's first best seller, is about a teenager who is 
ridiculed and harassed throughout high school(Bleiler, 1031).  After 
she is finally pushed to the limit, her true side is finally exposed.  
Cujo, involves a ferocious dog that starts out so innocent and kind , 
and ends up a brutal man killer(Bleiler, 1031).  The Shining, takes 
place in a motel that is haunted(Beacham, 748).  Jack Torrence is a 
writer who is ridden by guilt and failure(Beacham, 749).  After 
Torrence, his wife, and his five year old son are snowed in for the 
week, they finally realize the evil that the motel actually possesses.  In 
Firestarter, a little girl possesses the power to start fires with her mind.  
These powers were givin to her as a test by the government(Bleiler, 
1041).  Pet Semetary is about a man name Louis Creed(Beacham, 
754).  After his cat and son die, he buries them in a nearby pet 
cemetery, which is actually an Indian burial ground.  After a certain 
amount of time, the once dead become living(Beacham, 753).  The 
Eyes of the Dragon is a limited book published in 1986-
1987(Beacham, 747) , and
Thinner is a story about Billy Halleck, a  man cursed "thinner" by a 
gypsy for hitting his nephew Thadius Lemke with his car.  
	King believes that "A story must be paramount, because it 
defies the entire work of fiction." and "Theme, mood, and language 
are secondary." 
	King has written many enjoyable books throughout the years 
and if he continues at the rate he is going , will be the  most popular 
horror/fiction author of kids and adults.  	






 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Booker T Washington 2.TXT
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Booker T. Washington: Fighter for the Black Man


Booker T. Washington was a man beyond words.  His perseverance and will to work
were well  known throughout the United States.  He rose from slavery, delivering
speech after speech expressing his views on how to uplift America's view of the
Negro.  He felt that knowledge was power, not just knowledge of "books", but
knowledge of agricultural and industrial trades.  He felt that the Negro would
rise to be an equal in American society through hard work.  Washington founded a
school on these principles, and it became the world's leader in agricultural and
industrial education for the Negro.  As the world watched him put his heart and
soul into his school, Tuskegee Institute, he gained great respect from both the
white and black communities.  Many of the country's white leaders agreed with
his principals, and so he had a great deal of support.

Booker T. Washington was a great man.  He put his own needs aside in order to
build the reputation of an entire race.  He didn't do it by accusing and
putting blame on others, but instead through hard work.

Booker T. Washington cleared the way for the black community to fully enter
the American society. Washington was born into slavery on April 5, 1856, in
Franklin County, Virginia, on a small tobacco plantation. His only true
relative was his mother, Jane, who was the plantation's cook.  His father was
probably the white son of one of the neighbors, though it is not known for
sure.  Washington spent his childhood years on the plantation, but since he
was so young he never had to do the heavy work.  He did the small jobs, such
as carrying water to the field hands and taking corn to the local mill for
grinding.  This hard work at an early age instilled in him the values he
would teach for the rest of his life. When the Civil War ended in April of
1863, Washington and his mom were set free.  Unlike most of the other slaves,
Washington had somewhere to go.  His step-father had escaped earlier, and had
gotten a job in Malden, West Virginia, at a salt furnace.  When the war ended,
he sent for Washington and his mom.  Life was tough in Malden.  "Drinking,
gambling, quarrels, fights, and shockingly immoral practices were frequent."
Washington himself got a job in the salt furnace and often had to go to work at
four in the morning. Washington longed for an education.  A school for Negro's
opened in Malden, but his step-father would not let him leave work to attend.
Washington was so determined to get an education that he arranged with the
teachers to give him classes at night.  He was later allowed to attend in the
morning, but would then work all afternoon and into the evening.  Booker did not
have a last name until he went to school.  "When he realized that all of the
other children at the school had a 'second' name, and the teacher asked him his,
he invented the name Washington." A great influence on Washington was Viola
Ruffner, the wife of the owner of the salt furnace.  Washington became her house
boy, where he learned the importance of cleanness and hard work, and pride in a
job well done.  He would use these principles for the rest of his life.  "The
lessons I learned in the home of Mrs. Ruffner were as valuable to me as any
education I have ever gotten anywhere since,"    he later commented. Booker
heard of a big school for Negro's in Hampton, Virginia, and he decided to go
there.

In 1872, at the age of sixteen, he set out on the 400 mile journey to
Hampton, traveling most of the way by foot.  When he finally arrived, he was so
ragged and dirty that he almost wasn't admitted, but he was so persistent that
they finally caved in, and he was allowed to attend.  He studied there for three
years, working as a janitor to pay his board.  At Hampton, Washington
participated in the debating society, which helped him develop a talent for
public speaking.  He used this talent many times throughout the rest of his life.
In 1875, he graduated with honors and returned to Malden, where he taught
elementary school.  Two years later he went to Wayland Seminary, in Washington,
DC, where he studied for eight months.  He then was asked to come back to
Hampton to be an instructor.  In May, 1881, the principal of Hampton received a
letter from a group in Tuskegee, Alabama, asking for help in starting a school
for Negro's there.  They were expecting a white man, but when they got
Washington, they were quite pleased with him.

On July 4, 1881, at the age of twenty-five, Washington founded The Tuskegee
Normal and Industrial Institute.  The State of Alabama had sent $2,000 for
the teachers' salaries, but had sent no money for land, buildings, or
equipment.  The school opened with 30 students. Most of them had some prior
education, but they did not appreciate household cleanness, which was so
valued by Washington.  He wanted on-campus dormitories so he could supervise
and improve the students' living habits.  The school found an abandoned
farm nearby, but it had no buildings fit for living or teaching in.
Washington and his students raised enough money for construction, and they built
the first brick building.  They also built a kiln to make bricks for future
projects as well as to manufacture and sell to others. Tuskegee Institute and
its facilities grew, and so did its courses in agricultural and engineering
subjects.  The Institute survived its early years only through the perseverance
of Washington.  In the second month of the school's first year, Olivia Davidson
joined Washington as his assistant.  She was also a graduate of Hampton and of a
Massachusetts normal school.  She was not only Washington's assistant but also a
teacher at the school.  She would later marry Washington.  "No single individual
did more toward laying the foundations of Tuskegee Institute so as to insure the
successful work that has been done there than Olivia A. Davidson." Washington
believed in the "dignity of labor."  He emphasized the teaching of "practical
skills," like brickmaking, carpentry and dairying for the boys, and cooking and
sewing for the girls.   He believed that Negro's must make economic progress, and
learn how to make a living first. In order to raise funds for the school,
Washington traveled all over the country, giving hundreds of speeches expressing
his ideas and explaining his program at the school.  He became known nationally
because of these speeches, which led to many contributors such as Andrew
Carnagie, John Rockefellar, and Collis Huntington. As for Tuskegee Institute,
its success was beyond Washington's wildest dreams.

At the time of Washington's death, 34 years after its founding, the school
property included 2,345 acres and 107 buildings, with nearly 200 faculty
members and more than 1,500 students. Tuskegee Institute had become the
world's leader in agricultural and industrial education for the Negro.
Booker's spirit and name live on long after his death. He is remembered and
admired for his struggle for the black man.  Tuskegee Institute still exists
today and is quite well off, with over 3,250 students, about 5,000 acres,
and an annual budget of $75 million. Booker T. Washington is a wonderful
example that even if you came from nothing, you can accomplish great things
if you try hard enough and are willing to make the sacrifice.





 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Booker T Washington Fighter for thr black man.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Booker T. Washington: Fighter for the Black Man

Booker T. Washington was a man beyond words.  His perseverance and will to work were well  known throughout the United States.  He rose from slavery, delivering speech after speech expressing his views on how to uplift America's view of the Negro.  He felt that knowledge was power, not just knowledge of "books", but knowledge of agricultural and industrial trades.  He felt that the Negro would rise to be an equal in American society through hard work.  Washington founded a school on these principles, and it became the world's leader in agricultural and industrial education for the Negro.  As the world watched him put his heart and soul into his school, Tuskegee Institute, he gained great respect from both the white and black communities.  Many of the country's white leaders agreed with his principals, and so he had a great deal of support.  Booker T. Washington was a great man.  He put his own needs aside in order to build the reputation of an entire race.  He didn't do it by accusing and putting blame on others, but instead through hard work.  Booker T. Washington cleared the way for the black community to fully enter the American society.
Washington was born into slavery on April 5, 1856, in Franklin County, Virginia, on a small tobacco plantation.  His only true relative was his mother, Jane, who was the plantation's cook.  His father was probably the white son of one of the neighbors, though it is not known for sure.  Washington spent his childhood years on the plantation, but since he was so young he never had to do the heavy work.  He did the small jobs, such as carrying water to the field hands and taking corn to the local mill for grinding.  This hard work at an early age instilled in him the values he would teach for the rest of his life.
When the Civil War ended in April of 1863, Washington and his mom were set free.  Unlike most of the other slaves, Washington had somewhere to go.  His step-father had escaped earlier, and had gotten a job in Malden, West Virginia, at a salt furnace.  When the war ended, he sent for Washington and his mom.  Life was tough in Malden.  "Drinking, gambling, quarrels, fights, and shockingly immoral practices were frequent."  Washington himself got a job in the salt furnace and often had to go to work at four in the morning.
Washington longed for an education.  A school for Negro's opened in Malden, but his step-father would not let him leave work to attend.  Washington was so determined to get an education that he arranged with the teachers to give him classes at night.  He was later allowed to attend in the morning, but would then work all afternoon and into the evening.  Booker did not have a last name until he went to school.  "When he realized that all of the other children at the school had a 'second' name, and the teacher asked him his, he invented the name Washington." 
A great influence on Washington was Viola Ruffner, the wife of the owner of the salt furnace.  Washington became her house boy, where he learned the importance of cleanness and hard work, and pride in a job well done.  He would use these principles for the rest of his life.  "The lessons I learned in the home of Mrs. Ruffner were as valuable to me as any education I have ever gotten anywhere since,"    he later commented.
Booker heard of a big school for Negro's in Hampton, Virginia, and he decided to go there.  In 1872, at the age of sixteen, he set out on the 400 mile journey to Hampton, traveling most of the way by foot.  When he finally arrived, he was so ragged and dirty that he almost wasn't admitted, but he was so persistent that they finally caved in, and he was allowed to attend.  He studied there for three years, working as a janitor to pay his board.  At Hampton, Washington participated in the debating society, which helped him develop a talent for public speaking.  He used this talent many times throughout the rest of his life. 
In 1875, he graduated with honors and returned to Malden, where he taught elementary school.  Two years later he went to Wayland Seminary, in Washington, DC, where he studied for eight months.  He then was asked to come back to Hampton to be an instructor.  In May, 1881, the principal of Hampton received a letter from a group in Tuskegee, Alabama, asking for help in starting a school for Negro's there.  They were expecting a white man, but when they got Washington, they were quite pleased with him.
On July 4, 1881, at the age of twenty-five, Washington founded The Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute.  The State of Alabama had sent $2,000 for the teachers' salaries, but had sent no money for land, buildings, or equipment.  The school opened with 30 students.  Most of them had some prior education, but they did not appreciate household cleanness, which was so valued by Washington.  He wanted on-campus dormitories so he could supervise and improve the students' living habits.  The school found an abandoned farm nearby, but it had no buildings fit for living or teaching in.  Washington and his students raised enough money for construction, and they built the first brick building.  They also built a kiln to make bricks for future projects as well as to manufacture and sell to others.
Tuskegee Institute and its facilities grew, and so did its courses in agricultural and engineering subjects.  The Institute survived its early years only through the perseverance of Washington.  In the second month of the school's first year, Olivia Davidson joined Washington as his assistant.  She was also a graduate of Hampton and of a Massachusetts normal school.  She was not only Washington's assistant but also a teacher at the school.  She would later marry Washington.  "No single individual did more toward laying the foundations of Tuskegee Institute so as to insure the successful work that has been done there than Olivia A. Davidson." 
Washington believed in the "dignity of labor."  He emphasized the teaching of "practical skills," like brickmaking, carpentry and dairying for the boys, and cooking and sewing for the girls.   He believed thatNegro's must make economic progress, and learn how to make a living first.  
In order to raise funds for the school, Washington traveled all over the country, giving hundreds of speeches expressing his ideas and explaining his program at the school.  He became known nationally because of these speeches, which led to many contributors such as Andrew Carnagie, John Rockefellar, and Collis Huntington. 
As for Tuskegee Institute, its success was beyond Washington's wildest dreams.  At the time of Washington's death, 34 years after its founding, the school property included 2,345 acres and 107 buildings, with nearly 200 faculty members and more than 1,500 students.  Tuskegee Institute had become the world's leader in agricultural and industrial education for the Negro.
Booker's spirit and name live on long after his death.  He is remembered and admired for his struggle for the black man.  Tuskegee Institute still exists today and is quite well off, with over 3,250 students, about 5,000 acres, and an annual budget of $75 million. Booker T. Washington is a wonderful example that even if you came from nothing, you can accomplish great things if you try hard enough and are willing to make the sacrifice.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Booker T Washington.TXT
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Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington was the first African American whose likeness appeared on a United States postage stamp. Washington also was thus honored a quarter century after his death. In 1946 he also became the first black with his image on a coin, a 50-cent piece. The Tuskegee Institute, which Washington started at the age of 25, was the where the 10-cent stamps first were available. The educator's monument on its campus shows him lifting a symbolic veil from the head of a freed slave. Booker Taliaferro Washington was born a slave on April 5, 1856, in Franklin County, Va. His mother, Jane Burroughs, was a plantation cook. His father was an unknown white man. As a child, Booker swept yards and brought water to slaves working in the fields. Freed after the American Civil War, he went with his mother to Malden, W. Va., to join Washington Ferguson, whom she had married during the war.
At about age 16 Booker set out for Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, which had been established by the chief of the Freedmen's Bureau to educate former slaves. He walked much of the way, working to earn the fare to complete the long, dusty journey to Virginia. For his admission test he repeatedly swept and dusted a classroom, and he was able to earn his board by working as a janitor. After graduation three years later he taught in Malden and at Hampton. A former slave who had become a successful farmer, and a white politician in search of the Negro vote in Macon County obtained financial support for a training school for blacks in Tuskegee, Ala. When the board of commissioners asked the head of Hampton to send a principal for their new school, they had expected the principal to be white. Instead Washington arrived in June 1881. He began classes in July with 30 students in a shanty donated by a black church. Later he borrowed money to buy an abandoned plantation nearby and moved the school there. By the time of his death in Tuskegee in 1915 the institute had some 1,500 students, more than 100 well-equipped buildings, and a large faculty. Washington believed that blacks could promote their constitutional rights by impressing Southern whites with their economic and moral progress. He wanted them to forget about political power and concentrate on their farming skills and learning industrial trades.
Brickmaking, mattress making, and wagon building were among the courses Tuskegee offered. Its all-black faculty included the famous agricultural scientist George Washington Carver. The open controversy over acceptable black leadership dated from 1895, when Washington was invited to address a white audience at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Ga. While emphasizing the importance of economic advancement to blacks, he repeatedly used the paraphrase, "Cast down your bucket where you are." Some blacks were incensed by his comment, "The wisest among my race understand that the agitation of questions of social equality is the extremest folly." Others feared that the enemies of equal rights were encouraged by his promise, "In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress." From 1895 until his death in 1915, Booker T. Washington, an ex-slave who had built Tuskegee Institute in Alabama into a major center of industrial training for black youths, was the nation's dominant black leader. In a speech made in Atlanta, in 1895, Washington called on both blacks and whites to "cast down your bucket where you are." He urged whites to employ the masses of black laborers. He called on blacks to cease agitating for political and social rights and to concentrate instead on working to improve their economic conditions. Washington felt that excessive stress had been placed on liberal arts education for blacks. He believed that their need to earn a living called instead for training in crafts and trades. In an effort to spur the growth of black business enterprise, Washington also organized the National Negro Business League in 1900. But black businessmen were handicapped by insufficient capital and by the competition of white-owned big businesses. Washington was highly successful in winning influential white support. He became the most powerful black man in the nation's history. But his program of vocational training did not meet the changing needs of industry, and the harsh reality of discrimination prevented most of his Tuskegee Institute graduates from using their skills.
The period of Washington's leadership proved to be one of repeated setbacks for black Americans. More blacks lost the right to vote. Segregation became more deeply entrenched. Antiblack violence increased. Between 1900 and 1914 there were more than 1,000 known lynchings. Antiblack riots raged in both the South and the North, the most sensational taking place in Brownsville, Tex. (1906); Atlanta (1906); and Springfield, Ill. (1908). Meanwhile, black leaders opposed to Washington began to emerge. The historian and sociologist W.E.B. Du Bois criticized Washington's accommodationist philosophy in 'The Souls of Black Folk' (1903). Others were William Monroe Trotter, the militant editor of the Boston Guardian, and Ida Wells-Barnett, a journalist and a crusader against lynching. They insisted that blacks should demand their full civil rights and that a liberal education was necessary for the development of black leadership. At a meeting in Niagara Falls, Ont., in 1905, Du Bois and other black leaders who shared his views founded the Niagara Movement. Members of the Niagara group joined with concerned liberal and radical whites to organize the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910. The NAACP journal Crisis, edited by Du Bois, became an effective organ of propaganda for black rights. The NAACP won its first major legal case in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court outlawed the "grandfather clause," a constitutional device used in the South to disfranchise blacks. Washington's conciliatory policy appealed to white politicians, many of whom contributed money to Tuskegee. He became an adviser to United States presidents on racial issues and on the appointment of blacks to government positions. Blacks in the South were motivated by his self-help programs, but militant blacks in the North, including W.E.B. Du Bois, criticized his attitude toward racial segregation and discrimination. They argued that higher education, rather than vocational training, and political agitation would eventually win full civil rights.

Black contributions to scholarship and literature continued to mount. Historical scholarship was encouraged by the American Negro Academy, whose leading figures were Du Bois and the theologians Alexander Crummell and Francis Grimké. Charles W. Chesnutt was widely acclaimed for his short stories. Paul Laurence Dunbar became famous as a lyric poet. Washington's autobiography 'Up from Slavery' (1901) won international acclaim. Washington received honorary degrees from Harvard University and Dartmouth College. Among his publications were 'Up from Slavery', his autobiography, and 'Frederick Douglass'. Married three times, he outlived his first two wives. He died on Nov. 14, 1915. In 1945 he was the first black elected to the Hall of Fame.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Brief Description Of Edward Teller.TXT
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Brief Description Of Edward Teller

Edward Teller is a Hungarian-American physicist, known for his work on the hydrogen bomb. Teller was born in Budapest in 1908, and was educated in Germany at the Institute of Technology in Karlsruhe and at the universities of Munich and Leipzig. He received his Ph.D. in physics in 1930. After working at the University of Goettingen with James Frank and at the Niels Bohr Institute, he became Professor of Physics at the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. in 1935. In 1941 he became an American citizen. In the same year he joined the U.S. atomic bomb development project known as the Manhattan Project. For more than a decade he worked with the Italian-born physicist Enrico Fermi on this and succeeding projects at Columbia University, at the University of Chicago, and at Los Alamos, New Mexico. Edward Teller managed Los Alamos research on the "Super," as he called the hydrogen bomb. Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan and the end of World War II slowed "Super" research. Teller, a strong anti-Communist and sensitive to U.S. and Soviet relations, pushed unsuccessfully to accelerate work on a super-bomb. He was frustrated by the post-war direction of Los Alamos. He accepted a University of Chicago professorship and left Los Alamos in October 1945. In April 1946, Teller returned to Los Alamos and led a secret conference on the "Super." The conference reviewed his earlier work on fusion, which led to his full-time return to Los Alamos in 1949 to continue research on the hydrogen bomb. On January 31, 1950, President Truman approved hydrogen bomb development and testing, partly as a result of the first Soviet atomic test the previous August. In 1952 he became professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, and director of the Livermore, California, division of the university's radiation laboratory (now Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory). He was the principal architect of the hydrogen bomb, first tested in 1952, and he strongly advocated that the United States continue the testing of thermonuclear weapons. He also made contributions to the application of nuclear explosives to peaceful uses. From 1954 to 1958, he served as Associate Director at the new Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. He became a consultant to the laboratory in 1952. In 1975 he retired from teaching, but remained director emeritus of the radiation laboratory. After working on the production of the atomic bomb in the Manhattan Project, Edward Teller went on to become the principal designer of the hydrogen bomb. He remained a steadfast advocate of nuclear weapons testing throughout his life. In recent years, Teller has championed the ``Star Wars'' missile defense system, despite the fact that such a system is very expensive and has no conceivable way of working. Teller has written a few books. His books include Conversations on the Dark Secrets of Physics (Plenum Press, 1991), Better a Shield Than a Sword (Free Press, 1987), Pursuit of Simplicity (Pepperdine Press, 1980), and Energy from Heaven and Earth (W. H. Freeman, 1979). Teller has received numerous honors, among them the Albert Einstein Award, the Enrico Fermi Award, the Harvey Prize from the Technion-Israel Institute, and the National Medal of Science.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bruce Le1.TXT
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Bruce Lee

 Introduction

	Bruce Lee was born in the Chinese year of the dragon, in the hour of the
dragon on November 27, 1940.  From the beginning, it was obvious he was a
remarkable and unique child with tremendous energy.  His mother named him Lee
Jun Fan, which meant "return again."  She felt he would return to the United
States where he was born while his parents were on tour with the Cantonese opera.
A nurse suggested he be called Bruce as an American name for him.

 Childhood

	Bruce Lee was born in San Francisco at the Jackson Street Hospital in
Chinatown.  When he and his family returned to Hong Kong in 1941, he was called
Sai Fon, which meant "small phoenix", a feminine name.  Bruce had an older
brother who died as a baby.  The Chinese blamed this on evil spirits or demons
who take the lives of male babies to destroy the family's name.  So they dressed
Bruce in little girls clothing and called him Sai Fon.
	When they returned to Hong Kong, the Lee household consisted of Mr. Lee,
his wife Grace Lee, Bruce's two sisters, Agnes and Phoebe, his older brother
Peter, and later to be joined his little brother Robert.
	Bruce grew up in a very crowded house.  He lived in a two bedroom flat.
Upon the death of Mr. Lee's brother, he, as in Chinese custom, had to taken in
his whole brother's Family and had to be the provider.  This meant nearly 20
people lived in the flat.
     It was through his father's connection that Bruce ultimately became a
child film star.  His own acting ability was clear from the beginning.  Bruce
posed as a great natural actor and possessed a great natural ability for acting.
His father used to take him backstage.  As a young boy, Bruce always hung around
the set where his father was working on film.
	Few people have started a major film career as early as Bruce did.  He
was barely three months old when he was given the part in a Chinese movie made
in San Francisco.  Another movie called "The Beginning of a Boy" he made in Hong
Kong when he was six.
     Bruce's favorite saying from when he was just starting Kung Fu up to
when he died was, "As long as I can remember, I feel I have had this great
creative and spiritual force within me that is greater than faith, greater than
ambition, greater than confidence, greater than determination, greater than
vision.  It is all combined.  My brain becomes magnetized with this dominating
force, which I hold in my hand."  Bruce had learned this from Master Sifu Yip
Man.

 Influences

	Shortly after Bruce entered La Salle College of China (middle school to
us), he came home one day and told his mother he was being bullied around after
school.  He wanted to be trained in the martial arts.  His father practiced Tai
Chi Chuan, which is a series of exercises and moves carried out in slow motion.
Bruce had joined his father once or twice doing Tai Chi, but the slowness of the
movements did not appeal to him.  His teacher became Master Sifu Yip Man, a
master at Wing Chun system of Kung Fu.
	Yip Man showed Bruce a way to find direction in life, he interested his
young student in the philosophical teachings of Buddha, Confucius, Lao-Tze, the
founders of Taoism, and other great spiritual Leaders.  As a result, Bruce's
mind became a sponge of the wisdom of such teachers, specifically, but not
exclusively, the deep teachings of the Yin-Yang principle.  Yin-Yang is
generally represented by the double fish symbol, the foundation of which stayed
with Bruce and guided him through his adult life.

 Hardships

	When Bruce Lee was eighteen years old, his family feared that he would
join a gang, so they decided that he should return to San Francisco.  This hurt
and broke Bruce's heart to be away from his family.  He always made the best out
of impossible situations.  The trip took eighteen days on a steamship.
	Bruce was also an expert dancer, and had won a crown for the cha-cha in
1958.  So to pass the time away, he spent most of his it in first class
performing and demonstrating the cha-cha.  He even showed a few passengers a few
dance moves.
	Upon arriving to the United States, he wanted to be the first to teach
any martial arts, particularly Kung Fu, to the people in his new country.  He
felt that what he had to offer was far greater than physical martial arts
techniques.  He soon realized he did not have the necessary manpower of
instructors to teach his principles to such a group.  Nor would he ever.
	Bruce always had a training regiment, one day he disregarded a part of
his routine.  He failed to warm up properly before beginning his weight lifting
routine.  He bent over to pick up weights, and he injured his fourth sacral
nerve permanently.  He was told to give up Kung Fu.  Bruce stayed in bed with no
movement at all for three months.  This made Bruce angry and full of rage.  He
controlled his anger very well by writing a book with the exclusive help from
his wife.   While he spoke the words to write, she wrote them down because of
his handicap.  Bruce worked himself back to normal very slowly.  He died at the
age of 32 of hypersensitivity to a combination of ingredients contained in a
headache pill someone had given him.  But Bruce Lee's death today is still a
controversy, because different people think he died  of different ways.  Nobody
has been proven right, yet no one has been proven wrong.

Accomplishments

	Bruce Lee had finally found a way in which he could show the vast
majority his extraordinary talents.  Bruce starred in the  show "Green Hornet".
A very popular show in the United States and in Hong Kong.  He also starred in a
television show called "Longstreet."  "Longstreet" was one of the best martial
arts shows of all time on the air.  Bruce Lee was also involved with a popular
TV show called "Kung Fu," starring David Carradine.
      The essence of Lee's life was not in the skills he had achieved, nor
the money he made, nor the fame he created.  To him, his greatest achievement
was he made himself, himself.  Physically, he turned a skinny frame into a
deadly or gentle tool.  Mentally, he gave deep wisdom.
	Whatever Bruce Lee decided to do, whether it was to be a fighter, an
actor, a dancer, or being a friend, he always gave it his all.  And in a lot of
cases, his all was the best.

Reflections

	I find Bruce Lee is both idolized and magnificent.  He is one of the
world's best martial artist that ever lived.  Maybe even to some people he was,
is, and will always be the greatest martial artist that ever lived.  He is a
great man that can be looked at by many different angles: he was a martial
artist, a dancer, an actor, and a very wise person.  He has taken everything bad
that fate had given him and turned to be a marvelous feat, such as: racism,
because he was Chinese, there was a lot of put-downs, and stuff that people said
he couldn't do.  Yet he was the first and the best martial art teacher there
ever was, and is.  He was the first to teach all different races.  In one case
mentioned earlier in this report, doctors said he would never walk, let alone
fight, dance, or act again.  Yet slowly but surely he walked, fought, danced,
and acted better than he ever did.
	In my own opinion, Bruce Lee is the greatest example of what a
Everything...  human being should be.






 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bruce Lee 2.TXT
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Christian Estrada							   March 22, 1996
Literature-07							Biography Report

Bruce Lee

	
	
					
Introduction
	Bruce Lee was born in the Chinese year of the dragon, in the hour of the dragon on November 27, 1940.  From the beginning, it was obvious he was a remarkable and unique child with tremendous energy.  His mother named him Lee Jun Fan, which meant "return again."  She felt he would return to the United States where he was born while his parents were on tour with the Cantonese opera.  A nurse suggested he be called Bruce as an American name for him.
	
Childhood
	Bruce Lee was born in San Francisco at the Jackson Street Hospital in Chinatown.  When he and his family returned to Hong Kong in 1941, he was called Sai Fon, which meant "small phoenix", a feminine name.  Bruce had an older brother who died as a baby.  The Chinese blamed this on evil spirits or demons who take the lives of male babies to destroy the family's name.  So they dressed Bruce in little girls clothing and called him Sai Fon.
	When they returned to Hong Kong, the Lee household consisted of Mr. Lee, his wife Grace Lee, Bruce's two sisters, Agnes and Phoebe, his older brother Peter, and later to be joined his little brother Robert.  
	Bruce grew up in a very crowded house.  He lived in a two bedroom flat.  Upon the death of Mr. Lee's brother, he, as in Chinese custom, had to taken in his whole brother's Family and had to be the provider.  This meant nearly 20 people lived in the flat.
	It was through his father's connection that Bruce ultimately became a child film star.  His own acting ability was clear from the beginning.  Bruce posed as a great natural actor and possessed a great natural ability for acting.  His father used to take him backstage.  As a young boy, Bruce always hung around the set where his father was working on film.
	Few people have started a major film career as early as Bruce did.  He was barely three months old when he was given the part in a Chinese movie made in San Francisco.  Another movie called "The Beginning of a Boy" he made in Hong Kong when he was six.
	Bruce's favorite saying from when he was just starting Kung Fu up to when he died was, "As long as I can remember, I feel I have had this great creative and spiritual force within me that is greater than faith, greater than ambition, greater than confidence, greater than determination, greater than vision.  It is all combined.  My brain becomes magnetized with this dominating force, which I hold in my hand."  Bruce had learned this from Master Sifu Yip Man.
	
Influences
	Shortly after Bruce entered La Salle College of China (middle school to us), he came home one day and told his mother he was being bullied around after school.  He wanted to be trained in the martial arts.  His father practiced Tai Chi Chuan, which is a series of exercises and moves carried out in slow motion.  Bruce had joined his father once or twice doing Tai Chi, but the slowness of the movements did not appeal to him.  His teacher became Master Sifu Yip Man, a master at Wing Chun system of Kung Fu.
	Yip Man showed Bruce a way to find direction in life, he interested his young student in the philosophical teachings of Buddha, Confucius, Lao-Tze, the founders of Taoism, and other great spiritual Leaders.  As a result, Bruce's mind became a sponge of the wisdom of such teachers, specifically, but not exclusively, the deep teachings of the Yin-Yang principle.  Yin-Yang is generally represented by the double fish symbol, the foundation of which stayed with Bruce and guided him through his adult life.
	
Hardships
	When Bruce Lee was eighteen years old, his family feared that he would join a gang, so they decided that he should return to San Francisco.  This hurt and broke Bruce's heart to be away from his family.  He always made the best out of impossible situations.  The trip took eighteen days on a steamship.  
	Bruce was also an expert dancer, and had won a crown for the cha-cha in 1958.  So to pass the time away, he spent most of his it in first class performing and demonstrating the cha-cha.  He even showed a few passengers a few dance moves.
	Upon arriving to the United States, he wanted to be the first to teach any martial arts, particularly Kung Fu, to the people in his new country.  He felt that what he had to offer was far greater than physical martial arts techniques.  He soon realized he did not have the necessary manpower of instructors to teach his principles to such a group.  Nor would he ever.
	Bruce always had a training regiment, one day he disregarded a part of his routine.  He failed to warm up properly before beginning his weight lifting routine.  He bent over to pick up weights, and he injured his fourth sacral nerve permanently.  He was told to give up Kung Fu.  Bruce stayed in bed with no movement at all for three months.  This made Bruce angry and full of rage.  He controlled his anger very well by writing a book with the exclusive help from his wife.   While he spoke the words to write, she wrote them down because of his handicap.  Bruce worked himself back to normal very slowly.  He died at the age of 32 of hypersensitivity to a combination of ingredients contained in a headache pill someone had given him.  But Bruce Lee's death today is still a controversy, because different people think he died  of different ways.  Nobody has been proven right, yet no one has been proven wrong.

Accomplishments
	Bruce Lee had finally found a way in which he could show the vast majority his extraordinary talents.  Bruce starred in the  show "Green Hornet".  A very popular show in the United States and in Hong Kong.  He also starred in a television show called "Longstreet."  "Longstreet" was one of the best martial arts shows of all time on the air.  Bruce Lee was also involved with a popular TV show called "Kung Fu," starring David Carradine.
	 The essence of Lee's life was not in the skills he had achieved, nor the money he made, nor the fame he created.  To him, his greatest achievement was he made himself, himself.  Physically, he turned a skinny frame into a deadly or gentle tool.  Mentally, he gave deep wisdom.
	Whatever Bruce Lee decided to do, whether it was to be a fighter, an actor, a dancer, or being a friend, he always gave it his all.  And in a lot of cases, his all was the best.

Reflections 
	I find Bruce Lee is both idolized and magnificent.  He is one of the world's best martial artist that ever lived.  Maybe even to some people he was, is, and will always be the greatest martial artist that ever lived.  He is a great man that can be looked at by many different angles: he was a martial artist, a dancer, an actor, and a very wise person.  He has taken everything bad that fate had given him and turned to be a marvelous feat, such as: racism, because he was Chinese, there was a lot of put-downs, and stuff that people said he couldn't do.  Yet he was the first and the best martial art teacher there ever was, and is.  He was the first to teach all different races.  In one case mentioned earlier in this report, doctors said he would never walk, let alone fight, dance, or act again.  Yet slowly but surely he walked, fought, danced, and acted better than he ever did.
	In my own opinion, Bruce Lee is the greatest example of what a Everything...  human being should be. 

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bruce Lee 4.TXT
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"Ticallion Stallion"                      October 10, 1996
English, 9th Grade                                    Final
                                           Bruce Lee
     This essay is dedicated to Bruce Lee, without a doubt the most famous, skilled, and
inspiring martial artist that ever lived.
     Bruce Lee was a Chinese martial artist and actor whose main style of fighting was
Kung-Fu among many other styles that he practiced.
     From all of the things that I've read and seen about Lee, I think that he was the type of
person that would never give up. He could get beat and come back for revenge, but there weren't
many times that he was defeated.  He was also a very inspiring person to many people. He taught
that mental actions overcome physical ones, that people should only result to fighting when it was
the last option, and that a person shouldn't determine the outcome of a fight before it starts
because underestimation could lead to defeat. Bruce also had clever methods of thinking and
different ways to put his thoughts into action. He was nicknamed "Dragon" because he was born
in 1940, the year of the dragon according to the Chinese calendar.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Bruce Lee.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
"Ticallion Stallion"                      October 10, 1996
English, 9th Grade                                    Final
                                           Bruce Lee
     This essay is dedicated to Bruce Lee, without a doubt the most famous, skilled, and
inspiring martial artist that ever lived.
     Bruce Lee was a Chinese martial artist and actor whose main style of fighting was
Kung-Fu among many other styles that he practiced.
     From all of the things that I've read and seen about Lee, I think that he was the type of
person that would never give up. He could get beat and come back for revenge, but there weren't
many times that he was defeated.  He was also a very inspiring person to many people. He taught
that mental actions overcome physical ones, that people should only result to fighting when it was
the last option, and that a person shouldn't determine the outcome of a fight before it starts
because underestimation could lead to defeat. Bruce also had clever methods of thinking and
different ways to put his thoughts into action. He was nicknamed "Dragon" because he was born
in 1940, the year of the dragon according to the Chinese calendar.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Buddha 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Buddha

	The word Buddha means "enlightened one."  It is used today as
a title to the one who has given us more religious beliefs than almost
any other human who lived in this world.  However, he was not given
this name at birth; he had to earn it for himself by undergoing long,
hard hours of meditation and contemplation.  Buddha has changed the
lifestyles of many cultures with new, never-before asked questions
that were explained by his search for salvation.  He began an entirely
new religion that dared to test the boundaries of reality and go beyond
common knowledge to find the answers of the mysteries of life.  

India
	During the sixth century BC, India was a land of political and
religious turmoil.  It was an era of great brutality with the domination of
Northwest India by Indo-Aryan invaders.  Many people, influenced by
the Aryan civilization, began to question the value of life and it's true
meaning.  Schools were opened because of this curiosity where
teachers would discuss the significance of existence and the nature of
man and held programs to reconstruct one's spiritual self. (Pardue,
page 228)

Background
	Near the town of Kapilavastivu, today known as Nepal, lived
King Suddhodhana and Queen Maya of the indigenous tribe known as
the Shakyas. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 687)  Queen Maya soon
became pregnant and had a dream shortly before she gave birth.  In
this dream a beautiful, white elephant with six tusks entered her room
and touched her side.  This dream was soon interpreted by the wisest
Brahmin, or Priest of Brahmanism, that she was to give birth to a son
that would, if he were to remain in the castle, become the wisest king
in the world, but if he were ever to leave the castle he would then
become the wisest prophet far into future generations. (Encyclopedia
Americana, page 410)  
	In around the year 563 BC, Siddhartha Gautama was born into a
life of pure luxury. (Wangu, page 16)  His father wanted to make sure
that his son was well taken care of as he grew to prevent him from
desiring to leave the palace.  Suddhodhana, listening to the prophecy,
kept Siddhartha away from the pain of reality so that he could follow in
his father's footsteps in becoming a well respected leader.
	As Siddhartha grew, he became very curious about the world
outside of the palace walls.  He felt a great need to undergo new
experiences and learn the truth of reality.  Siddhartha was married to a
woman named Yasodhara who gave birth to a boy, Rahul.  Even after
his marriage, Siddhartha was still not completely satisfied with his life;
he decided that it was necessary for him to see the lives of those
outside the castle.

The Four Meetings
	One day, Siddhartha called for his charioteer to take him to the
park.  When the King heard of this, he ordered the streets to be
cleared of everything except beauty.  As the Prince rode by, the
people cheered and threw flowers at him, praising his name and
Siddhartha was still clueless to the suffering of life until a god,
disguised as a poor, old man stumbled before the chariot.  Siddhartha
was curious to this man's condition and he asked the charioteer about
his appearance.  The charioteer replied that all men must endure old
age and that even the prince could not escape this fate.  Siddhartha
then returned to the palace to contemplate about old age which
caused him to want to see more.  
	The next day, Siddhartha decided to venture on to the streets
again which were, by the King's request, once more cleared of all evil
and ugliness.  This time, Siddhartha encountered a sick man and
again, returned to the palace to reflect on sickness.  On his third trip to
the park, Siddhartha approached a funeral in a garden and was
educated by the charioteer about how every man must experience
death.  Finally, on the fourth day, the young prince saw a shaven-
headed man wearing a yellow robe.  He was amazed and impressed
by how peaceful the man seemed; he carried with him only a begging
bowl and had left all other possessions to try to find spiritual
deliverance.  At that moment, Siddhartha knew his destiny was to
discover how this man has avoided these acts of suffering. (The New
Encyclopedia Britannica, page 270)
	Later that night, Siddhartha kissed his wife and son, and left with
his charioteer away from the palace of riches and pleasure.  He left
behind his life of pure desire to understand the true meaning of life. 
To symbolize his renunciation from civilization, Siddhartha cut his long
hair and beard with his jeweled sword, traded his silk robes for a
yellow robe, and gave away all of his possessions.  

The Journey to Moksha (Salvation)
	Siddhartha wandered from place to place gathering as much
information as he could from countless teachers.  His main beliefs
revolved around the Hindu religion and the theory of transmigration
which means that the human soul, or Atman, is entrapped in an
endless cycle of rebirths called Samsara.  After the soul has died, it is
reborn into a different state, depending on the deeds done in former
lives which is known as karma.  The ultimate goal is to obtain
complete salvation from this cycle. (Pardue, page 228)
	Siddhartha also practiced the art of yoga and self mutilation. 
Yoga is a system of inward, ascetic discipline over the body, mind,
and motivations.  In other words, yoga is gaining control over one's
desires and even their needs such as breathing or eating.  It can be
accomplished by long, concentrated hours of meditation. (Pardue,
page 228)  It is designed to end the torturous cycle of transmigration
and all sources of karma.  Self mutilation is putting one's own body
through acts of torment and pain to learn to cope with problems that
occur such as diseases and to eliminate all feeling of despair and
suffering.  Siddhartha would experience the limits of his body by
practicing long periods of fasting and skin torture; he devoted his time
to learning the nature of his self.  
	Finally, Siddhartha settled near the banks of the Nairanjana
River and began deep meditation, determined to gain salvation. 
Through harsh weather conditions, he survived with the minimum of
food that the body needs to live.  He remained here, in this state for
six years with little strength and power.  Soon Siddhartha was joined
by five other men who were almost as determined to gain redemption. 
They continued these acts for about a year until one day, the young
voyager realized that he had only weakened his body and mind; he
finally understood that with these long years of self mutilation, he has
not yet achieved his goal.  He did, however, manage to survive with
very little of the necessities that people need daily which was in itself a
large accomplishment.  Unfortunately, the other men had realized that
Siddhartha Gautama was giving up, so they left and saw him as a
failure.  With great disappointment on his mind, Siddhartha gathered
all the rest of his strength to crawl into a pool to bathe, but found that
his energy had been used and he was just too tired to climb out. 
Before the young man's life was taken from him, he noticed a tree
branch hanging near his reach; he grabbed them and was pulled out. 
An old milk maid noticed Gautama's frail body and brought him milk to
aid his hunger.  Gaining back his health, Siddartha decided to
abandon the teachings that he had learned thus far and walked to a 
Bo-Tree where he would meditate until enlightenment or death.  

Enlightenment
	While Siddartha meditated, he was visited by the God of Evil,
Mara, who saw the attempt of the prince to reach his goal.  Mara
attacked Siddartha with several demons, but there was a force of
goodness surrounding him, preventing any weapons thrown from
hitting his body.  The evil god then sent two incredibly beautiful women
to tempt Siddartha away from his goal, but he had the strength to
ignore his lusts and enter into a deeper stage of thought.  At this point,
Siddartha is able to recall all of his previous lives and gains the
knowledge of the cycle of birth and death.  He now casts off the
ignorance which has led him to great passion for his self and bounded
him to the suffering of Samsara.  This marks the beginning of
Buddhism, when Siddhartha becomes the Buddha and his suffering
and desires come to an end; he can now enter Nirvana.
	"There is a sphere which is neither earth, nor water, nor fire,
	  nor air...which is neither this world nor the other world, neither
	  sun nor moon.  I deny that it is coming or going, enduring death
	  or birth.  It is only the end of suffering."   
							   -Buddha (Wangu, page 24)

Buddhism
	When the Buddha finally reached his ultimate goal, he made a
great sacrifice to all human kind and gave up his Nirvana so that he
could teach his enlightenment to others.  Even though Siddhartha
could have stayed in perfect harmony in paradise, he chose to spread
the practices that he had experienced to all of man, so that they may
learn to end their cycle of rebirths also.
	Siddartha traveled to Saranath where he found the five men who
previously joined him on his quest for release.  These men were
drawn to the Buddha with a phenomenal power that they could not
explain.  They immediately felt a great love and loyalty towards
Siddhartha and they became the Buddha's first disciples.  With some
grains of rice, he drew a picture of a wheel that represented the cycle
of Samsara.  The first of his ceremonies is known as the Deer Park
Sermon; he began "setting in motion the wheel of doctrine." (Wangu,
page 25)
	Thus began the beginning of Buddha's teachings of the Middle
Way of life which says that one should not lead a life of desire of
pleasure or materials, but that they should also not mistreat their body. 
The Middle Path was between the Upper Path, which is when
someone has luxury and wealth such as Siddhartha had when he was
living with his family, and the Lower Path, which he also experienced
when he performed self mutilation.  On the Middle Path, one would
have to follow the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path.  The
Four Noble Truths are open to all human kind despite race, sex, or
caste.  

The Four Noble Truths
	1.  Duhkha -This explains that all life is suffering and that man is 
			  bound to the earth by Samsara.

	2.  A person suffers because they believe they are important 	   
	     when in fact they are insignificant.  This is caused by 	  	
	     ignorance of the nature of reality and desires.  

	3.  The rejection of desire will break the chain of Samsara and 
	      bring salvation.

	4.  The Eight Fold Path must be followed to gain enlightenment.

The Eight Fold Path
	1. Think right thoughts	  		  5. Have right intentions
	2. Say right words			  6. Live the right way of life
	3. Perform right deeds			  7. Perform right efforts
	4. Have right aspirations		  8. Perform right meditations

	Many people are not ready to give up their lives yet and they
must subsist as many lives as they need until they feel that it is the
right time.  The Buddha did, however, develop five principles to be
able to gain salvation in the next life.
	
Buddha's Five Principles
	1. Refrain from taking life
	2. Refrain from taking what is not given
	3. Refrain from sexual misconduct
	4. Refrain from false speech
	5. Refrain from intoxicating things that cloud the mind
				(Wangu, page 29)

Spread of Buddhism
	The Buddha began attracting followers from all over India. 
Stories of his deeds began to spread even throughout other nations. 
The pupils of Buddhism were called monks and they developed a
community called a Sangha were Buddha's rules of conduct were
followed.  The Sangha was created for monks to preserve the
teachings karma and to let the monks concentrate on the goal to
reach Nirvana.  A monk agrees to give total commitment to Buddhism
and to withdraw from the world to gain enlightenment; all men who
were committed could enter a Sangha.  Their only possessions that
were allowed were a beggar's bowl, a needle, a razor, a strainer, a
staff, a toothpick, and a robe.  Those who have perfected Buddha's
teachings are called Arahats which means perfected ones.  
	Buddhism began to spread worldwide and conflicted with the
Hindu religion.  Buddha's rejection to the idea that Brahmin's should
be the supreme leader and to the caste system, won him many
supporters.  It was evident that Buddhism would be a long-lasting
religion. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 689)

The Buddha's Departure
	The Buddha had preached until he felt the end of his life coming. 
At the age of 80, he decided that he had completed his tasks and he
began to meditate to once again attain Nirvana.  He had no written
books of his teachings, but they would still live on through his
followers.  Siddartha's death was tragic, but his students knew that his
life was complete.  He left behind his legacy to the world and shaped
the cultures of people for centuries to come.



Buddha's Contributions
	Much of what the world believes today have originated from the
teachings of Buddha.  Even within other religions, it is evident that
they were in some ways  influenced by him.  Ideas, such as the Middle
Path, are clearly communicated in many values of today.  Buddhism
has even had a major effect on politics in Asia.  Tibet used to be
controlled a system of theocracy ruled by a Buddhist Priest, or the
Dalai Lama.  In China and Japan, Zen Buddhism has been used in the
practices of Yoga that many people study everyday.  
	
	He was one of the greatest prophets ever to walk the earth and
his teachings will be remembered for generations.  He has sacrificed
his total salvation so that mankind could be taught of the path to
enlightenment.  The Buddha has proven to be one of the wisest and
giving men who touched the lives of so many millions of people. 
Buddhism will live on as a major impact on the cultures of the world
and the Buddha will never be forgotten.
	"Everything that has been created is subject to decay
  and death.  Everything is transitory.  Work out your own salvation
                                          with diligence."
							-Buddha (Wangu, page 31)



Bibliography


"Buddha and Buddhism."  Encyclopedia Americana.  1990.

Cohen, John Lebold.  Buddha.  Mary Frank, 1969.

Pardue, Peter A.  "Buddha."  Encyclopedia of World Biography. 
	McGraw Hill, 1973.

"The Buddha and Buddhism."  The New Encyclopedia Britannica.  
	1990.

Wangu, Madhu Bazaz.  Buddhism.  New York: Facts On File, 1993.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Buddha.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Buddha

	The word Buddha means "enlightened one."  It is used today as
a title to the one who has given us more religious beliefs than almost
any other human who lived in this world.  However, he was not given
this name at birth; he had to earn it for himself by undergoing long,
hard hours of meditation and contemplation.  Buddha has changed the
lifestyles of many cultures with new, never-before asked questions
that were explained by his search for salvation.  He began an entirely
new religion that dared to test the boundaries of reality and go beyond
common knowledge to find the answers of the mysteries of life.  

India
	During the sixth century BC, India was a land of political and
religious turmoil.  It was an era of great brutality with the domination of
Northwest India by Indo-Aryan invaders.  Many people, influenced by
the Aryan civilization, began to question the value of life and it's true
meaning.  Schools were opened because of this curiosity where
teachers would discuss the significance of existence and the nature of
man and held programs to reconstruct one's spiritual self. (Pardue,
page 228)

Background
	Near the town of Kapilavastivu, today known as Nepal, lived
King Suddhodhana and Queen Maya of the indigenous tribe known as
the Shakyas. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 687)  Queen Maya soon
became pregnant and had a dream shortly before she gave birth.  In
this dream a beautiful, white elephant with six tusks entered her room
and touched her side.  This dream was soon interpreted by the wisest
Brahmin, or Priest of Brahmanism, that she was to give birth to a son
that would, if he were to remain in the castle, become the wisest king
in the world, but if he were ever to leave the castle he would then
become the wisest prophet far into future generations. (Encyclopedia
Americana, page 410)  
	In around the year 563 BC, Siddhartha Gautama was born into a
life of pure luxury. (Wangu, page 16)  His father wanted to make sure
that his son was well taken care of as he grew to prevent him from
desiring to leave the palace.  Suddhodhana, listening to the prophecy,
kept Siddhartha away from the pain of reality so that he could follow in
his father's footsteps in becoming a well respected leader.
	As Siddhartha grew, he became very curious about the world
outside of the palace walls.  He felt a great need to undergo new
experiences and learn the truth of reality.  Siddhartha was married to a
woman named Yasodhara who gave birth to a boy, Rahul.  Even after
his marriage, Siddhartha was still not completely satisfied with his life;
he decided that it was necessary for him to see the lives of those
outside the castle.

The Four Meetings
	One day, Siddhartha called for his charioteer to take him to the
park.  When the King heard of this, he ordered the streets to be
cleared of everything except beauty.  As the Prince rode by, the
people cheered and threw flowers at him, praising his name and
Siddhartha was still clueless to the suffering of life until a god,
disguised as a poor, old man stumbled before the chariot.  Siddhartha
was curious to this man's condition and he asked the charioteer about
his appearance.  The charioteer replied that all men must endure old
age and that even the prince could not escape this fate.  Siddhartha
then returned to the palace to contemplate about old age which
caused him to want to see more.  
	The next day, Siddhartha decided to venture on to the streets
again which were, by the King's request, once more cleared of all evil
and ugliness.  This time, Siddhartha encountered a sick man and
again, returned to the palace to reflect on sickness.  On his third trip to
the park, Siddhartha approached a funeral in a garden and was
educated by the charioteer about how every man must experience
death.  Finally, on the fourth day, the young prince saw a shaven-
headed man wearing a yellow robe.  He was amazed and impressed
by how peaceful the man seemed; he carried with him only a begging
bowl and had left all other possessions to try to find spiritual
deliverance.  At that moment, Siddhartha knew his destiny was to
discover how this man has avoided these acts of suffering. (The New
Encyclopedia Britannica, page 270)
	Later that night, Siddhartha kissed his wife and son, and left with
his charioteer away from the palace of riches and pleasure.  He left
behind his life of pure desire to understand the true meaning of life. 
To symbolize his renunciation from civilization, Siddhartha cut his long
hair and beard with his jeweled sword, traded his silk robes for a
yellow robe, and gave away all of his possessions.  

The Journey to Moksha (Salvation)
	Siddhartha wandered from place to place gathering as much
information as he could from countless teachers.  His main beliefs
revolved around the Hindu religion and the theory of transmigration
which means that the human soul, or Atman, is entrapped in an
endless cycle of rebirths called Samsara.  After the soul has died, it is
reborn into a different state, depending on the deeds done in former
lives which is known as karma.  The ultimate goal is to obtain
complete salvation from this cycle. (Pardue, page 228)
	Siddhartha also practiced the art of yoga and self mutilation. 
Yoga is a system of inward, ascetic discipline over the body, mind,
and motivations.  In other words, yoga is gaining control over one's
desires and even their needs such as breathing or eating.  It can be
accomplished by long, concentrated hours of meditation. (Pardue,
page 228)  It is designed to end the torturous cycle of transmigration
and all sources of karma.  Self mutilation is putting one's own body
through acts of torment and pain to learn to cope with problems that
occur such as diseases and to eliminate all feeling of despair and
suffering.  Siddhartha would experience the limits of his body by
practicing long periods of fasting and skin torture; he devoted his time
to learning the nature of his self.  
	Finally, Siddhartha settled near the banks of the Nairanjana
River and began deep meditation, determined to gain salvation. 
Through harsh weather conditions, he survived with the minimum of
food that the body needs to live.  He remained here, in this state for
six years with little strength and power.  Soon Siddhartha was joined
by five other men who were almost as determined to gain redemption. 
They continued these acts for about a year until one day, the young
voyager realized that he had only weakened his body and mind; he
finally understood that with these long years of self mutilation, he has
not yet achieved his goal.  He did, however, manage to survive with
very little of the necessities that people need daily which was in itself a
large accomplishment.  Unfortunately, the other men had realized that
Siddhartha Gautama was giving up, so they left and saw him as a
failure.  With great disappointment on his mind, Siddhartha gathered
all the rest of his strength to crawl into a pool to bathe, but found that
his energy had been used and he was just too tired to climb out. 
Before the young man's life was taken from him, he noticed a tree
branch hanging near his reach; he grabbed them and was pulled out. 
An old milk maid noticed Gautama's frail body and brought him milk to
aid his hunger.  Gaining back his health, Siddartha decided to
abandon the teachings that he had learned thus far and walked to a 
Bo-Tree where he would meditate until enlightenment or death.  

Enlightenment
	While Siddartha meditated, he was visited by the God of Evil,
Mara, who saw the attempt of the prince to reach his goal.  Mara
attacked Siddartha with several demons, but there was a force of
goodness surrounding him, preventing any weapons thrown from
hitting his body.  The evil god then sent two incredibly beautiful women
to tempt Siddartha away from his goal, but he had the strength to
ignore his lusts and enter into a deeper stage of thought.  At this point,
Siddartha is able to recall all of his previous lives and gains the
knowledge of the cycle of birth and death.  He now casts off the
ignorance which has led him to great passion for his self and bounded
him to the suffering of Samsara.  This marks the beginning of
Buddhism, when Siddhartha becomes the Buddha and his suffering
and desires come to an end; he can now enter Nirvana.
	"There is a sphere which is neither earth, nor water, nor fire,
	  nor air...which is neither this world nor the other world, neither
	  sun nor moon.  I deny that it is coming or going, enduring death
	  or birth.  It is only the end of suffering."   
							   -Buddha (Wangu, page 24)

Buddhism
	When the Buddha finally reached his ultimate goal, he made a
great sacrifice to all human kind and gave up his Nirvana so that he
could teach his enlightenment to others.  Even though Siddhartha
could have stayed in perfect harmony in paradise, he chose to spread
the practices that he had experienced to all of man, so that they may
learn to end their cycle of rebirths also.
	Siddartha traveled to Saranath where he found the five men who
previously joined him on his quest for release.  These men were
drawn to the Buddha with a phenomenal power that they could not
explain.  They immediately felt a great love and loyalty towards
Siddhartha and they became the Buddha's first disciples.  With some
grains of rice, he drew a picture of a wheel that represented the cycle
of Samsara.  The first of his ceremonies is known as the Deer Park
Sermon; he began "setting in motion the wheel of doctrine." (Wangu,
page 25)
	Thus began the beginning of Buddha's teachings of the Middle
Way of life which says that one should not lead a life of desire of
pleasure or materials, but that they should also not mistreat their body. 
The Middle Path was between the Upper Path, which is when
someone has luxury and wealth such as Siddhartha had when he was
living with his family, and the Lower Path, which he also experienced
when he performed self mutilation.  On the Middle Path, one would
have to follow the Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path.  The
Four Noble Truths are open to all human kind despite race, sex, or
caste.  

The Four Noble Truths
	1.  Duhkha -This explains that all life is suffering and that man is 
			  bound to the earth by Samsara.

	2.  A person suffers because they believe they are important 	   
	     when in fact they are insignificant.  This is caused by 	  	
	     ignorance of the nature of reality and desires.  

	3.  The rejection of desire will break the chain of Samsara and 
	      bring salvation.

	4.  The Eight Fold Path must be followed to gain enlightenment.

The Eight Fold Path
	1. Think right thoughts	  		  5. Have right intentions
	2. Say right words			  6. Live the right way of life
	3. Perform right deeds			  7. Perform right efforts
	4. Have right aspirations		  8. Perform right meditations

	Many people are not ready to give up their lives yet and they
must subsist as many lives as they need until they feel that it is the
right time.  The Buddha did, however, develop five principles to be
able to gain salvation in the next life.
	
Buddha's Five Principles
	1. Refrain from taking life
	2. Refrain from taking what is not given
	3. Refrain from sexual misconduct
	4. Refrain from false speech
	5. Refrain from intoxicating things that cloud the mind
				(Wangu, page 29)

Spread of Buddhism
	The Buddha began attracting followers from all over India. 
Stories of his deeds began to spread even throughout other nations. 
The pupils of Buddhism were called monks and they developed a
community called a Sangha were Buddha's rules of conduct were
followed.  The Sangha was created for monks to preserve the
teachings karma and to let the monks concentrate on the goal to
reach Nirvana.  A monk agrees to give total commitment to Buddhism
and to withdraw from the world to gain enlightenment; all men who
were committed could enter a Sangha.  Their only possessions that
were allowed were a beggar's bowl, a needle, a razor, a strainer, a
staff, a toothpick, and a robe.  Those who have perfected Buddha's
teachings are called Arahats which means perfected ones.  
	Buddhism began to spread worldwide and conflicted with the
Hindu religion.  Buddha's rejection to the idea that Brahmin's should
be the supreme leader and to the caste system, won him many
supporters.  It was evident that Buddhism would be a long-lasting
religion. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 689)

The Buddha's Departure
	The Buddha had preached until he felt the end of his life coming. 
At the age of 80, he decided that he had completed his tasks and he
began to meditate to once again attain Nirvana.  He had no written
books of his teachings, but they would still live on through his
followers.  Siddartha's death was tragic, but his students knew that his
life was complete.  He left behind his legacy to the world and shaped
the cultures of people for centuries to come.



Buddha's Contributions
	Much of what the world believes today have originated from the
teachings of Buddha.  Even within other religions, it is evident that
they were in some ways  influenced by him.  Ideas, such as the Middle
Path, are clearly communicated in many values of today.  Buddhism
has even had a major effect on politics in Asia.  Tibet used to be
controlled a system of theocracy ruled by a Buddhist Priest, or the
Dalai Lama.  In China and Japan, Zen Buddhism has been used in the
practices of Yoga that many people study everyday.  
	
	He was one of the greatest prophets ever to walk the earth and
his teachings will be remembered for generations.  He has sacrificed
his total salvation so that mankind could be taught of the path to
enlightenment.  The Buddha has proven to be one of the wisest and
giving men who touched the lives of so many millions of people. 
Buddhism will live on as a major impact on the cultures of the world
and the Buddha will never be forgotten.
	"Everything that has been created is subject to decay
  and death.  Everything is transitory.  Work out your own salvation
                                          with diligence."
							-Buddha (Wangu, page 31)



Bibliography


"Buddha and Buddhism."  Encyclopedia Americana.  1990.

Cohen, John Lebold.  Buddha.  Mary Frank, 1969.

Pardue, Peter A.  "Buddha."  Encyclopedia of World Biography. 
	McGraw Hill, 1973.

"The Buddha and Buddhism."  The New Encyclopedia Britannica.  
	1990.

Wangu, Madhu Bazaz.  Buddhism.  New York: Facts On File, 1993.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Buffalo Bill Cody Wild West Showman.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	William Frederick Cody, also known as Buffalo Bill, was born 
into an anti-slavery family.  He had a rough childhood, but despite 
this hardship he grew up to be an adventurous wild west showman, and 
achieve many historical goals.
	On February 26, 1846, near the small town of LeClair, Iowa, 
William F. Cody was born to Isacc and Marry Ann Cody.  At the time 
William had two sisters, Martha and Julia, and a brother, Samuel.  
But he ended up with three more sisters, Eliza, Helen, and May, and 
another brother, Charlie.
In the first eight years of his childhood, William grew up on a farm 
his father owned and worked.  During this time, William had plenty of 
space on the Plains to play with his brother Sam and his black dog, 
Turk.  William also had some young Indian friends he met while on a 
picnic with his sisters.  The Indians were trying to steal the Cody's 
lunch, but Bill stopped them and became friends with them.  Besides 
picnics, young Will also enjoyed riding horses, having pretend Indian 
fights with Sam, and hunting in the woods.  Sadly, Samuel died when 
he was thrown from his horse.  Because of this, William not only lost 
a brother but he lost a very good friend.
	In 1854 William, along with his anti-slavery family, moved 
near the city of Leavenworth, Kansas.  This was not an easy move for 
the Cody family seeing how most of that part of Kansas was pro 
slavery.  They were worried about this because earlier in Iowa a 
dispute about slavery between Isacc and his brother Elijah, led to 
Elijah stabbing Isacc.  Luckily, he survived and nothing like this 
happened in Kansas.  While in Iowa, Bill had received no education.  
After moving to Kansas he attended several sessions of country school  
organized by his father. In the two and a half months he attended, 
Bill learned to read and write which would help him in his future 
careers.
	In order to help his family after his father's death in 1857, 
William took his first job working for the firm, Russel Majors & 
Waddel, making wagon-train trips across the Plains.  It was rough, 
but William enjoyed these frequent trips.  Later, Will road for the 
Pony Express when it was established in 1860, and was a scout and 
guide for the Union Army.					      
	When the Civil War started in 1863, Bill Cody enlisted in the 
7th Kansas Cavalry as an army scout in Indian campaigns.  In 1866, 
after the war was over, Bill bought and ran a hotel in Kansas called 
the "Golden Rule House Hotel".
	After this failed, Bill contracted with the Kansas Pacific 
Railroad, in 1867-1868, to furnish buffalo meat to the workers on the 
line.  This earned him his nickname, Buffalo Bill.
	In 1868-1872, Buffalo Bill served again as an army scout when 
he was elected to the Nebraska legislature.  In 1872, after carrying 
dispatches through hostile Indian country for Gen. Philip H. Sheridan, 
he became chief of scouts for the 5th U.S. Cavalry for four years until
1876.  During this eight year period, Buffalo Bill took place in 
sixteen Indian fights, including the defeat of the Cheyenne at Summit 
Springs, Colorado (1869), and at Hat Creek, Wyoming in 1876, he was 
famed for his "Killing of Yellow Hand".  Also during this time, in 
1869, Ned Buntline (E. Z. C. Judson) made Buffalo Bill the hero of a 
dime novel that was later dramatized, and in 1872 he persuaded Cody to 
appear on stage.  Cody broke with Buntline after a year, but remained 
an actor for eleven seasons.  Cody made his first and most authentic 
autobiography in 1879.  He was also the author of dime novels, as well 
as the hero of some 1,700 of these publications, most of them written 
by Prentiss Ingraham.
	In 1883, Buffalo Bill was so inspired by the success at a July 
4th celebration at North Platte, Nebraska, that he organized Buffalo 
Bill's Wild West Show.  This was an outdoor wild west show that 
dramatized the contemporary western scene with staged Indian fights, 
round-ups, stage robberies and buffalo hunts.  Buffalo Bill also 
introduced such stars as Buck Talor, "King of the Cowboys", the first 
cowboy hero; Annie Oakley, "Little Sure Shot"; Johnny Baker, "The 
Cowboy Kid"; and for one season Sitting Bull.  The shows acts included 
the Pony Express, the attack on the Deadwood Stagecoach, the "Rough 
Riders of the World", the roping, the bucking broncos, and the "Cowboy 
Fun", that developed into the rodeo.  Cody remained with the show for 
almost twenty years.  Showing in 1887 for Queen Victoria's Jubilee 
made it an International success and many other European tours 
followed.  Buffalo Bill's show also toured the U.S. scoring its 
greatest success at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893. 
	Buffalo Bill Cody was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor 
in 1872 for his bravery in a fight with Indians on the Platte River, 
but in 1917 Congress revoked the award because he was not a member of 
the military at the time.
	In 1901 Buffalo Bill became president of the Cody Military 
College and the International Academy of Rough Riders, a riding school 
he established on his property in Wyoming
	Buffalo Bill was about six feet tall.  He had a medium build, 
was strong, tough, and had long hair and a beard.  He married Louisa 
Frederici on March 6, 1866 and had three daughters named Arta (Dec. 16,
1866), Orra (Aug. 1872), and Irma (Feb. 9, 1883).  Buffalo Bill had 
many friends, such as Annie Oakley, Wild Bill Hickock, and others in 
his wild west show.  He also considered his buffalo gun, Lucretia, and
his horse, Brigham, his close friends.
	There are several causes Buffalo Bill was interested in.  One 
was preserving buffalo.  He did this because he felt guilty for killing
thousands of them.  By using buffalo in his show and raising them on 
his ranch, Bill helped save them from possible extinction.  Buffalo 
Bill's Wild West Show also offered Indians employment at a time when 
their opportunities were few, and many of them, for the first time 
thus learned of a world beyond the limits of their villages.
	After 1894 Cody lived on a ranch in the Bighorn Basin in 
northwestern Wyoming where he raised buffalo.  He also founded the 
town of Cody where he built the Irma Hotel, named after his daughter, 
which still stands today.
	On January 10, 1917, near Denver, Colorado, the wild west 
legend, Buffalo Bill Cody, died.  His grave is located on Lookout 
Mountain, near the town of Golden, Colorado, and can be seen by 
tourists.
	Buffalo Bill Cody was very important to the west.  Even though 
he made the mistake of killing thousands of buffalo, he realized this 
and made up for it by repopulating and raising buffalo.  Cody was 
lucky in some aspects; one was living in the wide open Plains.  
William Frederick Cody should be remembered as a wild west legend who 
showed what life was like in The Great Plains of America.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Buffalo Bill.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Buffalo Bill


	William Frederick Cody, also known as Buffalo Bill, was born into an
anti-slavery family.  He had a rough childhood, but despite this hardship he
grew up to be an adventurous wild west showman, and achieve many historical
goals.
	On February 26, 1846, near the small town of LeClair, Iowa, William F.
Cody was born to Isacc and Marry Ann Cody.  At the time William had two sisters,
Martha and Julia, and a brother, Samuel. But he ended up with three more sisters,
Eliza, Helen, and May, and another brother, Charlie. In the first eight years of
his childhood, William grew up on a farm his father owned and worked.  During
this time, William had plenty of space on the Plains to play with his brother
Sam and his black dog, Turk.  William also had some young Indian friends he met
while on a picnic with his sisters.  The Indians were trying to steal the Cody's
lunch, but Bill stopped them and became friends with them.  Besides picnics,
young Will also enjoyed riding horses, having pretend Indian fights with Sam,
and hunting in the woods.  Sadly, Samuel died when he was thrown from his horse.
Because of this, William not only lost a brother but he lost a very good friend.
	In 1854 William, along with his anti-slavery family, moved near the city
of Leavenworth, Kansas.  This was not an easy move for the Cody family seeing
how most of that part of Kansas was pro slavery.  They were worried about this
because earlier in Iowa a dispute about slavery between Isacc and his brother
Elijah, led to Elijah stabbing Isacc.  Luckily, he survived and nothing like
this happened in Kansas.  While in Iowa, Bill had received no education. After
moving to Kansas he attended several sessions of country school organized by his
father. In the two and a half months he attended, Bill learned to read and write
which would help him in his future careers.
	In order to help his family after his father's death in 1857, William
took his first job working for the firm, Russel Majors & Waddel, making wagon-
train trips across the Plains.  It was rough, but William enjoyed these frequent
trips.  Later, Will road for the Pony Express when it was established in 1860,
and was a scout and guide for the Union Army.
	When the Civil War started in 1863, Bill Cody enlisted in the 7th Kansas
Cavalry as an army scout in Indian campaigns.  In 1866, after the war was over,
Bill bought and ran a hotel in Kansas called the "Golden Rule House Hotel".
	After this failed, Bill contracted with the Kansas Pacific Railroad, in
1867-1868, to furnish buffalo meat to the workers on the line.  This earned him
his nickname, Buffalo Bill.
	In 1868-1872, Buffalo Bill served again as an army scout when he was
elected to the Nebraska legislature.  In 1872, after carrying dispatches through
hostile Indian country for Gen. Philip H. Sheridan, he became chief of scouts
for the 5th U.S. Cavalry for four years until 1876.  During this eight year
period, Buffalo Bill took place in sixteen Indian fights, including the defeat
of the Cheyenne at Summit Springs, Colorado (1869), and at Hat Creek, Wyoming in
1876, he was famed for his "Killing of Yellow Hand".  Also during this time, in
1869, Ned Buntline (E. Z. C. Judson) made Buffalo Bill the hero of a dime novel
that was later dramatized, and in 1872 he persuaded Cody to appear on stage.
Cody broke with Buntline after a year, but remained an actor for eleven seasons.
Cody made his first and most authentic autobiography in 1879.  He was also the
author of dime novels, as well as the hero of some 1,700 of these publications,
most of them written by Prentiss Ingraham.
	In 1883, Buffalo Bill was so inspired by the success at a July 4th
celebration at North Platte, Nebraska, that he organized Buffalo Bill's Wild
West Show.  This was an outdoor wild west show that dramatized the contemporary
western scene with staged Indian fights, round-ups, stage robberies and buffalo
hunts.  Buffalo Bill also introduced such stars as Buck Talor, "King of the
Cowboys", the first cowboy hero; Annie Oakley, "Little Sure Shot"; Johnny Baker,
"The Cowboy Kid"; and for one season Sitting Bull.  The shows acts included the
Pony Express, the attack on the Deadwood Stagecoach, the "Rough Riders of the
World", the roping, the bucking broncos, and the "Cowboy Fun", that developed
into the rodeo.  Cody remained with the show for almost twenty years.  Showing
in 1887 for Queen Victoria's Jubilee made it an International success and many
other European tours followed.  Buffalo Bill's show also toured the U.S. scoring
its greatest success at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893.
	Buffalo Bill Cody was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor in 1872
for his bravery in a fight with Indians on the Platte River, but in 1917
Congress revoked the award because he was not a member of the military at the
time.
	In 1901 Buffalo Bill became president of the Cody Military College and
the International Academy of Rough Riders, a riding school he established on his
property in Wyoming
	Buffalo Bill was about six feet tall.  He had a medium build, was strong,
tough, and had long hair and a beard.  He married Louisa Frederici on March 6,
1866 and had three daughters named Arta (Dec. 16, 1866), Orra (Aug. 1872), and
Irma (Feb. 9, 1883).  Buffalo Bill had many friends, such as Annie Oakley, Wild
Bill Hickock, and others in his wild west show.  He also considered his buffalo
gun, Lucretia, and his horse, Brigham, his close friends.
	There are several causes Buffalo Bill was interested in.  One was
preserving buffalo.  He did this because he felt guilty for killing thousands of
them.  By using buffalo in his show and raising them on his ranch, Bill helped
save them from possible extinction.  Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show also offered
Indians employment at a time when their opportunities were few, and many of them,
for the first time thus learned of a world beyond the limits of their villages.
	After 1894 Cody lived on a ranch in the Bighorn Basin in northwestern
Wyoming where he raised buffalo.  He also founded the town of Cody where he
built the Irma Hotel, named after his daughter, which still stands today.
	On January 10, 1917, near Denver, Colorado, the wild west legend,
Buffalo Bill Cody, died.  His grave is located on Lookout Mountain, near the
town of Golden, Colorado, and can be seen by tourists.
	Buffalo Bill Cody was very important to the west.  Even though he made
the mistake of killing thousands of buffalo, he realized this and made up for it
by repopulating and raising buffalo.  Cody was lucky in some aspects; one was
living in the wide open Plains. William Frederick Cody should be remembered as a
wild west legend who showed what life was like in The Great Plains of America.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Carl Jung 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Carl Jung



 



Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a son of a minister in Switzerland. He



was born on July 26, in the small village of Kesswil on Lake Constance. He



was named after his grandfather, a professor of medicine at the University



of Basel. He was the oldest child and only surviving son of a Swiss Reform



pastor. Two brothers died in infancy before Jung was born. Jung's mother



was a neurotic and often fought with his father. Father was usually lonely



and very irritable. When the child could not take his mother's depressions



and his parents' fights, he sought refuge in the attic, where he played



with a wooden mannikin. Carl was exposed to death early in life, since his



father was a minister and attended many funerals, taking his son with him.



Also, Jung saw many fishermen get killed in the waterfalls and also many



pigs get slaughtered. When he was eleven, he went to a school in Basel, met



many rich people and realized that he was poor, compared to them. He liked



to read very much outside of class and detested math and physical education



classes. Actually, gym class used to give him fainting spells (neurosis)



and his father worried that Jung wouldn't make a good living because of his



spells. After Carl found out about his father's concern, the faints



suddenly stopped, and Carl became much more studious.



 



He had to decide his profession. His choices included archeology,



history, medicine, and philosophy. He decided to go into medicine, partly



because of his grandfather. Carl went to the University of Basel and had



to decide then what field of medicine he was going to go into. After



reading a book on psychiatry, he decided that this was the field for him,



although psychiatry was not a respectable field at the time. Jung became



an assistant at the Burgholzli Mental hospital in Zurich, a famous medical



hospital. He studied under Eugen Bleuler, who was a famous psychiatrist



who defined schizophrenia. Jung was also influenced by Freud with whom he



later became good friends. Freud called him his crown-prince. Their



relationship ended when Jung wrote a book called "Symbols of



Transformation." Jung disagreed with Freud's fundamental idea that a symbol



is a disguised representation of a repressed wish. I will go into that



later. After splitting up with Freud, Jung had a 2 year period of



non-productivity, but then he came out with his "Psychological Types," a



famous work. He went on several trips to learn about primitive societies



and archetypes to Africa, New Mexico to study Pueblo Indians, and to India



and Ceylon to study eastern philosophy. He studied religious and occult



beliefs like I Ching, a Chinese method of fortune telling. Alchemy was



also one of his interests. His book, "Psychology and Alchemy," published



in 1944 is among his most important writings. He studied what all this



told about the human mind. One of his methods was word association, which



is when a person is given a series of words and asked to respond to them.



Abnormal response or hesitation can mean that the person has a complex



about that word.



 



His basic belief was in complex or analytical psychology. The goal is



psychosynthesis, or the unification and differentiation of the psyche



(mind). He believed that the mind started out as a whole and should stay



that way. That answered structural, dynamic, developmental questions. I



will attempt to restate the major ideas and terms in this book in a



pseudo-outline. It will make the understanding a bit more clear.



 



STRUCTURE



---------



 



Jung said that there are three levels of mind. Conscious, Personal



Subconscious, and Collective Subconscious. The conscious level serves four



functions. The following are the functions of people (not types!):



 



A. Thinking: connecting ideas in ordered strings.



B. Feeling: evaluating ideas upon feelings about them.



C. Sensing: wanting to get experiences.



D. Intuiting: following unfounded ideas.



 



A & B are called rational, and C & D are called irrational. If they



don't make much sense, they will be explained in more detail after



explaining Types.



 



There are also 2 classes of conscious behavior:



 



A. Introverted, which are people who are content to stay within their



own psyche. They base their whole life on analyzing their mind.



 



B. Extroverted, which are people who seek out other people. They care



about the outside world and adjust to it.



 



Also, one of the two classes usually dominates, and rarely does one see



an individual with perfectly balanced classes of behavior. Jung said that



an ego is a filter from the senses to the conscious mind. All ego



rejections go to the personal subconscious. The ego is highly selective.



Every day we are subjected to a vast number of experiences, most of which



do not become conscious because the ego eliminates them before they reach



consciousness. This differs from Freud's definition of ego, which we



studied in class. The personal subconscious acts like a filing cabinet for



those ego rejections. Clusters of related thoughts in the personal



subconscious form Complexes. One type of complex we have talked about in



class is the Oedipus Complex. For example, if one has a mother complex,



(s)he can not be independent of his/her mother or a similar figure.



Complexes are often highly visible to people, but unfelt by the individual



who has the complex. As already mentioned, complexes can be revealed by



word association, which will cause hang-ups, if mentioned. A strong or



total complex will dominate the life of a person, and weak or partial



complex will drive a person in a direction of it, but not too strongly. A



complex, as Jung discovered, need not be a hindrance to a person's



adjustment. In fact, quite the contrary. They can be and often are



sources of inspiration and drive which are essential for outstanding



achievement. Complexes are really suppressed feelings. Say you want to be



a fireman, but your parents don't let you, so you might have suppressed



feelings about it and let it drive you, so you might think that firemen are



heroes, because you never could be one.



 



The Collective Subconscious is hereditary. It sets up the pattern of



one's psyche. A collection of so called primordial images which people



inherit, also called archetypes are stored here. They are universal



inclinations that all people have in common somewhere by means of heredity.



The four important archetypes that play very significant roles in



everyone's personality are Persona, Anima(us), Shadow, and the Self. Here



is a brief explan ation of each.



 



Persona - from Latin word meaning "mask." Something actors wore to portray



a certain personality. In Jungian psychology, the persona



archetype serves a similar purpose; it enables one to portray a



character that is not necessarily his own. The persona is the



mask or facade one exhibits publicly, with the intention of



presenting a favourable impression so that society will accept



him. This is necessary for survival, for the reason that it



enables us to get along with people, even those we diskike, in an



amicable manner. Say, you have to get a job, and what is expected



of you is such personal characteristics such as grooming,



clothing, and manners, so even if you don't exhibit those at



home, you have to demonstrate them at work, in order to get this



job. A person may also have more than one persona.



 



Anima, Animus - Jung called the persona the "outward face" of the psyche



because it is that face which the world sees. The "inward face"



he called the anima in males and the animus in females. The anima



archetype is the female side of the masculine psyche; the animus



archetype is the masculine side of the female psyche. Man has



developed his anima archetype by continous exposure to women over



many generations, and woman has developed her animus arch etype



by her exposure to men. Anima and animus archetype, like that of



the persona, have strong survival value. If a man exhibits only



masculine traits, his feminine traits remain unconscious and



therefore these traits remain undevel oped and primitive. This,



if you will remember, is like Jack, who was a macho guy, and was



encouraged to discard all feminine traits. Jung said that since



this image is unconscious, it is always unconsciously projected



upon the person of the beloved, (i.e. girlfriend) and is one of



the chief reasons for passionate attraction or aversion. So, for



example, if I always thought that women were nagging, then I



would project that notion onto my wife, and think that she is



nagging, although she is perfectly customary. If he experiences



a "passionate attraction," then the woman undoubtedly has the



same traits as his anima-image of woman. Western civilization



seems to place a high value on conformity and to disparage



femininity in men and masculinity in women. The disparagement



beings in childhood when "sissies" and "tomboys" are ridiculed.



Peter was expected to be kind and gentle, which would bring deri



sion. Boys are simply expected to conform to a culturally



specified masculine role and girls to a feminine role. Thus, the



persona takes precedence over and stifles the anima or animus.



 



The Shadow - This is another archetype that represents one's own gender and



that influences a person's relationships with his own sex. The



shadow contains more of man's basic animal nature than any other



archetype does. Because of its extremely deep roots in



evolutionary history, it is probably the most powerful and



potentially the most dangerous of all the archetypes. It is the



source of all that is best and worst in man, especially in his



relations with others of the same sex. In order for a person to



become an integral member of the community, it is necessary to



tame his animal spirits contained in the shadow. This taming is



accomplished by suppressing manifestations of the shadow and by



developing a strong persona which counteracts the power of the



shadow. For example, if a person suppresses the animal side of



his nature, he may become civilized, but he does so at the



expense of decreasing the motive power for spontaneity,



creativity, strong emotions, and deep insights. A shadowless



life tends to become shallow and spiritless. The shadow is



extremely persistent and does not yield easily to suppression.



Say, a farmer was in spired to be a psychology teacher.



Inspirations are always the work of the shadow. The farmer does



not think this inspiration is feasible at the time, probable



since his persona as a farmer is too strong, so he rejects it.



But the idea keeps plaguing him, because of the persistent



pressure exerted by the shadow. Finally, one day he gives in and



turns from farming to teaching psychology. When the ego and the



shadow work in close harmony, the person feels full of life and



vigor.



 



The Self - The concept of the total personality or psyche is a central



feature of Jung's psychology. This wholeness, as pointed out in



the discussion of the psyche, is not achieved by putting the



parts together in a jigsaw fashion; it is there to begin with,



although it takes time to mature. It is sometimes manifested in



dreams, it leads to self realization, its the driving force to be



a complete person! The self is the central archetype in the col



lective unconscious, much as the sun us the center of the solar



system. It unites the personality. When a person says he feels



in harmony with himself and with the world, we can be sure that



the self archetype is performing its work effectively.



 



There are three ways how your psyche works together. One structure may



compensate for the weakness of another structure, one component may oppose



another component, and two or more structures may unite to form a



synthesis. Compensation may be illustrated by the contrasting attitudes of



extraversion and introversion. If extraversion is the dominant or superior



attitude of the conscious ego, then the unconscious will compensate by



devel oping the repressed attitude of introversion. Compensation also



occurs between function, which I briefly mentioned earlier. A person who



stresses thinking or feeling in his conscious mind will be an intuitive,



sensation type unconsciously. As we studied in class, this balance, which



compensation provides us with, is healthy. It prevents our psyches from



becoming neurotically unbalanced. We need to have a little Peter and Jack



in all of us. Opposition exists everywhere in the personality: between



the persona and the shadow, between the persona and the anima, and between



the shadow and the anima. The contest between the rational and irrational



forces of the psyche never ceases either. One's integrity of "self" can



actually determine whether or not this opposition will cause a shattering



of a personality. Must personality always by a house divided against



itself, though? Jung thought not. There can always be a union of



opposites, a theme that looms very large in Jung's writings.



 



 



DYNAMICS



--------



 



The psyche is a relatively closed system that has only a fixed amount of



energy also called Values, which is the amount of energy devoted to a



component of the mind. There are some channels into the psyche through



which ene rgy can enter in form of experiences. If the psyche were a



totally closed systems, it could reach a state of perfect balance, for it



would not be subjected to interference from the outside. The slightest



stimulus may have far-reaching consequences on one's mental stability.



This shows that it is not the amount of energy that is added, but the



disruptive effects that the added energy produces within the psyche. These



disruptive effects are caused by massive redistributions of energy within



the system. It takes only the slightest pressure on the trigger of a



loaded gun to cause a great disaster. Similarly, it may take only the



slightest addition of energy to an unstable psyche to produce large effects



in a person's behavior. Psychic energy is also called Libido. It is not



to be confused with Freud's definition of libido. Jung did not restrict



libido to sexual energy as Freud did. In fact, this is one of the



essential differences in the theories of the two men. It can be classified



as actual or potential forces that perform psychological work. It is often



expressed in desires and wants for objects. The values for things are



hidden in complexes.



 



The psyche is always active, yet it is still very difficult for people to



accept this view of a continuously active psyche, because there is a strong



tendency to equate psychic activity with conscious activity. Jung, as well



as Freud, hammered away at this misconception, but it persists even today.



The source of psychic energy is derived from one's instincts and diverted



into other uses. Like a waterfall is used to create energy, you have to



use your instincts to turn into energy as well. Otherwise, just like the



waterfall, your instincts are completely fruitless. For example, if you



think that to get a beautiful wife, you have to be rich, so you direct your



sexual drive into a business persona, which will bring you money.



 



There are two principles of psychic dynamics. What happens to all that



energy?



 



1. Principle of Equivalence. Energy is not created nor destroyed. If



it leaves something, it has to surface. For example, if a child devoted a



lot of energy to reading comics, it might be redirected into a different



persona, som ething like being Mr. Cool Dude! He then will loose interest



in reading comics. Energy also has an inclination to carry tendencies of



its source to its destination.



 



2. Principle of Entropy. Energy usually flows from high to low. If you



have a highly developed structure (persona, for example), instead of



equalizing, it may start drawing values from other systems to boost itself



even higher. Such highly energized systems have a tendency to go BOOOOM!



So, entropy can destroy those high energy systems if they get too big. The



operation of the entropy principle results in an equilibrium of forces.



Just like two bodies of different temperatures touching each other would



soon equalize temperatures. The hotter one will transfer heat to the



cooler one. Once a balance is reached in your psyche, according to Jung, it



will be then difficult to disturb. Tho se two principles influence the



following:



 



Progression and Regression. Progression is the advance of psychological



adaptation. For example, if you need a shadow (creativity, perhaps), you



will try to develop one. When conflicting traits loose power, your psyche



enters regression. Say, your persona and shadow are in opposition and



because they are in opposition, they both would be suppressed, because



neither would get enough libido, or energy.



 



 



DEVELOPMENT



-----------



 



Jung stated that there are basically four stages of life. They are



Childhood, Youth and Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age. In the



beginning (childhood), a person's psyche is undefferentiated and this



person becomes a projection of the parents psyche. Children are not



individuals in the beginning of their life, because their ir memories don't



have too much stored in them and they lack a sense of continuity because of



that. As they gain experience, they realize that they are their own person



and not their parents' projection. The stage of youth and adulthood is



announced by the physiological changes that occur during puberty. During



this stage, an individual establishes his/her position in life. His



vocation and marriage partner are determined. A person usually uses his



Anima and Shadow to d ecide those things. Values are channeled into his



establishment in the outside world. Once one is independent, even a small



experience can influence him greatly. The Middle Age is the one often



neglected by psychiatrists. Lots of people have problems in this stage.



They usually don't know what to do with the energy left over that was



devoted to establishing positions in society as youth. As the principle of



entropy suggests, the energy is conserved, so once an adult put it to use,



he must redirect it elsewhere. Jung stated that those left-over energies



can be usefully diverted into spiritual contemplation and expansion.



Nothing much happens in old age. People have so much energy of experiences



in their psyche that even a major experience won't upset their



psychological balance.



 



Often, society will force people to assume prefered types. Types are



categories of classifications of psyches which are non-absolute and have no



definite boundaries. There are eight "types." Types are combinations of



functions and attitudes (page 3). The following are the eight main types:



 



1. Extraverted Thinking Type. This type of man elevates objective



thinking into the ruling passion of his life. He is typified by the



scientist who devotes his energy to learning as much as he can about



the objective world. The most developed extraverted thinker is an



Einstein.



 



2. Introverted Thinking Type. This type is inward-directed in his



thinking. He is exemplified by the philosopher or existential



psychologist who seeks to understand the reality of his own being.



He may eventually break his ties with reality and become



schizophrenic.



 



3. Extraverted Feeling Type. This type, which Jung observes is more



frequently found in women, subordinates thinking to feeling.



 



4. Introverted Feeling Type. This type is also more commonly found



among women. Unlike their extraverted sisters, introverted feeling



persons keep their feelings hidden from the world.



 



5. Extraverted Sensation Type. People of this type, mainly men, take an



interest in accumulating facts about the external world. They are



realistic, practical, and hardheaded, but they are not particularly



concerned about what things mean.



 



6. Introverted Sensation Type. Like all introverts, the introverted



sensation type stands aloof from external objects, immersing himself



in his own psychic sensations. He considers the world to be banal



and uninteresting.



 



7. Extraverted Intuitive Type. People of this type, commonly women, are



characterized by flightiness and instability. They jump from



situation to situation to discover new possibilities in the external



world. They are always looking for new worlds to conquer before they



have conquered old ones.



 



8. Introverted Intuitive Type. The artist is a representative of this



type, but it also contains dreamers, prophets, visionaries, and



cranks. He usually thinks of himself as a misunderstood genius.



 



Variations in the degree to which each of the attitudes and functions are



consciously developed or remain unconscious and undeveloped can produce a



wide range of differences among individuals.



 



This book is an extremely valuable source of thought provoking logic.



Jung wrote with common sense, passion, and compassion, and the reader



experiences a "shock of recognition"; he will recognize truths he has



known, but which he has not been able to express in words. This book made



me think about myself, and people in general. How people's minds work,



including my own. I found a lot of "truth" or at least I though I did in



Jung's teachings. I could relate some of the reading material to elements



studied in class. One will be astounded by the number of Jung's ideas that



anticipated those of later writers. Many of the new trends in psychology



and related fields are indebted to Jung, who first gave them their



direction. The book is also interesting, because of its challenging



nature. I suppose that not all people would enjoy reading such type of



literature, since many people in this world are sensational types. I



certainly did enjoy it, and have found out some things about myself in the



process. The book is very well written. It has many good analogies and



explanations which even the most sensational type would understand. The



collection of information is tremendous. There is so much information



bundled in 130 pages, that it makes you think that 500 pages would not be



enough to really explain deeply the subject matter. This book can be



faultlessly us ed as a textbook, which could prove to be salutary in



psychology classes. I strongly recommend reading this book to all



audiences that want to. A person, content with the world around him, not



wishing to challenge the puzzles of nature, should not. This book is a



treasure for all who seek to explore the human mind.



 



Ilya Shmulevich 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Carl Jung.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Carl Jung



 



Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was a son of a minister in Switzerland. He



was born on July 26, in the small village of Kesswil on Lake Constance. He



was named after his grandfather, a professor of medicine at the University



of Basel. He was the oldest child and only surviving son of a Swiss Reform



pastor. Two brothers died in infancy before Jung was born. Jung's mother



was a neurotic and often fought with his father. Father was usually lonely



and very irritable. When the child could not take his mother's depressions



and his parents' fights, he sought refuge in the attic, where he played



with a wooden mannikin. Carl was exposed to death early in life, since his



father was a minister and attended many funerals, taking his son with him.



Also, Jung saw many fishermen get killed in the waterfalls and also many



pigs get slaughtered. When he was eleven, he went to a school in Basel, met



many rich people and realized that he was poor, compared to them. He liked



to read very much outside of class and detested math and physical education



classes. Actually, gym class used to give him fainting spells (neurosis)



and his father worried that Jung wouldn't make a good living because of his



spells. After Carl found out about his father's concern, the faints



suddenly stopped, and Carl became much more studious.



 



He had to decide his profession. His choices included archeology,



history, medicine, and philosophy. He decided to go into medicine, partly



because of his grandfather. Carl went to the University of Basel and had



to decide then what field of medicine he was going to go into. After



reading a book on psychiatry, he decided that this was the field for him,



although psychiatry was not a respectable field at the time. Jung became



an assistant at the Burgholzli Mental hospital in Zurich, a famous medical



hospital. He studied under Eugen Bleuler, who was a famous psychiatrist



who defined schizophrenia. Jung was also influenced by Freud with whom he



later became good friends. Freud called him his crown-prince. Their



relationship ended when Jung wrote a book called "Symbols of



Transformation." Jung disagreed with Freud's fundamental idea that a symbol



is a disguised representation of a repressed wish. I will go into that



later. After splitting up with Freud, Jung had a 2 year period of



non-productivity, but then he came out with his "Psychological Types," a



famous work. He went on several trips to learn about primitive societies



and archetypes to Africa, New Mexico to study Pueblo Indians, and to India



and Ceylon to study eastern philosophy. He studied religious and occult



beliefs like I Ching, a Chinese method of fortune telling. Alchemy was



also one of his interests. His book, "Psychology and Alchemy," published



in 1944 is among his most important writings. He studied what all this



told about the human mind. One of his methods was word association, which



is when a person is given a series of words and asked to respond to them.



Abnormal response or hesitation can mean that the person has a complex



about that word.



 



His basic belief was in complex or analytical psychology. The goal is



psychosynthesis, or the unification and differentiation of the psyche



(mind). He believed that the mind started out as a whole and should stay



that way. That answered structural, dynamic, developmental questions. I



will attempt to restate the major ideas and terms in this book in a



pseudo-outline. It will make the understanding a bit more clear.



 



STRUCTURE



---------



 



Jung said that there are three levels of mind. Conscious, Personal



Subconscious, and Collective Subconscious. The conscious level serves four



functions. The following are the functions of people (not types!):



 



A. Thinking: connecting ideas in ordered strings.



B. Feeling: evaluating ideas upon feelings about them.



C. Sensing: wanting to get experiences.



D. Intuiting: following unfounded ideas.



 



A & B are called rational, and C & D are called irrational. If they



don't make much sense, they will be explained in more detail after



explaining Types.



 



There are also 2 classes of conscious behavior:



 



A. Introverted, which are people who are content to stay within their



own psyche. They base their whole life on analyzing their mind.



 



B. Extroverted, which are people who seek out other people. They care



about the outside world and adjust to it.



 



Also, one of the two classes usually dominates, and rarely does one see



an individual with perfectly balanced classes of behavior. Jung said that



an ego is a filter from the senses to the conscious mind. All ego



rejections go to the personal subconscious. The ego is highly selective.



Every day we are subjected to a vast number of experiences, most of which



do not become conscious because the ego eliminates them before they reach



consciousness. This differs from Freud's definition of ego, which we



studied in class. The personal subconscious acts like a filing cabinet for



those ego rejections. Clusters of related thoughts in the personal



subconscious form Complexes. One type of complex we have talked about in



class is the Oedipus Complex. For example, if one has a mother complex,



(s)he can not be independent of his/her mother or a similar figure.



Complexes are often highly visible to people, but unfelt by the individual



who has the complex. As already mentioned, complexes can be revealed by



word association, which will cause hang-ups, if mentioned. A strong or



total complex will dominate the life of a person, and weak or partial



complex will drive a person in a direction of it, but not too strongly. A



complex, as Jung discovered, need not be a hindrance to a person's



adjustment. In fact, quite the contrary. They can be and often are



sources of inspiration and drive which are essential for outstanding



achievement. Complexes are really suppressed feelings. Say you want to be



a fireman, but your parents don't let you, so you might have suppressed



feelings about it and let it drive you, so you might think that firemen are



heroes, because you never could be one.



 



The Collective Subconscious is hereditary. It sets up the pattern of



one's psyche. A collection of so called primordial images which people



inherit, also called archetypes are stored here. They are universal



inclinations that all people have in common somewhere by means of heredity.



The four important archetypes that play very significant roles in



everyone's personality are Persona, Anima(us), Shadow, and the Self. Here



is a brief explan ation of each.



 



Persona - from Latin word meaning "mask." Something actors wore to portray



a certain personality. In Jungian psychology, the persona



archetype serves a similar purpose; it enables one to portray a



character that is not necessarily his own. The persona is the



mask or facade one exhibits publicly, with the intention of



presenting a favourable impression so that society will accept



him. This is necessary for survival, for the reason that it



enables us to get along with people, even those we diskike, in an



amicable manner. Say, you have to get a job, and what is expected



of you is such personal characteristics such as grooming,



clothing, and manners, so even if you don't exhibit those at



home, you have to demonstrate them at work, in order to get this



job. A person may also have more than one persona.



 



Anima, Animus - Jung called the persona the "outward face" of the psyche



because it is that face which the world sees. The "inward face"



he called the anima in males and the animus in females. The anima



archetype is the female side of the masculine psyche; the animus



archetype is the masculine side of the female psyche. Man has



developed his anima archetype by continous exposure to women over



many generations, and woman has developed her animus arch etype



by her exposure to men. Anima and animus archetype, like that of



the persona, have strong survival value. If a man exhibits only



masculine traits, his feminine traits remain unconscious and



therefore these traits remain undevel oped and primitive. This,



if you will remember, is like Jack, who was a macho guy, and was



encouraged to discard all feminine traits. Jung said that since



this image is unconscious, it is always unconsciously projected



upon the person of the beloved, (i.e. girlfriend) and is one of



the chief reasons for passionate attraction or aversion. So, for



example, if I always thought that women were nagging, then I



would project that notion onto my wife, and think that she is



nagging, although she is perfectly customary. If he experiences



a "passionate attraction," then the woman undoubtedly has the



same traits as his anima-image of woman. Western civilization



seems to place a high value on conformity and to disparage



femininity in men and masculinity in women. The disparagement



beings in childhood when "sissies" and "tomboys" are ridiculed.



Peter was expected to be kind and gentle, which would bring deri



sion. Boys are simply expected to conform to a culturally



specified masculine role and girls to a feminine role. Thus, the



persona takes precedence over and stifles the anima or animus.



 



The Shadow - This is another archetype that represents one's own gender and



that influences a person's relationships with his own sex. The



shadow contains more of man's basic animal nature than any other



archetype does. Because of its extremely deep roots in



evolutionary history, it is probably the most powerful and



potentially the most dangerous of all the archetypes. It is the



source of all that is best and worst in man, especially in his



relations with others of the same sex. In order for a person to



become an integral member of the community, it is necessary to



tame his animal spirits contained in the shadow. This taming is



accomplished by suppressing manifestations of the shadow and by



developing a strong persona which counteracts the power of the



shadow. For example, if a person suppresses the animal side of



his nature, he may become civilized, but he does so at the



expense of decreasing the motive power for spontaneity,



creativity, strong emotions, and deep insights. A shadowless



life tends to become shallow and spiritless. The shadow is



extremely persistent and does not yield easily to suppression.



Say, a farmer was in spired to be a psychology teacher.



Inspirations are always the work of the shadow. The farmer does



not think this inspiration is feasible at the time, probable



since his persona as a farmer is too strong, so he rejects it.



But the idea keeps plaguing him, because of the persistent



pressure exerted by the shadow. Finally, one day he gives in and



turns from farming to teaching psychology. When the ego and the



shadow work in close harmony, the person feels full of life and



vigor.



 



The Self - The concept of the total personality or psyche is a central



feature of Jung's psychology. This wholeness, as pointed out in



the discussion of the psyche, is not achieved by putting the



parts together in a jigsaw fashion; it is there to begin with,



although it takes time to mature. It is sometimes manifested in



dreams, it leads to self realization, its the driving force to be



a complete person! The self is the central archetype in the col



lective unconscious, much as the sun us the center of the solar



system. It unites the personality. When a person says he feels



in harmony with himself and with the world, we can be sure that



the self archetype is performing its work effectively.



 



There are three ways how your psyche works together. One structure may



compensate for the weakness of another structure, one component may oppose



another component, and two or more structures may unite to form a



synthesis. Compensation may be illustrated by the contrasting attitudes of



extraversion and introversion. If extraversion is the dominant or superior



attitude of the conscious ego, then the unconscious will compensate by



devel oping the repressed attitude of introversion. Compensation also



occurs between function, which I briefly mentioned earlier. A person who



stresses thinking or feeling in his conscious mind will be an intuitive,



sensation type unconsciously. As we studied in class, this balance, which



compensation provides us with, is healthy. It prevents our psyches from



becoming neurotically unbalanced. We need to have a little Peter and Jack



in all of us. Opposition exists everywhere in the personality: between



the persona and the shadow, between the persona and the anima, and between



the shadow and the anima. The contest between the rational and irrational



forces of the psyche never ceases either. One's integrity of "self" can



actually determine whether or not this opposition will cause a shattering



of a personality. Must personality always by a house divided against



itself, though? Jung thought not. There can always be a union of



opposites, a theme that looms very large in Jung's writings.



 



 



DYNAMICS



--------



 



The psyche is a relatively closed system that has only a fixed amount of



energy also called Values, which is the amount of energy devoted to a



component of the mind. There are some channels into the psyche through



which ene rgy can enter in form of experiences. If the psyche were a



totally closed systems, it could reach a state of perfect balance, for it



would not be subjected to interference from the outside. The slightest



stimulus may have far-reaching consequences on one's mental stability.



This shows that it is not the amount of energy that is added, but the



disruptive effects that the added energy produces within the psyche. These



disruptive effects are caused by massive redistributions of energy within



the system. It takes only the slightest pressure on the trigger of a



loaded gun to cause a great disaster. Similarly, it may take only the



slightest addition of energy to an unstable psyche to produce large effects



in a person's behavior. Psychic energy is also called Libido. It is not



to be confused with Freud's definition of libido. Jung did not restrict



libido to sexual energy as Freud did. In fact, this is one of the



essential differences in the theories of the two men. It can be classified



as actual or potential forces that perform psychological work. It is often



expressed in desires and wants for objects. The values for things are



hidden in complexes.



 



The psyche is always active, yet it is still very difficult for people to



accept this view of a continuously active psyche, because there is a strong



tendency to equate psychic activity with conscious activity. Jung, as well



as Freud, hammered away at this misconception, but it persists even today.



The source of psychic energy is derived from one's instincts and diverted



into other uses. Like a waterfall is used to create energy, you have to



use your instincts to turn into energy as well. Otherwise, just like the



waterfall, your instincts are completely fruitless. For example, if you



think that to get a beautiful wife, you have to be rich, so you direct your



sexual drive into a business persona, which will bring you money.



 



There are two principles of psychic dynamics. What happens to all that



energy?



 



1. Principle of Equivalence. Energy is not created nor destroyed. If



it leaves something, it has to surface. For example, if a child devoted a



lot of energy to reading comics, it might be redirected into a different



persona, som ething like being Mr. Cool Dude! He then will loose interest



in reading comics. Energy also has an inclination to carry tendencies of



its source to its destination.



 



2. Principle of Entropy. Energy usually flows from high to low. If you



have a highly developed structure (persona, for example), instead of



equalizing, it may start drawing values from other systems to boost itself



even higher. Such highly energized systems have a tendency to go BOOOOM!



So, entropy can destroy those high energy systems if they get too big. The



operation of the entropy principle results in an equilibrium of forces.



Just like two bodies of different temperatures touching each other would



soon equalize temperatures. The hotter one will transfer heat to the



cooler one. Once a balance is reached in your psyche, according to Jung, it



will be then difficult to disturb. Tho se two principles influence the



following:



 



Progression and Regression. Progression is the advance of psychological



adaptation. For example, if you need a shadow (creativity, perhaps), you



will try to develop one. When conflicting traits loose power, your psyche



enters regression. Say, your persona and shadow are in opposition and



because they are in opposition, they both would be suppressed, because



neither would get enough libido, or energy.



 



 



DEVELOPMENT



-----------



 



Jung stated that there are basically four stages of life. They are



Childhood, Youth and Young Adulthood, Middle Age, and Old Age. In the



beginning (childhood), a person's psyche is undefferentiated and this



person becomes a projection of the parents psyche. Children are not



individuals in the beginning of their life, because their ir memories don't



have too much stored in them and they lack a sense of continuity because of



that. As they gain experience, they realize that they are their own person



and not their parents' projection. The stage of youth and adulthood is



announced by the physiological changes that occur during puberty. During



this stage, an individual establishes his/her position in life. His



vocation and marriage partner are determined. A person usually uses his



Anima and Shadow to d ecide those things. Values are channeled into his



establishment in the outside world. Once one is independent, even a small



experience can influence him greatly. The Middle Age is the one often



neglected by psychiatrists. Lots of people have problems in this stage.



They usually don't know what to do with the energy left over that was



devoted to establishing positions in society as youth. As the principle of



entropy suggests, the energy is conserved, so once an adult put it to use,



he must redirect it elsewhere. Jung stated that those left-over energies



can be usefully diverted into spiritual contemplation and expansion.



Nothing much happens in old age. People have so much energy of experiences



in their psyche that even a major experience won't upset their



psychological balance.



 



Often, society will force people to assume prefered types. Types are



categories of classifications of psyches which are non-absolute and have no



definite boundaries. There are eight "types." Types are combinations of



functions and attitudes (page 3). The following are the eight main types:



 



1. Extraverted Thinking Type. This type of man elevates objective



thinking into the ruling passion of his life. He is typified by the



scientist who devotes his energy to learning as much as he can about



the objective world. The most developed extraverted thinker is an



Einstein.



 



2. Introverted Thinking Type. This type is inward-directed in his



thinking. He is exemplified by the philosopher or existential



psychologist who seeks to understand the reality of his own being.



He may eventually break his ties with reality and become



schizophrenic.



 



3. Extraverted Feeling Type. This type, which Jung observes is more



frequently found in women, subordinates thinking to feeling.



 



4. Introverted Feeling Type. This type is also more commonly found



among women. Unlike their extraverted sisters, introverted feeling



persons keep their feelings hidden from the world.



 



5. Extraverted Sensation Type. People of this type, mainly men, take an



interest in accumulating facts about the external world. They are



realistic, practical, and hardheaded, but they are not particularly



concerned about what things mean.



 



6. Introverted Sensation Type. Like all introverts, the introverted



sensation type stands aloof from external objects, immersing himself



in his own psychic sensations. He considers the world to be banal



and uninteresting.



 



7. Extraverted Intuitive Type. People of this type, commonly women, are



characterized by flightiness and instability. They jump from



situation to situation to discover new possibilities in the external



world. They are always looking for new worlds to conquer before they



have conquered old ones.



 



8. Introverted Intuitive Type. The artist is a representative of this



type, but it also contains dreamers, prophets, visionaries, and



cranks. He usually thinks of himself as a misunderstood genius.



 



Variations in the degree to which each of the attitudes and functions are



consciously developed or remain unconscious and undeveloped can produce a



wide range of differences among individuals.



 



This book is an extremely valuable source of thought provoking logic.



Jung wrote with common sense, passion, and compassion, and the reader



experiences a "shock of recognition"; he will recognize truths he has



known, but which he has not been able to express in words. This book made



me think about myself, and people in general. How people's minds work,



including my own. I found a lot of "truth" or at least I though I did in



Jung's teachings. I could relate some of the reading material to elements



studied in class. One will be astounded by the number of Jung's ideas that



anticipated those of later writers. Many of the new trends in psychology



and related fields are indebted to Jung, who first gave them their



direction. The book is also interesting, because of its challenging



nature. I suppose that not all people would enjoy reading such type of



literature, since many people in this world are sensational types. I



certainly did enjoy it, and have found out some things about myself in the



process. The book is very well written. It has many good analogies and



explanations which even the most sensational type would understand. The



collection of information is tremendous. There is so much information



bundled in 130 pages, that it makes you think that 500 pages would not be



enough to really explain deeply the subject matter. This book can be



faultlessly us ed as a textbook, which could prove to be salutary in



psychology classes. I strongly recommend reading this book to all



audiences that want to. A person, content with the world around him, not



wishing to challenge the puzzles of nature, should not. This book is a



treasure for all who seek to explore the human mind.



 



Ilya Shmulevich 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Changing Attitudes of Ferhat Abbas 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
CHANGING ATTITUDES OF FERHAT ABBAS

Introduction

	Ferhat Abbas believed in the peaceful solution and that the French are willing to co-operate with the Algerians. With this co-operation, he thought, it was possible for all to live together. He was brought up and thought to believe in democracy and parliament, to look for these in a peaceful fashion and that the people have to be asked what to do with their country and not to be terrorised to be convinced differently.  However in the 1950's we can see a clear change, a turn in his thoughts. He accepts more violent ways in order to gain what he believes in. 
In order to explain the change in attitudes of Ferhat Abbas it is important that we first look at his background.  In 1899 Ferhat Abbas was born.  He had, like many others, received entirely French education at Constantine and at the University of Algiers.  After finishing his studies he had served the French Army for two year after which he founded a pharmacist shop in Setif.  There he also founded a student union which was a start of his political career.  Soon he was accepted into the city Council where he fought for the emancipation of Algerians from the French.    In 1938 Abbas founded the Union Populaire Algérienne which peacefully fought for the equal rights of Algerians and French.  Believing in the possible co-operation of French and Algerians he had, fought alongside the French.


Political Career

	During the war Abbas still continues his work towards the equality.  In 1943 he wrote the 'Manifesto of the Algerian People' which was than proclaimed and several times sent to the French authorities.  
"The French colony only admits equality with Muslim Algeria on one level; sacrifice on the battlefields." This manifesto represented some very revolutionary ideas and proposed the equality of rights and "immediate and effective participation."  Also in this manifesto Abbas continuously condemns the French oppressive colonialism and even asks for the self- determination of the whole population as a different culture.  Soon afterward he wrote an addition to the manifesto in which he sees the Algeria as the country separate from France.  In the book 'A Savage War of Peace' his attitude is described as following:
 "Of pacific temperament, although he was a skilful debater, he was no rabble-
 rouser..."(Horne,1979, p.40).	


The A.M.L

On its rejection by the French governor general, Ferhat Abbas and an Algerian working-class leader, Messali Hadj, formed the Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté (A.M.L. ; Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty), which envisioned an Algerian autonomous republic federated to a renewed, anti-colonial France. This party saw that the Algeria should be decolonised and that the French should leave the ruling to the Algerian people.  Mesaslli was a trouble maker and believed in constant activity of the party in order to gain attention needed.  The activity mostly was in the form of open speeches and leaflets.  It did gain lot of support but also attracted the attention of the French.   Soon the French dealt with the A.M.L. The ideas were to rebellious for the authorities to overlook.  Abbas was imprisoned for a year.  In the prison he meets other politicians with the similar ideas like himself.  Also when Abbas was thrown to prison his party, the A.M.L., was abolished. 


The U.D.M.A

In 1946, after a year of imprisonment Ferhat Abbas founded the Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien (U.D.M.A. ; Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto), which advocated co-operation with France in the formation of the Algerian state.  This union has many times tried to propose the agreement with the French whereby the power could be shared.  On one meeting he said:
"It is a hundred and sixteen years that we have been waiting this moments, that is to say the opportunity of being here and making ourselves heard among you....Therefore, have patience, I ask and beg of you...We are but a very small minority.  Be generous...!" 
(Horne, 1979, p.73).
Again the propositions were rejected.  Ferhat Abbas tried further to perceive his views in his peaceful and democratic fashion only to be ignored again. The best proof of his belief into the French is his speech to the Assembly, and the French, in 1954:






Ferhat joins F.L.N.

Abbas' moderate and conciliatory attempts failed to evoke a sympathetic response from the French colonial officials, and in 1956 he escaped to Cairo to join the Front de Libération Nationale (F.L.N.), an Algerian organisation committed to revolutionary struggle for independence from France founded in 1954. 
	In 1956 we can see the change in Abbas's attitude.  In that year he joins the F.L.N. which was committed towards the similar views as him but believed in different techniques in gaining them.  F.L.N. believed that the use of aggression and violence was necessary to convince the French that the people want independence.  They often used urban guerrilla techniques to sabotage the French.  These techniques included hidden bombs in French buildings, killing of the street police, smuggling weapons, ...







F.L.N. believed in forceful action which could paralyse the whole Algerian system.  Abbas himself gave a speech in which he approves the change:






Why did Abbas change his views?

There are several of factors which made Abbas switch sides from pacific to a more radical and liberationist stance in such a short notice.  As we can see from before he had in many different ways attempted to convince the French government that the change is really needed and that if they will not allow it the conflict will spark off.  These peaceful attempts were a failure. 
Another important factor was the assassination of Ferhat's brother because it was believed that he was connected with the French in 1955 and this was blamed on French although it was a deed of F.L.N. Many historians argue that Abbas was afraid for his own life from the F.L.N. and that this played a major role in deciding weather to join them. 
In 1955 Abbas takes a trip to France as the last attempt to peacefully gain some rights but he was just again rejected by the French authorities. This trip was Abbas' last hope. When he got back the asked him:
"Well, is it peace?"
"He replied: 'No, it's war.'
Finally there was the gaining of independence by Tunisia and Morocco.  These countries have managed to separate from the French and create their own government in 1956.  This further convinced Abbas that he should change his tactics. The creation of F.L.N. has attracted many of Arabs and Abbas saw that joining with them would create a huge mass of people. Abbas had already considered to join the FLN and now was convinced. Same year he wrote in a newspaper:

	



The change and acceptance of F.L.N. by Abbas was a huge step towards uniting the rebels against the French which made the actions and negotiations much more favourable for the F.L.N. with the French government. Horne also states and emphasises this point:
	"Undoubtedly the most important single acquisition to the F.L.N. during this period was the person of the arch-apostle of moderation, Ferhat Abbas himself."
	(Horne, 1979, p.140).




	Abbas's work inside the F.L.N. and the G.P.R.A.

In 1958, when the Provisional Governemnt of Algerian Republic (G.P.R.A.) was formed, Ferhat Abbas was declared a president.  They were situated outside the country for their safety.  Before even becoming a president of G.P.R.A. Abbas had already been contacted by the Farès, former president of Algerian Assembly. Farès was a connection of Abbas to de Gaulle, French president.  Still Abbas did not trust the French the way he once did:
"...Farès informed Abbas...that de Gaulle was ready to 'open serious negotiations with the rebels'.   Abbas seemed receptive, declaring that he personally would be prepared to participate in ' any kind of conversation on neutral ground'." 
(Horne, 1979, p.319)
In the 1961 the open negotiations were organised between the provisional government and the French.  Due to French unwillingness to co-operate and the Ferhat Abbass's huge demands the negotiations proved a failure.  Than Ferhat Abbas resigned from the position of the president, but the people who accepted his government wanted to keep him in power so he was chosen a president of the Algerian Constutuent Assembly in 1962 after Algeria had gained it's independence. 
	Although Ferhat Abbas had made a alliance with F.L.N. he had never agreed with its policies. He was a believer in the parliamentary institutions and the constitution. But F.L.N. did not care for that. The name of Ferhat Abbas was extremely famous and him becoming a member meant that lot of people who trusted hi judgement would join this is confirmed by Horne as well:
"With Abbas as the front piece, however, a new and a seductive appearance of flexibility and softness of approach temporarily cloaked the G.P.R.A." 
(Horne, 1979, p.317).

Resignation from presidency
When F.L.N. published an Algerian constitution without the help of the Constituent Assembly, Ferhat Abbas saw his goals much different than what he believed in and therefore he resigned.  He hoped for a peaceful solution after which a democratic system would be established.  Also he wished to have power spread out more and not so concentrated in the top of the government.  In 1963, with his resignation he was expelled from the F.L.N.  The president in power, Ahmed Ben-Bella was a man with whom Ferhat Abbas did not agree.  Ben-Bella was aware of the reputation that Abbas had with the people and therefore could not allow him to speak or write against him. Ferhat Abbas was placed, in Algeria, under house imprisonment for year. 
	The changes in the attitude of Ferhat Abbas were caused by the series of attempts to negotiate and constant ignoring by the French government.  He understood that the only way to get the attention of the French would be to take some action. Since FLN was prepared to take action he had agreed to join it. The book "War in Algeria" yet states a rather different reason for Ferhat's change of the attitude: "...though most escaped, Ferhat Abbas' nephew was killed. Abbas himself was one of the designated victims. But he soon made his peace with the FLN, and joined them in Cairo..."  (Jackson, 1977, p.172)
	From the source we can see that the historian thinks that Abbas was scared for his own life. It explains that FLN had killed everyone who not only supported the government but did not wish to join their party. Abbas was one of them.
 In my opinion this does not seem quite true because as we saw before and after this incident Ferhat was not afraid to speak up and tell the people what be thought even for the price of his life. Even when he did join the FLN for that particular reason he would never become the president of that kind of the government unless he agreed with them.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Changing Attitudes of Ferhat Abbas.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
CHANGING ATTITUDES OF FERHAT ABBAS

Introduction

	Ferhat Abbas believed in the peaceful solution and that the French are willing to co-operate with the Algerians. With this co-operation, he thought, it was possible for all to live together. He was brought up and thought to believe in democracy and parliament, to look for these in a peaceful fashion and that the people have to be asked what to do with their country and not to be terrorised to be convinced differently.  However in the 1950's we can see a clear change, a turn in his thoughts. He accepts more violent ways in order to gain what he believes in. 
In order to explain the change in attitudes of Ferhat Abbas it is important that we first look at his background.  In 1899 Ferhat Abbas was born.  He had, like many others, received entirely French education at Constantine and at the University of Algiers.  After finishing his studies he had served the French Army for two year after which he founded a pharmacist shop in Setif.  There he also founded a student union which was a start of his political career.  Soon he was accepted into the city Council where he fought for the emancipation of Algerians from the French.    In 1938 Abbas founded the Union Populaire Algérienne which peacefully fought for the equal rights of Algerians and French.  Believing in the possible co-operation of French and Algerians he had, fought alongside the French.


Political Career

	During the war Abbas still continues his work towards the equality.  In 1943 he wrote the 'Manifesto of the Algerian People' which was than proclaimed and several times sent to the French authorities.  
"The French colony only admits equality with Muslim Algeria on one level; sacrifice on the battlefields." This manifesto represented some very revolutionary ideas and proposed the equality of rights and "immediate and effective participation."  Also in this manifesto Abbas continuously condemns the French oppressive colonialism and even asks for the self- determination of the whole population as a different culture.  Soon afterward he wrote an addition to the manifesto in which he sees the Algeria as the country separate from France.  In the book 'A Savage War of Peace' his attitude is described as following:
 "Of pacific temperament, although he was a skilful debater, he was no rabble-
 rouser..."(Horne,1979, p.40).	


The A.M.L

On its rejection by the French governor general, Ferhat Abbas and an Algerian working-class leader, Messali Hadj, formed the Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté (A.M.L. ; Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty), which envisioned an Algerian autonomous republic federated to a renewed, anti-colonial France. This party saw that the Algeria should be decolonised and that the French should leave the ruling to the Algerian people.  Mesaslli was a trouble maker and believed in constant activity of the party in order to gain attention needed.  The activity mostly was in the form of open speeches and leaflets.  It did gain lot of support but also attracted the attention of the French.   Soon the French dealt with the A.M.L. The ideas were to rebellious for the authorities to overlook.  Abbas was imprisoned for a year.  In the prison he meets other politicians with the similar ideas like himself.  Also when Abbas was thrown to prison his party, the A.M.L., was abolished. 


The U.D.M.A

In 1946, after a year of imprisonment Ferhat Abbas founded the Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien (U.D.M.A. ; Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto), which advocated co-operation with France in the formation of the Algerian state.  This union has many times tried to propose the agreement with the French whereby the power could be shared.  On one meeting he said:
"It is a hundred and sixteen years that we have been waiting this moments, that is to say the opportunity of being here and making ourselves heard among you....Therefore, have patience, I ask and beg of you...We are but a very small minority.  Be generous...!" 
(Horne, 1979, p.73).
Again the propositions were rejected.  Ferhat Abbas tried further to perceive his views in his peaceful and democratic fashion only to be ignored again. The best proof of his belief into the French is his speech to the Assembly, and the French, in 1954:






Ferhat joins F.L.N.

Abbas' moderate and conciliatory attempts failed to evoke a sympathetic response from the French colonial officials, and in 1956 he escaped to Cairo to join the Front de Libération Nationale (F.L.N.), an Algerian organisation committed to revolutionary struggle for independence from France founded in 1954. 
	In 1956 we can see the change in Abbas's attitude.  In that year he joins the F.L.N. which was committed towards the similar views as him but believed in different techniques in gaining them.  F.L.N. believed that the use of aggression and violence was necessary to convince the French that the people want independence.  They often used urban guerrilla techniques to sabotage the French.  These techniques included hidden bombs in French buildings, killing of the street police, smuggling weapons, ...







F.L.N. believed in forceful action which could paralyse the whole Algerian system.  Abbas himself gave a speech in which he approves the change:






Why did Abbas change his views?

There are several of factors which made Abbas switch sides from pacific to a more radical and liberationist stance in such a short notice.  As we can see from before he had in many different ways attempted to convince the French government that the change is really needed and that if they will not allow it the conflict will spark off.  These peaceful attempts were a failure. 
Another important factor was the assassination of Ferhat's brother because it was believed that he was connected with the French in 1955 and this was blamed on French although it was a deed of F.L.N. Many historians argue that Abbas was afraid for his own life from the F.L.N. and that this played a major role in deciding weather to join them. 
In 1955 Abbas takes a trip to France as the last attempt to peacefully gain some rights but he was just again rejected by the French authorities. This trip was Abbas' last hope. When he got back the asked him:
"Well, is it peace?"
"He replied: 'No, it's war.'
Finally there was the gaining of independence by Tunisia and Morocco.  These countries have managed to separate from the French and create their own government in 1956.  This further convinced Abbas that he should change his tactics. The creation of F.L.N. has attracted many of Arabs and Abbas saw that joining with them would create a huge mass of people. Abbas had already considered to join the FLN and now was convinced. Same year he wrote in a newspaper:

	



The change and acceptance of F.L.N. by Abbas was a huge step towards uniting the rebels against the French which made the actions and negotiations much more favourable for the F.L.N. with the French government. Horne also states and emphasises this point:
	"Undoubtedly the most important single acquisition to the F.L.N. during this period was the person of the arch-apostle of moderation, Ferhat Abbas himself."
	(Horne, 1979, p.140).




	Abbas's work inside the F.L.N. and the G.P.R.A.

In 1958, when the Provisional Governemnt of Algerian Republic (G.P.R.A.) was formed, Ferhat Abbas was declared a president.  They were situated outside the country for their safety.  Before even becoming a president of G.P.R.A. Abbas had already been contacted by the Farès, former president of Algerian Assembly. Farès was a connection of Abbas to de Gaulle, French president.  Still Abbas did not trust the French the way he once did:
"...Farès informed Abbas...that de Gaulle was ready to 'open serious negotiations with the rebels'.   Abbas seemed receptive, declaring that he personally would be prepared to participate in ' any kind of conversation on neutral ground'." 
(Horne, 1979, p.319)
In the 1961 the open negotiations were organised between the provisional government and the French.  Due to French unwillingness to co-operate and the Ferhat Abbass's huge demands the negotiations proved a failure.  Than Ferhat Abbas resigned from the position of the president, but the people who accepted his government wanted to keep him in power so he was chosen a president of the Algerian Constutuent Assembly in 1962 after Algeria had gained it's independence. 
	Although Ferhat Abbas had made a alliance with F.L.N. he had never agreed with its policies. He was a believer in the parliamentary institutions and the constitution. But F.L.N. did not care for that. The name of Ferhat Abbas was extremely famous and him becoming a member meant that lot of people who trusted hi judgement would join this is confirmed by Horne as well:
"With Abbas as the front piece, however, a new and a seductive appearance of flexibility and softness of approach temporarily cloaked the G.P.R.A." 
(Horne, 1979, p.317).

Resignation from presidency
When F.L.N. published an Algerian constitution without the help of the Constituent Assembly, Ferhat Abbas saw his goals much different than what he believed in and therefore he resigned.  He hoped for a peaceful solution after which a democratic system would be established.  Also he wished to have power spread out more and not so concentrated in the top of the government.  In 1963, with his resignation he was expelled from the F.L.N.  The president in power, Ahmed Ben-Bella was a man with whom Ferhat Abbas did not agree.  Ben-Bella was aware of the reputation that Abbas had with the people and therefore could not allow him to speak or write against him. Ferhat Abbas was placed, in Algeria, under house imprisonment for year. 
	The changes in the attitude of Ferhat Abbas were caused by the series of attempts to negotiate and constant ignoring by the French government.  He understood that the only way to get the attention of the French would be to take some action. Since FLN was prepared to take action he had agreed to join it. The book "War in Algeria" yet states a rather different reason for Ferhat's change of the attitude: "...though most escaped, Ferhat Abbas' nephew was killed. Abbas himself was one of the designated victims. But he soon made his peace with the FLN, and joined them in Cairo..."  (Jackson, 1977, p.172)
	From the source we can see that the historian thinks that Abbas was scared for his own life. It explains that FLN had killed everyone who not only supported the government but did not wish to join their party. Abbas was one of them.
 In my opinion this does not seem quite true because as we saw before and after this incident Ferhat was not afraid to speak up and tell the people what be thought even for the price of his life. Even when he did join the FLN for that particular reason he would never become the president of that kind of the government unless he agreed with them.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\charachter biography.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Luke Raines 
				Character Biography

	When Dill turned 30 the year was about 1950 or so and he decided to start writing books. He didn't know what to write about, all he knew is that he loved to write books. He wrote a series of children's books and he wrote some short stories for magazines. He decided that he wanted to write about something different. He began to write about fashion. After he began to write about fashion he was much happier with his work. When we wrote about fashion he mostly wrote about what was the coolest fashions and what wasn't hip.
	"One of the latest trends fashions in 1961 was the 'bouffant' look which was when a dress had a tight top and a puffy bottom"(www.kyrene.k12). Dill thought one really cool look was the beatnik look. Dill would always dress in black and drink coffee in poetry clubs. He met a girl named Julia in on of those clubs. He soon fell in love with Julia and married her in 1964.
	"By 1965 jeans were a symbol of rebelliousness political and social beliefs' (Valene Steele pg 51). Dill began to write about and wear jeans all the time. Eventually he started his own line of jeans. The company fell apart in 1972 when Julia had a baby. He wasn't making enough money for the baby doing the work that he did so he went back to college and got a teaching degree.
	By 1976 Dill didn't have enough time to write books. His wife divorced him that year. The only way he made money was being a second grade teacher at Dogwood elementary in Wisconsin. When Dill's son turned 12 Dill decided to tell him about his childhood. Both he and his son were very close. Dill died in 1989. He choked to death on a sandwich.
	Everyone was extremely saddened by Dills death. His son never lost his loving feeling for his dad. Everyone went to his funeral Including Scout, Jim, and all of Scout's children. Dills ex - wife died a year later. Dills son was incredibly depressed but moved on and started writing books about his dads stories of Maycomb.



















Kyrene School district28.  "Fashion." [Online]  Feb.19th,2004           <http://www.kyrene.k12.az.us/schools/brisas/sunda/decade/1960.htm>

Lee, Harper.  To Kill a Mocking Bird.  Philadelphia: Warner Books, 1982.

Stelle, Valene. "Fashion." The World Book Encyclopedia.2003.

.



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Darwi1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Charles Darwin


	One of the most famous names in science and in the economy today, is
Charles Darwin. Darwin is best known for his contributions in science; his
famous theory of evolution. He also contributed to the market and command
economy with his belief, "survival of the fittest."

	Charles Darwin's contribution to science has been a very controversial
one. He stated that each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding
generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the
evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin's theory. He also
introduced the concept that all related organisms are descended from common
ancestors. His theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper. Darwin's complete
theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. This book is often
referred to as "the book that shook the world. The Origin sold out on the first
day of publication and subsequently went through six editions.

	Charles Darwin also contributed to the Market economy with his belief
"survival of the fittest." In a free enterprise system, it is believed that the
best will survive while the less efficient will collapse if the market is
allowed to work without government interference. In a market economy, since the
government has very little control of the businesses, the companies must work
their hardest and come out with good products that will outsell the ones of
their competition.

	Social Darwinism basically means that the strong will control the weak.
Social Darwinism comes from the laws of natural selection as Darwin had stated.
According to his theory, which was very popular in the late 19th century and
early 20th centuries, the weak were diminished, while the strong grew in power
and in cultural influence over the weak. In command economies, this is basically
what is happening. There is very little freedom, and the strong (mostly
government) will control the weak as in what to do, produce, etc.

	As you can see, Charles Darwin has a lot of contributions to science,
market, and command economies. He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England,
on February 12, 1809, and died in Down, Kent, on April 19, 1882. He will be
greatly remembered as one of the greatest British scientist to ever live.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Darwin 2.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Charles Robert Darwin was a British scientist who laid the foundation of modern
evolutionary theory with his views on life development through natural selection.
He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809.
	After graduating from the elite school at Shrewsbury in 1825, Darwin
attended the University of Edinburgh where he studied medicine. In 1827 he
dropped out and entered the University of Cambridge in preparation for becoming
a clergyman of the Church of England. While there, Darwin met two important
people in his life: Adam Sedgwick, a geologist, and John Stevens Henslow, a
naturalist. After graduating from Cambridge in 1831, the 22-year-old Darwin was
taken aboard the English survey ship HMS Beagle, mainly because of Henslow's
recommendation, as an unpaid naturalist on an expedition around the world.
	When the voyage began, Darwin didn't believe that species change through
time, but he did believe in two prevailing ideas of the time. The first theory was
that the earth was 6,000 years old and had remained unchanged except for the
effects of floods and other catastropes. The second was that organisms were
designed especially for certain habitats and appeared on the earth in their present
form.
	After reading the works of a noted geologist, Darwin began to change his
ideas. He saw evidence that the earth was much older than 6,000 years. In South
America, he was witness to an earthquake that lifted the land several feet. He
realized that mountains could be built by the action of an earthquake over
millions of years. He found fossils of marine mammals high up on mountains,
and realized that rocks must have been lifted from the ocean.
	Darwin also studied plants and animals. On the Galapagos Islands, he
found animals that resembled animals on the South American continent, but not
exactly the same. He understood that they must have come to the islands from
the mainland, and then adapted into new species. He also observed the plant and
animal life of South America, oceanic islands, and the Far East. He noted many
examples that proved that animals in similar environments didn't always look the
same. For example, the emus of Australia and the rheas of South America are
two very distinct species, but they live in the same basic kind of habitat. Darwin
thought about this, and asked himself the question, if animals were formed for a
specific habitat, why would different species be found in habitats that are so
similar?
	After leaving the HMS Beagle and returning to England in 1836, Darwin
began recording his ideas about changeability of species in his Notebooks on the
Transmutation of Species. Darwin's explanation for how organisms evolved was
brought into sharp focus after he read An Essay on the Principle of Population
by the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus, who explained how human
populations remain in balance. Malthus argued that any increase in the availability
of food for human survival couldn't match the rate of population growth.
Therefore, the population had to be checked by natural limitations such as famine
and disease, or by actions such as war.
	After studying Malthus's essay, Darwin immediately applied his principles
to plant and animal life, and by 1838 he had arrived at his first idea of the
theory of evolution through natural selection. For the next twenty years, he
worked on his theory and other natural history projects. In 1839, he married his
first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and soon after moved to a small estate, Down
House, outside of London. There he and his wife had ten children, three of
which died during infancy.
	Darwin's theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper presented at the
same time as one by a young naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace. Friends
arranged for the two men to present a paper together before the Linnaean Society
of London. On November 24, 1859, an abstract of Darwin's theory was published
under the long title of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Darwin's complete
theory was published later in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. Commonly
referred to as "The book that shook the world," the Origin sold out on the first
day of publication and subsequently went through six editions.
	In this book, Darwin presented his idea that species evolve from a more
primitive species through the process known as natural selection, which works
spontaneously in nature. Darwin pointed out in his account of how natural
selection occurs, known as Darwinism, that not all individuals undergo changes
and that some changes make the particular animal better suited to particular
environmental conditions. He pointed out that most species produce more eggs and
offspring than ever reach maturity. He theorized that well-adapted animals of a
species have a better chance of reaching maturity and producing offspring tha 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Darwin 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Charles Darwin

	One of the most famous names in science and in the economy today, is Charles Darwin. Darwin is best known for his contributions in science; his famous theory of evolution. He also contributed to the market and command economy with his belief, "survival of the fittest."

	Charles Darwin's contribution to science has been a very controversial one. He stated that each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin's theory. He also introduced the concept that all related organisms are descended from common ancestors. His theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper. Darwin's complete theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. This book is often referred to as "the book that shook the world. The Origin sold out on the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions. 

	Charles Darwin also contributed to the Market economy with his belief  "survival of the fittest." In a free enterprise system, it is believed that the best will survive while the less efficient will collapse if the market is allowed to work without government interference. In a market economy, since the government has very little control of the businesses, the companies must work their hardest and come out with good products that will outsell the ones of their competition. 

	Social Darwinism basically means that the strong will control the weak. Social Darwinism comes from the laws of natural selection as Darwin had stated. According to his theory, which was very popular in the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, the weak were diminished, while the strong grew in power and in cultural influence over the weak. In command economies, this is basically what is happening. There is very little freedom, and the strong (mostly government) will control the weak as in what to do, produce, etc.

	As you can see, Charles Darwin has a lot of contributions to science, market, and command economies. He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809, and died in Down, Kent, on April 19, 1882. He will be greatly remembered as one of the greatest British scientist to ever live. 

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Darwin.TXT
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Charles Darwin

	One of the most famous names in science and in the economy today, is Charles Darwin. Darwin is best known for his contributions in science; his famous theory of evolution. He also contributed to the market and command economy with his belief, "survival of the fittest."

	Charles Darwin's contribution to science has been a very controversial one. He stated that each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin's theory. He also introduced the concept that all related organisms are descended from common ancestors. His theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper. Darwin's complete theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. This book is often referred to as "the book that shook the world. The Origin sold out on the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions. 

	Charles Darwin also contributed to the Market economy with his belief  "survival of the fittest." In a free enterprise system, it is believed that the best will survive while the less efficient will collapse if the market is allowed to work without government interference. In a market economy, since the government has very little control of the businesses, the companies must work their hardest and come out with good products that will outsell the ones of their competition. 

	Social Darwinism basically means that the strong will control the weak. Social Darwinism comes from the laws of natural selection as Darwin had stated. According to his theory, which was very popular in the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, the weak were diminished, while the strong grew in power and in cultural influence over the weak. In command economies, this is basically what is happening. There is very little freedom, and the strong (mostly government) will control the weak as in what to do, produce, etc.

	As you can see, Charles Darwin has a lot of contributions to science, market, and command economies. He was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809, and died in Down, Kent, on April 19, 1882. He will be greatly remembered as one of the greatest British scientist to ever live. 

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Dickens 4.TXT
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INTRODUCTION 

This report will talk about the life of a famous author, Charles Dickens. It will tell you about his
early, middle, and later years of his life. It will also talk about one of his great works of literature.
In conclusion, this report will show a comparison of his work to his life.

EARLY LIFE

Charles Dickens was born at Landport, in Portsea, on February 7, 1812. His father was a clerk
in the Navy Pay-Office, and was temporarily on duty in the neighborhood when Charles was
born. His name was John Dickens. He spent time in prison for debts. But, even when he was free
he lacked the money to support his family. Then, when Charles was two they moved to London.
1 

Just before he started to toddle, he stepped into the glare of footlights. He never stepped out of it
until he died. He was a good man, as men go in the bewildering world of ours, brave, transparent,
tender-hearted, and honorable. Dickens was always a little too irritable because he was a little too
happy. Like the over-wrought child in society, he was splendidly sociable, and in and yet
sometimes quarrelsome. In all the practical relations of his life he was what the child is at a party,
genuinely delighted, delightful, affectionate and happy, and in some strange way fundamentally sad
and dangerously close to tears. 2 

At the age of 12 Charles worked in a London factory pasting labels on bottles of shoe polish. He
held the job only for a few months, but the misery of the experience remain with him all his life. 3 

Dickens attended school off and on until he was 15, and then left for good. He enjoyed reading
and was especially fond of adventure stories, fairy tales, and novels. He was influenced by such
earlier English writers as William Shakespeare, Tobias Smollet, and Henry Fielding. However,
most of the knowledge he later used as an author came from his environment around him. 4

MIDDLE LIFE

Dickens became a newspaper writer and reporter in the late 1820's. He specialized in covering
debates in Parliament, and also wrote feature articles. His work as a reporter sharpened his
naturally keen ear for conversation and helped develop his skill in portraying his characters speach
realistically. It also increased his ability to observe and to write swiftly and clearly. Dickens' first
book, Sketches by Boz (1836) consisted of articles he wrote for the Monthly Magazine and the
London Evening Chronicles.5 

On April 2, 1836 he married Catherine Hogarth. This was just a few days before the anoucement
that on the 31st he would have his first work printed in The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick
Club. And this was the beginning of his career. 6 

Then, at 24, Dickens became famous and was so until he died. He won his first literary fame with
The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club. Published in monthly parts in 1836 and 1837 the
book describes the humorous adventure and misadventures of the English Countryside. After a
slow start, The Pickwick Papers as the book was usually called gained a popularity seldom
matched in the history of literature. 7 

Then in 1837, Catherine's sister Mary, died. Because of her death Dickens' suffered a lot of grief.
This led some scholars to believe that Dickens loved Mary more than Catherine. Catherine was a
good woman but she lacked intelligence. Dickens and Catherine had 10 children. Then later in
1858, the couple seperated. 8 

LATER LIFE

His later years was basically consisting of two main additions to his previous activites. 

The first was a series of public readings and lectures which he began giving it systematically. And
second, he was a successive editor. Dickens had been many things in his life; he was a reporter ,
an actor, a conjurer, a poet, a lecturer, and a editor and he enjoyed all of those things. 9 

Dickens had a remarkable mental and physical energy. He recorded all his activites in thousands
of letter, many of which made delightful readings. He spent much of his later life with crowded
social friends from arts and literature. He also went to the theater as often as he could, cause he
loved drama. Dickens also produced and acted in small theaters to give public readings of his
work.10 

Besides doing all this after his retirement he got involved in various charities . These charities
included schools for poor children and a loan society to enable the poor to prove to Australia. 11 

Then about 1865 his health started to decline and he died of a stroke on June 9, 1870. 12

Dicken's Work 

The Great Expectations 

This story talks about a guy who is in love with a girl. It is the theme of a youths discovery of the
realities of life. An unknown person provides the young hero, Pip, with money so that he can live
as a gentleman. Pip's pride is shattered when he learns that he loses Estella forever, the source of
his "great expectation". Only by painfully revising his values does Pip reestablish his life on a
foundation of sympathy, rather than on vanity, possesions, and social position.

Conclusion 

His work of Great Expectation is very related with his life. It deals with the same problems he
faced when he lost Catherine and how his life was before he became rich and famous. He also
created scenes and descriptions of places that have longed delighted readers. Dickens was a keen
observer of life and had a great understanding of humanity, especially of young people. The
warmth and humor of his personality appeared in all of his works. Perhaps in no other large body
of fiction does the reader receive so strong and agreeable impression of the person behind the
story.

Endnotes

1. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of The Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg.19

2. Ibid, pg. 21-22 

3. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977, pg. 20

4. Ibid, pg. 27

5. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

6. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 50

7. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

8. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977, pg. 53

9. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 167

10. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg.195

11. Ibid

12. Ibid

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chesterton, G.K., "The Last of the Great Men" American 

Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942.

Johnson, Edgar, "His Tragedy and Triumph" Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977.

World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 



















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Dickens.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


INTRODUCTION 

This report will talk about the life of a famous author, Charles Dickens. It will tell you about his
early, middle, and later years of his life. It will also talk about one of his great works of literature.
In conclusion, this report will show a comparison of his work to his life.

EARLY LIFE

Charles Dickens was born at Landport, in Portsea, on February 7, 1812. His father was a clerk
in the Navy Pay-Office, and was temporarily on duty in the neighborhood when Charles was
born. His name was John Dickens. He spent time in prison for debts. But, even when he was free
he lacked the money to support his family. Then, when Charles was two they moved to London.
1 

Just before he started to toddle, he stepped into the glare of footlights. He never stepped out of it
until he died. He was a good man, as men go in the bewildering world of ours, brave, transparent,
tender-hearted, and honorable. Dickens was always a little too irritable because he was a little too
happy. Like the over-wrought child in society, he was splendidly sociable, and in and yet
sometimes quarrelsome. In all the practical relations of his life he was what the child is at a party,
genuinely delighted, delightful, affectionate and happy, and in some strange way fundamentally sad
and dangerously close to tears. 2 

At the age of 12 Charles worked in a London factory pasting labels on bottles of shoe polish. He
held the job only for a few months, but the misery of the experience remain with him all his life. 3 

Dickens attended school off and on until he was 15, and then left for good. He enjoyed reading
and was especially fond of adventure stories, fairy tales, and novels. He was influenced by such
earlier English writers as William Shakespeare, Tobias Smollet, and Henry Fielding. However,
most of the knowledge he later used as an author came from his environment around him. 4

MIDDLE LIFE

Dickens became a newspaper writer and reporter in the late 1820's. He specialized in covering
debates in Parliament, and also wrote feature articles. His work as a reporter sharpened his
naturally keen ear for conversation and helped develop his skill in portraying his characters speach
realistically. It also increased his ability to observe and to write swiftly and clearly. Dickens' first
book, Sketches by Boz (1836) consisted of articles he wrote for the Monthly Magazine and the
London Evening Chronicles.5 

On April 2, 1836 he married Catherine Hogarth. This was just a few days before the anoucement
that on the 31st he would have his first work printed in The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick
Club. And this was the beginning of his career. 6 

Then, at 24, Dickens became famous and was so until he died. He won his first literary fame with
The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club. Published in monthly parts in 1836 and 1837 the
book describes the humorous adventure and misadventures of the English Countryside. After a
slow start, The Pickwick Papers as the book was usually called gained a popularity seldom
matched in the history of literature. 7 

Then in 1837, Catherine's sister Mary, died. Because of her death Dickens' suffered a lot of grief.
This led some scholars to believe that Dickens loved Mary more than Catherine. Catherine was a
good woman but she lacked intelligence. Dickens and Catherine had 10 children. Then later in
1858, the couple seperated. 8 

LATER LIFE

His later years was basically consisting of two main additions to his previous activites. 

The first was a series of public readings and lectures which he began giving it systematically. And
second, he was a successive editor. Dickens had been many things in his life; he was a reporter ,
an actor, a conjurer, a poet, a lecturer, and a editor and he enjoyed all of those things. 9 

Dickens had a remarkable mental and physical energy. He recorded all his activites in thousands
of letter, many of which made delightful readings. He spent much of his later life with crowded
social friends from arts and literature. He also went to the theater as often as he could, cause he
loved drama. Dickens also produced and acted in small theaters to give public readings of his
work.10 

Besides doing all this after his retirement he got involved in various charities . These charities
included schools for poor children and a loan society to enable the poor to prove to Australia. 11 

Then about 1865 his health started to decline and he died of a stroke on June 9, 1870. 12

Dicken's Work 

The Great Expectations 

This story talks about a guy who is in love with a girl. It is the theme of a youths discovery of the
realities of life. An unknown person provides the young hero, Pip, with money so that he can live
as a gentleman. Pip's pride is shattered when he learns that he loses Estella forever, the source of
his "great expectation". Only by painfully revising his values does Pip reestablish his life on a
foundation of sympathy, rather than on vanity, possesions, and social position.

Conclusion 

His work of Great Expectation is very related with his life. It deals with the same problems he
faced when he lost Catherine and how his life was before he became rich and famous. He also
created scenes and descriptions of places that have longed delighted readers. Dickens was a keen
observer of life and had a great understanding of humanity, especially of young people. The
warmth and humor of his personality appeared in all of his works. Perhaps in no other large body
of fiction does the reader receive so strong and agreeable impression of the person behind the
story.

Endnotes

1. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of The Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg.19

2. Ibid, pg. 21-22 

3. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977, pg. 20

4. Ibid, pg. 27

5. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

6. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 50

7. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg. 193

8. Johnson, Edgar, His Tragedy and Triumph. Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977, pg. 53

9. G. K. Chesterton, Charles Dickens The Last of the Great 

Men, American Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942 pg. 167

10. World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 pg.195

11. Ibid

12. Ibid

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chesterton, G.K., "The Last of the Great Men" American 

Book-Stratford Press, NY., 1942.

Johnson, Edgar, "His Tragedy and Triumph" Rev. ed. 

Viking, 1977.

World Book Encyclopedia, Random House, NY., 1990 



















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Lindbergh 4.TXT
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Charles Lindbergh
	Shortly after Charles Lindbergh landed, he was swarmed by 25, 000 Parisians who carried the wearied pilot on their shoulders. They were rejoicing that Charles Lindbergh, the American aviator who flew the first transatlantic flight, had just landed at Le Bourget field in France. Having just completed what some people called an impossible feat, he was instantly a well-known international hero. Despite his pro-German stance during World War II, Charles Lindbergh is also an American hero. A record of his happiness and success exists in the material form of his plane hanging in the Smithsonian Institute; however, much of Lindbergh's life was clouded by turmoil.  The life of Charles Lindbergh though best remembered for his heroic flight across the Atlantic, was marred by the kidnapping of his baby and his fall from favor with the American public following his pro-German stance during the 1930's.
Charles Lindbergh, the famous American aviator, was born February 4, 1902 in Detroit, Michigan.  As a boy he loved the outdoors and frequently hunted.  He maintained a good relationship with his parents "who trusted him and viewed him as a very responsible child".  His father, for whom young Charles chauffeured as a child, served in the U.S. Congress from 1907 to 1917. Lindbergh's love of machinery was evident by the age of 14; "He could take apart a automobile engine and repair it".  Attending the University of Wisconsin, Lindbergh studied engineering for two years.  Although he was an excellent student, his real interest was in flying. As a result, in 1922 he switched to aviation school.  Planes became a center of his life after his first flight.  His early flying career involved flying stunt planes at fair and air shows. Later, in 1925 he piloted the U. S. Mail route from St. Louis to Chicago.  On one occasion while flying this route his engine failed and he did a nosedive towards the ground.  Recovering from the nosedive he straightened the plane successfully and landed the plane unharmed. This skill would later be invaluable when he was forced to skim ten feet above the waves during his famous transatlantic flight.  
	As early as 1919 Lindbergh was aware of a prize being offered by the Franco-American philanthropist Raymond B. Orteig of New York City. Orteig offered 25, 000 dollars to the individual who completed the first non-stop transatlantic flight from New York to Paris.  Ryan Air manufactured his single engine monoplane, the Spirit of St. Louis, so named because many of his investors were from that city. In preparation for the flight, Lindbergh flew the Spirit of St. Louis from Ryan Airfield in St. Louis, non-stop to Roosevelt Field outside New York City. After arriving he waited six days to begin his flight to Paris, due to inclement weather.	Although he was scheduled to attend the ballet on the evening of May 19, 1927, word came from the airfield that there was a large break in the weather coming across the Atlantic and that he was clear to fly first thing in the morning.  As a precaution Lindbergh instructed one of his friends to stand guard outside the room where Lindbergh attempted to sleep that night. Unfortunately, with all the thoughts going through his head, sleep was an impossibility.  Rising at 4:00 am, accompanied by a police escort, Lindbergh was driven to Roosevelt Field. Dressed in a brown flight suit complete with headpiece and goggles, Lindbergh climbed into his single engine monoplane and began his destiny with history; the first non-stop transatlantic flight. 
	During the flight of 33 hours and 32 minutes, Lindbergh ate five chicken sandwiches and consumed a one-liter bottle of water. It is not documented what Lindbergh did to occupy his time during the flight, but it is obvious based upon the length of the flight that staying awake must have been a major concern.  In a famous film recounting this flight, speculation was that Lindbergh stayed awake by watching the activity of a housefly trapped in the cabin.  Later, based upon his excess fuel level, Lindbergh considered continuing his flight to Rome, despite the fact that he had already traveled 5,800 km.  Fearing it was too dangerous, he opted to land in Paris as planned.  When Lindbergh approached Le Bourget Airport near Paris he noticed the headlights of many cars. Amazed that so many Parisians had come out to the field to greet him, Lindbergh anxiously deplaned. In their excitement some of the crowd tore pieces of the plane's outer shell off as souvenirs.   "Lindbergh's achievement won the enthusiasm and acclaim of the world, and he was greeted as a hero in Europe and the U.S."
Lindbergh, the American hero, was sent home on a naval vessel specially chartered by Harry S. Truman.  When Lindbergh arrived in New York City he was greeted by a hero's ticker tape parade in downtown New York City.  Roughly 6 tons of confetti was thrown into the street in celebration of his historic flight. When the parade ended, Lindbergh was presented with an honorary key to the city of New York.  Similar ceremonies were repeated in several U.S. and European cities. Later Lindbergh was commissioned as a colonel in the U.S. Air Service Reserve and served as a technical advisor for several commercial airlines.  When in the service of one of the airlines, Lindbergh flew to Mexico and met the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico's daughter, Anne Morrow.  Soon began a very private relationship, resulting in their marriage in May of 1929. Though certainly a happy time in their life, this relationship would produce a child, one that would be brutally murdered.
 The Lindbergh's first son, Charles Augustus, was born in 1930.  Living outside New York City, they moved to a rural community near Hopewell, New Jersey.  Far away from the crime of a major city, the Lindberghs were comfortable in this small community.  Soon, that would end with the kidnapping of their son.  Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. was kidnapped about 9:00p.m. on March 1, 1932 , abducted from the nursery on the second floor of the Lindbergh's home. At about 10:00p.m , the child's nurse, Betty Gow, found that the baby was not in the nusery. The grounds around the house were searched and a ransom note demanding 50,000 dollars was found. The New Jersey State Police took charge of the Investigation. A second ransom note was given to Lindbergh on March 6, 1932, stating that the kidnappers now wanted 70,000 dollars.  A third ransom note given to Lindbergh on March 8, dictated that a negotiator proposed by the Lindbergh's was not acceptable and that Dr. John F. Condon, a retired school principal, was suitable. Negotiations for the ransom money took place in the Bronx Home News newspaper columns using the code name "Jafsie." Dr. Condon eventually met with the kidnappers and they negotiated until the kidnappers brought the ransom demand down to 50,000.  Charles gave Dr. Condon $50,000 in cash ,which he was instructed to give to the kidnappers.  Having done so, Dr. Condon was told that the baby was in a boat called "Nellie" in Martha's vineyard.  Lindbergh and the police searched Martha's Vineyard and found nothing. On May 12, 1932 the baby's body was accidentally found, partially buried and heavily decomposed. The body was about four and a half miles southeast of the Lindbergh home.  William Allen, an assistant on a truck driven by Orville Wilson, found the body.  The baby's head was crushed, there was a hole in the skull and some of the body parts were missing. The body was identified and cremated at Trenton, New Jersey, on May 13, 1932. The baby had been dead for two months and the death was due to the blow to the head.  Bruno Hauptmann a German born carpenter was convicted of the kidnapping. Hauptmann was later sentenced to death and died in the Electric Chair.  After this incident Congress enacted "Lindbergh Law" which stated that kidnapping was now a federal crime. With all of the publicity that came with the trial the Lindbergh's were distraught. They decided the best thing to do would be to move to England.  Lindbergh, though the American hero, was not happy with his life in America.  He and his wife chose a life of seclusion in Europe.
	In 1935 the Lindbergh's packed their belongings and moved to the rural countryside of England. There, while living a life of semi-retirement, Lindbergh studied the possibility of creating an artificial heart pump, as inspired by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel. Lindbergh's and Carrel's experimentation did not result in a functioning model, even though their first experiments appeared to be very successful.  Following two years of failure to complete their task, the two gave up. They did however eventually co-author the book, The Culture of Organs (1938).   During this time, Lindbergh turns his sights to another task, the evaluation of the German Luftwaffe.
	At the request of the U.S. government, Lindbergh was asked to evaluate the German Air Force.  Well respected by the Germans, Lindbergh was shown most of the German Air Force and even the new planes.  Hitler wanted Lindbergh to see the extent of his air force and hoped that Lindbergh would reveal to officials in London and Washington the power of the Germans. Meanwhile, Lindbergh informed the U.S. government of all that he had seen, including the fact that he was very impressed with the German Air Force. Hitler was very grateful to Lindbergh for the time that he spent evaluating the German Air Force .  To commemorate his work, Lindbergh was decorated by Adolph Hitler in 1938.  Lindbergh gratefully accepted the honor, and act for which he was widely criticized.  Lindbergh even considered moving to Germany because he considered the German civilization advanced to that of the rest of Europe. Although he never really understood the holocaust and what was happening in Germany at the time, Lindbergh never recants this view of Germany and the German people.  Lindbergh never returned the medal given to him by Hitler, which further alienated him from the American public.  Lindbergh, once the American hero, is now considered by many to be a traitor. 
	Lindbergh returned to the U.S. in 1939 and began a series of antiwar speeches. Lindbergh believed that it was not the US war to fight and that if the US got involved it would lose.  Lindbergh toured the country speaking to large audiences and ended up being widely criticized for his views. Lindbergh was labeled as pro-German and pro-nazi.  He had to resign his commission in the US Air Corps Reserve and his membership in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.  Lindbergh still considered himself a loyal American and wanted to participate.  
	During World War II, Lindbergh wanted to help out the war effort but was not permitted, based upon his pro-German stance. Eventually he found a way. He served as a civilian consultant for an aircraft maker in the Pacific.  Lindbergh had a desire to fly bombers against the Japanese but his supervisors would not let him.  With his persuasive personality Lindbergh convinced his supervisors to let him fly some combat missions against the Japanese. Eventually Lindbergh flew more than 55 missions against the Japanese.  Later, he recounted these exploits in a book entitled The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh. Following the end of the war, Lindbergh and his wife continued their life of seclusion but elected to live in a remote section of a United States territory.
	Lindbergh decided that he would like to live the remainder of his life in Maui, Hawaii.  Earlier, a friend of Lindbergh's accompanied him to Hawaii.  Lindbergh was so impressed with the island, that he decided it was truly a paradise, one of the best places he had ever visited.  That same friend offered to sell him several acres in Maui, which Lindbergh gratefully accepted.  Charles and Anne built a simple home there to serve as their island retreat.  Lindbergh still enjoyed the outdoors and his home close to the wilderness. The Lindbergh's started spending six to eight weeks a year at their home in Maui and as time went on they increased the time spent there.  Eventually, Lindbergh was diagnosed with an incurable cancer .  In  1974 Lindbergh flew from a New York Hospital to Hana, Maui, to spend his last days with his family on the island he had grown to love.  His funeral was a simple one, consisting of a Eucalyptus coffin carried in a local pickup truck serving as a hearse.  Lindbergh, the great American hero, was laid to rest on American soil but far from the American public who had turned against him. 
	In conclusion, the life of Charles Lindbergh though best remembered for the heroic flight across the Atlantic, is marred by the kidnapping of his baby and his fall from favor with the American public following, his pro-German stance during the 1930's.










 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Lindbergh.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Charles Lindbergh
	Shortly after Charles Lindbergh landed, he was swarmed by 25, 000 Parisians who carried the wearied pilot on their shoulders. They were rejoicing that Charles Lindbergh, the American aviator who flew the first transatlantic flight, had just landed at Le Bourget field in France. Having just completed what some people called an impossible feat, he was instantly a well-known international hero. Despite his pro-German stance during World War II, Charles Lindbergh is also an American hero. A record of his happiness and success exists in the material form of his plane hanging in the Smithsonian Institute; however, much of Lindbergh's life was clouded by turmoil.  The life of Charles Lindbergh though best remembered for his heroic flight across the Atlantic, was marred by the kidnapping of his baby and his fall from favor with the American public following his pro-German stance during the 1930's.
Charles Lindbergh, the famous American aviator, was born February 4, 1902 in Detroit, Michigan.  As a boy he loved the outdoors and frequently hunted.  He maintained a good relationship with his parents "who trusted him and viewed him as a very responsible child".  His father, for whom young Charles chauffeured as a child, served in the U.S. Congress from 1907 to 1917. Lindbergh's love of machinery was evident by the age of 14; "He could take apart a automobile engine and repair it".  Attending the University of Wisconsin, Lindbergh studied engineering for two years.  Although he was an excellent student, his real interest was in flying. As a result, in 1922 he switched to aviation school.  Planes became a center of his life after his first flight.  His early flying career involved flying stunt planes at fair and air shows. Later, in 1925 he piloted the U. S. Mail route from St. Louis to Chicago.  On one occasion while flying this route his engine failed and he did a nosedive towards the ground.  Recovering from the nosedive he straightened the plane successfully and landed the plane unharmed. This skill would later be invaluable when he was forced to skim ten feet above the waves during his famous transatlantic flight.  
	As early as 1919 Lindbergh was aware of a prize being offered by the Franco-American philanthropist Raymond B. Orteig of New York City. Orteig offered 25, 000 dollars to the individual who completed the first non-stop transatlantic flight from New York to Paris.  Ryan Air manufactured his single engine monoplane, the Spirit of St. Louis, so named because many of his investors were from that city. In preparation for the flight, Lindbergh flew the Spirit of St. Louis from Ryan Airfield in St. Louis, non-stop to Roosevelt Field outside New York City. After arriving he waited six days to begin his flight to Paris, due to inclement weather.	Although he was scheduled to attend the ballet on the evening of May 19, 1927, word came from the airfield that there was a large break in the weather coming across the Atlantic and that he was clear to fly first thing in the morning.  As a precaution Lindbergh instructed one of his friends to stand guard outside the room where Lindbergh attempted to sleep that night. Unfortunately, with all the thoughts going through his head, sleep was an impossibility.  Rising at 4:00 am, accompanied by a police escort, Lindbergh was driven to Roosevelt Field. Dressed in a brown flight suit complete with headpiece and goggles, Lindbergh climbed into his single engine monoplane and began his destiny with history; the first non-stop transatlantic flight. 
	During the flight of 33 hours and 32 minutes, Lindbergh ate five chicken sandwiches and consumed a one-liter bottle of water. It is not documented what Lindbergh did to occupy his time during the flight, but it is obvious based upon the length of the flight that staying awake must have been a major concern.  In a famous film recounting this flight, speculation was that Lindbergh stayed awake by watching the activity of a housefly trapped in the cabin.  Later, based upon his excess fuel level, Lindbergh considered continuing his flight to Rome, despite the fact that he had already traveled 5,800 km.  Fearing it was too dangerous, he opted to land in Paris as planned.  When Lindbergh approached Le Bourget Airport near Paris he noticed the headlights of many cars. Amazed that so many Parisians had come out to the field to greet him, Lindbergh anxiously deplaned. In their excitement some of the crowd tore pieces of the plane's outer shell off as souvenirs.   "Lindbergh's achievement won the enthusiasm and acclaim of the world, and he was greeted as a hero in Europe and the U.S."
Lindbergh, the American hero, was sent home on a naval vessel specially chartered by Harry S. Truman.  When Lindbergh arrived in New York City he was greeted by a hero's ticker tape parade in downtown New York City.  Roughly 6 tons of confetti was thrown into the street in celebration of his historic flight. When the parade ended, Lindbergh was presented with an honorary key to the city of New York.  Similar ceremonies were repeated in several U.S. and European cities. Later Lindbergh was commissioned as a colonel in the U.S. Air Service Reserve and served as a technical advisor for several commercial airlines.  When in the service of one of the airlines, Lindbergh flew to Mexico and met the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico's daughter, Anne Morrow.  Soon began a very private relationship, resulting in their marriage in May of 1929. Though certainly a happy time in their life, this relationship would produce a child, one that would be brutally murdered.
 The Lindbergh's first son, Charles Augustus, was born in 1930.  Living outside New York City, they moved to a rural community near Hopewell, New Jersey.  Far away from the crime of a major city, the Lindberghs were comfortable in this small community.  Soon, that would end with the kidnapping of their son.  Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. was kidnapped about 9:00p.m. on March 1, 1932 , abducted from the nursery on the second floor of the Lindbergh's home. At about 10:00p.m , the child's nurse, Betty Gow, found that the baby was not in the nusery. The grounds around the house were searched and a ransom note demanding 50,000 dollars was found. The New Jersey State Police took charge of the Investigation. A second ransom note was given to Lindbergh on March 6, 1932, stating that the kidnappers now wanted 70,000 dollars.  A third ransom note given to Lindbergh on March 8, dictated that a negotiator proposed by the Lindbergh's was not acceptable and that Dr. John F. Condon, a retired school principal, was suitable. Negotiations for the ransom money took place in the Bronx Home News newspaper columns using the code name "Jafsie." Dr. Condon eventually met with the kidnappers and they negotiated until the kidnappers brought the ransom demand down to 50,000.  Charles gave Dr. Condon $50,000 in cash ,which he was instructed to give to the kidnappers.  Having done so, Dr. Condon was told that the baby was in a boat called "Nellie" in Martha's vineyard.  Lindbergh and the police searched Martha's Vineyard and found nothing. On May 12, 1932 the baby's body was accidentally found, partially buried and heavily decomposed. The body was about four and a half miles southeast of the Lindbergh home.  William Allen, an assistant on a truck driven by Orville Wilson, found the body.  The baby's head was crushed, there was a hole in the skull and some of the body parts were missing. The body was identified and cremated at Trenton, New Jersey, on May 13, 1932. The baby had been dead for two months and the death was due to the blow to the head.  Bruno Hauptmann a German born carpenter was convicted of the kidnapping. Hauptmann was later sentenced to death and died in the Electric Chair.  After this incident Congress enacted "Lindbergh Law" which stated that kidnapping was now a federal crime. With all of the publicity that came with the trial the Lindbergh's were distraught. They decided the best thing to do would be to move to England.  Lindbergh, though the American hero, was not happy with his life in America.  He and his wife chose a life of seclusion in Europe.
	In 1935 the Lindbergh's packed their belongings and moved to the rural countryside of England. There, while living a life of semi-retirement, Lindbergh studied the possibility of creating an artificial heart pump, as inspired by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel. Lindbergh's and Carrel's experimentation did not result in a functioning model, even though their first experiments appeared to be very successful.  Following two years of failure to complete their task, the two gave up. They did however eventually co-author the book, The Culture of Organs (1938).   During this time, Lindbergh turns his sights to another task, the evaluation of the German Luftwaffe.
	At the request of the U.S. government, Lindbergh was asked to evaluate the German Air Force.  Well respected by the Germans, Lindbergh was shown most of the German Air Force and even the new planes.  Hitler wanted Lindbergh to see the extent of his air force and hoped that Lindbergh would reveal to officials in London and Washington the power of the Germans. Meanwhile, Lindbergh informed the U.S. government of all that he had seen, including the fact that he was very impressed with the German Air Force. Hitler was very grateful to Lindbergh for the time that he spent evaluating the German Air Force .  To commemorate his work, Lindbergh was decorated by Adolph Hitler in 1938.  Lindbergh gratefully accepted the honor, and act for which he was widely criticized.  Lindbergh even considered moving to Germany because he considered the German civilization advanced to that of the rest of Europe. Although he never really understood the holocaust and what was happening in Germany at the time, Lindbergh never recants this view of Germany and the German people.  Lindbergh never returned the medal given to him by Hitler, which further alienated him from the American public.  Lindbergh, once the American hero, is now considered by many to be a traitor. 
	Lindbergh returned to the U.S. in 1939 and began a series of antiwar speeches. Lindbergh believed that it was not the US war to fight and that if the US got involved it would lose.  Lindbergh toured the country speaking to large audiences and ended up being widely criticized for his views. Lindbergh was labeled as pro-German and pro-nazi.  He had to resign his commission in the US Air Corps Reserve and his membership in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.  Lindbergh still considered himself a loyal American and wanted to participate.  
	During World War II, Lindbergh wanted to help out the war effort but was not permitted, based upon his pro-German stance. Eventually he found a way. He served as a civilian consultant for an aircraft maker in the Pacific.  Lindbergh had a desire to fly bombers against the Japanese but his supervisors would not let him.  With his persuasive personality Lindbergh convinced his supervisors to let him fly some combat missions against the Japanese. Eventually Lindbergh flew more than 55 missions against the Japanese.  Later, he recounted these exploits in a book entitled The Wartime Journals of Charles A. Lindbergh. Following the end of the war, Lindbergh and his wife continued their life of seclusion but elected to live in a remote section of a United States territory.
	Lindbergh decided that he would like to live the remainder of his life in Maui, Hawaii.  Earlier, a friend of Lindbergh's accompanied him to Hawaii.  Lindbergh was so impressed with the island, that he decided it was truly a paradise, one of the best places he had ever visited.  That same friend offered to sell him several acres in Maui, which Lindbergh gratefully accepted.  Charles and Anne built a simple home there to serve as their island retreat.  Lindbergh still enjoyed the outdoors and his home close to the wilderness. The Lindbergh's started spending six to eight weeks a year at their home in Maui and as time went on they increased the time spent there.  Eventually, Lindbergh was diagnosed with an incurable cancer .  In  1974 Lindbergh flew from a New York Hospital to Hana, Maui, to spend his last days with his family on the island he had grown to love.  His funeral was a simple one, consisting of a Eucalyptus coffin carried in a local pickup truck serving as a hearse.  Lindbergh, the great American hero, was laid to rest on American soil but far from the American public who had turned against him. 
	In conclusion, the life of Charles Lindbergh though best remembered for the heroic flight across the Atlantic, is marred by the kidnapping of his baby and his fall from favor with the American public following, his pro-German stance during the 1930's.










 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Manson 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Charles Manson



 



Charles Manson. He and his cult, "The Family," together killed



seven people, bloodied and butchered. The people who he and others killed,



the Tate and LaBianca families, were wealthy and well-off. What could have



made them do such a thing without pity or remorse? Read on........



 



 



MANSON: The Man Himself



 



In 1954, Manson set up a commune-based cult, drawing in hippies,



drifters. and the unemployed at the Spahn Ranch, near Los Angeles. Manson



had lovely ideas and his followers or "Family" regarded him as a



Christ-like figure. They indulged in free love practices, pseudo religious



ceremonies, and used drugs such as marijuana and LSD.



 



The Black Panthers were a major black movement in the 1960's. After



killing a leader of this movement in self defence, Manson grew scared on



the promise of revenge from the Black Panthers. Scared, Manson ordered his



followers to practice guerrilla tactics and they did so, without question.



 



Manson sad he taught love because in love there is no hatred, but John



Flynn, a man who testified at his trial, testified to some very



incriminating admissions by Manson. Barbara Holt, a "Family" member, fled



the group before a raid. She later showed up as a prosecution witness, a



potential danger to Manson, so faithful members of the "Family" tried to



kill her with a hamburger laced with LSD. Before her testimony, another



"Family" member, Gary Hinman, who had also fled he group, was killed



because he had betrayed the "Family." As you can see, the punishment for



crossing the "Family" was severe.



 



Manson makes claims to thirty-five murders. Although he was convicted



for others, there was not enough evidence to bring him to trial for the



thirty five.



 



 



THE MOTIVE BEHIND THE MAN



 



The driving force behind Manson's killing was hard to prove and hard



to believe. Manson had a plan in his head. When the Beatles first



released "The White Album," it was a hit. Manson listened to it often. He



had a great devotion to the Beatles, who he believed spoke to him across



the oceans in their lyrics and songs. Manson saw the 4 Beatles as the 4



Angels that announced the ending of the world in the bible. (Armageddon)



 



On "The White Album" there are two song titles containing the



word revolution. These are "Revolution 1" and "Revolution 9." Manson



thought the Beatles were talking about a black/white revolution. The word



rise can be found in "Revolution 9" and could be depicted as a prediction



of a Black uprising. One song in particular, "Helter Skelter" seemed



unexceptional to the normal ear, but was given a weird interpretation by



Manson. Man saw the Blacks as stupid and felt he had to show "Blackie" the



way. His plan to kill seven wealthy white people and to blame it on the



blacks would start his plan of a black/white revolution which he called



"Helter Skelter." He attempted to frame the black people by writing "Death



to Pigs" in the victim's own blood and carving the word "war" in the



stomach of his victims. Manson denied allegations that this was the motive



behind the murders but many of Manson's followers said that Manson often



spoke of this revolution, "Helter Skelter."



 



Another controversial song on the album was "Sexy Sadie." It was



believed by Manson that the song foretold his murder trial when Susan



Atkins made a crucial mistake on the witness stand. She made the "Family"



appear to be murderers of the seven butchered victims while Manson felt he



was convincing the jury of their innocence. Manson believed he foresaw this



even before the trial.



 



THE FOLLOWERS OF MANSON:THE FAMILY



 



The killers of the Tate and LaBianca families now serve life in



prison. Four people, all part of the "Family" were convicted of these



murders: Charles Manson, Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten, and Patricia



Krenwinkle. It is interesting to see that most of the killers are women.



Another woman, Linda Kasabian, who drove the killers to the murder scene,



turned state's evidence, and literally, got away with murder. Charles



Watson was another member of Manson's group and was a Texan citizen, so he



was tried under Texan Law. The others were tried in Los Angeles. He was



also given life imprisonment. The trial, which lasted nine and one half



months, cost Los Angeles one million dollars.



 



Many people have wondered how these so called "normal" people could



commit such morbid crimes and show no signs of regret or remorse. Its is



suggested that Manson used threats, guilt, and partial fear to seduce these



people into doing what he wanted. Manson's followers were devoted to him,



doing whatever he wanted. They so much believed in him that they did not



question what they were doing.



 



THE MANSON HATE LIST



 



Charles Manson is said to have kept a secret list of future targets,



with graphic details of how he is going to "deal" with these people.



Prisoners who have shared jail cells with members of the "Family" testify



that this was a frequent topic of conversation among them. All individuals



on the hate list were white (suggesting that Manson would blame the blacks)



and the list seemed to deal with the rich and famous for whom Manson



invented cruel tortures. Some examples: Frank Sinatra, skinned alive,



Steve McQueen, boiled in oil, Doris Day, raped and impaled, Tom Jones,



tongue cut off, Elizabeth Taylor, breasts cut off, Richard Burton,



castrated, etc.



 



THE MANSON LIFE AND TRIAL



 



A movie, entitled "Manson" was taped prior to the trial in Los



Angeles. It was questioned if the movie gave an accurate portrayal of the



life of Manson, or if it made a mockery out of him. The information



presented in the movie is considered to be a documentation of the life of



the Manson Family. The film was taped prior to the trial and was ordered



to be removed from public viewing because it was thought to be a possible



influence on the jurors.



 



The Manson trial lasted nine and one half months and cost Los Angeles



tax payers one million dollars. Four people stood trial: Manson, Patricia



Krenwinkle, Leslie Van Houten, and Susan Atkins. They were all convicted of



five murders altogether. There were two other people with them on the



night of the murders. Charles Watson was a texan citizen, and was deported



to Texas to be tried under Texan law. Linda Kasabian turned state's



evidence and got away with murder. All particpants in the murders, with



the exception of Kasabian, were found guilty and were sentenced to death.



This sentence was revoked and turned into life imprisionment. There was



great concern for the possibility of the popular image of martyrdom being



assigned to Manson and his "Family."



 



Manson used suggestion and passive hypnotism to make his followers



answer any command of his. People did unquestioning acts of any sort, even



murder at his whim. He found the fear in people and enjoyed playing on it.



Manson's followers frequently said, "He reflects back to you what you want



to see." Manson himself said: "You are using us fpr a scapegoat, trying to



look past Nixon, and past Vietnam. I am only what your world made me."



Another quote of Manson's is: "I hate the world I live in." By the age of



thirty, he had fifty convictions against him.



 



Manson believed in free love and experimentation with drugs. Followers



of Manson came from all over the globe. They believed they had to go to



the desert and bring along all the children they could convince to join



the,. Children were not excluded from anything and this "freedom" appealed



to may yound people. They could participate in free secual activities,



experiment with drugs, or use guns and cars. Manson's ranch became a home



for runaways, people in trouble with they law, and hippires. Manson did



not like hippies, and he said they were just trying to be different and



were looking for trouble, hence the name he gave to them: "slippies." Girls



in Manson's "family" made a ceremonial vest that tells the life of Manson



in thread. Bruce Davis, Manson's second in command, overdosed on LSD and



was mentally and physcially disabled. On August 11, 1972, police raided



the ranch and arrested the killers for auto theft with the intention to



later convict them of the murders once they had firm evidence.



 



The motive was the strangest and most unbelievable thing that the



police had to deal with. Manson saw the Beatles as prophets that described



a race war between the whites and blacks. Manson planned to start this war



up by blaming the murders of members of black society. Only it didn't work



out that way. Manson planned to hide in the desert until the war ended.



Manson believed he would later have to take over because the blacks were



inexperience leaders. He called this plan Helter Skelter.



 



The seven deaths the "Family" were convicted of were oriented around



the rich and famous. Sharon Tate, who was eight and a half moths pregnant,



was hanged and her baby was cut out of her. She was the wife of movie



director Roman Polanski. Abigail Folger was the heiress to the vast Folger



estate and was killed along with her lover Voityck Fryowski, a famous



writer. Jay Sebring was present at this gathering because he was a former



boyfriend of Tate's.



 
























































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Charles Manson.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Charles Manson



 



Charles Manson. He and his cult, "The Family," together killed



seven people, bloodied and butchered. The people who he and others killed,



the Tate and LaBianca families, were wealthy and well-off. What could have



made them do such a thing without pity or remorse? Read on........



 



 



MANSON: The Man Himself



 



In 1954, Manson set up a commune-based cult, drawing in hippies,



drifters. and the unemployed at the Spahn Ranch, near Los Angeles. Manson



had lovely ideas and his followers or "Family" regarded him as a



Christ-like figure. They indulged in free love practices, pseudo religious



ceremonies, and used drugs such as marijuana and LSD.



 



The Black Panthers were a major black movement in the 1960's. After



killing a leader of this movement in self defence, Manson grew scared on



the promise of revenge from the Black Panthers. Scared, Manson ordered his



followers to practice guerrilla tactics and they did so, without question.



 



Manson sad he taught love because in love there is no hatred, but John



Flynn, a man who testified at his trial, testified to some very



incriminating admissions by Manson. Barbara Holt, a "Family" member, fled



the group before a raid. She later showed up as a prosecution witness, a



potential danger to Manson, so faithful members of the "Family" tried to



kill her with a hamburger laced with LSD. Before her testimony, another



"Family" member, Gary Hinman, who had also fled he group, was killed



because he had betrayed the "Family." As you can see, the punishment for



crossing the "Family" was severe.



 



Manson makes claims to thirty-five murders. Although he was convicted



for others, there was not enough evidence to bring him to trial for the



thirty five.



 



 



THE MOTIVE BEHIND THE MAN



 



The driving force behind Manson's killing was hard to prove and hard



to believe. Manson had a plan in his head. When the Beatles first



released "The White Album," it was a hit. Manson listened to it often. He



had a great devotion to the Beatles, who he believed spoke to him across



the oceans in their lyrics and songs. Manson saw the 4 Beatles as the 4



Angels that announced the ending of the world in the bible. (Armageddon)



 



On "The White Album" there are two song titles containing the



word revolution. These are "Revolution 1" and "Revolution 9." Manson



thought the Beatles were talking about a black/white revolution. The word



rise can be found in "Revolution 9" and could be depicted as a prediction



of a Black uprising. One song in particular, "Helter Skelter" seemed



unexceptional to the normal ear, but was given a weird interpretation by



Manson. Man saw the Blacks as stupid and felt he had to show "Blackie" the



way. His plan to kill seven wealthy white people and to blame it on the



blacks would start his plan of a black/white revolution which he called



"Helter Skelter." He attempted to frame the black people by writing "Death



to Pigs" in the victim's own blood and carving the word "war" in the



stomach of his victims. Manson denied allegations that this was the motive



behind the murders but many of Manson's followers said that Manson often



spoke of this revolution, "Helter Skelter."



 



Another controversial song on the album was "Sexy Sadie." It was



believed by Manson that the song foretold his murder trial when Susan



Atkins made a crucial mistake on the witness stand. She made the "Family"



appear to be murderers of the seven butchered victims while Manson felt he



was convincing the jury of their innocence. Manson believed he foresaw this



even before the trial.



 



THE FOLLOWERS OF MANSON:THE FAMILY



 



The killers of the Tate and LaBianca families now serve life in



prison. Four people, all part of the "Family" were convicted of these



murders: Charles Manson, Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten, and Patricia



Krenwinkle. It is interesting to see that most of the killers are women.



Another woman, Linda Kasabian, who drove the killers to the murder scene,



turned state's evidence, and literally, got away with murder. Charles



Watson was another member of Manson's group and was a Texan citizen, so he



was tried under Texan Law. The others were tried in Los Angeles. He was



also given life imprisonment. The trial, which lasted nine and one half



months, cost Los Angeles one million dollars.



 



Many people have wondered how these so called "normal" people could



commit such morbid crimes and show no signs of regret or remorse. Its is



suggested that Manson used threats, guilt, and partial fear to seduce these



people into doing what he wanted. Manson's followers were devoted to him,



doing whatever he wanted. They so much believed in him that they did not



question what they were doing.



 



THE MANSON HATE LIST



 



Charles Manson is said to have kept a secret list of future targets,



with graphic details of how he is going to "deal" with these people.



Prisoners who have shared jail cells with members of the "Family" testify



that this was a frequent topic of conversation among them. All individuals



on the hate list were white (suggesting that Manson would blame the blacks)



and the list seemed to deal with the rich and famous for whom Manson



invented cruel tortures. Some examples: Frank Sinatra, skinned alive,



Steve McQueen, boiled in oil, Doris Day, raped and impaled, Tom Jones,



tongue cut off, Elizabeth Taylor, breasts cut off, Richard Burton,



castrated, etc.



 



THE MANSON LIFE AND TRIAL



 



A movie, entitled "Manson" was taped prior to the trial in Los



Angeles. It was questioned if the movie gave an accurate portrayal of the



life of Manson, or if it made a mockery out of him. The information



presented in the movie is considered to be a documentation of the life of



the Manson Family. The film was taped prior to the trial and was ordered



to be removed from public viewing because it was thought to be a possible



influence on the jurors.



 



The Manson trial lasted nine and one half months and cost Los Angeles



tax payers one million dollars. Four people stood trial: Manson, Patricia



Krenwinkle, Leslie Van Houten, and Susan Atkins. They were all convicted of



five murders altogether. There were two other people with them on the



night of the murders. Charles Watson was a texan citizen, and was deported



to Texas to be tried under Texan law. Linda Kasabian turned state's



evidence and got away with murder. All particpants in the murders, with



the exception of Kasabian, were found guilty and were sentenced to death.



This sentence was revoked and turned into life imprisionment. There was



great concern for the possibility of the popular image of martyrdom being



assigned to Manson and his "Family."



 



Manson used suggestion and passive hypnotism to make his followers



answer any command of his. People did unquestioning acts of any sort, even



murder at his whim. He found the fear in people and enjoyed playing on it.



Manson's followers frequently said, "He reflects back to you what you want



to see." Manson himself said: "You are using us fpr a scapegoat, trying to



look past Nixon, and past Vietnam. I am only what your world made me."



Another quote of Manson's is: "I hate the world I live in." By the age of



thirty, he had fifty convictions against him.



 



Manson believed in free love and experimentation with drugs. Followers



of Manson came from all over the globe. They believed they had to go to



the desert and bring along all the children they could convince to join



the,. Children were not excluded from anything and this "freedom" appealed



to may yound people. They could participate in free secual activities,



experiment with drugs, or use guns and cars. Manson's ranch became a home



for runaways, people in trouble with they law, and hippires. Manson did



not like hippies, and he said they were just trying to be different and



were looking for trouble, hence the name he gave to them: "slippies." Girls



in Manson's "family" made a ceremonial vest that tells the life of Manson



in thread. Bruce Davis, Manson's second in command, overdosed on LSD and



was mentally and physcially disabled. On August 11, 1972, police raided



the ranch and arrested the killers for auto theft with the intention to



later convict them of the murders once they had firm evidence.



 



The motive was the strangest and most unbelievable thing that the



police had to deal with. Manson saw the Beatles as prophets that described



a race war between the whites and blacks. Manson planned to start this war



up by blaming the murders of members of black society. Only it didn't work



out that way. Manson planned to hide in the desert until the war ended.



Manson believed he would later have to take over because the blacks were



inexperience leaders. He called this plan Helter Skelter.



 



The seven deaths the "Family" were convicted of were oriented around



the rich and famous. Sharon Tate, who was eight and a half moths pregnant,



was hanged and her baby was cut out of her. She was the wife of movie



director Roman Polanski. Abigail Folger was the heiress to the vast Folger



estate and was killed along with her lover Voityck Fryowski, a famous



writer. Jay Sebring was present at this gathering because he was a former



boyfriend of Tate's.



 
























































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\CharlesDarwin.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Charles Darwin

Like many modern students, Charles Darwin exceeded only in subjects that
intrigued him.

Although his father was a physician, Darwin was uninterested in medicine
and he was unable

to stand the sight of surgery. He did eventually obtain a degree in
theology from Cambridge

University, although theology too was of minor interest to him. What
Darwin really liked to

do was to tramp over hills, observing plants and animals, collecting new
specimens,

scrutinizing their structures, and categorizing his findings. 

In 1831, when Darwin was only 22 years old, the British government sent
Her Majesty^?s Ship

Beagle on a 5 year expedition that would take them first along the
coastline of South

America and then onward around the world. As was common on such
expeditions, the Beagle

would carry along a naturalist to observe and collect geological and
biological specimens

encountered along the route. Thanks to the recommendation of one of
Darwin^?s previous

college professors, he was offered the position of naturalist aboard the
Beagle. 

The Beagle sailed to South America, making many stops along the coast.
Here Darwin

observed the plants and animals of the tropics and was stunned by the
diversity of species

compared with Europe. 

Perhaps the most significant stopover of the voyage was the month spent in
the Galapagos

Islands off of the northwestern coast of South America. It was here that
Darwin found huge

populations of tortoises; and he found that different islands were home to
distinctively

different types of tortoises. He then found that on islands without
tortoises, pricky pear

cactus plants grew with their juicy pads and fruits spread out over the
ground. And on

islands that had hourdes of tortoises, the prickly pears grew
substantially thick, tall

trunks, bearing the fleshy pads and fruits high above the reach of the
tough mouthed

tortoises. He then wondered if the differences in these organisms could
have arisen after

they became isolated from one another on seperate islands. 

In 1836, Darwin returned to England after the 5 years with the expedition.
He became

established as one of the foremost naturalist of his time. But constantly
gnawing at his

mind was the problem of the origin of the species. 

Darwin sought to prove his ideal of evolution with simple examples. The
various breeds of

dogs provided a striking example of what Darwin sought to prove. Dogs
descended from

wolves, and even today the two will readily cross-breed. With rare
exceptions, however,

few modern dogs actually resemble wolves. Some breeds, such as the
Chihuahua and the

Great Dane, are so different from one another that they would be
considered seperate

species in the wild. If humans could cross-breed such radically different
dogs in only a

few hundred years, Darwin reasoned that nature could produce the same
spectrum of living

organisms given the hundreds of millions of years that she had been
allowed. 

Darwin also maintained that seperate species evolve as a result of the
principles of

natural selection, or survival of the fittest. He knew that many more
members of a

species are born than can possibly survive. He also postulated that strong
positive genes

would be bred and rebred into each new generation of animals. 

Darwin, contrary to popular belief, never said that human beings evolved
from apes. He

said that all life began as a primordial soup, with molecules acting on
each other. So

from the first single celled organism all life came. One single organism,
when acted on

by several different molecules could give rise to many different species
of animals. It

is in this way that he stated that Ape and man were similar..each having a
similar life^?s

beginning. 

Darwin^?s theories caused the people of the time to begin to question
where it was that

they actually came from. His response was the book On the Origin of
Species. In it he

addressed the concerns of the people. He said "It is interesting to
contemplate an

entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing
in the bushes,

with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the
damp earth, and

to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms....have all been
produced by laws

acting around us. These laws, taken in the highest sense, being Growth
with Reproduction;

Inheritance and Variability...; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to
a struggle for

life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of
Character and

Extinction of less-improved forms....There is grandeur in this view of
life, with its

several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into
one, and that,

whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixded laws of
gravity, from so

simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have
been, and are

being, evolved." 



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\CharlesDickens.TXT
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Charles Dickens

Charles Dickens, a nineteenth century  writer, tells a story about a
young boy in England and the adventures that happen to him.  In reading
the book the reader becomes entwined in the plot by Dickens^?s expert
writing and style.  Using different scenes and scenarios, Dickens
displays his characters' personality in a way the few other writers
could.  In the book Oliver Twist, Dickens uses different events that
happen around Oliver instead letting Oliver decide his own fate.  In the
book, other characters determine Oliver^?s path in life, and Oliver is
the subject around which the story revolves.  The accidents in the story
give depth to Oliver and add depth to the story that increases elements
of mystery and suspense.
 In the beginning of the book, Mrs. Thingummy is helping Oliver^?s mother
give birth to the young child.  Mrs. Thingummy takes charge of Oliver^?s
life just as he is born by stealing Oliver^?s only link with his father,
his mother^?s husband.  Stealing the mother^?s ring also commits Oliver to
a life of lower social status because of his supposed illegitimacy.
Oliver moves to the dark forces in the book when he starts with
absolutely nothing from his very birth.  The sides of good and evil,
light and dark respectively, are also devices used by Dickens to display
different sides of the social coin in England.  Accidents tie in closely
with this device because it is by accident that Oliver transferres to
one side or another.  After spending time in the dark forces, Oliver
then switches back to the light side by a run in with Mr. Brownlow, a
compassionate citizen who pities Oliver and later takes care of him.  Of
all the people that Oliver could run into Mr. Brownlow happens to be one
of those people who Oliver desperately needed and who could and would
provide for Oliver.  In another example of an accident, and a shift back
into the dark forces, Oliver happens to make a wrong turn and end up in
the hands of a band of crooks who earlier had taken possession of
Oliver.  By chance the appropriate person was in the alley that Oliver,
by chance, walked into when he was passing through the city of London.
In the last transition of chance, Oliver is caught breaking and entering
into a house that the band of crooks intends to pillage.  This house
contains another compassionate and tender character that becomes like a
mother to Oliver.  Luckily, and by chance, the shot that one of the
house keepers fired when he found Oliver breaking in did not mortally
wound Oliver.  Throughout all of these changeovers and accidents Oliver
never takes charge of his life and becomes a player in the book, he
always stays the subject of the happenings around him.
 Because Dickens wrote in installments this method served to heighten
the sense of suspense in the novel.  Knowing that Oliver could change
his circumstances would not make the story more interesting. Letting
Oliver direct himself would let his readers guess the most probable
outcome of the situation based on Oliver^?s attitude and his previous
decisions. By letting accidents direct the course of the story, dickens
opens many avenues that the story could take that would not be
previously open.  Anything could happen to Oliver and the readers were
always wondering what would happen.  The winding story of Oliver Twist
is one of Dickens classics, and a masterpiece of accidents.




f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Chiang Kai.TXT
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Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek, also known as Chiang Chung-cheng, was the son of a middle-class wine merchant who lived in the village of Chikow in Chekiang Province. When he was fourteen years old, following the Chinese custom of that time, he was arranged to be marry by his mother (the bride's name is not mentioned). His bride and he did not see each other until his walk down the aisle. He did this without complaints only to please his mother. Once he was married he met his bride's parents, as was tradition. Due to Chiang's bad temper, the meeting ended in arguments between Chiang and his bride's father. Once home he tried to keep his mind off of the marriage and concentrated more on what kind of man he wanted to become. He dreamed of becoming a soldier. He saw adventure in a military career and felt comfortable with the demand for authority, order, and strength. Though his family objected and hoped for him to study law, he went off to Tokyo Military Staff College in 1907. There he became a follower of the revolutionary leader Dr. Sun Yat-sen. This encouraged him in 1911 to take part in the revolt that established the Chinese Republic. In 1917 when Sun established the Guangzhou government, Chiang was his military aide. Sun sent him to the USSR to study Russia military methods and was more than willing to go. He got a good response from the people there. Not only did they give him advice but they also sent thirty or so military men as help. One of these men, named Michael Borodin suggested that they start a military academy in China. They placed it in Whampoa and named it the Whampoa Military Academy. Their main goal was to demand and deserve respect. Once opened they received 1,500 applicants. It planned to register only 300.
Sun began to encourage Chiang's participation in the Nationalist party. After Sun died in 1925, Chiang became a powerful figure in the it and in 1926 took command of the Nationalist army. This was called the Northern Expedition, entering into Shanghai, Hankou, and Nanjing. Chiang initiated the long civil war between the Nationalist government and the Communists.. This was ended in 1936 by General Chang Hsueh-liang who hoped to unite in defense of the approaching Japanese. Many felt that unity could not be achieved unless Chiang were removed as commander-in-chief even before the expedition was completed. To avoid such humiliation, he resigned from his position. He issued a public statement to the newspapers. It said, "I am willing to sacrifice my position in order to assist the unification of the party and to make possible the accomplishment of the chief objective of Kuomintang."
With Chiang's mind no longer focused on the political issues he could now focus on himself. He decided to ask a young woman named Mayling Soong to marry him. He was no longer married to his childhood wife and now wanted a companion. First he had to get the approval of Mother Soong. She disagreed with his age and religious beliefs but eventually, happily gave her approval for their marriage. On December 1, 1927, they were married in the Soongs' Shanghai home.
Chiang continued with his political mission with Mayling at his side. Her knowledge and beauty helped him through his journey. Soon after his marriage Chiang gained back command of the Kuomintang army and continued heading north. In 1928 his army reached Peking and being the chief of the Nationalist party, he became head of the Republic of China. After many years and many hard battles he finally made peace with Japan. In the process he was elected China's president in 1943 and reelected in 1948. When the Communists won control of China in 1949, Chiang escaped to Taiwan and set up a Nationalist China government there. Chiang was reelected in 1954, 1960, 1966, and 1972. He died on April 5, 1975 after being ill since 1972 and left his official duties to his son, Premier Chiang Ching-kuo.
After reading this book I am more understand of the struggles that China has had to face. Before this I did not even know who Chiang Kai-shek was. Now I know that he was an important military leader and president of China amongst other things. I have learned more about the Communist party and its wars with the Nationalist Party. That without Chiang's help the Nationalist party would not have gotten as far as it did. And I have also learned more about China's culture. I did not know that they used to have arranged marriages that would occur around age fourteen. It explained what their weddings are like and many other traditions.
"My fellow countrymen: History shows that freedom is never won cheaply and that victory must be earned...All our people must be decisively prepared for the counteroffensive and national recovery, and must stand ready to respond to anti-Communist uprisings whenever and wherever they may occur. We cannot afford to let such a fateful opportunity slip from our grip...We should invigorate our revolutionary spirit and fuse it into strong combat formations. All our blood, sweat, and toil, and all our resources, she be expended for the sake of our sacred war of national recovery...All the evils of Communism must be eradicated so as to eliminate the danger of a destructive world war and restore a lasting peace and well-being for mankind. Only thus can the spirit of Dr. Sun and the revolutionary martyrs rest in peace in Heaven." This is my favorite passage from this book because it is the real words spoken by Chiang. You can feel his passion and energy in those words. It shows the struggles he had already overcome and how willing he was to continue fighting for what he really believed in. You can see why he was the great leader that he was.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Chocolate Chip Cookies 4.TXT
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Roy McKenzie
L.A. 6°
February 26 1997

	Whoever in here likes chocolate chip cookies STAND UP!  Well, I like them too.

	The story of the Chocolate chip cookie is really an interesting one.  In fact, did you know that the invention itself was really an accident?  Nope, well, I didn't think so.  Let me tell you a little about it.

Have you ever wondered how the chocolate chip cookie came to be?  Have you ever wondered who brought this American tradition into our homes?  Do you know how they became so popular?

	Well, it all started one day with a young lady named Ruth Wakefield.  One day she was making some cookies for her guests.  They were called Butter Drop Do's.  This cookie required semisweet chocolate pieces to be melted in the batter.  Well she was in a hurry, she had beds to make and drapes to clean so, instead of melting the chocolate pieces in the batter she just chopped them up in the batter, thinking they would melt during the cooking process.  To her surprise they stayed very much intact  See what happens when you do not follow the directions?

	Well, never the less everyone at the Toll House Inn simply loved them.  In fact, they became so popular the recipe was published in the Boston Newspaper. The recipe was named the Toll House Cookie.  One day Nestlé was going over their reports and they found that sales for chocolate bars rose rapidly in the Boston area.  This was because the chocolate bars were the primary ingredient in the Toll House Cookies.  When Nestlé found out what was up they started making their chocolate bars with score lines on them for easier breaking.  This was ok but still not easy enough.  So to solve this problem they made morsels (miniature chocolate kisses)and bought the Toll House name. With that they called them Nestlé Toll House Morsels.

	Did you also know that the chocolate chip cookie is the most popular cookie in America?  The Toll House produces thirty-three thousand cookies each day.  In the world about 7 billion cookies are eaten annually that means 19,200 thousand cookies a day.  That explains why 50% of cookies in American homes are chocolate chip.

As you can see this invention of the 1930's had a powerful effect on the cookie industry.  Whit the hopes you learned something about how it came to be, who invented it and the popularity of the chocolate chip cookie, I leave you with this plate of cookies to enjoy!!
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Chocolate Chip Cookies.TXT
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Roy McKenzie
L.A. 6°
February 26 1997

	Whoever in here likes chocolate chip cookies STAND UP!  Well, I like them too.

	The story of the Chocolate chip cookie is really an interesting one.  In fact, did you know that the invention itself was really an accident?  Nope, well, I didn't think so.  Let me tell you a little about it.

Have you ever wondered how the chocolate chip cookie came to be?  Have you ever wondered who brought this American tradition into our homes?  Do you know how they became so popular?

	Well, it all started one day with a young lady named Ruth Wakefield.  One day she was making some cookies for her guests.  They were called Butter Drop Do's.  This cookie required semisweet chocolate pieces to be melted in the batter.  Well she was in a hurry, she had beds to make and drapes to clean so, instead of melting the chocolate pieces in the batter she just chopped them up in the batter, thinking they would melt during the cooking process.  To her surprise they stayed very much intact  See what happens when you do not follow the directions?

	Well, never the less everyone at the Toll House Inn simply loved them.  In fact, they became so popular the recipe was published in the Boston Newspaper. The recipe was named the Toll House Cookie.  One day Nestlé was going over their reports and they found that sales for chocolate bars rose rapidly in the Boston area.  This was because the chocolate bars were the primary ingredient in the Toll House Cookies.  When Nestlé found out what was up they started making their chocolate bars with score lines on them for easier breaking.  This was ok but still not easy enough.  So to solve this problem they made morsels (miniature chocolate kisses)and bought the Toll House name. With that they called them Nestlé Toll House Morsels.

	Did you also know that the chocolate chip cookie is the most popular cookie in America?  The Toll House produces thirty-three thousand cookies each day.  In the world about 7 billion cookies are eaten annually that means 19,200 thousand cookies a day.  That explains why 50% of cookies in American homes are chocolate chip.

As you can see this invention of the 1930's had a powerful effect on the cookie industry.  Whit the hopes you learned something about how it came to be, who invented it and the popularity of the chocolate chip cookie, I leave you with this plate of cookies to enjoy!!
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Cleopatra.TXT
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Cleopatra
Cleopatra Vll was born in 69 BC, in Alexandria, Egypt. Despite what people say today, that she was glamorous and beautiful, she was far from it.
She is shown on ancient coins with a long hooked nose and masculine features. Although she was not beautiful she was clearly a very seductive woman, and she used this to further Egypt politically. She had a beautiful musical voice. It is also said that she was highly intelligent. She spoke nine different languages, and she was the first Ptolemy pharaoh who could actually spoke Egyptian. She ascended the Egyptian throne after her father, Ptolemy Xll Auletes died in 51 BC. Cleopatra which was seventeen at the time and her brother Ptolemy Xlll, which was twelve, were married because of the terms of her fathers will. They then ruled Egypt together. In the third year of their reign Ptolemy's advisers told him that he should rule Egypt by himself. So, because of this he drove Cleopatra into exile. Cleopatra then escaped to Syria. She then returned with an army. Ptolemy sent an army to meet with her. At this point, Julius Caesar of Rome arrived in pursuit of an enemy, who was seeking help from Ptolemy. Cleopatra had to roll herself up in a rug so that she wouldn't get killed while entering Egypt. If she hadn't hidden herself she would have been killed. When she unrolled herself in front of Caesar he fell in love with her right away.Caesar had to choose which of the Egyptian rulers to help keep the throne. Of course he chose Cleopatra. He then became Cleopatra's lover. In 47 BC Ptolemy Xlll drowned in the Nile while trying to escape, and Caesar then restored Cleopatra to her throne.
After her older brother Ptolemy Xlll was died, Cleopatra was then forced by custom to marry her youngest brother Ptolemy XlV, which was about eleven at the time. After Cleopatra and Ptolemy XlV were settled on their joint government basis, she and Caesar went on a two-month cruise on the Nile. It is said that it was then she became pregnant, and she later gave birth to a son. His name was officially Ptolemy XV Caesar, but he was popularly called Caesarion, which means "Little Caesar". People say that Caesar was not really the father of Caesarion. Although the child strongly resembled Caesar, and so Caesar acknowledged him as his son. After the cruise Caesar then went back to Rome and Cleopatra went back to Egypt. Caesar left three men that were part of the army so that they could protect Cleopatra. In 46 BC he invited Cleopatra to go to Rome to be with him. She then went taking Caesarion with her. That same year in September he celebrated his war triumph's in which was called the March of Triumph's. In this march he paraded through the streets of Rome with his prisoners, including Cleopatra's sister Arsinoe. Caesar spared Arsinoe's life after she betrayed Cleopatra, but later Mark Antony had her killed after Cleopatra told him to.
Cleopatra lived in Caesar's villa near Rome for almost two years. He showered Cleopatra with gifts and everything she wanted. It was rumored that Caesar was intending to pass a law allowing him to marry Cleopatra and make their son his heir. It was also rumored that Caesar, who had accepted a lifetime dictatorship and sat on a golden throne in the Senate, intended to become the king of Rome. On March 15, 44 BC a crowd of conspirators surrounded Caesar at a Senate meeting and stabbed him to death. Cleopatra knew that she was also in danger so she quickly left Rome with her protectors. Before or immediately after their return to Egypt, Ptolemy XIV died. It is rumored that Cleopatra had him. Cleopatra then made Caesarion,her son, co-regent. Caesar's assassination caused lacking in a ruler and civil war in Rome. Eventually the empire was divided among three men. Those men were Caesar's great-nephew Octavian, who later became the emperor Augustus. There was also Marcus Lepidus and Marcus Antonius, or better known as Mark Antony.
In 42 B.C. Mark Antony called for Cleopatra to Tarsus, to question her about whether she had assisted his enemies. Cleopatra arrived in style on a barge with a gilded stern, purple sails, and silver oars. The boat was sailed by her maids, who were dressed as sea nymphs. Cleopatra herself was dressed as Venus, the goddess of love. She reclined under a gold canopy, fanned by boys in Cupid costumes. Antony was impressed by this glamorous display of luxury. This was as Cleopatra had intended. That night Cleopatra entertained him on her barge, and the next night Antony invited her to supper, hoping to outdo her in magnificence. Unfortunately he failed to do so, but he ended up joking about it in his good-natured, way. Cleopatra didn't seem to mind his tasteless sense of humor actually she joined right in. Like Caesar before him, Antony was falling in love with her. Forgetting about his responsibilities of being a ruler, he accompanied Cleopatra to Alexandria and spent the winter with her there. Finally,Antony said goodbye to Cleopatra and returned to his duties as a ruler of the Roman empire. Six months later Cleopatra gave birth to twins,there names were Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios. It was four years later before she saw Antony again. During that time Antony married Octavian's half-sister, Octavia. They had three children. In 37 BC, while on his way to invade Parthia, Antony enjoyed another visit with Cleopatra. He hurried through his military campaign and raced back to Cleopatra. From then on Alexandria was his home, and Cleopatra was his life. He married her in 36 BC and she gave birth to another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Meanwhile, back in Rome, Octavia remained loyal to her cheating husband. She decided to visit Antony, and when she reached Athens she received a letter from him saying that he would meet her there. However, Cleopatra was determined to keep Antony away from his other wife. She cried and fainted and starved herself so it worked. Antony ended up cancelling his trip, and Octavia returned home without seeing her husband. The Roman people were disgusted by the way Antony had treated Octavia. They were also angry to hear that Cleopatra and Antony were calling themselves gods. Worst of all, in 34 B.C. Antony made Alexander Helios the king of Armenia, Cleopatra Selene the queen of Cyrenaica and Crete, and Ptolemy Philadelphus the king of Syria. Caesarion was proclaimed the "King of Kings," and Cleopatra was the "Queen of Kings." Octavian was extremely mad and so he convinced the Roman Senate to declare war on Egypt. In 31 B.C. Antony's forces fought the Romans in a sea battle off the coast of Actium, Greece. Cleopatra was there with sixty ships of her own. When she saw that Antony's cumbersome, badly-manned galleys were losing to the Romans' lighter, swifter boats, she left the scene. Antony abandoned his men to follow her. Although it is possible that they had prearranged their retreat, the Romans saw it as proof that Antony wascrazy for Cleopatra and was unable to think or act on his own. For three days Antony sat alone in the prow of Cleopatra's ship, refusing to see or speak to her. They returned to Egypt, where Antony lived alone for a time.In the meanwhile Cleopatra prepared for an invasion by Rome. When Antony received word that his forces had surrendered at Actium and his allies had gone over to Octavian, he left his solitary home and returned to Cleopatra to party away their final days. Cleopatra began experimenting with poisons to learn which would cause the most painless death. She also built a mausoleum to which she moved all of her gold, silver, emeralds, pearls, ebony, ivory, and other treasure. In 30 B.C. Octavian reached Alexandria. Mark Antony marched his army out of the city to meet the enemy. He stopped on high ground to watch what he expected would be a naval battle between his fleet and the Roman fleet. Instead he saw his fleet salute the Romans with their oars and joined them. At this Antony's cavalry also deserted him. His infantry was soon defeated and Antony returned to the city, shouting that Cleopatra had betrayed him. Cleopatra was afraid that he would hurt her, so she left to the monument that housed her treasures and locked herself in, ordering her servants to tell Antony she was dead. When Antony heard this he actually believed it. So he went to his room and opened his coat, exclaiming that he would soon be with Cleopatra. He ordered a servant named Eros to kill him, but Eros killed himself instead. Antony then stabbed himself in the stomach and passed out on a couch. When he woke up he begged his servants to put him out of his misery, but they ran away. At last Cleopatra's secretary came and told him Cleopatra wanted to see him. Overjoyed to hear Cleopatra was alive, Antony had himself carried to her mausoleum. Cleopatra was afraid to open the door because of the approach of Octavian's army, but she and her two serving women let down ropes from a window and pulled him up. Distraught, Cleopatra laid Antony on her bed and beat her breasts, calling him her lord, husband and emperor. Antony told her not to pity him, but to remember his past happiness. Then he died at that very moment.
When Octavian and his men reached her monument Cleopatra refused to let them in. She talked with them through the door, demanding that her kingdom be given to her children. Octavian ordered one man to keep her talking while others set up ladders and climbed through the window. When Cleopatra saw the men she pulled out a dagger and tried to stab herself, but she was disarmed and taken prisoner. Her children were also taken prisoner and were treated well. Octavian allowed Cleopatra to arrange Antony's funeral. After the funeral she took to her bed, sick with grief. She wanted to kill herself, but Octavian kept her under close guard. One day he visited her and she flung herself at his feet, nearly naked, and told him she wanted to live. With Octavian's permission she visited Antony's tomb. Then she returned to her mausoleum, took a bath, and ordered a feast. While the meal was being prepared a man arrived at her monument with a basket of figs. The guards checked the basket and found nothing suspicious, so they allowed the man to give the basket of figs to Cleopatra. After she had eaten, Cleopatra wrote a letter, sealed it, and sent it to Octavian. He opened it and found Cleopatra's plea that he would allow her to be buried in Antony's tomb. Alarmed, Octavian sent messengers to alert her guards that Cleopatra planned to commit suicide. But it was too late. They found the 39-year old queen dead on her golden bed, with her maid Iras dying at her feet. Two pricks were found on Cleopatra's arm, and it was believed that she had allowed herself to be bitten by an asp that was smuggled in with the figs. As she had wished, she was buried beside Antony.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Colt A Man and His Guns.TXT
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Colt: A Man and His Guns


      The Colt six shooter will always be a legend to many fighting men.
Whether you know it as an accurate, cowboy, Texas Ranger, gun-slinging, out West,
corral gun, or as a little protection, the Peacemaker by Samuel Colt  and Samuel
Colt will never be forgotten.

   Samuel Colt is known as the inventor of the first revolving firearm. Colt was
born in 1814 to a family were money was not the pressing issue.  His father ,
Christopher, was a man that owned his own silk mill in the town where Colt was
born, Hartford, Connecticut. Colt's mother died when he was six and his father's
business started to fail. When Colt Colt was seven, he was fascinated by guns.
He took apart his father's gun in a field and was able to successfully rebuild
it.  At the age of ten Colt was an apprentice in his fathers mill, mostly dying
clothes. Science, adventures of an active life, and mechanics were all the
favorite passions of young  Colt. The adventures eventually led Colt into
trouble.  At the age of seventeen Colt was expelled form a preparatory school in
Amherst, MA.

      During the years of 1830 - 1831 Colt voyaged to India..  It was during
these years that Colt first conceived the idea of a revolving firearm.  Some
think it may have come from watching the revolving wheel of the ship, turning
and locking.  While on board ship,  Colt must have seen other revolving firearms
in London or  India.  He carved a wooden model of his ideal gun while he was at
sea.  None of what Colt may have previously seen on revolving guns could have
led to his invention. His ideas were not copied from any source, even though the
revolving idea was not unique.

      When Colt arrived  home from sea, he showed  the  wooden model to his
father and a family friend.  This friend was Henry Ellsworth, Commissioner of
the United States Patent Office. Both Colt's father and Mr. Ellsworth were
greatly impressed by the model.   They encouraged Colt to file for a patent for
his revolving firearm. In the year 1831 Colt hired a man to create the first
working model.  In 1836 Colt began the production of the first revolver after
his petition for the patent. Between these years Colt presented lectures on
chemistry and did practical demonstrations of laughing gas.

      On February of the 25, in the year 1835, the first United States patent
was granted for Colt revolver. The patent that Colt received covered eight basic
features.  First, the application of caps at the end of the gun cylinder.
Second, the application of a partition between the caps, as well as other basic
ideas. The other areas of the patent cover the application of certain parts of
the gun,  the principle of locking and turning the cylinder , and all of the
basic revolver parts.

      In 1848, the new pocket model revolver was introduced. Colt devised an
alternative means of loading the gun - removing the barrel and cylinder, and
either switching an empty cylinder for a loaded one or using the axis pin as a
ramrod. This gun was nicknamed the "Baby Dragoon" because it resembled the
bigger Dragoon.  The pocket-sized pistols had a larger span of appeal to the
public.  Even Colt Houston of Texas ordered a Baby Dragoon from his friend  Colt.

	In 1847 the US Army contracted Colt to build his Walker revolver for
military use. This was the first truly practical revolving cylinder firearm.
The main feature of this firearm was a ratchet of the cylinder to revolve the
cylinder.  The revolving was initiated by the hammer; the motion it made was
called "cocking" the hammer.  The way that the new revolver was described as
working Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics was:

"Colt improvements in firearms , patent 1849, consist in certain improvements
upon that construction of guns and pistols which has cylindrical revolving
breech piece, provided with a series of parrallel chambers for containing a
series of charges, by revolution of the breech upon it's shaft, may be brought
into line with the bore of the barrel, and be severally discharged through the
same."

What was meant by this is that a cylinder, round piece of metal, contained
several charges (at this time black powder is still being used), that revolved
around a center point that aligned the charge to be able to be fired ou the
barrel of the weapon. In 1873 Colt revised the Colt revised the current design
and created the Single Action Army revolver.  This revolver is commonly called
the Peacemaker. In 1896 with the advent of smokeless gun powder the SAA, or the
Peacemaker, was updated and mass produced using Eli Whitney's mass production
ideas.

     Houston told Colt, "(If) you have a small pistol, or will soon have one
made of choice quality, I wish you to bring it with you as I wish to purchase
one.  I did not know (of them) until a few days since-  I then saw one for the
first time and was greatly pleased with it."  The type seen be Houston was an
actual Baby Dragoon with a square-back trigger guard and a Texas Ranger scene on
the cylinder.  This particular scene was of a Texas Ranger and an Indian in a
fight scene.

        The Colt revolver served a great purpose for the Texas Rangers.  This
pocket-sized gun could be casually carried around and easily reloaded.  The
beauty of the gun was its six consecutive shots and its precise accuracy.   The
Texas Rangers and other Texas gunslingers know  Colt as the "cream of the crop"
in gun making, supreme revolving techniques and great precision make Colt the
number one gun for Texans.


Bibliography:

1. The Handbook of Texas, p 382
   The Texas Historical Association 2. Colt : An American Legend, all pages
   Wilson Publishing ; Robert Lawrence Wilson 3. How It Works, p 3240
   H.S. Stuttman Inc.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Confucius Paper.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Confucius Paper
According to tradition, Confucius was born in the state of Lu (present-day Shandong Province) of the noble K'ung clan. His original name was K'ung Ch'iu. His father, commander of a district in Lu, died three years after Confucius was born, leaving the family in poverty, but Confucius nevertheless received a fine education. He was married at the age of 19 and had one son and two daughters. During the four years immediately after his marriage, poverty compelled him to become a sevant for the chief of the district in which he lived. His mother died in 527 BC, and after a period of mourning he began his career as a teacher, usually traveling about and instructing the small body of disciples that had gathered around him. His fame as a man of learning and character and his reverence for Chinese ideals and customs soon spread through the principality of Lu.
Living as he did in the second half of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1027?-256 BC), when feudalism degenerated in China and conspiracy and evildoing were constant, Confucius deplored the contemporary disorder and lack of moral standards. He came to believe that the only remedy was to convert people once more to the principles of the sages of antiquity. He therefore lectured to his pupils on the ancient classics. He taught the great value of the power of example. Rulers, he said, can be great only if they themselves lead free lives, and were they willing to be guided by moral principles, their states would sure become prosperous and happy.
Confucius had, however, no opportunity to put his theories to a public test until, at the age of 50, he was appointed magistrate of Chung-tu, and the next year minister of crime of the state of Lu. His administration was successful; reforms were introduced, justice was fairly dispensed, and crime was almost eliminated. So powerful that Lu became the ruler of a neighboring state maneuvered to secure the minister's dismissal. Confucius left his office in 496 BC, traveling about and teaching, vainly hoping that some other prince would allow him to undertake measures of reform. In 484 BC, after a fruitless search for an ideal ruler, he returned for the last time to Lu. He spent the remaining years of his life in retirement, writing commentaries on the classics. He died in Lu and was buried in a tomb at Ch'ü-fu, Shandong.
Confucius did not put into writing the principles of his philosophy. These were handed down only through his disciples. The Lun Yü (Analects), a work compiled by some of his disciples, is considered the most reliable source of information about his life and teachings. One of the historical works that he is said to have compiled and edited, the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), is an annalistic account of Chinese history in the state of Lu from 722 to 481 BC. In learning he wished to be known as a transmitter rather than as a creator, and he therefore revived the study of the ancient books. His own teachings, together with those of his main disciples, are found in the Shih Shu (Four Books) of Confucian literature, which became the textbooks of later Chinese generations. Confucius was greatly known during his lifetime and in succeeding ages. Although he himself had little belief in the supernatural, he has been revered almost as a spiritual being by millions.
The entire teaching of Confucius was practical and ethical, rather than religious. He claimed to be a restorer of ancient morality and held that proper outward acts based on the five virtues of kindness, uprightness, decorum, wisdom, and faithfulness constitute the whole of human duty. Reverence for parents, living and dead, was one of his key concepts. His view of government was paternalistic, and he enjoined all individuals to observe carefully their duties toward the state. In subsequent centuries his teachings exerted a powerful influence on the Chinese nation.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Constantine the Great.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Constantine the Great
Constantine the Great (about AD274-337), Roman emperor (306-37), the
first Roman ruler to be converted to Christianity. He was the founder of Constantinople
(present-day Istanbul), which remained the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine)
Empire until 1453.
Constantine the Great was born Flavius Valerius Constantinus at Nis, in
what is now Serbia, son of the commander Constantius Chlorus (later Constantius I)
and Helena (later Saint Helena), a camp follower. Constantius became co-emperor in
305. Constantine, who had shown military talent in the East, joined his father in
Britain in 306. He was popular with the troops, who proclaimed him emperor when
Constantius died later the same year. Over the next two decades, however,
Constantine had to fight his rivals for the throne, and he did not finally establish
himself as sole ruler until 324.
Following the example of his father and earlier 3rd-century emperors,
Constantine in his early life was a solar henotheist, believing that the Roman sun god,
Sol, was the visible manifestation of an invisible "Highest God", who was the principle
behind the universe. This god was thought to be the companion of the Roman
emperor. Constantine's adherence to this faith is evident from his claim of having had
a vision of the sun god in 310 while in a grove of Apollo in Gaul. In 312, on the eve of
a battle against Maxentius, his rival in Italy, Constantine is reported to have dreamed
that Christ appeared to him and told him to inscribe the first two letters of his name
on the shields of his troops. The next day he is said to have seen a cross
superimposed on the sun and the words "in this sign you will be the victor".
Constantine then defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, near Rome.
The Senate hailed the victor as savior of the Roman people. Thus, Constantine, who
had been a pagan solar worshiper, now looked upon the Christian deity as a bringer of
victory. Persecution of the Christians was ended, and Constantine's co-emperor,
Licinius, joined him in issuing the Edict of Milan (313), which mandated toleration of
Christians in the Roman Empire. As guardian of Constantine's favored religion, the
church was then given legal rights and large financial donations.
A struggle for power soon began between Licinius and Constantine,
from which Constantine emerged in 324 as a victorious Christian champion. Now
emperor of both East and West, he began to implement important administrative
reforms. The army was reorganized, and the separation of civil and military authority,
begun by his predecessor, Diocletian, was completed. The central government was
run by Constantine and his council, known as the sacrum consistorium. The Senate
was given back the powers that it had lost in the 3rd century, and new gold coins
were issued, which remained the standard of exchange until the end of the Byzantine
Empire.
Constantine intervened in ecclesiastical affairs to achieve unity; he
presided over the first ecumenical council of the church at Nicaea in 325. He also
began the building of Constantinople in 326 on the site of ancient Greek Byzantium.
The city was completed in 330 (later expanded), given Roman institutions, and
beautified by ancient Greek works of art. In addition, Constantine built churches in
the Holy Land, where his mother (also a Christian) supposedly found the True Cross
on which Jesus was crucified. The emperor was baptized shortly before his death, on
May 22, 337.
Constantine the Great unified a tottering empire, reorganized the
Roman state, and set the stage for the final victory of Christianity at the end of the
4th century. Many modern scholars accept the sincerity of his religious conviction. His
conversion was a gradual process; at first he probably associated Christ with the
victorious sun god. By the time of the Council of Nicaea (325), however, he was
completely Christian, but still tolerated paganism among his subjects. Although
criticized by his enemies as a proponent of a crude and false religion, Constantine the
Great strengthened the Roman Empire and ensured its survival in the East. As the first
emperor to rule in the name of Christ, he was a major figure in the foundation of
medieval Christian Europe.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Creative Story State Highway.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Creative Story: State Highway


	It was a blistering hot July afternoon, with all the windows up and the
air conditioning on maximum, the young boy questioned again why he was going to
take college level courses when he had only recently finished his junior year in
high school. He felt like it was a million degrees inside the red minivan. As he
traveled in a South direction alone Arkansas State Highway 55, with the rhythmic
beet of the tires on the road, he felt as thought he could feel each bump to its
fullest, they were like waves on an ocean and symbolized everything he had over
come and accomplished to make this journey. He not only over came his own self
doubts about whether he can make it, but many who believed that he could not be
successful in an environment with so many distractions.  As he sat in the back
of the minivan fears over the future began to surface in his head. "Will I make
friends?" "Will I be comfortable so many miles away from home?" As these
thoughts raced through his mind he felt alone and a cold shiver was sent through
his body. He was no afraid and cold in the hot summer air. He knew consciously
and logically that he was not alone. For his mother and grandmother sat next to
him in the minivan and would do whatever they could to help him. But yet he
realized something had changed. They were there but would some be gone and that
he must draw strength, self-confidence, and a sense of security from within
himself and not rely on the people around him to fulfill these feelings because
they could not provide this for him. He must venture into the unknown, alone and
could only receive a limited type of security and support from home. Regardless
of which way the journey took him he could always count on them being there in
case he fell or got lost during his month away.
	As the red minivan crossed the state line passing from Arkansas into the
mighty sate of Mississippi. The first image he saw was an eight foot by twelve
foot flag of the state. He knew so little about their customs, beliefs and
rituals. It was as if he were entering into a foreign country. As they drove up
the main entrance he could see through the trees in the "Grove" the bright
afternoon sun reflecting off the columns of the "Ole Miss" Lyceum. As his family
helped him unload what seemed to not be enough possessions he checked into the
dorms. As he opened the door he saw a blank white room that he could not imagine
being used as anything but a prison cell. As the minivan pulled away the young
boy felt mixed emotion, for he was truly on his own for a month.
	His first night on campus would be anything but lonely and boring. As he
got dressed to got a baseball game that the school had organized to give the
summer students a chance to meet each other. He felt as though he was alone and
there was no one on the entire campus that new who he was or what he was about.
He sat down and this guy came up and introduced himself as Scott and asked him
where he was from and what he liked to do. The conversation was filled with "y'
all's" and "fixin". As the conversation wrapped up Scott asked me if I wanted to
go to a party after the baseball game, the young boy accepted. As the game ended
the young boy ran into Scott with a group of high school kids. The group went
with Scott and ended up at a fraternity house. As the group walked in each
person was introduced to other guys. The beer was flowing and many of the high
school kids were quite drunk as the new group arrived. It was the young boys
first encounter with serious drinking and the peer pressure felt from older
fraternity guys.
	As the first day of summer camp classes rolled around the young boy felt
more and more confident that this would be the place for him in another year. He
went to class and listened to the professor tell the class about what to expect
and it all sounded quite complicated but he felt as though he were able to
conquer anything. He fell into a routine and did not understand why everyone
told him college was so hard. Then toward the end of the first week a test
rolled around. He was not scared in the least bit. However he was slowly
deflated as he sat in a History exam and looked at a page not knowing anything.
After ninety minutes of realization, the professor looked at the young boy who
had grown so much since the red minivan had dropped him off, and said with a
distinct southern accent "well son, welcome to college courses



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Creative Story The Ride.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Creative Story: The Ride


     It was a beautiful day and definitely not forewarning of the events
that would change my life.  The warm Las Vegas sun was shining brightly
in the blue and cloudless sky.  A light breeze cooled the warm air just enough
to stop the body from sweating.  The breeze was clean and crisp that blew along
with the scent of a spring day.  The only noise was the roar of the engine as I
twisted the throttle and accelerated through the twisted roads near my home.  As
everything raced by me, I felt a rush of adrenaline, then the fateful turn
approached.  I had taken the turn a hundred times before but today it would
change my life.  Around the turn would be my motorcycle accident that would
cause me to take life much more seriously.
	Before the accident my lifestyle was very fast paced.  I spent almost
all of my time with my friends going out to parties every night.  My life was in
control without any abusive habits, it was just fast paced and fun times with
friends.  Never being at home added to an already stressful family environment.
My high school education suffered from too much fun and too little studying.  My
father made being at home a very uneasy feeling, making me want to stay away
even more.  He never took any time to help me with school, car or money.  I
always had to work to earn everything, the only thing I wasn't paying for was
rent.  In turn I wanted little to do with my father, stepmother or brother,
never contributing or helping out.  I even stopped going with them on vacations.
The feelings I had were that I just wanted to be alone by myself, independent.
	For four months after the accident I was unable to do anything that I
had previously done in the normal routine of my life. With a full leg and hand
cast I spent almost all my time during the four months recovering on the couch
in the living room.  I finished my junior year of high school at my bedroom desk.
 During this period I developed a lot of patience from the slow healing process
of my bones. I also spent a great deal of time thinking, assessing, and
contemplating my life and my future.  Some of my thoughts were "What  was I
doing with my life?", "Where was I headed?", "What was in my future for myself?",
"What did I want to do with my life?", "How my family life was affecting me?",
and many other personal issues dealing with my personality.  While I was
contemplating I realized that my life had no focus or direction.  After several
mentally stressful and depressive months, my life came into focus. After
visiting my mom in Sacramento for a week, I realized living with my father was
very negative for me.   During that week I was totally happy and more than
willing to try to help out around the house, even though I still wore a brace on
my leg.  Being treated differently with love and as a young adult, not a child,
made all the difference.  It was a very tough decision to move to Sacramento
during my Senior year of high school and leave all my friends behind, but I
could no longer live with my father.
	After moving to Sacramento, to live with my mother, I gained positive
direction.  Traveling in that same direction I have developed my future and
career.  Now I have a positive family life, which I have learned to value very
much.  Also I have slowly developed a better relationship with my father. I
often go back to Las Vegas to visit my friends and my family.  I still go out
with my friends and have a good time.  We still have a wild time, but not all of
the time. We have all matured and found purpose and balance in our lives.  I had
no idea this event would dramatically change my life, my future, the way I think,
and the events to come into my life.  I am not certain that it was for the best
or the worst, because I do not know what events would have followed if I did not
drive around that turn.
	One thing for certain I would not be here in Sacramento, where I have a
great life and have developed a promising successful career.  I might still be
riding through those corners in Las Vegas, living fast and carefree.  Perhaps
that turn put my life in the right direction.  I know now that I have a greater
appreciation for life and I have learned what the more important aspects of one'
s life are. I attribute most of the changes in my attitude and my
accomplishments to my mom.  She has always been there for me with unconditional
love and positive support of me as a person.  My accident and the events that
followed changed me.  I now take life more serious and know that having a family
that cares about you and loves you is the most valuable asset one can possess.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Creative Why Are There Poor People.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Creative Essay:  Why Are There Poor People


	Looking back on my childhood, I realize how lucky I was to be blessed
with the family I have.  Knowing what I know now, I have come to understand that
not every kid had the same life that I had.  Not every child had a living room
full of gifts on Christmas morning, or a family to share a birthday with.  I was
lucky enough to have all of the luxuries that so many children yearn for.  So
many children take for granted the fact that they eat three meals a day, while
so many others are lucky to find a scrap of bread in a dumpster.
	It wasn't until I was about nine or ten when I realized that there were
poor people in the world.  My family and I had been on our annual trip to New
York City to see the Christmas play at Radio City.  I didn't understand why all
these people kept asking my dad to spare them some change, or why a family was
searching through the dumpster.  I asked, "Daddy, why is that man sleeping on
the street?"
	My dad spent a long time explaining to me that not everybody had the
same life as our family did.  Some kids parents didn't have jobs to go to every
day, or cars to take them wherever they needed to go, and not every family in
the world had breakfast, lunch, and dinner every day.  He told me that I was
very lucky to have all the things that I had, and that millions of kids in the
world would die to have the life I had.  I was still very confused about the
whole situation.  Why wasn't every family like ours?  What did those people do
wrong?  My dad just said that was life . . . some people are lucky, and some
people aren't.
	At first, I  thought that all poor people were the same, but I later
found out that anybody can be poor.  Through the years, I learned that not all
people are born into poverty, that some people can become poor over time.
People can have steady jobs and eventually layoffs occur or seniority rules.
Innocent people who do their job and does it well can be knocked right out of
their position.  It doesn't matter if it hurts that person or their family.
	So many children grow up, taking for granted all of the luxuries that
they were lucky enough to have.  As a child, it's very difficult to stop and
realize that there are so many underprivileged people in the world, and if they
could maybe then they would realize how lucky they really are.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Daniel Johns.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Daniel Johns
Daniel Johns is a guitar player. He was born
in 1979. He has blonde hair and is 16 years old. One day
he heard a song on the radio with a guitar solo in it. He
thought it was cool, so he wanted to get a guitar. He didn't
get one until about a year later. When he got the guitar
Chris Jonnou, Ben Gillies, and he, were bored. So they
decided to start a band. When they did they made up a
song called "Tomorrow." They entered it into a contest that
was held in their city. The judges loved it, so they got to
record a single with the song "Tomorrow." Their first
single. Then they played it on the radio and everybody
loved it. Everybody went and bought the single. A music
company called Epic records came to them and they signed
a record deal. They made their first album "Frogstomp."
They started to put a band together in 1992. They started
in Australia. All of them lived about 5 minutes from each
other and went to the same school. They were only 12 and
13 years old. When they became famous they were only
15, but one of them just turned 16. They just went on their
first American tour, but they will be back this year for a
cross-country jaunt, opening for the Red Hot Chili
Peppers. Their first album " Frogstomp", at number 9 last
week, just went platinum, and their video "Tomorrow" is in
heavy rotation on MTV. Their CD "Frogstomp" is flying
out in stores across the country. But the best thing is that
the three of them combined are younger than Mick Jagger.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Daniel Webster 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Daniel Webster



 



Daniel Webster contributed a large potion of the Civil War. To begin,



he was born in Salisbury, New Hampshire on January 18, 1782. His parents



were farmers so many people didn't know what to expect of him. Even though



his parents were farmers, he still graduated from Dartmouth College in



1801. After he learned to be a lawyer, Daniel Webster opened a legal



practice in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1807.



 



Webster quickly became an experienced and very good lawyer and a



Federalist party leader. In 1812, Webster was elected to the U.S. House of



Representatives because of his opposition to the War of 1812, which had



crippled New England's shipping trade. After two more terms in the House,



Webster decided to leave the Congress and move to Boston in 1816. Over the



next 6 years, Webster won major constitutional cases in front of the



Supreme Court making him almost famous. Some of his most notable cases



were Dartmouth College v. Woodward, Gibbons v. Ogden, and McCulloch v.



Maryland. He made himself the nations leading lawyer and an outstanding



skilled public speaker or an orator. In 1823, Webster was returned to



Congress from Boston, and in 1827 he was elected senator from



Massachusetts.



 



New circumstances let Daniel Webster become a champion of American



nationalism. With the Federalist Party dead, he joined the National



Republican party, he joined with Westerner Henry Clay and then endorsing



federal aid for roads in the West. In 1828, since Massachusettses had



shifted the economic interest from shipping to manufacturing, Webster



decided to back the high-tariff bill of that year to help the small new



manufacturing businesses grow. Angry southern leaders condemned the



tariff, and South Carolina's John C. Calhoun argued that South Carolina had



the right to nullify or ignore the law. Replying to South Carolina's



Robert Hayne in a Senate debate in 1830, Webster triumphantly defended the



Union states by a very powerful but short speech. He said, "Liberty and



Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," made him a favorite and made



him well known among many people worldwide.



 



Webster and President Andrew Jackson joined forces in 1833 to try to



change South Carolina's attempt to nullify the tariff, but Webster and the



Whigs battled him on other issues including his attack on the National



Bank. Webster ran for the presidency in the election of 1836 as one of the



three Whig candidates, but he mostly only Massachusetts voted for him so he



lost badly because no one else voted for him. For the rest of his career



he tried very hard to get to the presidency and ran in many elections



hoping to get his shot at the office, but it never happened and he failed



every time.



 



In 1841, Daniel Webster came close to his idea of President but was



only named secretary. President William Henry Harrison appointed him to



this position. When he got killed in April 1841, John Tyler was brought to



the presidency. In September 1841, all the Whigs resigned from the cabinet



except Webster. He remained to settle an argument with Great Britain



having to do with the Maine-Canada boundary and he wanted to finish the



Webster-Ashburn Treaty, which he finally did in 1842. The Whigs finally



pressured Webster enough so that he would leave the cabinet with everyone



else in May of 1843.



 



The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the war with Mexico, both which,



were disliked by Webster, forced the country to face the issue of expansion



of slavery. Webster opposed the expansion but feared even more the



separation of the union over the dispute of the expansion of slavery. In a



powerful speech on March 7, 1850, he supported the Compromise of 1850,



lowering southern threats of separation but urging northern support for a



stronger law for the recovery of fugitive slaves. Webster was again named



secretary of state in July 1850 by President Millard Fillmore and



supervised the strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. Webster's



stand on the Act divided the Whig party, but it helped preserve the Union



and keep it together for a little while after until the Civil War started.



 



BIBLIOGRAPHY



 



1. Prodigy - Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1990, W-section



2. Daniel Webster - John Melvin, Copyright 1976, Bonhill Publishing 3.



Civil War Heros - American Books, 1979, p.244-247 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Daniel Webster.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Daniel Webster



 



Daniel Webster contributed a large potion of the Civil War. To begin,



he was born in Salisbury, New Hampshire on January 18, 1782. His parents



were farmers so many people didn't know what to expect of him. Even though



his parents were farmers, he still graduated from Dartmouth College in



1801. After he learned to be a lawyer, Daniel Webster opened a legal



practice in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1807.



 



Webster quickly became an experienced and very good lawyer and a



Federalist party leader. In 1812, Webster was elected to the U.S. House of



Representatives because of his opposition to the War of 1812, which had



crippled New England's shipping trade. After two more terms in the House,



Webster decided to leave the Congress and move to Boston in 1816. Over the



next 6 years, Webster won major constitutional cases in front of the



Supreme Court making him almost famous. Some of his most notable cases



were Dartmouth College v. Woodward, Gibbons v. Ogden, and McCulloch v.



Maryland. He made himself the nations leading lawyer and an outstanding



skilled public speaker or an orator. In 1823, Webster was returned to



Congress from Boston, and in 1827 he was elected senator from



Massachusetts.



 



New circumstances let Daniel Webster become a champion of American



nationalism. With the Federalist Party dead, he joined the National



Republican party, he joined with Westerner Henry Clay and then endorsing



federal aid for roads in the West. In 1828, since Massachusettses had



shifted the economic interest from shipping to manufacturing, Webster



decided to back the high-tariff bill of that year to help the small new



manufacturing businesses grow. Angry southern leaders condemned the



tariff, and South Carolina's John C. Calhoun argued that South Carolina had



the right to nullify or ignore the law. Replying to South Carolina's



Robert Hayne in a Senate debate in 1830, Webster triumphantly defended the



Union states by a very powerful but short speech. He said, "Liberty and



Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," made him a favorite and made



him well known among many people worldwide.



 



Webster and President Andrew Jackson joined forces in 1833 to try to



change South Carolina's attempt to nullify the tariff, but Webster and the



Whigs battled him on other issues including his attack on the National



Bank. Webster ran for the presidency in the election of 1836 as one of the



three Whig candidates, but he mostly only Massachusetts voted for him so he



lost badly because no one else voted for him. For the rest of his career



he tried very hard to get to the presidency and ran in many elections



hoping to get his shot at the office, but it never happened and he failed



every time.



 



In 1841, Daniel Webster came close to his idea of President but was



only named secretary. President William Henry Harrison appointed him to



this position. When he got killed in April 1841, John Tyler was brought to



the presidency. In September 1841, all the Whigs resigned from the cabinet



except Webster. He remained to settle an argument with Great Britain



having to do with the Maine-Canada boundary and he wanted to finish the



Webster-Ashburn Treaty, which he finally did in 1842. The Whigs finally



pressured Webster enough so that he would leave the cabinet with everyone



else in May of 1843.



 



The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the war with Mexico, both which,



were disliked by Webster, forced the country to face the issue of expansion



of slavery. Webster opposed the expansion but feared even more the



separation of the union over the dispute of the expansion of slavery. In a



powerful speech on March 7, 1850, he supported the Compromise of 1850,



lowering southern threats of separation but urging northern support for a



stronger law for the recovery of fugitive slaves. Webster was again named



secretary of state in July 1850 by President Millard Fillmore and



supervised the strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act. Webster's



stand on the Act divided the Whig party, but it helped preserve the Union



and keep it together for a little while after until the Civil War started.



 



BIBLIOGRAPHY



 



1. Prodigy - Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1990, W-section



2. Daniel Webster - John Melvin, Copyright 1976, Bonhill Publishing 3.



Civil War Heros - American Books, 1979, p.244-247 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\David Letterman The Man The Myth.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
David Letterman	David Letterman grew up in a small town in eastern Indiana.  He was born to Joseph and Dorothy Letterman.  After reading the novel, "David Letterman: On Stage and Off" by Rosemarie Lennon, I have learned about all his struggles and joys.  Because of this book, I feel sorry towards one of the funniest people on Earth, David Letterman.  I also admire him for his good acts and abilities. 
	To realize why I feel what I feel toward Letterman, you have to look at some of the main points in his life.  First of all, Dave was exactly an A student.  He struggled all of his life through grade school to college.  He also wasn't very popular.  He stated, " I remember standing around. . . with the other losers, watching all the athletes play sports.  All we could do is make fun and ridicule them."  He was never good at anything until high school.  "All I ever knew how to do was to make people laugh.  In high school I was the class clown, making fun of everything and everyone."  This personality trait was what gave him his thousands of faithful fans, watching his show every night to see Dave rip to shreds anyone who dare challenge him.  Another thing that was important to him was his mother and father.  His father, Joseph Letterman, and Dave went fishing quite often when he was young.  Dave looked up to his father tremendously.  When Joseph had his first heart attack when he was thirty-six, Dave and his father started to drift away.  Later, Dave's Dad died when he was fifty-three.  One of David's top regrets was never spending a lot of time with his dad.  As for his mother, she is the classical conservative mother of the fifties.  She was always very hard on Dave when he got into mischief in school-- which was quite often.  She is still a part of Dave's life, and can be seen quite often on his show, doing a comedy sketch, or telling audience members what the temperature was in Lillihammer during the Winter Olympics.
	The Reason I feel sorry for Letterman is because of his tragedies of his past.  His Dad's passing was hard enough, but he had other trials to deal with.  Like his mother.  She was never really proud of David, constantly reminding him he was going to fail, and not encouraging him to take his natural ability to make people laugh to their limits.  She hated the idea of him going to California to work in a comedy club there, but Dave was stubborn.  In 1975 he quit his job at a local T.V. station doing the weather, and moved to the big city of Los Angeles.  He worked at a place called The Comedy Store along side his current nemesis, Jay Leno.  There he learned how hard it was to be a comedian.  He started to become a perfectionist. When something wasn't right, he got very mad and was very unhappy.  This unhappiness is what caused Dave and his wife since 1969, Michelle Cook, to get a divorce.  "I misbehaved.  There's no way of getting around that.  The responsibility for the end of our marriage is squarely on my shoulders.  I have a measure of ongoing guilt about that. . . I was very immature and acted badly, and I am sorry for that."  Things started to turn around on November 24, 1978, when Johnny Carson, Dave's boyhood idol, had selected Dave to fill-in for him every once in a while.  This was it.  The big times.  But this also set Dave up for one of his biggest rejections yet.  Dave made fifty guest-host jobs and twenty-two guest appearances from 1978 to 1980.  He was a regular on Johnny's show and became to be one of Johnny's closest friends. In 1980, NBC gave Letterman his own show after Carson's.  For eleven and a half years, Dave's show was a success, and Letterman was considered as Carson's heir to the late night throne.  The job was given to Jay Leno instead, when Carson retired.  Dave took this as a major insult.  He left NBC-- breaking his contract-- and moved to CBS where Jay and Dave would compete for the same time slot.  "This new show was terribly exciting for me."  Dave did his show just like his one on NBC and on August 30, 1993, The Late Show with David Letterman beat Jay Leno's Tonight Show for two years after that.  
	I also admire David Letterman.  After all his ordeals, he still hasn't lost the ability to do what he started out to do: to make people to laugh.  I have been a fan of Letterman since he was guest hosting Carson's show, and I know a lot about him.  He still puts on a show every night, even though it has taken a major decline in ratings since the Oscars.  He is a kind man as well, giving thousands of dollars to various charities.  He has a talent for making people laugh, making even the stupidest jokes funny.  I view my self like him.  I am not the smartest in my family, nor will I ever be, but I know I am the funniest.  Maybe that's trough years of religiously watching Letterman at night.  I am also a perfectionist.  I get very angry with myself if I do something that goes terribly wrong.  David Letterman has inspired me in life, teaching me to do things most people wouldn't. 
	David William Letterman is a tremendously funny and kind man.  He has gone through some of life's tragic and some of it's magic, but always seems to come out on top.  Who knew that a skinny kid from Indiana who grew up with a few friends and no gumption, would be one of the most successful people of his time.  And, to quote Letterman, "Would you like to buy a monkey?"    




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\David Letterman.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
David Letterman


	David Letterman grew up in a small town in eastern Indiana.  He
was born to Joseph and Dorothy Letterman.  After reading the novel, "David
Letterman: On Stage and Off" by Rosemarie Lennon, I have learned about all his
struggles and joys.  Because of this book, I feel sorry towards one of the
funniest people on Earth, David Letterman.  I also admire him for his good acts
and abilities.
	To realize why I feel what I feel toward Letterman, you have to look at
some of the main points in his life.  First of all, Dave was exactly an A
student.  He struggled all of his life through grade school to college.  He also
wasn't very popular.  He stated, " I remember standing around. . . with the
other losers, watching all the athletes play sports.  All we could do is make
fun and ridicule them."  He was never good at anything until high school.  "All
I ever knew how to do was to make people laugh.  In high school I was the class
clown, making fun of everything and everyone."  This personality trait was what
gave him his thousands of faithful fans, watching his show every night to see
Dave rip to shreds anyone who dare challenge him.  Another thing that was
important to him was his mother and father.  His father, Joseph Letterman, and
Dave went fishing quite often when he was young.  Dave looked up to his father
tremendously.  When Joseph had his first heart attack when he was thirty-six,
Dave and his father started to drift away.  Later, Dave's Dad died when he was
fifty-three.  One of David's top regrets was never spending a lot of time with
his dad.  As for his mother, she is the classical conservative mother of the
fifties.  She was always very hard on Dave when he got into mischief in school--
which was quite often.  She is still a part of Dave's life, and can be seen
quite often on his show, doing a comedy sketch, or telling audience members what
the temperature was in Lillihammer during the Winter Olympics.
	The Reason I feel sorry for Letterman is because of his tragedies of his
past.  His Dad's passing was hard enough, but he had other trials to deal with.
Like his mother.  She was never really proud of David, constantly reminding him
he was going to fail, and not encouraging him to take his natural ability to
make people laugh to their limits.  She hated the idea of him going to
California to work in a comedy club there, but Dave was stubborn.  In 1975 he
quit his job at a local T.V. station doing the weather, and moved to the big
city of Los Angeles.  He worked at a place called The Comedy Store along side
his current nemesis, Jay Leno.  There he learned how hard it was to be a
comedian.  He started to become a perfectionist. When something wasn't right, he
got very mad and was very unhappy.  This unhappiness is what caused Dave and his
wife since 1969, Michelle Cook, to get a divorce.  "I misbehaved.  There's no
way of getting around that.  The responsibility for the end of our marriage is
squarely on my shoulders.  I have a measure of ongoing guilt about that. . . I
was very immature and acted badly, and I am sorry for that."  Things started to
turn around on November 24, 1978, when Johnny Carson, Dave's boyhood idol, had
selected Dave to fill-in for him every once in a while.  This was it.  The big
times.  But this also set Dave up for one of his biggest rejections yet.  Dave
made fifty guest-host jobs and twenty-two guest appearances from 1978 to 1980.
He was a regular on Johnny's show and became to be one of Johnny's closest
friends. In 1980, NBC gave Letterman his own show after Carson's.  For eleven
and a half years, Dave's show was a success, and Letterman was considered as
Carson's heir to the late night throne.  The job was given to Jay Leno instead,
when Carson retired.  Dave took this as a major insult.  He left NBC-- breaking
his contract-- and moved to CBS where Jay and Dave would compete for the same
time slot.  "This new show was terribly exciting for me."  Dave did his show
just like his one on NBC and on August 30, 1993, The Late Show with David
Letterman beat Jay Leno's Tonight Show for two years after that.
	I also admire David Letterman.  After all his ordeals, he still hasn't
lost the ability to do what he started out to do: to make people to laugh.  I
have been a fan of Letterman since he was guest hosting Carson's show, and I
know a lot about him.  He still puts on a show every night, even though it has
taken a major decline in ratings since the Oscars.  He is a kind man as well,
giving thousands of dollars to various charities.  He has a talent for making
people laugh, making even the stupidest jokes funny.  I view my self like him.
I am not the smartest in my family, nor will I ever be, but I know I am the
funniest.  Maybe that's trough years of religiously watching Letterman at night.
I am also a perfectionist.  I get very angry with myself if I do something that
goes terribly wrong.  David Letterman has inspired me in life, teaching me to do
things most people wouldn't.
	David William Letterman is a tremendously funny and kind man.  He has
gone through some of life's tragic and some of it's magic, but always seems to
come out on top.  Who knew that a skinny kid from Indiana who grew up with a few
friends and no gumption, would be one of the most successful people of his time.
And, to quote Letterman, "Would you like to buy a monkey?"



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Davy Crocket.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
DAVY CROCKETT

                                   
     Davy was born in 1786 in Greene County, Tennessee. He went
to school at 13 years old. But he didn't like school. He ran away to
the woods for 2 1/2 years to avoid being punished for missing days.

     Davy Crockett's father was from Ireland and he married Rebecca
Crockett. They had three boys and two girls. Davy liked hunting and
killing bears. His father taught him how to hunt deer, kill bears and
fish.

     In 1808 Davy Cockett married Mary Finley. They had two boys
and a girl. His first wife died. Then he married Mary Elizabeth Patton,
Elizabith had two children. 

     Davy loved hunting. He was the best shot with his rifle "Old
Betsy". He killed wildcats, deer and bears. A story tells that he that
Davy killed 105 bears in 3 weeks and he made an alligator do what he
wanted him to do. 

     Davy worked on people's farms. He was a plowboy on a farm,
he learned how to make hats, he helped with the cattle, and did many
odd jobs. When he wasn't working he went hunting and roamed the
woods. 

     Davy was the best at telling stories. He got to know a lot of
people liked him. They elected him to the legislature. He was
successful. He had 2 terms.

     Davy wanted to go fight with the Creeks. But his wife, Finley
begged him not to go. The Creeks fought only for there homes. Davy
could under stand that. He fought in Alabama and Georgia. Davy and
other men went into Florida to fight the Creeks.

     Davy Crockett took his rifle "Old Betsy" and fought for Texas
against Mexico at the Alamo.He fought with James Bowie and William
Travis in San Antonio at a mission. The Mexicans attacked the
mission and Davy Crockett was killed.
     
     
     Davy Crockett was a famous American. He could hunt fish and
telling stories. He was good with people and tried to help them. We
remember him as a well-loved pioneer. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Davy Crockett.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Davy Crockett


     Davy was born in 1786 in Greene County, Tennessee. He went to school at 13
years old. But he didn't like school. He ran away to the woods for 2 1/2 years
to avoid being punished for missing days.

     Davy Crockett's father was from Ireland and he married Rebecca Crockett.
They had three boys and two girls. Davy liked hunting and killing bears. His
father taught him how to hunt deer, kill bears and fish.

     In 1808 Davy Cockett married Mary Finley. They had two boys and a girl. His
first wife died. Then he married Mary Elizabeth Patton, Elizabith had two
children.

     Davy loved hunting. He was the best shot with his rifle "Old Betsy". He
killed wildcats, deer and bears. A story tells that he that Davy killed 105
bears in 3 weeks and he made an alligator do what he wanted him to do.

     Davy worked on people's farms. He was a plowboy on a farm, he learned how
to make hats, he helped with the cattle, and did many odd jobs. When he wasn't
working he went hunting and roamed the woods.

     Davy was the best at telling stories. He got to know a lot of people liked
him. They elected him to the legislature. He was successful. He had 2 terms.

     Davy wanted to go fight with the Creeks. But his wife, Finley begged him
not to go. The Creeks fought only for there homes. Davy could under stand that.
He fought in Alabama and Georgia. Davy and other men went into Florida to fight
the Creeks.

     Davy Crockett took his rifle "Old Betsy" and fought for Texas against
Mexico at the Alamo.He fought with James Bowie and William Travis in San Antonio
at a mission. The Mexicans attacked the mission and Davy Crockett was killed.

     Davy Crockett was a famous American. He could hunt fish and telling stories.
He was good with people and tried to help them. We remember him as a well-loved
pioneer.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dendy Biography.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Biography
 Mike Dendy


Mike Dendy is the former Chairman and CEO of HPS Paradigm Administrators Inc., a 28-year-old healthcare administrative services firm serving corporate and government clients throughout the country.  Under Mike's direction, HPS Paradigm grew from a $750,000 revenue company in 1996 to a $7,200,000 company in fiscal 2003. Gross sales grew from $9mm to over $100mm during that same period.  HPS Paradigm is recognized by multiple sources as one of the premier third party administrators (TPA) in the country.  Within the last five years, HPS Paradigm has been awarded the coveted SAS-70 accreditation, which is held by less than 12% of all TPAs in the country, and "World Class Administrator" recognition by the McLellan Consulting Company.
HPS Paradigm was purchased by STI Knowledge, Inc. in March of 2004.  STI Knowledge is a business process outsourcing (BPO) company serving Fortune 500 clients including Alcoa, E-Trade, Polo-Ralph Lauren, Citrix and Beazer Homes.
Mike managed the negotiations and diligence process for HPS Paradigm's buyout / merger and led the transition team after the merger was completed.  Mike served as Executive Vice President of STI Knowledge and was responsible for the development and growth of the company's healthcare business unit for six months after the merger.  Since March, Mike has developed the business plan for STI's healthcare strategy, has personally executed the first five major deals in the healthcare space providing over $10 million in new revenue to STI and has recruited and managed a national sales force. 
Prior to the purchase of Paradigm Administrators in 1997, Mike founded Health Partners Services Inc. (HPS), a consulting and healthcare brokerage firm.  From 1992-1997, HPS developed community health system plans in a number of southeastern U.S. markets and grew consulting revenues to $600,000 annually.  Mike's specific areas of specialty include: stop loss insurance, benefit plan design, provider negotiations, pharmacy benefit management, disease management, and predictive analysis.
Previously, Mike served as Vice-President/Publisher of Whittle Communications / Esquire Magazine Group from 1984-1992.  Mike became the youngest partner in the history of Whittle Communications and held a number of positions including Regional Accounts Manager, Director of Regional Account Sales, National Director of Sales for Esquire Properties and Whittle Medical Publications, and Vice President / Publisher of Whittles' $40 million multi-publishing and broadcast media unit Special Reports, which was heralded as the most successful new business launch in media history at the time.  Mike developed and assisted in developing a number of new media properties and distribution channels for in-force properties while at Whittle.  During his term, Mike was awarded the honor Best of Whittle Communications, an achievement recognition provided to less than 2% of the workforce, and was recognized for never missing a revenue or profitability target during his nine-year tenure. 
Prior to his work at Whittle Communications, Mike served as a marketing and brands manager in the beverage industry for both an Anheuser-Busch distributor and Coca-Cola bottler.  During time at Anheuser-Busch, Mike developed the largest college marketing task force in the nation and, at the age of 22, was featured on the cover of Anheuser-Busch's national magazine for his creative marketing and sales programs one of which A-B turned into a national media campaign.  
Mike's educational background includes an undergraduate degree from the University of Georgia (UGA) in Journalism and Psychology.  While at UGA, Mike served on the Student Government Board as Minister to Athletics, was advertising director of the Red & Black student newspaper, and served as an officer in the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta.  Mike achieved a 3.95 grade point average (out of a possible 4.0) in Journalism and Psychology classes. 

Dendy Biography, page 2 of 2

Mike attained a Masters in Business Administration (MBA) from Georgia State University  in 1997, and a Masters in Health Administration (MHA), also from Georgia State University in 2002. Both of Georgia State's graduate programs are nationally ranked.  Within the MHA program, Mike attained a perfect 4.0 grade point average. Mike attained both the MBA and MHA degrees while working full time by attending classes at night and on weekends.
Additional education includes executive management programs at Harvard Business School (1999), Harvard School of Public Health (2001), and Harvard Law School (2001).  
Mike is a charter member of the Georgia State University College of Business Administration Entrepreneurial Round Table, and is also a member of the Atlanta Athletic Club, the Society of Professional Benefits Administrators (SPBA), the Self Insurance Institute of America (SIIA), the American Benefits Council, and the American College of Healthcare Executives.  
Mike serves as a consultant to the Georgia Agribusiness Council on rural healthcare issues, is an advisory board member of Pacific Life Insurance Company, and an Advisory Board Member for the Robinson College of Business Administration at Georgia State University.





Mike Dendy
5060 Riverview Road NW
Atlanta, GA. 30327
404-379-1380



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dennis Rodman Bad As I wanna Be.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Title:    Bad As I Wanna Be


Author:   Dennis Rodman with Tim Keown


# of pages:    258 


Setting:       The book takes place in Dallas, Texas where Dennis


Rodman lived while he was a kid, Detroit, Michigan where Dennis 


Rodman played basketball for the Detroit Pistons, San Antonio, 


Texas where Dennis Rodman played basketball for the San Antonio 


Spurs, and Chicago, Illinois where Dennis Rodman is currently 


playing for the Chicago Bulls.


Character:     Dennis Rodman. A pro basketball player who plays 


for the Chicago Bulls.  He averages 18.7 rebounds a game which 


90% of the time is the best in the NBA.  He is currently making 


10 million dollars a year.  He is divorced and has a daughter 


named Alexis.  He says Alexis is the only reason he is here 


today.


Summary:  On April of 1993 Dennis Rodman sat in his pick-up truck


with a gun in his lap deciding whether he should kill himself.  


He was in depression at the time because the Detroit Pistons were


doing very poorly that year considering they were Champions of 


the World just three years before that.  The NBA had changed 


Dennis Rodman into someone he didn't even know.  It seemed as 


though Dennis spent his life trying to be what others wanted him 


to be.  Once he realized he had to start living for himself, 


people perceived him as being rebellious and as most people say 


weird.  Dennis Rodman just wants everyone to know who he really 


is and to accept him for himself and to let him do his job.
     

Theme:    I learned that Dennis Rodman is not as crazy as 


everyone thinks he is.  He is actually a very normal person.  I 


think the reason this book was released is because Dennis Rodman 


has a very interesting life.  People want to know what it is like


to be Dennis Rodman.


Opinion:  I think this was a excellent book.  The reason why I 


say that is because Dennis Rodman was not afraid nor ashamed to 


say anything, he let it all go as he usually does.     


     I would recommend this book to anyone that finds  Dennis 


Rodman interesting and to anyone who is 14 to adult because of 


the language Dennis Rodman uses in the book.  




                                             




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dennis Rodman.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Dennis Rodman


Title:    Bad As I Wanna Be

Author:   Dennis Rodman with Tim Keown

# of pages:    258

Setting:

       The book takes place in Dallas, Texas where Dennis
Rodman lived while he was a kid, Detroit, Michigan where Dennis
Rodman played basketball for the Detroit Pistons, San Antonio,
Texas where Dennis Rodman played basketball for the San Antonio
Spurs, and Chicago, Illinois where Dennis Rodman is currently
playing for the Chicago Bulls.

Character:

     Dennis Rodman. A pro basketball player who plays
for the Chicago Bulls.  He averages 18.7 rebounds a game which
90% of the time is the best in the NBA.  He is currently making
10 million dollars a year.  He is divorced and has a daughter
named Alexis.  He says Alexis is the only reason he is here
today.

Summary:

     On April of 1993 Dennis Rodman sat in his pick-up truck
with a gun in his lap deciding whether he should kill himself.
He was in depression at the time because the Detroit Pistons were
doing very poorly that year considering they were Champions of
the World just three years before that.  The NBA had changed
Dennis Rodman into someone he didn't even know.  It seemed as
though Dennis spent his life trying to be what others wanted him
to be.  Once he realized he had to start living for himself,
people perceived him as being rebellious and as most people say
weird.  Dennis Rodman just wants everyone to know who he really
is and to accept him for himself and to let him do his job.

Theme:

    I learned that Dennis Rodman is not as crazy as
everyone thinks he is.  He is actually a very normal person.  I
think the reason this book was released is because Dennis Rodman
has a very interesting life.  People want to know what it is like
to be Dennis Rodman.

Opinion:

     I think this was a excellent book.  The reason why I
say that is because Dennis Rodman was not afraid nor ashamed to
say anything, he let it all go as he usually does.


     I would recommend this book to anyone that finds  Dennis
Rodman interesting and to anyone who is 14 to adult because of
the language Dennis Rodman uses in the book.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Derek Morris.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Derek Morris: A Personal Bio


     My name is Derek Morris. I'm a seventeen year old student. I enjoy
playing baseball and that is my life. I have been playing since I was one and a
half. I moved through the ranks of organized baseball and like other ball
players hope someday to play at the utmost level, the pros. It probably won't
come true but who knows. Being a student at Shrewsbury I have had much success.
I have been on the honor roll many times and a few months ago I was accepted to
Bryant College. On the baseball field I have also received various honors and
awards. I was captain of the baseball team in my junior and senior year and was
named most valuable player in my junior year.
     Shrewsbury is not were I've always lived. I was born in Natick, lived
there for a few months then moved to Framingham. I lived in Framingham for
eleven years then moved to this town I never heard of, Shrewsbury. I have now
lived here for seven years.
	I have two great parents George and Cindy with two sisters Jill, 15, and
Kim, 1. Yes one. She was quite a surprise. When I heard my mom and dad were
going to have another baby I thought the world was over. But, she turned out
just fine and is quite a cool little person.
	I enjoy females, music, partying, and baseball. The quote that is most
meaningful is, "The only place were success comes before work is in the
dictionary."  The holiday I enjoy the most would have to be Christmas because it
is only three more months until baseball begins.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Determination 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

Determination

I am a very dependable person.  When I start a project I concentrate and focus in it.  I use my determination in all parts of my life.  
In school my determination has allowed me to achieve many academic accomplishments.  In an engineering course I was given an assignment to design a house using Autocad.  This house had to be designed to all of the state building codes.  My teacher had set up many different requirements for the project.  It had to be an original design with four different types of architectural plans.  This entire project was due at the end of the semester along with the regular homework assignments.  My determination allowed me to complete all these tasks in almost one half the time allotted.  I received a 99.7% grade for this massive project.  My determination is what dove me to its completion. 
My determination also is extremely important at my part -- time job.  My job is to sell computers and many other business machines.  Selling the computers and peripherals was not a problem, but when I started working I knew almost nothing about fax machines and copiers.  I was determined to learn about these new machines so I read the magazines and listened to the representative to learn about the machines.  My determination is what helped me to learn about these products so that I could share my information with the customer.  Now with my expertise in copiers and fax machines I can answer almost any question that customers have and perform almost any type of service necessary on them.  Determination again is what lead me to be ahead in my field of study and work.  
A good wrestler has to have determination.  When I was at a tournament in January of 1996  I broke my shoulder blade.  I was in the second and final match of the day when I broke my clavicle (I didn't know that it was broken until a week later).  This happened on a Friday night, and I was upset that I had lost the chance for the championship by two points.  I knew that I would be wrestling for third place the next day so I would have to shake off any aches or pains that I might have.  I woke up the next morning and my shoulder was throbbing.  I thought that the pain would subside if I stretched out a bit.  Stretching wasn't helping the pain, I still was not able to move my shoulder.  As I prepared for my match I was worried that the pain would overtake me, and I would fail.  Then my determination broke through and I pinned my opponent in the third and final period.  Without my determination I could not have won that match.
Determination is a powerful tool.  Once I am determined to do something it is very hard to stop me.  When I face a challenge I am confident that I will overcome the obstacle, and do my best. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Determination.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

Determination

I am a very dependable person.  When I start a project I concentrate and focus in it.  I use my determination in all parts of my life.  
In school my determination has allowed me to achieve many academic accomplishments.  In an engineering course I was given an assignment to design a house using Autocad.  This house had to be designed to all of the state building codes.  My teacher had set up many different requirements for the project.  It had to be an original design with four different types of architectural plans.  This entire project was due at the end of the semester along with the regular homework assignments.  My determination allowed me to complete all these tasks in almost one half the time allotted.  I received a 99.7% grade for this massive project.  My determination is what dove me to its completion. 
My determination also is extremely important at my part -- time job.  My job is to sell computers and many other business machines.  Selling the computers and peripherals was not a problem, but when I started working I knew almost nothing about fax machines and copiers.  I was determined to learn about these new machines so I read the magazines and listened to the representative to learn about the machines.  My determination is what helped me to learn about these products so that I could share my information with the customer.  Now with my expertise in copiers and fax machines I can answer almost any question that customers have and perform almost any type of service necessary on them.  Determination again is what lead me to be ahead in my field of study and work.  
A good wrestler has to have determination.  When I was at a tournament in January of 1996  I broke my shoulder blade.  I was in the second and final match of the day when I broke my clavicle (I didn't know that it was broken until a week later).  This happened on a Friday night, and I was upset that I had lost the chance for the championship by two points.  I knew that I would be wrestling for third place the next day so I would have to shake off any aches or pains that I might have.  I woke up the next morning and my shoulder was throbbing.  I thought that the pain would subside if I stretched out a bit.  Stretching wasn't helping the pain, I still was not able to move my shoulder.  As I prepared for my match I was worried that the pain would overtake me, and I would fail.  Then my determination broke through and I pinned my opponent in the third and final period.  Without my determination I could not have won that match.
Determination is a powerful tool.  Once I am determined to do something it is very hard to stop me.  When I face a challenge I am confident that I will overcome the obstacle, and do my best. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\DH Lawrence.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
DH Lawrence: Biography
David Herbert Lawrence was born on September 11, 1885, the fourth child and third son of a miner in Eastwood, Nottinghamshire. Despite having grown up in a lower class home and without many friends, he has become the most frequently studied novelist of the twentieth century .
Lawrence started school extremely early at the age of four, only to be withdrawn for the next three years. This was much to his disadvantage socially. He had very few friends as a child. He preferred the company of his younger sister and her friends. At the age of thirteen, Lawrence received a scholarship to the Notthinghamshire High School. Despite the financial difficulty this put on his family, Lawrence studied diligently at school, and one again, made very few friends. At fifteen, Lawrence had finished high school, he went to work at Haywoods, a surgical appliance manufacturer in Nottingham . There too he found it difficult to acquire any friends. The conditions in the factory did not help Lawrence with his health either. Within six months, he had already caught pneumonia. Lawrence had significant problems with his lungs during his lifetime . Two weeks after being born, he was diagnosed with Bronchitis. After recovering from pneumonia, he went back to school as a student teacher. There, for the first time in his life, he made many friends. While a student teacher, he began to write. His early writings were private - he would only share them with one of his many female friends, Jessie Chambers, a fellow student teacher. When his first work was finally published, his name was not published with it. He had entered a literature contest using many of his friends' names. He won £3 under the name Jessie Chambers. In 1904, Lawrence took the exam for the King's Scholarship which would have allowed him to earn his teaching certificate. He passed the test and ranked 37th out of two thousand . In 1906, he took a day position at Nottingham University College and earned his teaching certificate after two years of attending the college.
In 1908, Lawrence became a teacher at Davidson Road School. He impressed the Headmaster of the school by insisting that the students act out The Tempest rather than simply sit and read it. While teaching, he also began writing novels. The White Peacock was Lawrence's first novel, published in January 1911. Soon after its release, he again contracted pneumonia and was forced to end his short teaching career under doctor's orders. His lungs had received lots of damage. Lawrence took up a position at a German college as a Lektor, but when he left he found that he became the lover of Frieda Weekly, wife to the professor of modern languages at the college, Ernest Weekly. When Mr. Weekly found out about his wife's actions, he sent both Lawrence and Mrs. Weekly many letters threatening them, and he completely restricted her access to her children. Immediately, David and Frieda traveled, mostly by foot, to Italy by way of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. During the journey, Lawrence wrote and revised his most renowned work, Sons and Lovers. It was based on his childhood as the sensitive young man in a mining environment through emotional turmoil in his relations with a sweetheart and his possessive mother, whose death liberates him .
Lawrence had a passion for ammusement, and one of his favorite amusements were charades. He would perform energetic impersonations of wild characters. Frieda once said, "I hadn't lived before I lived with Lawrence." In May 1913, Sons and Lovers was published in Britain. It did not sell extremely well, and Lawrence was faced with the possibility of needing to return to teaching. To keep the couple going, he continued publishing countless short stories, essays, and poems. They returned to England for a short time to try and reestablish contact with Frieda's children. They were denied access and soon returned to Europe.
Frieda officially divorced Ernest Weekly in 1914. Later that year, she and David were married in London. They planned to return to Italy, but they were unable to due to the outbreak of World War I shortly after their wedding. During the next five years in England, Lawrence wrote and published The Rainbow, which was banned in England. The income it did generate was not enough to live off of, however.
Despite the failure of many of Lawrence's writings, he has remained one of the most important figures in modern literature. The most significant reason that he has become so outstanding lies in his choice of subject matter. During a time where authors would not scratch the surface of such taboo subjects as sex, pornography, love, and lust, Lawrence was writing almost entirely within the confines of this genera. Books such as Lady Chatterly's Lover, Women in Love, and Sons and Lovers as well as essays such as Pornography and Obscenity reveal his attraction to the subject matter. David and Frieda moved to Cornwall in 1915. As the war intensified, hatred toward the Germans grew with it. Because Frieda was German, many people began to despise Lawrence, and on October 11, 1917 they were ordered to leave the country by the 15th of October that year. Lawrence set sail for Australia. The Lawrences stayed in Australia for only a few weeks. They then sailed to Taos, New Mexico via New Zealand, Tahiti, and San Francisco .
In 1924, Lawrence made a brief return to Europe, and he finally left North America in September 1925, six months after being diagnosed with tuberculosis. From 1925 to 1928 he lived in Italy. In 1928 he moved to Vence, France, where he died on March 2, 1930.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Donatello 4.TXT
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                                                                                            Donatello

        Donatello (1386-1466) was a master of sculpture in bronze and marble and was one of the greatest Italian Renaissance artists of his time.
        A lot is known about his life and career but little is known about his character and personality. He never married and seems to be a man of simple tastes. Patrons often found him hard to deal with and he demanded a lot of artistic freedom. The inscriptions and signatures on his works are among the earliest examples of classical Roman lettering. He had a more detailed range of knowledge of ancient sculpture than any other artist of his time. His work was inspired by ancient visual examples which he often transformed, he was really viewed as a realist but later research showed he was much more.
        Early career. Donatello was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a Florentine wool carder. It is not known how he started his career but probably learned stone carving from one of the sculptors working for the cathedral of Florence about 1400. Some time between 1404 and 1407 he became a member of the workshop of Lorenzo Ghiberti who was a sculptor in bronze. Donatello's earliest work was a marble statue of David. The "David" was originally made for the cathedral but was moved in 1416 to the Palazzo Vecchio which is a city hall where it long stood as a civic-patriotic symbol. From the sixteenth century on it was eclipsed by the gigantic "David" of Michelangelo which served the same purpose. Other of Donatello's early works which were still partly Gothic are the impressive seated marble figure of St. John the Evangelist for the cathedral and a wooden crucifix in the church of Sta. Croce.
        The full power of Donatello first appeared in two marble statues, "St. Mark" and "St. George" which were completed in 1415. "St. George" has been replaced and is now in the Bargello. For the first time the human body is rendered as a functional organism. The same qualities came in the series of five prophet statues that Donatello did beginning in 1416. The statues were of beardless and bearded prophets as well as a group of Abraham and Isaac in 1416-1421 and also the "Zuccone" and "Jeremiah". "Zuccone" is famous as the finest of the campanile statues and one of the artist's masterpieces. 
        Donatello invented his own bold new mode of relief in his marble panel " St. George Killing The Dragon" (1416-1417). The technique involved shallow carving throughout, which created a more striking effect than in his earlier works. He no longer modelled his shapes but  he seemed to "paint" them with his chisel.
        Donatello continued to explore the possibilities of the new technique he would use in his marble reliefs of the 1420's and early 1430's. The best of these were " The Ascension, with Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter," the " Feast of Herod" (1433-1435), the large stucco roundels with scenes from the life of St. John the Evangelist (1434-1437), and the dome of the old sacristy of S. Lorenzo shows the same technique but with colour added.
        Donatello had also become a major sculptor in bronze. His earliest work of this was the more than life size statue of St. Louis (1423) which was replaced half a century later. Donatello in partnership with Michelozzo helped with fine bronze effigy on the tomb of the pope John XXIII in the baptistery, the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the Brancacci tomb and the dancing angels on the outdoor pulpit of the Prato Cathedral (1433-1438). His departure from the standards of Brunelleschi did not go to well between the two old friends and was never repaired. Brunelleschi even made epigrams against Donatello. 
        During his partnership with Michelozzo, Donatello made works of pure sculpture, including several works of bronze. The earliest and most important of these was the "Feast of Herod" (1423-1427). He also made two statuettes of Virtues and then three nude child angels (one which was stolen and is now in the Berlin museum). These statues prepared the way for the bronze statue of David, the first large scale, free-standing nude statue of the Renaissance. It was the most classical of Donatello's works and was done for a private patron. Its recorded history begins with the wedding of Lorenzo the magnificent in 1469, when it was placed in the courtyard of the Palazzo Vecchio.
        Whether the "David" was requested by the Medici or not, Donatello worked for them (1433-1443), producing sculptural decorations for the Old Sacristy in S. Lorenzo, the Medici church. Works there included ten large reliefs in coloured stucco and two sets of small bronze doors which showed saints.
        Paduan period. In 1443 Donatello was about to start work on two more bronze doors for the cathedral. He  started work on a statue of Erasmo da Narmi, called Gattamelata, who had died shortly before. Donatello did most of the work on the statue between 1447 and 1450 but the statue was not placed on the pedestal until 1453. It shows him in classical armour, the baton of command in his raised right hand. This statue was the ancestor of all the monuments erected since. Its fame was spread far and wide. Even before it was on public view, the King of Naples wanted Donatello to do the same kind of statue for him.
        In the early 1450's, Donatello started to work on some important works for the Paduan church of S. Antonio. These works included a bronze crucifix and a new high altar. His richly decorated architectural works of marble and limestone include seven life-size bronze statues, twenty-one bronze reliefs of various sizes, and a large limestone relief, "Entombment of Christ." The housing for these was destroyed a century later and the present arrangement, dating from 1895 is wrong historically. The Madonna and St. Francis are outstanding and the finest of the reliefs are the four miracles of St. Anthony. Donatello was great in handling large numbers of figures ( one relief has more than one hundred ) which predicts the construction standards of the High Renaissance.
        Donatello was not doing much work the last three years at Padua, the work for the S. Antonio altar was unpaid for and the Gattamelata monument not placed until 1453. Offers of other places reached him from Mantua, Modena, Ferrara, and even Naples, but nothing came of them. He was clearly passing through a crisis that prevented him from working. He was later quoted as saying that he almost died "among those frogs in Padua." in 1456 the Florentine physician Giovanni Chellini noted he had successfully treated the master for a protracted illness. Donatello only completed two works between 1450 and 1455, the wooden statue "St. John the Baptist" and a figure of Mary Magdalen. Both works show new reality, Donatello's formerly powerful bodies have become withered and spidery. When the " Magdalen" was damaged in the 1966 flood at Florence,  restoration work revealed the original painted surface, including realistic flesh tones and golden highlights throughout the saint's hair.
        Late Florentine period. During his absence, a new generation of sculptors who excelled in the treatment of marble surfaces had rose in Florence. With the change in Florentine taste, all of Donatello's important requests came from outside Florence. They included the bronze group "Judith and Holofernes" which is now standing before the Palazzo Vecchio and a bronze statue of St. John the Baptist for Siena cathedral, also undertook the work of the pair of bronze doors in the late 1450's. This project, which might have rivalled Ghiberti's doors for the Florentine baptistery, was abandoned about 1460 for unknown reasons. 
        The last years of Donatello's life were spent designing twin bronze pulpits for S. Lorenzo, and again in the service of his old patrons the Medici, he died on December 13, 1466. These twin bronze pulpits covered with reliefs showing the passion of Christ, are works of tremendous spiritual depth and complexity. Even though some parts were left unfinished, they had to be completed by lesser artists. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Donatello.TXT
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                                                                                            Donatello

        Donatello (1386-1466) was a master of sculpture in bronze and marble and was one of the greatest Italian Renaissance artists of his time.
        A lot is known about his life and career but little is known about his character and personality. He never married and seems to be a man of simple tastes. Patrons often found him hard to deal with and he demanded a lot of artistic freedom. The inscriptions and signatures on his works are among the earliest examples of classical Roman lettering. He had a more detailed range of knowledge of ancient sculpture than any other artist of his time. His work was inspired by ancient visual examples which he often transformed, he was really viewed as a realist but later research showed he was much more.
        Early career. Donatello was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a Florentine wool carder. It is not known how he started his career but probably learned stone carving from one of the sculptors working for the cathedral of Florence about 1400. Some time between 1404 and 1407 he became a member of the workshop of Lorenzo Ghiberti who was a sculptor in bronze. Donatello's earliest work was a marble statue of David. The "David" was originally made for the cathedral but was moved in 1416 to the Palazzo Vecchio which is a city hall where it long stood as a civic-patriotic symbol. From the sixteenth century on it was eclipsed by the gigantic "David" of Michelangelo which served the same purpose. Other of Donatello's early works which were still partly Gothic are the impressive seated marble figure of St. John the Evangelist for the cathedral and a wooden crucifix in the church of Sta. Croce.
        The full power of Donatello first appeared in two marble statues, "St. Mark" and "St. George" which were completed in 1415. "St. George" has been replaced and is now in the Bargello. For the first time the human body is rendered as a functional organism. The same qualities came in the series of five prophet statues that Donatello did beginning in 1416. The statues were of beardless and bearded prophets as well as a group of Abraham and Isaac in 1416-1421 and also the "Zuccone" and "Jeremiah". "Zuccone" is famous as the finest of the campanile statues and one of the artist's masterpieces. 
        Donatello invented his own bold new mode of relief in his marble panel " St. George Killing The Dragon" (1416-1417). The technique involved shallow carving throughout, which created a more striking effect than in his earlier works. He no longer modelled his shapes but  he seemed to "paint" them with his chisel.
        Donatello continued to explore the possibilities of the new technique he would use in his marble reliefs of the 1420's and early 1430's. The best of these were " The Ascension, with Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter," the " Feast of Herod" (1433-1435), the large stucco roundels with scenes from the life of St. John the Evangelist (1434-1437), and the dome of the old sacristy of S. Lorenzo shows the same technique but with colour added.
        Donatello had also become a major sculptor in bronze. His earliest work of this was the more than life size statue of St. Louis (1423) which was replaced half a century later. Donatello in partnership with Michelozzo helped with fine bronze effigy on the tomb of the pope John XXIII in the baptistery, the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the Brancacci tomb and the dancing angels on the outdoor pulpit of the Prato Cathedral (1433-1438). His departure from the standards of Brunelleschi did not go to well between the two old friends and was never repaired. Brunelleschi even made epigrams against Donatello. 
        During his partnership with Michelozzo, Donatello made works of pure sculpture, including several works of bronze. The earliest and most important of these was the "Feast of Herod" (1423-1427). He also made two statuettes of Virtues and then three nude child angels (one which was stolen and is now in the Berlin museum). These statues prepared the way for the bronze statue of David, the first large scale, free-standing nude statue of the Renaissance. It was the most classical of Donatello's works and was done for a private patron. Its recorded history begins with the wedding of Lorenzo the magnificent in 1469, when it was placed in the courtyard of the Palazzo Vecchio.
        Whether the "David" was requested by the Medici or not, Donatello worked for them (1433-1443), producing sculptural decorations for the Old Sacristy in S. Lorenzo, the Medici church. Works there included ten large reliefs in coloured stucco and two sets of small bronze doors which showed saints.
        Paduan period. In 1443 Donatello was about to start work on two more bronze doors for the cathedral. He  started work on a statue of Erasmo da Narmi, called Gattamelata, who had died shortly before. Donatello did most of the work on the statue between 1447 and 1450 but the statue was not placed on the pedestal until 1453. It shows him in classical armour, the baton of command in his raised right hand. This statue was the ancestor of all the monuments erected since. Its fame was spread far and wide. Even before it was on public view, the King of Naples wanted Donatello to do the same kind of statue for him.
        In the early 1450's, Donatello started to work on some important works for the Paduan church of S. Antonio. These works included a bronze crucifix and a new high altar. His richly decorated architectural works of marble and limestone include seven life-size bronze statues, twenty-one bronze reliefs of various sizes, and a large limestone relief, "Entombment of Christ." The housing for these was destroyed a century later and the present arrangement, dating from 1895 is wrong historically. The Madonna and St. Francis are outstanding and the finest of the reliefs are the four miracles of St. Anthony. Donatello was great in handling large numbers of figures ( one relief has more than one hundred ) which predicts the construction standards of the High Renaissance.
        Donatello was not doing much work the last three years at Padua, the work for the S. Antonio altar was unpaid for and the Gattamelata monument not placed until 1453. Offers of other places reached him from Mantua, Modena, Ferrara, and even Naples, but nothing came of them. He was clearly passing through a crisis that prevented him from working. He was later quoted as saying that he almost died "among those frogs in Padua." in 1456 the Florentine physician Giovanni Chellini noted he had successfully treated the master for a protracted illness. Donatello only completed two works between 1450 and 1455, the wooden statue "St. John the Baptist" and a figure of Mary Magdalen. Both works show new reality, Donatello's formerly powerful bodies have become withered and spidery. When the " Magdalen" was damaged in the 1966 flood at Florence,  restoration work revealed the original painted surface, including realistic flesh tones and golden highlights throughout the saint's hair.
        Late Florentine period. During his absence, a new generation of sculptors who excelled in the treatment of marble surfaces had rose in Florence. With the change in Florentine taste, all of Donatello's important requests came from outside Florence. They included the bronze group "Judith and Holofernes" which is now standing before the Palazzo Vecchio and a bronze statue of St. John the Baptist for Siena cathedral, also undertook the work of the pair of bronze doors in the late 1450's. This project, which might have rivalled Ghiberti's doors for the Florentine baptistery, was abandoned about 1460 for unknown reasons. 
        The last years of Donatello's life were spent designing twin bronze pulpits for S. Lorenzo, and again in the service of his old patrons the Medici, he died on December 13, 1466. These twin bronze pulpits covered with reliefs showing the passion of Christ, are works of tremendous spiritual depth and complexity. Even though some parts were left unfinished, they had to be completed by lesser artists. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dorothy Day.TXT
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Dorothy Day
Dorothy Day, founder of the Catholic Worker movement, was born in
Brooklyn, New York, November 8, 1897. After surviving the San Francisco
earthquake in 1906, the Day family moved into a flat in Chicago's South
Side. It was a big step down in the world made necessary because John
Day was out of work. Day understands of the shame people feel when they
fail in their efforts dated from this time. (Miller, p.4)
When John Day was appointed sports editor of a Chicago newspaper, the
Day family moved into a comfortable house on the North Side. Here
Dorothy began to read books that stirred her conscience. Upon Sinclair's
novel, The Jungle, inspired Day to take long walks in poor
neighbourhoods in Chicago's South Side. It was the start of a life-long
attraction to areas many people avoid. Day won a scholarship that brought
her to the University of Illinois
campus at Urbana in the fall of 1914. But she was a reluctant scholar.
Her reading was in a radical social direction. (Miller, p.5) She avoided
campus social life and insisted on supporting herself rather than live
on money from her father. Dropping out of college two years later, she moved to New York where she
found a job as a reporter for The Call, the city's only socialist daily.
She covered rallies and demonstrations and interviewed people ranging
from butlers and butlers to labour organisers and revolutionaries. She next
worked for The Masses, a magazine that opposed American
involvement in the European war. In September, the Post Office rescinded
the magazine's mailing permit. Federal officers seized back issues,
manuscripts, subscriber lists and correspondence. Five editors were
charged with sedition. In November 1917 Day went to prison for being one of forty women in
front of the White House protesting women's exclusion from the
electorate. Arriving at a rural workhouse, the women were roughly
handled. The women responded with a hunger strike. Finally they were
freed by presidential order. Returning to New York, Day felt that journalism was a meagre response to
a world at war. In the spring of 1918, she signed up for a nurse's
training program in Brooklyn. Her conviction that the social order was unjust changed in no
substantial way from her adolescence until her death, though she never
identified herself with any political party. (Forest, p.23) Her
religious development was a slower process. (Miller, p.6) As a child she
had attended services at an Episcopal Church. As a young journalist in
New York, she would sometimes make late-at-night visits to St. Joseph's
Catholic Church. In 1922, in Chicago working as a reporter, she roomed with three young
women who went to Mass every Sunday and holy day and set aside time each
day for prayer. It was clear to her that "worship, adoration,
thanksgiving, supplication ... were the noblest acts of which we are
capable in this life."(Day, p.8)
Her next job was with a newspaper in New Orleans. Back in New York in
1924, Day bought a beach cottage on Staten Island using money from the
sale of movie rights for a novel. She also began a four-year common-law
marriage with Forster Batterham, an English botanist she had met through
friends in Manhattan. Batterham was an anarchist opposed to marriage and
religion. In a world of such cruelty, he found it impossible to believe
in a God. (Miller, p.6) It grieved her that Batterham didn't sense God's
presence within the natural world. "How can there be no God," she asked,
"when there are all these beautiful things?"(Day, p.11) His irritation
with her "absorption in the supernatural" would lead them to quarrel.
(Miller, p.7) What moved everything to a different plane for her was pregnancy. She
had been pregnant once before, years earlier, as the result of a love
affair with a journalist. This resulted in the great tragedy of her
life, an abortion. The affair and its awful aftermath had been the
subject of her novel, The Eleventh Virgin. Her pregnancy with Batterham
seemed to Day nothing less than a miracle. But Batterham didn't believe
in bringing children into such a violent world. On March 3, 1927,
 Tamar Theresa Day was born. Day could think of nothing
better to do with the gratitude that overwhelmed her than arrange
Tamar's baptism in the Catholic Church. "I did not want my child to
flounder as I had often floundered. I wanted to believe, and I wanted my
child to believe, and if belonging to a Church would give her so
inestimable a grace as faith in God, and the companionable love of the
Saints, then the thing to do was to have her baptised a Catholic."(Day,
p.16) After Tamar's baptism, there was a permanent break with Batterham.
 In the winter of 1932 Day travelled to Washington, D.C., to report for
Commonweal and America magazines on the Hunger March. Day watched the
protesters parade down the streets of Washington carrying signs calling
for jobs, unemployment insurance, old age pensions, relief for mothers
and children, health care and housing. Back in her apartment in New York,
Day met Peter Maurin, a French immigrant 20 years her senior. Maurin, a
former Christian Brother, had left France for Canada in 1908 and later made
his way to the United States. When he met Day, he was handyman at a Catholic boys' camp in
upstate New York, receiving meals, use of the chaplain's library, living
space in the barn and occasional pocket money. During his years of wandering,
Maurin had come to a Franciscan attitude, embracing poverty as a vocation.
His celibate, unencumbered life offered time for study and prayer, out of which
a vision had taken form of a social order, instilled with basic values of the Gospel.
A born teacher, he found willing listeners, among them George Shuster, editor of
Commonweal magazine, who gave him Day's address. What Day should do,
Maurin said, was start a paper to publicise Catholic social teaching and
promote steps to bring about the peaceful transformation of society. Day
found that the Paulist Press was willing to print 2,500 copies of an
eight-page tabloid paper for $57. Her kitchen was the new paper's
editorial office. She decided to sell the paper for a penny a copy, "so
cheap that anyone could afford to buy it."(Day, p.7)
On May 1, the first copies of The Catholic Worker were handed out on
Union Square. Few publishing ventures meet with such immediate success. By December,
100,000 copies were being printed each month. Readers found a unique
voice in The Catholic Worker. It expressed dissatisfaction with the
social order and took the side of labour unions, but its vision of the
ideal future challenged both urbanisation and industrialism. (Miller,
p.14) For the first half year The Catholic Worker was only a newspaper, but as
winter approached, homeless people began to knock on the door. Maurin's
essays in the paper were calling for renewal of the ancient Christian
practice of hospitality to those who were homeless. Miller, p.14) these
way followers of Christ could respond to Jesus' words: "I was a stranger
and you took me in." Maurin opposed the idea that Christians should take
care only of their friends and leave care of strangers to impersonal
charitable agencies. (Miller, p.14) By the wintertime, an apartment was rented with space for ten women,
soon after a place for men. Next came a house in Greenwich Village. In
1936 the community moved into two buildings in Chinatown, but no
enlargement could possibly find room for all those in need. Mainly they
were men, Day wrote, "grey men, the colour of lifeless trees and bushes
and winter soil, who had in them as yet none of the green of hope, the
rising sap of faith."(Day, p.13) Many were surprised that, in contrast
with most charitable centres, no one at the Catholic Worker set about
reforming them. A crucifix on the wall was the only unmistakable
evidence of the faith of those welcoming them. The staff received only
food, board and occasional pocket money. The Catholic Worker became a national movement. By 1936 there were 33
Catholic Worker Houses spread across the country. Due to the Depression,
there were plenty of people needing them. The Catholic Worker attitude
toward those who were welcomed wasn't always appreciated. These weren't
the "deserving poor," it was sometimes objected, but drunkards and
good-for-nothings. (Miller, p.15) A visiting social worker asked Day how
long the "clients" were permitted to stay. "We let them stay forever,"
Day answered with a fierce look in her eye. "They live with us, they die
with us, and we give them a Christian burial. We pray for them after
they are dead. Once they are taken in, they become members of the
family. Or rather they always were members of the family. They are our
brothers and sisters in Christ."(Day, p.17)
The Catholic Worker also experimented with farming communes. In 1935 a
house with a garden was rented on Staten Island. Soon after came Mary
Farm in Easton, Pennsylvania, a property finally given up because of
strife within the community. Another farm was purchased in upstate New
York near Newburgh. Called the Maryfarm Retreat House, it was destined
for a longer life. Later came the Maurin Peter Farm on Staten Island,
which later moved to Tivoli and then to Marlborough, both in the Hudson
Valley. Day came to see the vocation of the Catholic Worker was not so
much to found model agricultural communities as rural houses of
hospitality. "What got Day into the most trouble was pacifism."(Pausell, p.105) A
non-violent way of life, as she saw it, was at the heart of the Gospel.
For many centuries the Catholic Church had accommodated itself to war.
Popes had blessed armies and preached Crusades. In the thirteenth
century St. Francis of Assisi had revived the pacifist way, but by the
twentieth century, it was unknown for Catholics to take such a position.
The Catholic Worker's first expression of pacifism, published in 1935,
was a dialogue between a patriot and Christ, the patriot dismissing
Christ's teaching as a noble but impractical doctrine. Few readers were
troubled by such articles until the Spanish Civil War in 1936. The
fascist side, led by Franco, presented itself as defender of the
Catholic faith. Nearly every Catholic bishop and publication rallied
behind Franco. The Catholic Worker, refusing to support either side in
the war, lost two-thirds of its readers. Those backing Franco, Day warned
early in the war, ought to "take another look at recent events in [Nazi] Germany."(Day, p.20) She
expressed anxiety for the Jews and later was among the founders of the
Committee of Catholics to Fight Anti-Semitism. Following Japan's attack
on Pearl Harbor and America's declaration of war, Dorothy announced that
the paper would maintain its pacifist stand. "We will print the words of
Christ who is with us always," Day wrote. (Forest, p.18) Opposition to
the war, she added, had nothing to do with sympathy for America's
enemies. But the means of action the Catholic Worker movement supported
were the works of mercy rather than the works of war. Not all members of 
Catholic Worker communities agreed. Fifteen houses of
hospitality closed in the months following the U.S. entry into the war.
The young men who identified with the Catholic Worker movement during
the war generally spent much of the war years either in prison, or in
rural work camps. Some did unarmed military service as medics. The world
war ended in 1945, but out of it emerged the Cold war, the
nuclear-armed warfare state and a series of smaller wars in which
America was often involved. One of the rituals of life for the New York Catholic Worker community
beginning in the late 1950s was the refusal to participate in the
state's annual civil defence drill. Such preparation for attack seemed
to Day part of an attempt to promote nuclear war as survivable and
winnable and to justify spending billions on the military. When the
sirens sounded June 15, 1955, Day was among a small group of people
sitting in front of City Hall. "In the name of Jesus, who is God, who is
Love, we will not obey this order to pretend, to evacuate, to hide. We
will not be drilled into fear. We do not have faith in God if we depend
upon the Atom Bomb". (Forest, p.9)
The first year the dissidents were reprimanded. The next year Day and
others were sent to jail for five days. Arrested again the next year,
the judge jailed her for thirty days. In 1958, a different judge
suspended sentence. In 1959, Day was back in prison, but only for five
days. Then came 1960, when instead of a handful of people coming to City
Hall Park, 500 turned up. The police arrested only a few; Day
conspicuously not among those singled out. In 1961 the crowd swelled to
2,000. This time 40 were arrested, but again Day was exempted. "It
proved to be the last year of dress rehearsals for nuclear war in New
York."(Miller, p.24) Another Catholic Worker stress was the civil rights movement. As usual
Day wanted to visit people who were setting an example and therefore
went to Koinonia, a Christian agricultural community in rural Georgia
where blacks and whites lived peacefully together. The community was
under attack when Day visited in 1957. One of the community houses had
been hit by machine-gun fire and Ku Klux Klan members had burned crosses
on community land. Day insisted on taking a turn at the sentry post.
(Miller, p.25) Noticing an approaching car had reduced its speed; she
ducked just as a bullet struck the steering column in front of her face.
Concern with the Church's response to war led Day to Rome during the
Second Vatican Council, an event Pope John XXIII hoped would restore
"the simple and pure lines that the face of the Church of Jesus had at
its birth."(Forest, p.13) In 1963 Day was one 50 "Mothers for Peace" who
went to Rome to thank Pope John for his encyclical Pacem in Terris.
Close to death, the pope couldn't meet them privately, but at one of his
last public audiences blessed the pilgrims, asking them to continue
their labours. Acts of war causing "the indiscriminate destruction of ... vast areas
with their inhabitants" were the order of the day in regions of Vietnam
under intense U.S. bombardment in 1965 and the years following. Many
young Catholic Workers went to prison for refusing to cooperate with
conscription, while others did alternative service. Nearly everyone in
Catholic Worker communities took part in protests. Many went to prison
for acts of civil disobedience. Probably there has never been a newspaper so many of whose editors have
been jailed for acts of conscience. Day herself was last jailed in 1973
for taking part in a banned picket line in support of farmworkers. She
was 75. Day lived long enough to see her achievements honoured. In 1967, when
she made her last visit to Rome to take part in the International
Congress of the Laity, she found she was one of two Americans -- the
other an astronaut -- invited to receive Communion from the hands of
Pope Paul VI. On her 75th birthday the Jesuit magazine America devoted a
special issue to her, finding in her the individual whom best
exemplified "the aspiration and action of the American Catholic
community during the past forty years." Notre Dame University presented
her with its Laetare Medal, thanking her for "comforting the afflicted
and afflicting the comfortable." Among those who came to visit her when
she was no longer able to travel was Mother Theresa of Calcutta, who had
once pinned on Day's dress the cross worn only by fully professed
members of the Missionary Sisters of Charity. Long before her death November
29, 1980, Day found herself regarded by many as a saint. No words of hers are
better known than her brusque response, "Don't call me a saint. I don't want
to be dismissed so easily."(Miller, p.46) Nonetheless, having herself treasured
the memory and witness of many saints; she is a candidate for inclusion in the
calendar of saints. The Claretians have launched an effort to have her
canonised. "If I have achieved anything in my life," she once remarked,
"it is because I have not been embarrassed to talk about God."(Day, p.1)
Dorothy Day's life and works are a great inspiration. Her selflessness
and strength are great models for people today. She was not just trying
comfort the poor but change their situation. She incorporated CHARITY
and JUSTICE in her crusade for the poor and voiceless. The fact that she
questioned the church in her religious development is comforting to me.
It shows that even the most religiously devoted people have questions.
She took an enormous risk with her life while remaining steadfastly
confident in the righteousness of her cause. As a result, her life
changed many of our outlooks and perceptions.
Bibliography:
Tom Cornell, Robert Ellsberg and Jim Forest, editors, A Penny a Copy:
Writings from the Catholic Worker (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1995) Dorothy
Day, The Long Loneliness. (Chicago: Saint Thomas More Press,
1993) William Miller, Dorothy Day: A Biography (New York: Harper & Row, 1982)
William O. Paulsell, Tough Minds Tender Hearts (New York: Paulist Press,
1990)
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dr Seuss The Great American Childrens Poet 4.TXT
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Dr. Seuss:
The Great American Children's Poet


	Dr. Seuss is the pseudonym for Theodor Seuss Geisel III, Ted Geisel to
his friends. He originally thought of his pen name being pronounced zo-oice
which is the German pronunciation. He took his middle name from his
mother's maiden name.

	He was born in 1904 to Theodor Jr. and Henrietta Geisel of Springfiel
Massachusetts. Both sets of grandparents were from Germany. Theodor Jr.
was a wealthy brewer and tavern owner until the Prohibition. Then he
worked as the manager of the Springfield Zoo. Ted also had an older sister
named Marnie. He went to college at Dartmouth and graduate school at
Oxford. While at Dartmouth he got into a bit of trouble when the police
arrested him for drinking. (This was during the Prohibition.) As punishment
he was kicked off the school magazine, The Jack O'Lantern, to which he
contributed as a cartoonist. To get around the rule he began to sign his work
as Dr. Seuss. And that is why Ted Geisel became Dr. Seuss. While at Oxford
he met his first wife Helen Palmer to whom he was married for 40 years until
her death. They moved to New York. While in New York he worked drawing
cartoon advertisments for Flit, an insect repellant. It was he who coined the
phrase "Quick Henry, the Flit" which was to 1930s advertising what "Just
Do It" is to 1990s advertising. Sort of.

	They later moved to La Jolla, California where Ted lived for the rest of
his life. They loved children although they were unable to have any of their
own. About five years after Helem's death he married Audrey Stone. He died
in 1991 in his sleep at the age of 87. He wrote 57 books spanning seven
decadesfrom 1939's And To Think I Saw It On Mulberry Street to 1992's
posthumously published Daisy-Head Maizy.

	He received a special Pulitzer Prize recognizing his contribution to
children's literatur. He also received an Emmy for The Grinch Who Stole
Christmas and an Oscar for his screenplay for Gerald McBoing-Boing which
Chuck Jones  (of Looney Tunes fame) animated.

	Dr. Seuss completely revolutionized the field of children's beginner
books. Before Dr. Seuss the books were of the See Dick. See Dick run. type.
With the Cat In The Hat all that changed by creating a fun, interesting story
that a young reader could read.

	Ted Geisel also ran the publishing company Beginner Books (a
division of Random House). He thus was the publisher of many of his own
books. Beginner Books also fostered several other children's writers, most
notably Stan and Jan Berenstain, creators of the Berenstain Bears. Ted had so
many demands with running the publishing company that he felt some of his
writings were not up to par. These he published under two different
pseudonyms, Rosetta Stone. and Theo. Le Seig (Geisel spelled backwards).
He did not illustrate these himself but rather let other people do that.

	Why did Dr. Seuss write. For many reasons. He loved children and
wanted to entertain them and instill in them a love for reading. He wanted to
tell the stories inside him as only he could with his beautiful illustrations and
nonsense words. But perhaps the most important reason was he loved writing
the almost musical rhymes that a generation of Americans grew up with more
than he loved to do anything else. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dr Seuss The Great American Childrens Poet.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Dr. Seuss:
The Great American Children's Poet


	Dr. Seuss is the pseudonym for Theodor Seuss Geisel III, Ted Geisel to
his friends. He originally thought of his pen name being pronounced zo-oice
which is the German pronunciation. He took his middle name from his
mother's maiden name.

	He was born in 1904 to Theodor Jr. and Henrietta Geisel of Springfiel
Massachusetts. Both sets of grandparents were from Germany. Theodor Jr.
was a wealthy brewer and tavern owner until the Prohibition. Then he
worked as the manager of the Springfield Zoo. Ted also had an older sister
named Marnie. He went to college at Dartmouth and graduate school at
Oxford. While at Dartmouth he got into a bit of trouble when the police
arrested him for drinking. (This was during the Prohibition.) As punishment
he was kicked off the school magazine, The Jack O'Lantern, to which he
contributed as a cartoonist. To get around the rule he began to sign his work
as Dr. Seuss. And that is why Ted Geisel became Dr. Seuss. While at Oxford
he met his first wife Helen Palmer to whom he was married for 40 years until
her death. They moved to New York. While in New York he worked drawing
cartoon advertisments for Flit, an insect repellant. It was he who coined the
phrase "Quick Henry, the Flit" which was to 1930s advertising what "Just
Do It" is to 1990s advertising. Sort of.

	They later moved to La Jolla, California where Ted lived for the rest of
his life. They loved children although they were unable to have any of their
own. About five years after Helem's death he married Audrey Stone. He died
in 1991 in his sleep at the age of 87. He wrote 57 books spanning seven
decadesfrom 1939's And To Think I Saw It On Mulberry Street to 1992's
posthumously published Daisy-Head Maizy.

	He received a special Pulitzer Prize recognizing his contribution to
children's literatur. He also received an Emmy for The Grinch Who Stole
Christmas and an Oscar for his screenplay for Gerald McBoing-Boing which
Chuck Jones  (of Looney Tunes fame) animated.

	Dr. Seuss completely revolutionized the field of children's beginner
books. Before Dr. Seuss the books were of the See Dick. See Dick run. type.
With the Cat In The Hat all that changed by creating a fun, interesting story
that a young reader could read.

	Ted Geisel also ran the publishing company Beginner Books (a
division of Random House). He thus was the publisher of many of his own
books. Beginner Books also fostered several other children's writers, most
notably Stan and Jan Berenstain, creators of the Berenstain Bears. Ted had so
many demands with running the publishing company that he felt some of his
writings were not up to par. These he published under two different
pseudonyms, Rosetta Stone. and Theo. Le Seig (Geisel spelled backwards).
He did not illustrate these himself but rather let other people do that.

	Why did Dr. Seuss write. For many reasons. He loved children and
wanted to entertain them and instill in them a love for reading. He wanted to
tell the stories inside him as only he could with his beautiful illustrations and
nonsense words. But perhaps the most important reason was he loved writing
the almost musical rhymes that a generation of Americans grew up with more
than he loved to do anything else. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Dvorkin biography.TXT
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f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eamon De Valera.TXT
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Eamon De Valera
Eamon de Valera, although born in New York City, in the United States of America, devoted his life to help the people of Ireland. As he once said it, "If I wish to know what the Irish want, I look into my own heart." De Valera loved Ireland and its people with a deep and lasting passion. It was he, probably more than any other person in their history, who helped that country win freedom from British rule and then shaped its history well into the twentieth century. De Valera's mother, Catherine Coll, usually known as Kate, came to the states in 1879, at the young age of twenty-three. Like so many other Irish immigrants of that time, she had suffered from poverty, and even hunger, in her native land and saw America as a place where she could go to try and get a fresh start. She first took a job with a wealthy French family that was living in Manhattan. This is where and when she met Vivion Juan de Valera. He was a Spanish sculptor who came to the home of her employers to give music lessons to the children. In 1881, the couple married. A little over a year later, while living at 61 east 41st Street, Kate Coll de Valera gave birth to the couple's only child. His name was Edward, called by Eddie at first, but would become known to the world by the Irish variation of that name, Eamon. Always in poor health, Vivion de Valera left his young family behind him and traveled to Colorado, hoping that perhaps the healthier air would help him out. Within a few months he died. Now a widow, Kate went back to work, leaving Eamon in the care of another woman who also had come from the tiny village of Bruree, in County Limerick. Later in his life, Eamon would remember occasional visits from, as he knew her, a woman in black, which ended up being his true mother. Kate de Valera decided that Eamon would be better cared for by her family back in Ireland. Before long he found himself away from noise of Manhattan, living in Bruree in a one-room house with mud walls and a thatched roof. Living with him were his grandmother, his twenty-one-year-old uncle, Pat, and young Hannie, his fifteen-year-old aunt. Shortly after Eamon arrived, the family moved to a cottage, built by the Irish government for farm workers, but it was only a little bit larger. It was made up of two rooms, most of which were given over to kitchen space. After a year Eamon's mother visited briefly- long enough for her to announce her new marriage to an American, Charles Wheelwright, known to Eamon as "Uncle Charley". Kate soon returned to America. She thought it would be best that four-year-old Eamon remain in Ireland. Eamon's childhood was typically Irish. He worked at farming with the rest of his family, went to school, played rugby, and starred as a runner. At the age of fourteen, after eight5 years of school, it was time to decide what he was going to do next. He considered returning to America. He even wrote to his mother about it. It was just not to be. Instead, he enrolled at the Christian Brothers' School seven miles from his home. Since the family could not afford to buy him a bicycle, he had to walk the entire distance- both ways every day- carrying a heavy load of books. Eamon proved so strong a student that after two years; he was admitted with a scholarship to Blackrock College. That school, which was located near Dublin, was run by the Holy Ghost fathers. Eamon entered the college unsure of his future career but leaning toward either teaching or priesthood. It soon became clear to him that his greatest interest, as well as his greatest academic strength, lay in mathematics. After five years at Blackrock, he became a mathematics teacher at a school in Tipperary while completing his college degree. In 1904 he graduated from the Royal University in Dublin. Very tall and thin with dark hair, dark eyes, and pale skin, like his Spanish father, what struck people immediately was his seriousness. Just as he had been passionate about rugby and track as a youngster, now he was passionate about his devotion to the Catholic Church, to the study of mathematics, and the cause of freedom from British rule for Ireland. He remained a private person, seldom smiling, seldom revealing his emotions. Whether he was happy or unhappy was difficult to tell. He taught Latin, French and mathematics at various secondary schools, but also at colleges, training teachers. Finally he became faculty at St. Patrick's College, an outstanding Irish seminary, responsible for preparing men for the priesthood. At St. Patrick's his involvement with Catholicism became even more intense. As part of his concern for Irish independence, Eamon plunged into the study of Gaelic, the language of ancient Ireland. It was at a meeting of the Gaelic league that he met an extraordinarily beautiful young actress, Jane Flanagan, then only eighteen-years-old. Jane soon changed her name to the Gaelic Sinead Ni Fhlannagain. Soon, she and Eamon became fluent in the ancient language. They also fell in love. After a courtship of two years, they were married. It was a marriage destined to last more than sixty years and to bring the couple great personal happiness, along with six children and many grandchildren and great-grandchildren.
By 1910, the year the de Valera's were married, the struggle for Irish independence from Great Britain had grown even more bitter. This struggle was by no means new. Long before Eamon's birth, such leaders as Michael Davitt and Charles Stewart Parnell had championed the cause of poor Irish farmers, forced to leave their homes when they could not pay rent to the British landlords. In time, many Irish leaders came to see freedom from British rule as the only answer. At first, Eamon tried not to involve himself in politics. Instead, he devoted himself to the Gaelic League. But as the situation with England grew more intense, he joined both the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Sinn Fein (We Ourselves)- groups pressing for Irish freedom. He was even more active in the Irish Volunteers, a group that was arming itself and preparing for open rebellion. He became commander of the Third Battalion of the Volunteers, a force of about 125 men. In April 1916, the bloody Easter rebellion broke out in Dublin. De Valera seized the railroad station there, as well as a large bakery. They defeated British reinforcements sent to recapture those positions. But after nearly a week, the British, armed with artillery and heavily outnumbering the Irish, finally forced the exhausted rebels to surrender. As the British troops closed in on them, de Valera is said to have declared to his troops, "You have but one life to live and but one death to die. See that you do both like men." He and his battalion were the last to give in. In the weeks that followed, the British put the leaders of the rebellion on trial. Sixteen of them were hanged. De Valera's wife, as well as his family in America, pleaded that his life be spared. They argued that to execute a person born in America would stir up anger among the American people. At the time, Britain desperately needed American help in World War I. It was decided, therefore, not to hang de Valera. Instead, he was sentenced to life in prison. In June 1917, the British announced a general amnesty, setting free all of the Irish prisoners that they were holding. On his release from jail Eamon was greeted by the Irish people as a hero. Of all of the major leaders of the Easter Rebellion, only he had survived. He was elected president of Sinn Fein. He was elected president of the Irish Volunteers. Everywhere he went people cheered him. Now de Valera threw himself completely in the struggle for Irish independence. He set forth a strategy that, he was certain, would lead to victory. Meanwhile, British losses on the European battlefields of World War I had been climbing rapidly. In 1918, hoping to fill their badly depleted ranks with Irish soldiers, the British put into affect a program of conscription- a draft. The Irish refused to serve. Furious, Great Britain declared a state of martial law in Ireland. Soldiers known as "Black and Tans" because of the uniforms they wore were sent there to force the Irish to do their patriotic duty by serving in the British army. One of the first acts of the Black and Tans was to arrest the leaders of the Irish resistance. Without even a trial, Eamon was thrown into Lincoln Prison in England. For nearly a year, he stayed in jail. Then, one day, during a Catholic religious ceremony, he saved the wax from a candle used in the service. With that wax he made an impression of the prison passkey and managed to smuggle it to Michael Collins, another Irish leader. From that impression Collins had a key made, cleverly returning it to de Valera in a fruitcake disguised as a gift. On February 3, 1919, de Valera saw his chance. Using the key, he made a daring escape from prison. In Manchester, England, he hid in the house of a priest. Then, pretending to be seamen, he managed to board a ship bound for Ireland. To avoid discovery, he hid below the decks between sacks of potatoes. While the police hunted desperately for him in England and Ireland, he made his way back to America. He got a job working as a coal stoker on a merchant ship. In a free election held in Ireland, the Sinn Fein party had won a tremendous victory. It was decided to set up a dail (parliament) and to run Ireland as if British rule did not exist. Even though Eamon was not even in the country at the time, he was elected president of the assembly. Formal peace talks then followed, supposedly to bring a final settlement between Ireland and England. De Valera himself, decided not to go to these talks in London. He sent delegates. After nearly two months of talks the Irish delegates finally agreed to a treaty and signed it. When de Valera saw the document he was furious. Under its provisions, the twenty-six largely Catholic counties of southern Ireland gained certain limited freedoms from British rule, while the six largely Protestant counties at the north were to have their own separate government. In effect, Ireland was partitioned- divided into two countries: the Protestant north, now know as Ulster, and the Catholic south, now called the Irish Free State. To de Valera and his followers, there could only be one solution- one Irish nation, completely united and completely independent of British rule. The result was civil war.
In 1922 brutal fighting began. For nearly a year the fighting continued. Thousands of lives were lost. By the spring of 1923, British troops had won the war, crushed the rebellion. During the following summer the British arrested de Valera, claiming that he was an agitator, stirring up the people. Without even trial, they threw him into prison again. Still, de Valera refused to give up. On his release from prison in 1924, he started at once to organize those people who still dreamed of an independent Irish nation. He was again thrown in jail. This is when he realized that military force would not win Irish freedom, but clever politics might. De Valera formed a new political party called the Fianna Fail (Soldiers of Destiny). As leader of the Fianna Fail he joined with the labor party to form a new government for the Irish Free State. For five years, from 1932 to 1937, he personally held the office of both president of the Cabinet and the minister for external affairs. Then in 1937, he took the new title of prime minister. By 1944, de Valera was so popular that Fianna Fail held twice as many seats in the Irish parliament as any other party. He also became the minister of education at this time. The political situation then changed. By 1948, de Valera's party had lost its majority. It was defeated by a group of smaller, moderate parties headed by John A. Costello, who now became prime minister. The newly elected parliament soon voted to separate completely from the British Commonwealth, officially becoming "The Republic of Ireland" in April 1949. De Valera, growing old, refused to retire. While out of office he traveled to America, to Australia, to India, always speaking eloquently on behalf of Irish unification. In 1951, he became prime minister once again, only to lose to Costello in 1954.In 1957, at age seventy-four, he once again won election as the leader of his nation. His victory came in spite of serious problems in the Irish economy, and as a result, the loss of many people through emigration to the United States and other countries.
But age had begun to take its toll on Eamon. Despite a successful operation, his eyesight, which was never very strong to begin with, was all but gone. He spent many hours alone with his wife, listening to the radio or having her read to him. In 1959 he resigned from the office of prime minister, serving in the largely ceremonial post of president. While holding that position, he visited the United States at the age of eighty-one, speaking to a joint session of Congress. Americans, he said, deserved thanks from the Irish people for having helped so much in winning freedom for that nation from British rule. But the task would remain unfinished, declared de Valera, until northern and southern Ireland at last were united. Whether the union would ever occur still remains unclear. And de Valera must have known that it would not happen in his lifetime. In 1973 he and his wife retired to a nursing home near Dublin. And it was there, one year later, that she died. Then, on August 29, 1975, Eamon de Valera himself followed her to the grave. For nearly a century he was the dominant figure in Irish political life. Despite economic hard times, the continuing failure to unite the partitioned Irish nation, and the bloody violence of civil strife, de Valera remained a symbol of hope to the Irish nation. To the editor of The Irish Echo, a newspaper published in the United States, Eamon de Valera ranked considerably higher then most people saw him. "He was probably the single Irishman who influenced history most in this century." And that is no small tribute for a child born on the streets on New York into a life that appeared to offer little, if any, hope of success. WORKS CITED
O'Brien Maire and Conor Cruise. A Concise History of Ireland. Thames and Hudson. London. 1972.
MacManus Seumas. The Story of the Irish Race. Random House. New York. 1990.
www.askjeeves.com
www.biography.com
www.infoplease.com
http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/5598/
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edagar Allen Poe This is a biography about his life 666.TXT
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Edgar Allan Poe was born on January 19, 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts to David Poe Jr. and Elizabeth Arnold Poe, both whom were touring actors and both whom died before he was age 3. Poe was then taken into the home of John Allan, a wealthy gentleman of Richmond, Virginia who had persuaded his grandfather to let him adopt him.
Young Poe, after going to school in both England and Virginia, went to the Jefferson University, at Charlottesville, in Virginia where he passed his courses with pristine grades.  He later joined and became active member at the Jefferson Literary Society. Though when John Allan failed to give enough money to pay for tuition, Poe found himself deep in dept. Poe was then driven from his home because his "father" did not approve of his debts, so he went to Boston. There he published Tamerlane and Other Poems, a little book of poems, which had mostly been written in his youth.
Having no money to pay his debts, Poe enlisted in the army and made an appointment to West Point Academy. After being in the army for two years, during which he was promoted to the rank of Sergeant-major, with John Allan's help, secured a discharge from the army. After six months, Poe was then dismissed from West Point for disobedience of orders, but with the help of his fellow cadets, published Poems by Edgar A. Poe Second Edition in 1831, but was actually a third edition following Tamerlane and Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems (1829).
He then got a job as editor of the Southern Literary Messenger. He critiqued many an author's work known for his often-cruel honesty and harsh tone. He later married his cousin Virginia who was only 13 years old. She later died at the age of 26. This was a devastating blow to Poe, but he continued to write and lecture.
Most of Poe's work was in a depressing, dark, dreary, and sad tone, much because of the life he lived. He led a hard life, what with the death of his parents, living in poverty much due to John Allan, and the death of his wife, which his work reflects. The events of why he died remain a mystery. After a going to Norfolk and Richmond for lectures, he was discovered in Baltimore in a sickly state and taken unconscious to a hospital where he died on October 7, 1849. He was buried in the yard of Westminster Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, Maryland. During his life Poe had written scores of poems, tales, and short stories which proves that he was deserves to be called one of the most recognized figures of American literature
I very much enjoyed readings Edgar Allen Poe's writings. It's very exciting to read the stories, which leave you hanging on every word trying to find out what is going to happen next. The poems are also good showing they expressed a lot of feeling and emotion. Overall, whether you like action-packed thrillers like the Tell-Tale Heart or love poems such as Annabel Lee, his work has something for everyone.
"Today I am going to talk to you about a man who in his first year of college ran up an astonishing debt, most of it from gambling, a man who defied his foster father and ran away from home at the age of eighteen, a man who deliberately got himself court-martialed and dismissed from the West Point Military Academy, a man who lost his first job at least partly because he drank too much, a man who regularly attacked the literary establishment as it existed in America, and, to complete this deliberately biased portrait, a man who sometimes took drugs. If, on the surface, this description sounds ominously like one of our present-day dropouts from society, it also shows how many people in the 1830's and 1840's regarded a man who today is one of the most revered figures in American literature." Robert D. Jacobs.




f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eddie Gein.TXT
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Eddie Gein
Edward Theodore was born on August 27, 1906, to Augusta and George Gein in La Crosse, Wisconsin. Eddie was the 2nd of two children. Eddie's mother was a fanatically religious women, who was determined to raise the boys according to her strict moral code. Eddie's mother repeatedly warned her sons of the immorality and looseness of women, hoping to discourage any sexual desires the boys might have. ( In the Beginning)
Augusta was a domineering and hard woman, while her husband George, was a weak man and an alcoholic. George had no say in the raising o the boys. Agusta began a grocery business in La Crosse the year Eddie was born, so she could save enough money to move away from the sinners in the city. In 1914 they moved to Plainfield, Wisconsin to a one-hundred-ninety-five-acre farm, isolated from any evil influences that could disrupt her family. Eddie's father died in 1940. ( In the Beginning )
Eddie was average in school, but he loved to read. His schoolmates shunned Eddie because he was effeminate and shy. He had no friends. In 1944 Eddies brother Henry mysteriously died. ( In the Beginning) On December 29, 1945, Augusta died after a series of strokes. Eddies foundations were shaken upon her death, he lost his one true friend. It was after his mothers death that Eddie began to immerse himself in his bizarre hobbies that included nightly visits to the graveyard. ( In the Beginning )
It was from the obituaries that Eddie would learn of the recent deaths of local women. Having never enjoyed the company of the opposite sex, he would quench his lust by visiting graves at night. Although he later swore to police that he never had sexual intercourse with any of the bodies ( they smelled to bad), he did take a particular pleasure in peeling their skin from their bodies and wearing it. He was curious to know what it was like to have breasts and a vagina, and he often dreamed of being a women. He was fascinated with women because the power and hold they had on men. ( Seriously Weird) After a while Gein decided that it was too laborious to dig up bodies alone. It was easier, he concluded, to murder women and bring their bodies to his farmhouse for more "experiments." His first victim was 51-year-old Mary Hogan, operator of a Pine Grove, Wisconsin, saloon. One winter night if 1954, Gein waited until all of Hogan's patrons left the remote bar. Mary Hogan recognized him and told him that she was closing. Gein said nothing as he walked around the bar to Hogan's side. He took a .22 caliber pistol form his pocket, placed this close to Hogans head, and fired a single bullet into her skull, killing her. He then dragged her body from the bar to a sled he had placed outdoors. It took the diminutive Gein several hours to drag the corpse back to his farm.(Nash p.64- 70)
Gein's next known victim was Bernice Worden, who operated a hardware store in Plainfield. In November 1957 he began frequenting this store more than usual. He hung about talking to Mrs. Worden and her son, Frank Worden, who was the town's deputy sheriff. When Worden told Gein he would be going hunting on Saturday, Gein realized that Mrs. Worden would be left in the store. He arrived at the store and found the middle- aged women alone. Gein went to a gun rack and took a .22-caliber rifle from the wall. He inserted a single bullet into the chamber, one he had brought with him, then turned on the startled woman and fired a shot which struck her in the head, killing her. Gein locked the front door of the store, dragged Mrs. Worden's corpse out the back, and took it to his farmhouse. He carried along the store cash register which contained $41. Both Mary Hogan and Mrs. Worden resembled, to some extent, Ed Gein's long-departed mother. (Nash p. 64-70)
On November 17,1957 after the discovery of Bernice Worden's headless corpse and other gruesome artifacts in Eddie's house, police began an exhaustive search of the remaining parts of the farm and surrounding land. They believed Eddie may have been involved in more murders and that the bodies might be buried on his land, possibly those of Georgia Weckler, Victor Travis and Ray Burgess, Evelyn Hartley and Mary Hogan. (Skeletons in the Closet )
While excavations began at the farmstead, Eddie was being interviewed at Wautoma County Jailhouse by investigators. Gein at first did not admit to any of the killings. However, after more then a day of silence he began to tell the horrible story of how he killed Mrs. Worden and where he acquired the body parts that were found in his house. However, after days of intense interrogation he finally admitted to the killing of Mary Hogan. Again, he claimed he was in a dazed state at the time. (Skeletons in the Closet )
His condition was attributes to the unhealthy relationship he had with his mother and his upbringing. Gein apparently suffered from conflicting feelings about women, his natural sexual attraction tp them and the unnatural attitudes that his mother had instilled in him. This love-hate feeling towards women became exaggerated and eventually developed into a full-blown psychosis. (Skeletons in the Closet)
While Eddie was undergoing further interrogation and psychological tests, investigators continued tp search the land around his farm. Police discovered with in Eddie's farmhouse the remains of ten women. Although Eddie swore that the remaining body parts of 8 women were those taken from local graveyards, police were skeptical. They believed that it was highly possible for the remains to have come from women Eddie may have murdered. The only was police could ascertain whether the remains came from women's corpses was to examine the graves that Eddie claimed he had robbed. ( Skeletons in the Closet )
There would be another discovery on Eddie's land that would agin raise the issue of wether Eddie did in fact murder a 3rd person. On November 29th, police unearthed human skeletal remains on the Gein farm. It was suspected that the body was that of Victor Travis who had disappeared years earlier. The remains were immediately taken to a crime lab and examined. Tests showed that the body was not that of a male but of a large, middle aged woman, another graveyard souvenir. ( Skeletons in the Closet )
The police could not implicate Eddie in the disappearance of Victor Travis or the three other people who vanished three years earlier. The only murders Eddie could be held responsible for were Bernice Worden and Mary Hogan. ( Skeletons in the Closet )
The actual trial started on November 6, 1968 at 9:00 a.m. The defense had decided to waive a jury and try the case before the judge. The state filed an indictment with one count of murder ( Mrs. Worden) in the 1st degree and one count of robbery. During the trial the count of theft was dismissed. The case was tried as a bifurcated trial. That means they would first try the murder charge and then if Gein was found guilty, the sanity issue. First degree murder requires proof of intent to kill. While the judge knew that Gein would admit to the actual shooting of Mrs. Worden, he had always contended that the killing was accidental. The defense, therefore, was aiming at a finding of 2nd degree murder or manslaughter. On November 14,1968 the court determined that the offense committed here is 1st degree murder. Here is the statement from the judge who heard Geins case addressing his decision of mental illness;
The court does find that on November 16, 1957, the defendant, Edward
Gein, was suffering from a mental disease. The court does further find that
as a result of this mental disease he lacked substantial capacity to conform
his conduct to the requirements of law. The court does, therefore, find the
defendant not guilty by reason of insanity. The defendants, therefore, Committed to Central State Hospital for the Insane.
So ended the trial of Edward Gein, nearly a year after we started it and after the expenditure of many thousands of dollars. Gein returned to the place he started from - Central State hospital. ( Gollmar, p 83-91)
On July 26, 1984, he died after a long bout with cancer. He was buried in Plainfield cemetery next to his mother, not far from the graves that he robber years earlier. ( Gollmar p. 83-91)
Eddie Gein's case and actions caused quite a commotion amongst the media and general population. After the facts of the murder were revealed the small town of Plainfield, Wisconsin became known worldwide and Gein reached celebrity-like status. The town was infuriated when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity. Yet, there was little the community could do to influence the courts decision. Eddie Gein, the dimmunitve, soft spoken Wisconsin killer-cannibal whose monstrous acts inspired the 1960 Alfred Hitchcock film Psycho and the seemingly endless series of Texas Chainsaw Massacre movies. But while no film has been made specifically on Gein (Deranged comes closest) there is a long list which have been suggested or inspired by the case such as; Silence of the Lambs.( Fraiser p. 91)
I would like to think that this has helped you and me alike to learn about the disgusting and demented acts of Edward Gein. Although most has been disturbing and horrifying I would like to leave off on this note:
As a hearse went by Gein said, " Dig you later babe."
[ disgusting but amusing:-) ]
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edgar Allan Po1.TXT
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Edgar Allan Poe


Poe, Edgar Allan, known as a poet and critic but most famous as the first master
of the short-story form, especially tales of the mysterious and macabre. The
literary merits of Poe's writings have been debated since his death, but his
works have remained popular and many major American and European writers have
professed their artistic debt to him. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Poe was
orphaned in his early childhood and was raised by John Allan, a successful
businessman of Richmond, Virginia. Taken by the Allan family to England at the
age of six, Poe was placed in a private school. Upon returning to the United
States in 1820, he continued to study in private schools. He attended the
University of Virginia for a year, but in 1827 his foster father, displeased by
the young man's drinking and gambling, refused to pay his debts and forced him
to work as a clerk. Poe, disliking his new duties intensely, quit the job, thus
estranging Allan, and went to Boston. There his first book, Tamerlane and Other
Poems (1827), was published anonymously. Shortly afterward Poe enlisted in the
U.S. Army and served a two-year term. In 1829 his second volume of verse, Al
Aaraaf, was published, and he effected a reconciliation with Allan, who secured
him an appointment to the U.S. Military Academy. After only a few months at the
academy Poe was dismissed for neglect of duty, and his foster father disowned
him permanently. Poe's third book, Poems, appeared in 1831, and the following
year he moved to Baltimore, where he lived with his aunt and her 11-year-old
daughter, Virginia Clemm. The following year his tale "A MS. Found in a Bottle"
won a contest sponsored by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. From 1835 to 1837 Poe
was an editor of the Southern Literary Messenger. In 1836 he married his young
cousin. Throughout the next decade, much of which was marred by his wife's long
illness, Poe worked as an editor for various periodicals in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, and in New York City. In 1847 Virginia died and Poe himself became
ill; his disastrous addiction to liquor and his alleged use of drugs, recorded
by contemporaries, may have contributed to his early death.



















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edgar Allan Poe 2.TXT
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Poe, Edgar Allan, known as a poet and critic but most famous as the first master of the short-story form, especially tales of the mysterious and macabre. The literary merits of Poe's writings have been debated since his death, but his works have remained popular and many major American and European writers have professed their artistic debt to him.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Poe was orphaned in his early childhood and was raised by John Allan, a successful businessman of Richmond, Virginia. Taken by the Allan family to England at the age of six, Poe was placed in a private school. Upon returning to the United States in 1820, he continued to study in private schools. He attended the University of Virginia for a year, but in 1827 his foster father, displeased by the young man's drinking and gambling, refused to pay his debts and forced him to work as a clerk.
Poe, disliking his new duties intensely, quit the job, thus estranging Allan, and went to Boston. There his first book, Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827), was published anonymously. Shortly afterward Poe enlisted in the U.S. Army and served a two-year term. In 1829 his second volume of verse, Al Aaraaf, was published, and he effected a reconciliation with Allan, who secured him an appointment to the U.S. Military Academy. After only a few months at the academy Poe was dismissed for neglect of duty, and his foster father disowned him permanently.
Poe's third book, Poems, appeared in 1831, and the following year he moved to Baltimore, where he lived with his aunt and her 11-year-old daughter, Virginia Clemm. The following year his tale "A MS. Found in a Bottle" won a contest sponsored by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. From 1835 to 1837 Poe was an editor of the Southern Literary Messenger. In 1836 he married his young cousin. Throughout the next decade, much of which was marred by his wife's long illness, Poe worked as an editor for various periodicals in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and in New York City. In 1847 Virginia died and Poe himself became ill; his disastrous addiction to liquor and his alleged use of drugs, recorded by contemporaries, may have contributed to his early death. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\EDGAR ALLAN Poe.TXT
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EDGAR ALLAN POE

 EL AUTOR Y SU OBRA

En el Boston de 1809, una pareja de actores jovenes se encontraba de gira con su compañia 

teatral.Eran David y Elizabeth Poe, padres del escritor.David procedía de una familia de 

emigrantes irlandeses y habia sido criado en Baltimore,Estados Unidos; muy joven comenzó su 

carrera de actor.Elizabeth, hija de una familia de actores, había nacido en Londres en 1789 y 

llegado a América en 1796.A los nueve años entró a trabajar como actriz en el Old Boston 

Theatre.El matrimonio Poe se había celebrado en 1806.El 19 de enero de 1809, nacía para el 

mundo, uno de los escritores más grandes de todos los tiempos:Edgar Allan Poe.Era  el segundo 

hijo del matrimonio; su hermano mayor William Henry, nacido en 1807, estaba al cuidado de sus

abuelos paternos en Baltimore.Más tarde, en 1810, nacería una niña, Rosalie.El matrimonio vivía

muy pobremente y en gira constante por las ciudades norteamericanas.No puede precisarse con

exactitud cuál fue la causa pqra que el padre del poeta desapareciera de la ciudad de Nueva

York sin dejar rastro alguno en julio de 1810 y sin volver a dar señales de vida nunca más.

La joven actriz enferma de los pulmones quedaba en la miseria con sus hijos tras el abandono de

su esposo.Sin otra salida, retornará a la pequeña ciudada de Richmond, en el estado de Virginia,

donde años atrás había tenido gran éxito en las tablas.Desesperada, no sólo actúa, sino que canta 

y baila, viajando de ciudad en ciudad.Vive en una casa de huéspedes con sus dos pequeños en la

pobreza casi total.Su débil cuerpo no va a soportar mucho tiempo este esfuerzo y el domingo 8 de

diciembre de 1811, a la edad de 24 años muere de tuberculosis en Richmond.El pequeño Edgar 

quedaría huérfano de padre y madre a la edad de tres años.

Pasado el tiempo, durante su adolescencia escribe su más extensa obra en prosa,Las aventuras de

Arthur Gordon Pym, narración de un viaje hacia el Antártico, precursora de las historias de 

ciencia-ficción.Más después publica su primer libro de poemas:Tamerlán y otros poemas.

Se ha dicho, degradando su genio, que la bebida fue su perdición.

En diciembre de 1828 se licencia del ejército y publica su segundo libro de poemas, Al Aaraaf, 

Tamerlán y otros pequeños poemas.

En la casa de su tía María Clemm, Poe escribe la narración el Manuscrito hallado en una botella,

con el cual obtiene un premio de 50 dólares de un diario local.Sus primeros relatos son 

publicados en el diario Philadelpia Saturday Courier, ganando algún prestigio como narrador.

Poe,a los 19 años de edad, junto con su familia se transladan a una pequeña casita de campo, en 

Nueva York.Allí Poe escribirá la más famosa y extraña de sus poesias,El Cuervo, poema que le

garantiza, si no dinero, sí mucha popularidad en Norteamérica.El 30 de Enero de 1847,Poe verá

morir a su dulce y bella Sissy.Es el derrumbe.Después de su entierro Poe sufre una crisis 

nerviosa  que lo mantiene en cama varias.Sin embargo entre 1848 y 1849 tiene todavia fuerzas

para escribir un relato llamado Eureka, Hop-Frog, el ensayo El Principio Poetico y varios poemas

majestuosos.

En el último año de su vida (1849)Poe se encuentra con la que había sido su primer amor, Sarah 

Elmira Royter, por entonces viuda.El escritor le propone matrimonio y ella acepta.Pero al poeta

no le quedan sino algunos dias de vida.

El tres de octubre,después de un largo y penoso peregrinaje por Filadelfia y Richmond, es

 hallado inconsciente, y en estado de lamentable embriaguez, con su vestimenta raída y sucia,

en la puerta de una taberna de Baltimore.Era día de elecciones.Se supone que fue capturado y

mantenido en completa embriaguez por una pandilla politica que lo utilizó  para que votara a

favor de algún candidato.

Internado en el Washington College Hospital sufrirá varias crisis con alucinaciones que 
           
repecurtirán en su corazón enfermo.Durante tres días luchará con la muerte; al cuarto día, el 

domingo 7 de octubre, hacia las cinco de la madrugada, volvió la cabeza hacia un lado y dijo:

"Dios ayude a mi pobre alma " y descansó en paz.Dos días después , el 9 de octubre,Edgar Allan

Poe era enterrado en el cementerio presbiteriano.Junto a él descansan su esposa Virginia y su tía

María Clemm, quien murió en 1871.




ALGUNAS DE SUS OBRAS


1-EL GATO NEGRO

Personajes:


A)El narrador

B)Plutón,el gato negro

C)La esposa del narrador

D)Agentes de policia

2-LA MASCARA DE LA MUERTE ROJA

Personajes:


A)La enmascarada muerte roja

B)El príncipe próspero 

C)Caballeros

D)Bufones, bailarines, músicos e invitados

E)El relój de ébano
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edgar Allen Poe and His LifeStory.TXT
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Edgar Allen Poe and His LifeStory
Edgar Allen Poe was a very famous poet and writer,Poe created many poems and stories such as The Raven, The Tall -Tale Heart, The Fall of The House of Usher and many more. (tompson 1)Edgar lived from 1809 to 1849. He was born on January 19,1809, in Boston Massachusetts but grew up in Richmond Virgina but through his many travels he lived in half a dozen eastern cities. He lived a short and tragic life. His first career was to study in law but soon went against his family and started a career in acting. His critic reviews were poor. Many critics thought his technique was bad.Edgars father was an actor by the name of David Poe and his mother also an actress by the name of Elizabeth.edgar was the second of three children, about the time that the third child was born Edgar's father died. After his father had died Edgars mother and her two yougest children went to Richmond, his brother William already had been settled with relatives in Baltimore. Poe's mother was in the lastest stages of her diesease, struggling with two kids, she died. Edgar and , an infant, Rosalie, were orphaned. Poe finally was hit with the reliazation of his parents death.In 1811on a visit of generousity, Mrs. Francis Allen learned of the situation of the Poe babies. Mrs. Allen had no babies of her own and to that she took home handsome little Edgar. Mr. John Allen didn't aprove of a permant adoption but he began to in time support the child, and became proud of his good looks and intelligence.When Edgar was six years old Mr. Allens bussiness took them to Scotland, they lived there for about five years. Edgar persued his education at the Irvin Grammer School in Irvin, Scotland.After many journeys throughtout his childhood Edgar and the Allens returned to Richmond, Virgina.There at the age of 11 Mr. Allen enrolled Edgar into the English and Classical School attended by sons of the more fashionable families of Richmond.There Edgar began to feel the difference between himself and the others at this school.To this Edgar the sense of injury made its self evident at home with fits of temper and rebellion for which there seemed to the family , no justification. Mr. Allen did not put up with such behavior , Mr.Allen repeatedly reminded Edgar about his "disreputable" parentage.In Edgar's college years his growing antagonism between father and son, Mr.
Allen was willing to send Edgar to the University of Virgina. Edgar had gone to the university to in fact get away from the Allen house hold. This indescribable social college campus set Edgar in for a major turn around , Edgar began to gamble to where he couldn't pay off debts he incountered, when Edgar drank is sent him into a wild statof excitement.
Edagr was then pulled out of the University for such behavior. Mr.Allen then out him in a low, routine job at hjis counting house. This was very humiliating for Edgar and he just couldn't bear it anymore , the answer, to leave home.He left to Boston where he
manage to publish a collection of his poems, desperate for money, he then joined the army under the name of Edgar A. Perry. Army barracks were no place for this young noblemen.Poe turned to his foster father for reconciliation, Mr.Allens then purchased Edgar out of the army, which was possible at that time. Shortly after he publisheds
another set of his writings. Little more then a year after Poe decided consider a military career, he gained admission to the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York.
Edgar was of two minds about the Academy: an army career was suitable for a Virginia gentleman he longed to be, but the discipline was uncongenial. The second mind won, and Edgar deliberately provoked expulsion by cutting all drills and classes. This was it for Mr. Allen. Mrs. Allen death removed Edgars friend in the house.Edgars love life began with a woman named Sarah Elmira Royster, they got engaged but never got married because sarahs dad disapproved of the marriage . Edgar
went to Charlottesville but said he would write to her everyday. Her father intercepted
every letter he wrote her and everyday since sarah never got the letters of course she
never wrote back and everyday that Edgar never got a letter from her he got more and
more depressed. John Allen broke off the engagement . (tompson5)
In the two years after his final rupture with Mr. Allan, Poe lived for a considerable
time in Baltimore with his aunt, Mrs. Maria (Poe) Clemm. She was a poor seamstress,
but she welcomed Poe into her home and took care of him. Outwardly, it was a
do-nothing period for him, but inwardly it was significant. He wrote a group of
unpublished short stories. Even more importantly, he began to dramatize himself as one
whom "unmerciful disaster followed fast and followed faster". He probably had an
inherited emotional instability which fed his feeling of persecution.
Once established in his job, he brought Mrs. Clemm and her daughter, Virginia, to
live with him. A little later he married his cousin, Virginia, who was some years younger
than he. From that time on, the three formed a household.Throughout all his vicissitudes,
the two women, his wife, Virginia, and her mother were unfailingly devoted to him. Much
of the time, Mrs. Clemm kept boarders to make a home for Poe and Virginia. Mrs. Clemm
found no fault in him; at his worst, to her he was "poor Eddie". Her motherliness cradled
all his weaknesses and eccentricities. (He called her "Muddie.") In her way, Virginia was equally devoted.
She was sweet and gentle, but rather simple-minded. She could not follow the wild flights
of Poe's erratic genius, but she gave him an adoring, unquestioned admiration which
was incense to his spirit. She found a childish pleasure and absorption clipping and
pasting the long scrolls on which he wrote.
Poe, in turn, showed his best self to them. Here, where there was no will beside
his own, where two loyal satellites revolved about the central sun of his ego, he was at
his best and gentlest. He was affectionate toward Mrs. Clemm and increasingly tender
and loving to Virginia, an invalid who was slowly dying of tuberculosis.
The pathetic little family made its last move to a tiny cottage in Fordham, then a
village about thirteen miles from New York. Mrs. Clemm set about making the place
habitable, setting aside the best room of four as "dear Eddie's" study. They managed
through the summer, but as autumn came on, there was not even fuel to warm the house.
Virginia grew steadily worse. Poe sank deeper into melancholia. In the depth of winter,
Virginia died.
With the loss of his wife, Poe's last hold on reality vanished. He worked
feverishly at writing a book, Eureka, which he believed would be an expression of
profound truth. It was more nearly a curious hodge-podge of unproven scientific
statement and wild imagining, springing from his disturbed state. He wandered from one
city to another, drifted back to Richmond and on to Baltimore, where he died.(Internet)
 
 
Works Cited
Microsoft Encarta 98 encyclopedia (c) 1993-1997 microsoft
corproation
Encyclopedia volume 18, (c) 1975-Field Enterprises
Educational Corporation
Internet- www.intelinet.org-Havana, Zürich, New York, San
Francisco, New Orleans, Hot Springs, Oakland,
1973-1998.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edgar Allen Poe How.TXT
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	Edgar Allan Poe was a bizarre and often scary writer.  People throughout history have often wondered why his writings were so fantastically different and unusual.  They were not the result of a diseased mind, as some think.  Rather they came from a tense and miserable life.  Edgar Allan Poe was not a happy man.  He was a victim of fate from the moment he was born to his death only forty years later.  He died alone and unappreciated.  It is quite obvious that his life affected his writings in a great way.  In order to understand why, the historical background of Poe must be known.
	Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809.  His parents were touring actors and both died before he was three years old.  After this, he was taken into the home of John Allan, a prosperous merchant who lived in Richmond, Virginia.1  When he was six, he studied in England for five years.  Not much else is known about his childhood, except that it was uneventful.
	In 1826, when Poe was seventeen years old he entered the University of Virginia.  It was also at this time that he was engaged to marry his childhood sweetheart, Sarah Elmira Royster.  He was a good student, but only stayed for a year.  He did not have enough money to make ends meet, so he ran up extremely large gambling debts to trying make more money.  Then he could not afford to go to school anymore.  John Allan refused to pay off Poe's debts, and broke off his engagement to Sarah Elmira Royster.  Since Poe had no other means of support, he enlisted in the army.  By this time however, he had written and printed his first book, Tammerlane, and Minor Poems (1829).2 
	After a few months though, John Allan and Poe were reconciled.  Allan arranged for Poe to be released from the army and enrolled him at West Point.  During this time, his fellow cadets helped him publish another book of poetry.  However, John Allan again did not provide Poe with enough money, and Poe decided to leave this time before racking up any more debts
	Still, Poe had no money and necessity forced him to live with his aunt, Mrs. Clemm, in Baltimore, Maryland.  None of his poetry had sold particularly well, so he decided to write stories.  He could find no publisher for his stories, and so resorted to entering writing contests to make money and receive exposure.  He was rarely successful, but eventually won.  His short story, "MS. Found in a Bottle" was well liked and one of the judges in the contest, John P. Kennedy, befriended him.3 
	It was on Kennedy's recommendation that Poe became assistant editor of the Southern Literary Messenger, published at Richmond by T.W. White.  It was at this time that Poe went through a period of emotional instability that he tried to control by drinking.  This was a mistake because he was extremely sensitive to alcohol and became very drunk just from one or two drinks.
	In May of 1836 Poe married his cousin, Virginia and brought her and her mother to live with him in Richmond.  It was during this time that Poe produced a number of stories and even some verse.4 
	Over the next few years, Poe went from good times to bad.  He had become the editor of magazines and had written books, but none of these were paying off enough.  He would always be laid off the editorial staff for differences over policies.  He was doing so poorly that by the end of 1846 he was asking his friends and admirers for help.
	He was then living in a cottage with Mrs. Clemm and Virginia.  Virginia was dying of consumption and had to sleep in an unheated room.  After six years of marriage she had become very ill, and her disease had driven Poe to distraction.
	Virginia died on January 30, 1847, and Poe broke down.  It is here that much is learned about him and why he wrote the way he did.  All of his life he had wanted to be loved and to have someone to love.  Yet one by one, he kept losing the women in his life.  His mother, Mrs. Allan, and now Virginia.  He had wanted to lead a life of wealth and luxury and still, despite his tremendous talent, was forced to live as a poor man.
	When he reached manhood, after a sheltered childhood and teenage years, his life seemed to be caught up in failures.  So, he did what most people do.  He found a way to escape.  His method was writing.  He found so much in common with his characters, that his life began to emulate theirs.  Although it is probably the other way around.
	How tragic that the one thing that he was good at never seemed to do him any good.  No matter what he wrote, he just kept sinking further and further into an abyss.  This abyss could be called death or ultimate despair.
	When we read Poe's stories, we often find ourselves wondering how such a mind could function in society.  This quotation from American Writers: A Collection of Literary Biographies, very accurately describes the landscape of Poe's stories: 
		"The world of Poe's tales is a nightmarish universe.  You cross 	wasted lands, silent, forsaken landscapes where both life and waters 	stagnate.  Here and there you catch sight of lugubrious feudal buildings 	suggestive of horrible and mysterious happenings......The inside of these 	sinister buildings is just as disquieting as the outside.  Everything is dark 	there, from the ebony furniture to the oaken ceiling.  The walls are hung 	with heavy tapestries to which mysterious drafts constantly give 'a hideous 	and uneasy animation.'  Even the windows are 'of a leaden hue,' so that the 	rays of either sun or moon passing through fall 'with a ghastly lustre on the 	objects within.'  .......it is usually night in the ghastly (one of his favorite 	adjectives) or red-blood light of the moon that Poe's tales take place-or in 	the middle of terrific storms lit up by lurid flashes of lightning."
	None of Poe's characters could ever be normal, since they lived in this bizarre world.  All of his heroes are usually alone, and if they are not crazy, they are on their way to becoming so rapidly.
	This leads one to wonder, just how lucid Poe was when he wrote these stories.  Was he crazy or just upset and confused?  Most texts and histories of Poe have it that he was influenced not only by his life, but by other writers.  These include Hawthorne, Charles Brockden Brown, E. T. A. Hoffman, and William Godwin to name a few.  Many of his stories show similarities to the works of the aforementioned.
	Therefore another point is brought up, was Poe writing these stories as the result of a tortured existence and a need to escape, or was he writing to please readers and critics?  In letters he wrote, he often pokes fun at his stories and says that they are sometimes intended as satire or banter.  Also in his letters, he describes horrible events seemingly without any concern.  So who can tell how he really felt since he might not have been totally sane and rational at the time.
	Even though Poe writes such bizarre tales he is never quite taken in with them.  He fears but is at the same time skeptical.  He is frantic but at the same time lucid.  It is not until the very end that Poe was consumed by something, and died.  It might have been fear or something worse, something that could only be scraped up from the bottom of a nightmare.  That is what killed him.
	Poe's stories contain within them a fascination for death, decay, and insanity.  He also displays very morbid characteristics and in some cases, sadistic.  His murderers always seem to delight in killing their victims in the most painful and agonizing way.  Still, terror seems to be the main theme.  That is what Poe tries to bring about in his stories.  For example, in "The Fall of the House of Usher" what kills Roderick Usher is the sheer terror of his sister who appeared to have come back from the dead.
	According to Marie Bonaparte, one of Freud's friends and disciples, all the disorders Poe suffered from can be explained by the Oedipus Complex and the trauma he suffered when his mother died.  The Oedipus Complex is best described as a child's unconscious desire for the exclusive love of the parent of the opposite sex.  The desire includes jealousy toward the parent of the same sex and the unconscious wish for that parent's death.  In fact, upon examining the women in Poe's stories, we find that they bear striking resemblance to the mother that Poe never had.
	So one gets a glimpse at how Poe's life, filled with insurmountable obstacles and full of disappointments, indeed played a role in his writing.  A good comparison would be Vincent Van Gogh.  He also endured hardship and died at an early age.  Poe was only forty when he passed away.  Insignificant in his lifetime, it was only after his death that he was appreciated.  He is now acclaimed as one of the greatest writers in American history.  It is indeed a pity that he will never know or care.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Edward James Hughes.TXT
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Edward James Hughes


Edward James Hughes is one of the most outstanding living British poets. In 1984
he was awarded the title of the nation's Poet Laureate. He came into prominence
in the late fifties and early sixties, having earned a reputation of a prolific,
original and skilful poet, which he maintained to the  present day. Ted Hughes
was born in 1930 in Yorkshire into a family of a carpenter. After graduating
from Grammar School he went up to Cambridge to study English, but later changed
to Archaeology and Anthropology. At Cambridge he met Sylvia Plath, whom he
married in 1956. His first collection of poems Hawk in the Rain was published in
1957. The same year he  made his first records of reading of some Yeats's poems
and one of his own for BBC Third Programme. Shortly afterwards, the couple went
to live to America and stayed there until 1959. His next collection of poems
Lupercal (1960) was followed by two books for children Meet My Folks (1961) and
Earth Owl (1963). Selected Poems, with Thom Gunn (a poet whose work is
frequently associated with Hughes's as marking a new turn in English verse), was
published in 1962. Then Hughes stopped writing almost completely for nearly
three years following Sylvia Plath's death in 1963 (the couple had separated
earlier), but thereafter he published prolifically, often in collaboration with
photographers and illustrators. The volumes of poetry that succeeded Selected
Poems include Wodwo (1967), Crow (1970), Season Songs (1974), Gaudete (1977),
Cave Birds (1978), Remains of Elmet (1979) and Moortown (1979). At first the
recognition came from overseas, as his Hawk in the Rain (1957) was selected New
York's Poetry Book Society's Autumn Choice and later the poet was awarded
Nathaniel Hawthorn's Prize for Lupercal (1960). Soon he became well-known and
admired in Britain. On 19 December 1984 Ted Hughes became Poet Laureate, in
succession to the late John Betjeman. Hughes has written a great deal for the
theatre, both for adults and for children. He has also published many essays on
his favourite poets and edited selections from the work of Keith Douglas and
Emily Dickinson (1968). Since 1965 he has been a co-editor of the magazine
Modern Poetry in Translation in London. He is still an active critic and poet,
his new poems appearing almost weekly (9:17)

Judging from bibliography, Ted Hughes has received a lot of attention from
scholars and literary critics both in the USA and Britain. However, most of
these works are not available in Lithuania. Hence my overview of Hughes'
criticism might not be full enough. The few things I have learned from reading
about Ted Hughes could be outlined as follows. Some critics describe Hughes as "
a nearly demonic poet, possessed with the life of nature", "a poet of violence"
(4:162), his poetry being "anti-human" in its nature (12:486). According to Pat
Rogers, his verse reflect the experience of human cruelty underlying the work of
contemporary East European poets such as Pilinszky and Popa, both admired by
Hughes. Hughes' concern with religion gave inspiration to his construction of
anti-Christian  myth, which was mainly based on the famous British writer and
critic Robert Ranke Graves' book The White Goddess (1948) and partly on his own
studies of anthropology (12:486). Speaking of his early poems, the critics note
that at first they were mistakenly viewed as a development of tradition of
English animalistic poetry (6:414) started by Rudyard Kipling and D.H. Lawrence.
G. Bauzyte stresses that Hughes is not purely animalistic poet, since  in his
animalistic verse he seeks parallels to human life (4:163). In I. Varnaite's
words, "nature is anthropomorphised in his poems" (5:61). Furthermore, G.
Bauzyte  observes that Hughes' poetics are reminiscent of the Parnassians and in
particular Leconte de Lisle's animalistic poems. She points out, however, that
the latter were more concerned with colour, exotic imagery and impression, while
Hughes work is marked by deeper semantic meaning. His poetical principals are
fully displayed in the poem Thrushes - "spontaneous, intuitive glorification of
life, akin to a bird's song or Mozart's music" (4:162). The four main sources of
Hughes's inspiration mentioned are Yorkshire landscape, where he grew up as a
son of a carpenter, totemism studied by the poet at Cambridge and theories of
Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer (4:161, 6:414). The main themes, as singled
out by I. Varnaite, are: nature, the world of animals, man, the relationships
between man and nature (5:61). Hughes often defies traditional poetical cannons,
imploring stunning contrasts and surreal imagery (4:162). He was also noted for
his language and laconism of style. According to V. A. Skorodenko, Hughes uses
contrasting images, unexpected free associations and "sometimes vulgar words"
(6:416). I. Varnaite describes Crow and it  sequels as "repetitive, sometimes
too naturalistic and even vulgar" (5:62). Like Hughes's animals, man is also
cruel and predatory already in his early poetry (5:62). As I. Varnaite put it,
to Hughes, "the most admirable beings are the most ferocious and  violent ones."
Similarly, the critic Edwin Muir points out the  ferociousness of Hughes'
imagery by calling it "admirable violence" (9:9).This might be an argument in
favour of those, who see some fascist tendencies in Hughes's  verse (4:63, 5:62).
G. Bauzyte observes that in his negativism, Hughes is close to the American poet
Emily Dickinson. In his Manichaean vision of the world darkness often prevails
over light, cold over warmth, hatred over love (4:163). Speaking of predecessors,
Hughes is said to be kindred to Dylan Thomas in the way that they both
celebrate the natural and their images are taken from the nature (6:414). Hawk
in the Rain, for instance, has the feel of D. Thomas's and M. Hopkins poetry,
where the man becomes the joining link between the earth and the "fulcrum of
violence", the hawk figuring in the poem, thus responding to the Thomas poetical
credo "the man is my metaphor" (4:163). The critics also note differences
between the two poets. By contrast with Thomas, Hughes's world  is indifferent
to suffering and pain it is filled with (6:415) and, while Thomas is purely
anthropomorphistic, in Hughes's work, the human being is viewed as a part of
animalistic world. For Hughes, there is no great difference between a man and a
beast, inasmuch as stoicism and rational will are the only qualities
distinguishing people from animals and enabling them to resist the universal
chaos. In the opinion of A. Skorodenko, Hughes's concept of the world fully
unfolds in his books published in the seventies Crow, Cave Birds and Gaudete!,
where he collaborated with the American sculptor Leonard Baskin, who drew the
pictures, which inspired the poems. Hughes' vision of the world in those cycles
approach the quality of a myth. Blood there figures as the ultimate metaphor and
goes through all stages of life - from the archetypal pulsation in primal unity
to its complete opposite, Littleblood. The principal idea in the latter  books
is that blood rules the world, the governing motif for all actions being sexual
drive to ensure the output of offspring. Along other new tendencies, V. A.
Skorodenko also observes a shift in the poets outlook reflected in the poems
written in the eighties, where the man is no longer metaphysically solitary as
in the earlier books, but "becomes a part of nature and through it of the whole
of Universe" (6:417). I. Varnaite points out the influence of Arthur
Schopenhauer's philosophy on Hughes's verse. According to her, "many poems
translate a number of Schopenhauer's theses into the language of modernistic
poetry" (4:61). Robert Stuart interprets Hughes' works in the light of
Nitzscheanism, while other critics find some of Hughes' poems being under
Heidegger's influence (ibid.). I. Varnaite also notes that the poet's
worldoutlook is a complex one  and cannot be  one-sidedly simplified to one
philosophical school. Among possible influences she mentions folklore, myths and
religions other than Christianity. However, drawing parallels between Hughes's
work and Schopenhauers's philosophy, she writes that, to both of them, "animate
and inanimate nature have the same essence and contain the element of the Will
of the Universe". I.Varnaite concludes with the statement that "Hughes is a
nihilist" speaking of "inner emptiness, the dead universe, bleakness, the
nothing, nothingness, brutal will..." and his vision of future seems to be no
more optimistic than the present and past (4:67).


Bibliography

1. Thom Gunn and Ted Hughes Selected Poems. London: Farber and Farber Ltd., 1962.


2. Ted Hughes. Lupercal. London: Faber and Faber, 1985.

3. Ted Hughes. The Hawk in The Rain. London: Farber and Farber, 1986.

4. XXa. Vakarø Europos Literatûra. II dalis (1945-1985). Vilnius: Vilniaus
     Universiteto leidykla, 1995.

5. Literatûra Nr 36 (3). Vilnius: ISSN 0202-3296, 1994.

6. Anglijskaya Literatura 1945-1980 (ed. by Saruchanyan, A. P.). Moscow: Nauka,
     1987.

7. Anglijskaya Poeziya v Russkich Perevodach. XX Vek. Moscow: Raduga, 1984. -
     848 p.

8. Ivasheva, Valentina Vasiljevna. Literatura Velikobritaniji XX Veka. Moscow:
     Visshaya Shkola, 1984.

9. Walder, Dennis. Ted Hughes. Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1987.

10. Walder, Dennis. Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath. Great Britain: The Open
     University Press,  1976.

11. Stuart, Robert. English Poetry 1960-1970. England: Cambridge University
     Press, 1985.

12. The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature (ed. by Rogers, Pat).
     New York: University Press, 1990. - p. 486-489.

13. The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (ed. by  Ousby, Ian). USA:
     Cambridge University Press, 1991. - p. 484-485.

14. Hopkins, John. Guide to literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: University
     Press, 1994. -775 p.

15. Lotman, Jurij Michailovich. Struktura Chudozhestvennogo Teksta. Moscow:
     Isskustvo, 1970.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Einstein 2.TXT
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Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand this man's work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes, many have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single achievement of human thought."

Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for music and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he found much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and they could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near Munich. 

As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers to believe he was disabled.

Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary policy. His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was probably these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began not with science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this religious fervor soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To him, these seemed much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he disliked class even more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being considered a disruptive influence.

Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted to enroll at the Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam. This forced him to study locally for one year until he finally passed the school's evaluation. The Institute allowed Einstein to meet many other students that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his studies turned mainly to Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally agreed on major principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were attempting to disprove outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers ignored these new ideas, he was again forced to explore on his own. In 1900 he graduated from the Institute and then achieved citizenship to Switzerland. 

Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had little to do with physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring out how new inventions worked. The most important part of Einstein's occupation was that it allowed him enough time to pursue his own line of research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in specialist journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to attract a large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he tutored quickly transformed into a social club that shared a love of nature, music, and of course, science. In 1903 he married Mileva Meric, a mathematician friend.

In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals of Physics. The first was immediately acknowledged, and the University of Zurich awarded Einstein an additional degree. The other papers helped to develop modern physics and earned him the reputation of an artist. Many scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an imaginative spirit that was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules, and how their motion affected temperature, but he is most well known for his Special Theory of Relativity which tackled motion and the speed of light. Perhaps the most important part of his discoveries was the equation: E= mc2.

After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He remained at the Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming too big among the scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party time at the University of Berne, and the following year, at the age of thirty, he became employed full time by Zurich University. Einstein was now able to move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard. Finally, after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family were able to enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it allowed Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended his theory and discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he chose to accept a job placing him in high authority at the Federal Institute of Technology, where he had originally studied. It was not until 1914 that Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. 

World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany supported the army, he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new weapons of war which attempted to mass slaughter people caused him to devote much of his life toward creating peace. Toward the end of the war Einstein joined a political party that worked to end the war, and return peace to Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and Einstein was seen as a traitor. 

In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity, This result of ten years work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that the universe had to be thought of as curved, and told how light was affected by this. The next year, Einstein published another paper that added that the universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self. 

After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his wife, who had been living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal. This led to a renewed interest in his Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of Zionism. Since anti-Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of prejudice. There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when scientist who studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct. 

In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds for Zionism and lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites of the war, and urged that Europe renew scientific and cultural links. He promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive education, believing that it would prevent war from happening in the future. He also believed that socialism would help the world achieve peace. 

Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the money to his ex-wife and children to help with their lives and education. After another lecture tour, he visited Palestine for the opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the possibilities that Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in Germany. Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his house was broken into, and he was publicly considered an enemy of the nation. It was obvious that he could not return to Germany, and for the second time he renounced his German citizenship. During these early years in America he did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of significance.

In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument during this time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an atomic bomb. Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster that could occur if the Nazi's developed it first. Einstein did not participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea did stem from his equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development, he also knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this terrible weapon. 

The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war ended, he declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many articles and made many speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at this point, was legendary. People from all over would write to him for advice, and he would often answer them. He also continued his scientific research until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is no doubt that he was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of existence that he strove for all his life.

Bibliography

Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing, 1971.

Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton: University Press, 1979. 

Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza Books, 1954.

"Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990 edition.

Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Einstein 3.TXT
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Albert Einstein
	Albert Einstein was an important person who changed the
world of science.  People referred to him as a genius, and as
one of the smartest people in the world.  Einstein devoted
himself to solving the mysteries of the world, and he changed
the way science is looked at today.
	Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm,
Germany.    Albert's speech was late in development; he didn't
start talking until he was about three.  Since he started
talking late, his parents thought he was retarded.  "His
explanation was that he consciously skipped baby babbling,
waiting until he could speak in complete sentences"(Brian 1). 
Einstein had a very bad temper when he was young; he got mad
and hit his sister Maja in the head with a garden hoe and
cracked her skull.  When he was in school, his teachers thought
he was mentally retarded because he ignored whatever bored him
and attacked anything he had interest in.
	Einstein was twenty-one years old when he got married. 
His marriage almost didn't take place because Mileva, his
fiance, thought he had an affair.  
	Einstein decided to go to America to tell other scientists
about his theory of relativity.  He brought his wife and
several  freinds with him.  When they got there, they were
stormed with reporters and camera-men who wanted to know about
his theories.  He went around to different areas and gave
speeches and lectures.  When he appeared at Union Station to
lecture, there was almost a riot because so many people wanted
to see him.
	Einstein's most famous theory was the theory of
relativity.  "Einstein started his theory of relativity at the
age of sixteen" (Encyclopedia 511).  He received the Nobel
prize for his famous theory.  Another famous scientific theory
he discovered was E=MC2 (energy equals mass times the speed of
light squared).  That theory made the atomic bomb possible. 
"At dawn on July 16, the atomic structure of the world was
revealed when Einstein's famous equation E=MC2 came to life
with a bang"(Brian 344).  He was famous for his philosophies
too.  besides the theory of relativity, he discovered the
theory of motion.  "The motions of bodies included in a given
(vehicle) are the same among themselves whether that (vehicle)
is at rest or in uniform motion" (Hoffman 63).  When Einstein
was a kid, he devoted himself to solving the mysteries of the
world.  
	On April 18, 1955, Einstein died in his sleep.  On his
desk lay his last complete statement, written to honor Isreali
Independence day.  It read in part: "What I seek to accomplish
is simply to serve with my feeble capacity truth and justice at
the risk of pleasing no	one." (Encyclopedia 513).
	Albert Einstein was smart as a child, but no one
understood him, and he was punished for it.  Albert Einstein
discovered the theories of relativity, and motion as well as
the atomic bomb. Einstein was one of the most important people
in science, and he dedicated his life to changing the world.


Works Cited
Brian, Dennis.  Einstein a Life.  New York: John Whiley and
Sons, 	Inc., 1996.
"Einstein, Albert." Encyclopedia Britannica.  Vol.6.  15th
	edition. 
Hoffmann, Banesh.  Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel.  New
York: 	Penguin Books, 1972.  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Einstein.TXT
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[Error] - File could not be written...


f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Einstien.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Of all the scientists to emerge from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there is one
     whose name is known by almost all living people. While most of these do not understand
     this man's work, everyone knows that its impact on the world of science is astonishing. Yes,
     many have heard of Albert Einstein's General Theory of relativity, but few know about the
     intriguing life that led this scientist to discover what some have called, "The greatest single
     achievement of human thought."

     Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany on March 14, 1874. Before his first birthday, his family
     had moved to Munich where young Albert's father, Hermann Einstein, and uncle set up a
     small electro-chemical business. He was fortunate to have an excellent family with which he
     held a strong relationship. Albert's mother, Pauline Einstein, had an intense passion for
     music and literature, and it was she that first introduced her son to the violin in which he
     found much joy and relaxation. Also, he was very close with his younger sister, Maja, and
     they could often be found in the lakes that were scattered about the countryside near
     Munich. 

     As a child, Einstein's sense of curiosity had already begun to stir. A favorite toy of his was
     his father's compass, and he often marvelled at his uncle's explanations of algebra. Although
     young Albert was intrigued by certain mysteries of science, he was considered a slow
     learner. His failure to become fluent in German until the age of nine even led some teachers
     to believe he was disabled.

     Einstein's post-basic education began at the Luitpold Gymnasium when he was ten. It was
     here that he first encountered the German spirit through the school's strict disciplinary
     policy. His disapproval of this method of teaching led to his reputation as a rebel. It was
     probably these differences that caused Einstein to search for knowledge at home. He began
     not with science, but with religion. He avidly studied the Bible seeking truth, but this
     religious fervor soon died down when he discovered the intrigue of science and math. To
     him, these seemed much more realistic than ancient stories. With this new knowledge he
     disliked class even more, and was eventually expelled from Luitpold Gymnasium being
     considered a disruptive influence.

     Feeling that he could no longer deal with the German mentality, Einstein moved to
     Switzerland where he continued his education. At sixteen he attempted to enroll at the
     Federal Institute of Technology but failed the entrance exam. This forced him to study
     locally for one year until he finally passed the school's evaluation. The Institute allowed
     Einstein to meet many other students that shared his curiosity, and It was here that his
     studies turned mainly to Physics. He quickly learned that while physicists had generally
     agreed on major principals in the past, there were modern scientists who were attempting to
     disprove outdated theories. Since most of Einstein's teachers ignored these new ideas, he
     was again forced to explore on his own. In 1900 he graduated from the Institute and then
     achieved citizenship to Switzerland. 

     Einstein became a clerk at the Swiss Patent Office in 1902. This job had little to do with
     physics, but he was able to satiate his curiosity by figuring out how new inventions worked.
     The most important part of Einstein's occupation was that it allowed him enough time to
     pursue his own line of research. As his ideas began to develop, he published them in
     specialist journals. Though he was still unknown to the scientific world, he began to attract a
     large circle of friends and admirers. A group of students that he tutored quickly transformed
     into a social club that shared a love of nature, music, and of course, science. In 1903 he
     married Mileva Meric, a mathematician friend.

     In 1905, Einstein published five separate papers in a journal, the Annals of Physics. The
     first was immediately acknowledged, and the University of Zurich awarded Einstein an
     additional degree. The other papers helped to develop modern physics and earned him the
     reputation of an artist. Many scientists have said that Einstein's work contained an
     imaginative spirit that was seen in most poetry. His work at this time dealt with molecules,
     and how their motion affected temperature, but he is most well known for his Special
     Theory of Relativity which tackled motion and the speed of light. Perhaps the most
     important part of his discoveries was the equation: E= mc2.

     After publishing these theories Einstein was promoted at his office. He remained at the
     Patents Office for another two years, but his name was becoming too big among the
     scientific community. In 1908, Einstein began teaching party time at the University of Berne,
     and the following year, at the age of thirty, he became employed full time by Zurich
     University. Einstein was now able to move to Prague with his wife and two sons, Hans
     Albert and Eduard. Finally, after being promoted to a professor, Einstein and his family
     were able to enjoy a good standard of living, but the job's main advantage was that it
     allowed Einstein to access an enormous library. It was here that he extended his theory and
     discussed it with the leading scientists of Europe. In 1912 he chose to accept a job placing
     him in high authority at the Federal Institute of Technology, where he had originally studied.
     It was not until 1914 that Einstein was tempted to return to Germany to become research
     director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. 

     World War I had a strong effect on Einstein. While the rest of Germany supported the
     army, he felt the war was unnecessary, and disgusting. The new weapons of war which
     attempted to mass slaughter people caused him to devote much of his life toward creating
     peace. Toward the end of the war Einstein joined a political party that worked to end the
     war, and return peace to Europe. In 1916 this party was outlawed by the government, and
     Einstein was seen as a traitor. 

     In that same year, Einstein published his General Theory of relativity, This result of ten years
     work revolutionized physics. It basically stated that the universe had to be thought of as
     curved, and told how light was affected by this. The next year, Einstein published another
     paper that added that the universe had no boundary, but actually twisted back on its self. 

     After the war, many aspects of Einstein's life changed. He divorced his wife, who had been
     living in Zurich with the children throughout the war, and married his cousin Elsa Lowenthal.
     This led to a renewed interest in his Jewish roots, and he became an active supporter of
     Zionism. Since anti-Semitism was growing in Germany, he quickly became the target of
     prejudice. There were many rumors about groups who were trying to kill Einstein, and he
     began to travel extensively. The biggest change, though, was in 1919 when scientist who
     studied an eclipse confirmed that his theories were correct. 

     In 1921, he traveled through Britain and the United States raising funds for Zionism and
     lecturing about his theories. He also visited the battle sites of the war, and urged that
     Europe renew scientific and cultural links. He promoted non-patriotic, non-competitive
     education, believing that it would prevent war from happening in the future. He also
     believed that socialism would help the world achieve peace. 

     Einstein received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He gave all the money to his ex-wife
     and children to help with their lives and education. After another lecture tour, he visited
     Palestine for the opening the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He also talked about the
     possibilities that Palestine held for the Jewish people. Upon his return he began to enjoy a
     calmer life in which he returned to his original curiosity, religion.

     While Einstein was visiting America in 1933 the Nazi party came to power in Germany.
     Again he was subject to anti-Semitic attacks, but this time his house was broken into, and
     he was publicly considered an enemy of the nation. It was obvious that he could not return
     to Germany, and for the second time he renounced his German citizenship. During these
     early years in America he did some research at Princeton, but did not accomplish much of
     significance.

     In 1939 the second World War began to take form. There was heated argument during this
     time over whether the United States should explore the idea of an atomic bomb. Einstein
     wrote to President Roosevelt warning him of the disaster that could occur if the Nazi's
     developed it first. Einstein did not participate in the development of the bomb, but the idea
     did stem from his equation E=mc2. Just as he knew that the bomb was under development,
     he also knew when it was going to be used. Just before the bomb was dropped on Japan
     Einstein wrote a letter to the President begging him not to use this terrible weapon. 

     The rest of Einstein's life was dedicated to promoting peace. After the war ended, he
     declared, "The war is won, but the peace is not." He wrote many articles and made many
     speeches calling for a world government. His fame, at this point, was legendary. People
     from all over would write to him for advice, and he would often answer them. He also
     continued his scientific research until the day he died. This was on April 18, 1955. There is
     no doubt that he was dissatisfied that he never was able to find the true meaning of
     existence that he strove for all his life.

     Bibliography

     Clark, Ronald W., Einstein - The Life and Times, New York: World Publishing, 1971.

     Dank, Milton, Albert Einstein, New York: An Impact Biography, 1920.

     Dukas, Helen and Banesh Hoffman, eds., Albert Einstein: The Human Side, Princeton:
     University Press, 1979. 

     Einstein, Albert, Carl Seelig, ed., Ideas and Opinions, New York: Bonanza Books, 1954.

     "Einstein, Albert." Random House Encyclopedia, Random House Press, 1990 edition.

     Hunter, Nigel, Einstein, New York: Bookwright Press, 1987.

     Nourse, Dr. Alan E., Universe, Earth, and Atom: The Story of Physics, New York and
     Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eisenhower.TXT
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Eisenhower
The Early Years
Dwight David Eisenhower was born on October 14, 1890 in Denison, Texas. He was the third of seven sons from David Jacob and Ida Elizabeth Stover Eisenhower. After his birth
the family moved to Abilene, Kansas where Dwight graduated from high school in 1909. He was awarded a scholarship to West Point military academy. He was commisioned a Second Lieutenant upon graduation in September of 1915. After being stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Dwight met Mary (Mamie) Geneva Doud, and they were married on July 1, 1916.
The couple had two sons, Doud Dwight Eisenhower and John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower. Doud Dwight, nicknamed "Little Icky", was born on September 24, 1917. He died three years later ,on January 2nd,1921,of scarlet fever .Their second son was born in Denver on August 3, 1922. He married Barbara Jean Thompson in July of 1947 and they had four children. There are now eight Eisenhower great-grandchildren.
Ike Takes Charge: A rise To Power
In 1917, the United states joined the Allied fighting in World War I. The prospect of commanding troops abroad excited Dwight, but his superiors did not think he was ready for such a task. It didnt help matters that Dwight was a success in training others for battle.
From 1915 to 1918Dwight and Mamie were sent all over the United States. Starting from Ft. Sam Houston, Dwight served in the infantry division at Camp Wilson, and Leon Springs, Texas and Ft. Ogelthorpe, Georgia. He then served with the Tank Corps in Camp Meade, Maryland, Camp Colt, Pennsylvania, Camp Dix, New Jersey, Ft. Benning, Georgia, and Ft. Meade, Maryland. Finally, after making everyone of his superiors know he was combat ready , he was awarded command of an armored unit in France starting on November 18th, 1918. Dwight would have to wait to see combat though. The armistice that ended the Great War was signed on November 11, 1918.Thouroughly discouraged having missed World War I, Dwight made the following vow to a friend "By God, from now on I am cutting myself a swath and will make up for this."
From 1919 to 1920 Dwight served as an instructor at an Infantry Tank School under the direction of one Colonel George S. Patton. Unlike Dwight, Patton had been on the front lines in the War. Ike soaked in the knowledge and experience Patton had to offer and the two formed a close friendship. By 1920 Dwight had achieved the rank of Major.
In 1922, Eisenhower was assigned executive officer to General Fox Conner at Camp Gaillard in the Panama Canal Zone. The hard-nosed Conner challenged Dwight to expand his intellect and because of him Ike began to understand war in societal and global terms.
From 1925 to 1926 he attended Command and General Staff school,Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, and graduated first in a class of 245.
In 1927, After serving under General John J. Pershing in Washington ,D.C., Dwight entered the Army War college and graduated in June of 1928 He Recieved more tutelage as General Douglas MacArthur's chief military aide. And in 1935, MacAuthur insisted Eisenhower join him in the Philipines as his chief of staff.. From 1935 to 1939, Dwight and MacArthur prepared the Philipines for a supposed attack from the Japanese.
The Japanese invaded Poland in September of 1939, and World War II had begun.Dwight was then assigned to a barrage of stateside assignments from 1939 to 1941 but got his wish in June of 1942. Chief of Staff , General George Marshall appointed Dwight Commanding General, European theater. Then in November of that year he was named Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces of North Africa.. Ike was now in charge of 60,000 men .His lack of battle experience showed in the altercation at Kasserine Pass in Tunesia, but after adjusting his strategy the Allies were able to gain control of Italy. Eisenhower was then appointed Supreme Commander ,Allied Expeditionary Forces in December of 1943. The true test of his military skills came in June of 1944. Dwight D. Eisenhower gave the word to send 5000 ships and 150,00 soldiers to liberate France from the Nazi's. The invasion of Normandy was underway. The Allies met heavy initial resistance but were successful in winning control of the beach and driving the Germans back. After the sacrifice of many human lives Germany surrendered. The invasion at Normandy was the turning point in the war and made a hero out of Eisenhower.
After the end of World War II, Dwight was designated as Chief of Staff, U.S. Army , then named Supreme Allied Commander, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in December of 1950. Dwight then retired from active duty in May 1931.
With Ike's popularity still soaring after the war, he announced his candidacy for president in 1952.He was able to beat Ohio Senator Robert Taft to gain the 1952 Republican nomination for president.
Ambrose, Stephen E., Eisenhower, vol.2, The President (Simon & Schuster 1984).
Divine, Robert A., Eisenhower and the Cold War. (Oxford 1981) "President Eisenhower." The American Experience. Online. GALILEO. 23 Oct. 1998.
Richardson, Elmo, The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (Univ. Press of Kan. 1979).
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eleanor Roosevelt.TXT
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Eleanor Roosevelt
Eleanor Roosevelt was a honest person
who had responsibility and compassion towards her
husband , family and her fellow man, whatever their social
status. She used great citizenship and initiative actions in
dealing with anyone who was fortunate enough to make her
acquaintance. Eleanor Roosevelt is an outspoken advocate
of social justice. During the years she has taken over a lot
of responsibility. For someone who spent thefirst third of
her life as shy and timid, she showed great courage once
she was thrust into the presidential "spotlight". Most
Americans considered her a true "American Hero".
"Ladies and gentlemen, members of the press, I now
announce the presence of our first lady of the United
States, Eleanor Roosevelt", is something similar to what
you would hear when being addressed at a press
conference or important meetings. She was a well
respected human being, achieving great duties and
responsibility in life. She was appointed by President John
F. Kennedy to be on the first peace corps advisory board.
She was such an active lady while her husband was in
office that she was no longer willing to stay quietly in the
background of her husband. She took a job as an editor
and advertising manager of a monthly publication " The
Women's Democratic News" where she became more
independent towards herself and work. Eleanor Roosevelt
became very involved in women issues, being that she also
joined the newly organized Women's division of the New
York State Democratic party and moved swiftly into
positions of leadership. Not only was she responsible
among organizations and people, she later became her
husband, Franklin D. Roosevelt's eyes and ears, dedicating
her life to his purposes, being a trusted and tireless
reporter. One of the reasons she did become so helpful
towards her husbands career was besides the fact that she
was the first lady, Franklin D. Roosevelt was stricken with
a disease called polio and caused him to be permanently
crippled in August of 1921. She then became even more
loyal to him and our country having to deal with people
from different nations, organizations and positions. While
the President struggled to regain the use of his legs, Eleanor
Roosevelt and Louis Howe joined forces to keep his
political and business contacts alive. She became a
powerful voice for youth employment and civil rights
forblacks and women. No first lady has been more visible
and outspoken than Eleanor Roosevelt. Perseverance, was
another great quality of Eleanor Roosevelt. From the time
she was a little girl she had to persevere. Both her parents
were considered to be handsome and gay socialite among
New York society. She was a very plain, shy insecure
child, who knew that she was neither pretty nor graceful
and that she was a disappointment to her beautiful mother.
Although she was the apple of her father's eye, he
disapproved of her being afraid and timid. Her father was
an alcoholic and was away from the family a lot as he tried
to straighten out his life. Her mother died when she was
only eight years old of diphtheria, and her father died when
she was ten. She was raised by her maternal grandmother
who was very strict and most of her education was by
tutors.( In accordance to her mothers wishes, her
grandmother sent her to a private school in England when
she was fifteen. It was here that Eleanor started to blossom
and become a person in her own right. Upon her return to
New York, she had her debut into New York Society in
1902. In 1903 she became reacquainted with her distant
cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt whom she knew from
childhood. Eleanor and Franklin fell in love and were
married in 1905, despite his mother's opposition. Sara
Delano Roosevelt was a domineering person who ran
Eleanor's household as if it were her own. She always
made Eleanor feel in adequate. It wasn't until Franklin was
elected to the New York State Senate and they moved
away to Washington, that Eleanor was free of Sara's
interference and meddling. When Eleanor was in her
thirties, she finally began to emerge as her own person due
to events in her life. Moving away from her mother-in-law,
being exposed to the political scene in Washington, finding
out about her husband's affair with her social secretary,
and Franklin contracting polio all forced her to come out
into the public life.( Although she was shy, she learned to
make public appearances and participate in New York
politics because she knew Franklin's career depended on
it. She also went back to teaching, wrote articles, lectured
and opened a furniture factory in upstate New York. She
became further politically active and participated in several
women's organizations that were involved in social
legislation. The plan had been for her involvement to
reawaken her husbands interest in the outside after he was
crippled by polio. Once this was accomplished though,
Eleanor had no intentions to just go back into the shadows.
While first lady of New York State, she was the legs and
eyes for Franklin as she made inspections of state
institutions. When she became first lady of the nation, she
advised her husband, helped to foster legislation and spoke
her mind on social issues. She fought for the improvement
of housing, education, health and the status of minority
groups.( Even while doing all this, she did not surrender any
of her other activities. She earned her own income and
gave most of her money to various charities. She traveled
throughout the country, visiting coal mines and
impoverished Appalachian farms. ( During World War II
she continued to do inspections for her husband and made
goodwill tours to England, the South Pacific and the
Caribbean. She also visited American troops abroad to
boost their morale. She also visited military camps inside
the United States and reported her findings to the
President. She was a critic of racial discrimination and even
resigned from the Daughters of the American Revolution
because of their racial policies. She pushed for better job
opportunities for blacks. She was criticized harshly for her
views, although she tempered herself for the sake of her
husband's re-election. She was not afraid to passionately
discuss her views on any policy or legislation with her
husband. And although both denied that she had any real
influence with the president, her views were always an
important factor in the outcome of many of those
decisions.( Along with her many accomplishments Eleanor
Roosevelt had a lotcompassion to her work. In 1946, she
was elected chair of the United Nations eighteen-member
Human Rights Commission, which had been instructed to
draft an international bill of rights. During the next two years
Mrs. Roosevelt proved herself a skillful diplomat as she
mediated among the clashing views of delegates from
different nations and cultures. As you can read she was a
very active lady who carried prominent compassion
towards her work. During her years as a United Nations
delegate, Eleanor Roosevelt continued to lecture,
broadcast, and write. She delivered more than one hundred
lectures a year , she broadcasted a daily radio
commentary, and hosted a weekly television interview
show, one of the first of it's kind. She was very loyal to
herself and to the nation throughout the years. She served
as a UN delegate throughout Truman's two terms as
president. She had one of the most wonderful and
worthwhile experiences in her life when she served as one
of five American delegates to the first meeting of the United
Nations General Assembly, she first refused and later said
yes.( You would never thing that such a person would have
so many characteristics that showed so much about her and
what she did. She continued a vigorous carrer until her
strength began to wane in 1962. She died in New York
City in November, and was buried at Hyde Park beside
her husband. She was so memorable that if you ever travel
to the New York area, go to Hyde Park. People
remodeled their house, the house of Eleanor and Franklin
D. Roosevelt and made it an Historical place to see.
Whenever you perceive the name Eleanor Roosevelt, you
can remember how she showed great compassion to her
work and life. How loyal she was to the people of our
nation. What great responsibility's she consummated and
what respect she gave and received from and to so many.
Works Cited Diller, Daniel C. & Robertson, Stephen .L "
The Presidents, First Ladies and Vice Presidents. Library
of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 1959. Collier
Encyclopedia: Copyright 1989 Cook, Blanche Wiesen :
Eleanor Roosevelt: Volume One New York: Vikking 1992
Eleanor Roosevelt: This is My Story New York: Harper &
Bros., 1937 On My Own New York: Harper & Bros.,
1949 Http://personalweb.smcvt.edu/smahady/ercover.html
Lash, Joseph P. : Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their
Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers.
New York: W.W. Norton, 1971 Lash, Joseph P. : Eleanor
Roosevelt: A friend's Memoir. Garden City, N.Y Lorena
Hickok : Eleanor Roosevelt: Reluctan First Lady New
York: Dodd, Mead 1962
WWW.whitehouse.gov/WH/glimpse/firstladies/html/ar32.html
WWW.geocites.com/collegepark/library/4142/childhood.html
Young's , J. Williams T. : Eleanor Roosevelt: A Personal a
Public Life Boston: Little, Brown, 1985
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Elie Wiesel.TXT
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Elie Wiesel
Elie Wiesel's statement, "...to remain silent and indifferent is the
greatest sin of all..."stands as a summary of his views on life and serves as
the driving force of his work. Wiesel is the author of 36 works dealing with
Judaism, the Holocaust, and the moral
responsibility of all people to fight hatred, racism and genocide.
Born September 30, 1928, Eliezer Wiesel led a life representative of
many Jewish children. Growing up in a small village in Romania, his world
revolved around family, religious study, community and God. Yet his family,
community and his innocent faith were destroyed upon the deportation of his
village in 1944. Arguably the most powerful and renowned passage
in Holocaust literature, his first book, Night, records the inclusive experience
of the Jews:
Never shall I forget that night, the first night in camp, which has turned
my life into one long night, seven times cursed and seven times sealed. Never
shall I forget that smoke. Never shall I forget the little faces of the children,
whose bodies I saw turned into wreaths of smoke
beneath a silent blue sky.
Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith forever.
Never shall I forget that nocturnal silence which deprived me, for all
eternity, of the desire to live. Never shall I forget those moments which
murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust. Never
shall I forget these things, even if I am condemned to live as long as God
Himself. Never.
 
And Wiesel has since dedicated his life to ensuring that none of us forget
what happened to the
Jews. Wiesel survived Auschwitz, Buna, Buchenwald and Gleiwitz. After the
liberation of the camps in April 1945, Wiesel spent a few years in a French
orphanage and in 1948 began to study in Paris at the Sorbonne. He became
involved in journalistic work with the French newspaper L'arche. He was
acquainted with Nobel laureate Francois Mauriac, who eventually
influenced Wiesel to break his vow of silence and write of his experience in
the concentration camps, thus beginning a lifetime of service.
Wiesel has since published over thirty books, earned the Nobel Peace Prize,
been appointed to chair the President's Commission on the
Holocaust,awarded the Congressional Gold Medal of Achievement and
more. Due to a fateful car accident in New York in 1956, Wiesel spent a
year confined to a wheelchair while recovering. It was during this year that he
made the decision to become a U.S. citizen and is still today an active figure
within our society, as well as fulfilling
his role in Jewish politics around the world.
Wiesel's job as chairman of the President's Commission on the Holocaust
was the planning of an American memorial to the victims of the
Holocaust.Wiesel writes that the reason for creating
the museum must include; denying the Nazi's a posthumous victory,
honoring the last wish of victims to tell, and protecting the future of humanity
from such evil recurring. Always maintaining
his dedicated belief that although all the victims of the Holocaust were not
Jewish, all Jews were victims of the Holocaust, Wiesel advocated placing the
major emphasis of the memorial on the
annihilation of the Jews, while still remembering the murder of other groups.
Guided by the unique nature of the Holocaust and the moral obligation to
remember, the Commission decided to divide and emphasize the museum
into areas of memorial, museum,
education, research, commemoration and action to prevent recurrence. In
order to come to these decisions, a group of 57 members of the Commission
and Advisory Board -- including
Senators, Rabbis, Christians, professors, judges, Congressmen, Priests,
Jews, men and women -- traveled to Eastern Europe, Denmark and Israel to
study Holocaust memorials and
cemeteries and to meet with other public officials. The emotional pain and
commitment required by such a trip is remarkable, and Wiesel's leadership is
undeniably noteworthy.
 
Wiesel remained chairman of the Committee until 1986. He has aided in the
recognition and remembrance of Soviet Jews, the establishment of Israel and
has dedicated the latter part of his life to the witness of the second-generation
and the vital requirement that memory and action be
carried on after the survivors have all left us. Wiesel's own words are the best
explanation:
Let us remember, let us remember the heroes of Warsaw, the martyrs of
Treblinka, the children of Auschwitz. They fought alone, they suffered
alone, they lived alone, but they
did not die alone, for something in all of us died with them.
Timeline
1928--born in Sighet, Romania
1944--deported to Auschwitz
Jan.1945--father dies in Buchenwald
Apr.1945--liberated from concentration camp
1948--moved to Paris to study at the Sorbonne
1948--work in journalism begins
1954--decides to write about the Holocaust
1956--hit by a car in New York
1958--Night is published
1963--receives U.S. citizenship
1964--returned to Sighet
1965--first trip to Russia
1966--publishes Jews of Silence
1969--married Marion Rose
1972--son is born
1978--appointed chair of Presidential Commission on the Holocaust
1980--Commission renamed U.S. Holocaust Memorial Council
1985--awarded Congressional Gold Medal of Achievement
1986--awarded Nobel Peace Prize
1995--publishes memoirs
 
Bibliography
Wiesel's Night (Cliff Notes) (Paperback - August 1996)
http://english.cla.umn.edu/courseweb/1591/Students/ElieWiesel/Eliewiesel.html
http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/wiesel.htm
 
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Elizabeth Cady Stanton 4.TXT
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	I was once called the most dangerous woman in America because I dared to ask for the unthinkable- the right to vote.  I challenged my culture's basic assumptions about men and women, and dedicated my life to the pursuit of equal rights for all women.  My name is Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
	I was born in Johnstown, New York, on the 12th of November, 1815.  My father is the prominent attorney and judge Daniel Cady and my mother is Margaret Livingston Cady.  I was born the seventh child and middle daughter.  Although my mother gave birth to eleven children- five boys and six girls- six of her children died.  Only one of my brothers survived to adulthood, and he died unexpectedly when he was twenty.  At ten years old, my childhood was shadowed by my father's grief.  I can still recall going into the large darkened parlor to see my brother and finding the casket and my father by his side, pale and immovable.  As he took notice of me, I climbed upon his knee.  He sighed and said, " Oh my daughter, I wish you were a boy!"  I threw my arms around his neck and replied that I will try my hardest to be all my brother was.
	I was determined to be courageous, to ride horses and play chess, and study such manly subjects as Latin, Greek, mathematics, and philosophy.  I devoured the books in my father's extensive law library and debated the fine points of the law with his clerks.  It was while reading my father's law books that I first discovered the cruelty of the laws regarding women, and I resolved to get scissors and snip out every unfair law.  But my father stopped me, explaining that only the legislature could change or remove them.  This was the key moment in my career as a women's rights reformer.
	As I grew older, my intellectual interests and masculine activities embarrassed my father.  He told me they were inappropriate in a young lady, especially the daughter of a prominent man.  I was educated at the Johnstown Academy until I was 15, and was always the head of my class, even in the higher levels of  mathematics and language, where I was the only girl.  But when I graduated, and wanted to attend Union College- as my brother had done- my father would not allow it.  It was unseemly, he said, for a woman to receive a college education, for in 1830 no American college or university admitted women.  Instead, my father enrolled me in Emma Willard's Female Academy in Troy, New York.  Although I learned a great deal at the academy, I objected to the principle of single sex education and felt it was artificial and unnatural.  I believed knowledge had no sex.  
	 I graduated in 1833 and returned to my parent's home, and this is when I entered the world of reform.  While visiting my cousin, Gerrit Smith (the abolitionist) in Peterboro, New York, I met with all kinds of reformers.  There, too, I met the man I was to marry- Henry Stanton, a renowned abolitionist speaker and journalist.  My marriage to Henry, who was 10 years older than me, marked an important turning point in my life, especially since my father objected to my choice.  He strongly disagreed with Henry's radical politics, and tried to discourage me, but I was stubborn.  So, on May 1, 1840, we got married in my parents home in Johnstown.  On the wedding day, we both agreed (although the minister objected) to remove the word "obey" from my vows.  I refused to obey someone with whom I was entering an equal relationship.  We honeymooned in London where Henry combined business with pleasure and attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention.  It was in London that I met Lucretia Mott, when both of us were banished from the convention because of our gender.  We resolved the keep in touch when we returned to America, but eight years passed before this happened.
	Meanwhile, after Henry and I returned to the United States, Henry gave up the lecture circuit and studied law with my father to support our growing family.  I had given birth to three sons in four years, and bore seven children in all, five sons and two daughters.  This colored everything that I did, for I was either pregnant or nursing or both during the formative years of the women's movement.  One result was that I learned to use my pen instead of my presence.  A second result was that Susan Anthony spent so much time at our house that the children called her "Aunt Susan."
	After Henry passed the bar, we lived briefly in Boston before settling permanently at Seneca Falls, New York.  From my home in the small town near the Canadian border, the start of the struggle for women's rights began.  Lucretia Mott and I organized the first Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, along with the draft of the Declaration of Sentiments.
	Susan B. Anthony and I grew to be the most intimate of friends and the closest collaborators in the battle for women's suffrage.  Susan and I co-founded the  Women's State Temperance Society for women married to alcoholics.  It was in an 1852 meeting of this women's society that I proposed the right to divorce drunken husbands.  The response was outrage, for the very idea of divorce was scandalous, and even the relatively advanced women feared that my radicalism would jeopardize their cause.  The chief reason  for the miserable state of wives of alcoholics was the lack of married women's property right.  So, in 1854 I made my first major address to the New York legislature on behalf of a bill on this subject.  The legislature passed a bill giving married women rights to their own wages and guardianship of their children.
	As the Civil War erupted, we moved to New York City.  This gave me greater access to the public.  Again, I teamed up with Susan B. Anthony and together we headed the Loyal League and collected hundreds of thousands of petitions for a constitutional amendment ending slavery.  A secondary benefit was that the league reinforced women's networks and fundraising abilities.
	When the war ended, I engaged in what was the biggest of my many leaps.  In order to test the Constitution's gender-neutral wording on candidate eligibility, I ran for Congress in 1866.  Of some 12,000 men who casted ballots, only 24 were courageous enough to vote for me.  The following year, I made my first major speaking tour.  I accompanied Susan B. Anthony to Kansas for a referendum on the enfranchisement of both ex-slaves and women.
	We lost the election, but won other support, including financing that allowed us to begin publishing the Revolution in January, 1868.  I did most of the writing on women's issues for the newspaper.  I published  editorials on jury duty and prostitution as well as some standard topics.  But in 1869, the newspaper collapsed in bankruptcy.
	Meanwhile, Susan and I separated from our longtime associates in the women's rights movement and we formed the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869.  I was the NWSA's president and Susan Anthony was vice-president.
	By 1871, I had gone lecturing all the way to California, where western women found my suffrage advocacy less shocking.  In addition to suffrage, my chief lecture point was educational opportunity for girls.  The Centennial Exposition brought me to Philadelphia in 1876, and I also made regular trips to Washington to speak on behalf of the federal suffrage amendment.  I spent most of the 1880's working on my book, The History of Woman Suffrage. After Henry's death in 1887, I spent increasing amounts of time in England with my daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch.  This, in turn, helped spark my interest in the International Council of Women that formed in 1888.  My speech there celebrated the fortieth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention.  In that same year, I also attempted to cast a ballot in a case similar to other unsuccessful test of the Fifteenth Amendment.  Two years later, the suffrage associations reunited, and I served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association from 1890-1892.
	Though I never attended another suffrage convention after stepping down from the presidency, my days of radical leadership were not over.  As the suffrage movement grew increasingly conservative and ineffective, I again turned to the pen rather than the platform.  In my eightieth year, I shocked even feminists with the publication of The Woman's Bible (1895), a carefully researched argument against women's subordinate position in religion that- like the Revolution- was more reasonable than its inflammatory title implied.  Reverend Anna Howard Shaw and others moved a resolution in the 1896 NAWSA convention disassociating the organization from the book, and despite Susan B. Anthony's impassioned plea, the motion passed.  This outrage gave me no pause, however, and in 1898, I added a second volume.
	In the same year, I published my autobiography, Eighty Years and More(1898), and I continued to write on broad topics for newspapers and magazines.  While the NAWSA concentrated with increasing  exclusivity on suffrage, I remembered that the original movement had included far more than suffrage- and that it was I who had to fight for the addition of suffrage on the agenda.  As I aged, my writing focused more on issues that directly concerned women's personal lives, particularly dress reform, divorce, and the damaging influence of religious and educational systems on the female population.
	In June of 1902, Susan Anthony spent a week in my home and she found me almost blind, but still alert.  A few months later, on October 26, 1902, I died quietly at the age of eighty three.
The Nineteenth Amendment, allowing 26 million American women the right to vote, became the law of the land on August 18, 1920.  Unfortunately, Elizabeth Cady Stanton did not live long enough to vote freely.
	Elizabeth Cady Stanton's writings, her speeches, her enthusiasm and her life provide inspiration for generations of American feminists, even to the present day.  I think that Elizabeth, were she here today, would be pleased to see her work was not in vain.  And that the revolution she and other ladies of Seneca Falls began that hot July day in 1848 did not end 76 years ago when women acquired suffrage.  And that her life still inspires new  genrations of young women.  If it were possible for me to meet with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, I would be delighted to take part in that opportunity.  Stanton's spirit lives on today whenever and wherever American women use their voices and their votes to proclaim equality.


	Works Cited

Faber, Doris.  Oh Lizzie! The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  New York: Lothrop, Lee, and 	Shepard Company, 1972.

Franck, Irene and David Brownstone. Women's World: A Timeline of Women in History.  New 	York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995.

Rossi, Alice S.  The Feminist Papers: From Adams to deBeauvoir.  New York: Columbia 	University Press, 1973.

Weatherford, Doris.  American Women's History. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Elizabeth Cady Stanton.TXT
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	I was once called the most dangerous woman in America because I dared to ask for the unthinkable- the right to vote.  I challenged my culture's basic assumptions about men and women, and dedicated my life to the pursuit of equal rights for all women.  My name is Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
	I was born in Johnstown, New York, on the 12th of November, 1815.  My father is the prominent attorney and judge Daniel Cady and my mother is Margaret Livingston Cady.  I was born the seventh child and middle daughter.  Although my mother gave birth to eleven children- five boys and six girls- six of her children died.  Only one of my brothers survived to adulthood, and he died unexpectedly when he was twenty.  At ten years old, my childhood was shadowed by my father's grief.  I can still recall going into the large darkened parlor to see my brother and finding the casket and my father by his side, pale and immovable.  As he took notice of me, I climbed upon his knee.  He sighed and said, " Oh my daughter, I wish you were a boy!"  I threw my arms around his neck and replied that I will try my hardest to be all my brother was.
	I was determined to be courageous, to ride horses and play chess, and study such manly subjects as Latin, Greek, mathematics, and philosophy.  I devoured the books in my father's extensive law library and debated the fine points of the law with his clerks.  It was while reading my father's law books that I first discovered the cruelty of the laws regarding women, and I resolved to get scissors and snip out every unfair law.  But my father stopped me, explaining that only the legislature could change or remove them.  This was the key moment in my career as a women's rights reformer.
	As I grew older, my intellectual interests and masculine activities embarrassed my father.  He told me they were inappropriate in a young lady, especially the daughter of a prominent man.  I was educated at the Johnstown Academy until I was 15, and was always the head of my class, even in the higher levels of  mathematics and language, where I was the only girl.  But when I graduated, and wanted to attend Union College- as my brother had done- my father would not allow it.  It was unseemly, he said, for a woman to receive a college education, for in 1830 no American college or university admitted women.  Instead, my father enrolled me in Emma Willard's Female Academy in Troy, New York.  Although I learned a great deal at the academy, I objected to the principle of single sex education and felt it was artificial and unnatural.  I believed knowledge had no sex.  
	 I graduated in 1833 and returned to my parent's home, and this is when I entered the world of reform.  While visiting my cousin, Gerrit Smith (the abolitionist) in Peterboro, New York, I met with all kinds of reformers.  There, too, I met the man I was to marry- Henry Stanton, a renowned abolitionist speaker and journalist.  My marriage to Henry, who was 10 years older than me, marked an important turning point in my life, especially since my father objected to my choice.  He strongly disagreed with Henry's radical politics, and tried to discourage me, but I was stubborn.  So, on May 1, 1840, we got married in my parents home in Johnstown.  On the wedding day, we both agreed (although the minister objected) to remove the word "obey" from my vows.  I refused to obey someone with whom I was entering an equal relationship.  We honeymooned in London where Henry combined business with pleasure and attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention.  It was in London that I met Lucretia Mott, when both of us were banished from the convention because of our gender.  We resolved the keep in touch when we returned to America, but eight years passed before this happened.
	Meanwhile, after Henry and I returned to the United States, Henry gave up the lecture circuit and studied law with my father to support our growing family.  I had given birth to three sons in four years, and bore seven children in all, five sons and two daughters.  This colored everything that I did, for I was either pregnant or nursing or both during the formative years of the women's movement.  One result was that I learned to use my pen instead of my presence.  A second result was that Susan Anthony spent so much time at our house that the children called her "Aunt Susan."
	After Henry passed the bar, we lived briefly in Boston before settling permanently at Seneca Falls, New York.  From my home in the small town near the Canadian border, the start of the struggle for women's rights began.  Lucretia Mott and I organized the first Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, along with the draft of the Declaration of Sentiments.
	Susan B. Anthony and I grew to be the most intimate of friends and the closest collaborators in the battle for women's suffrage.  Susan and I co-founded the  Women's State Temperance Society for women married to alcoholics.  It was in an 1852 meeting of this women's society that I proposed the right to divorce drunken husbands.  The response was outrage, for the very idea of divorce was scandalous, and even the relatively advanced women feared that my radicalism would jeopardize their cause.  The chief reason  for the miserable state of wives of alcoholics was the lack of married women's property right.  So, in 1854 I made my first major address to the New York legislature on behalf of a bill on this subject.  The legislature passed a bill giving married women rights to their own wages and guardianship of their children.
	As the Civil War erupted, we moved to New York City.  This gave me greater access to the public.  Again, I teamed up with Susan B. Anthony and together we headed the Loyal League and collected hundreds of thousands of petitions for a constitutional amendment ending slavery.  A secondary benefit was that the league reinforced women's networks and fundraising abilities.
	When the war ended, I engaged in what was the biggest of my many leaps.  In order to test the Constitution's gender-neutral wording on candidate eligibility, I ran for Congress in 1866.  Of some 12,000 men who casted ballots, only 24 were courageous enough to vote for me.  The following year, I made my first major speaking tour.  I accompanied Susan B. Anthony to Kansas for a referendum on the enfranchisement of both ex-slaves and women.
	We lost the election, but won other support, including financing that allowed us to begin publishing the Revolution in January, 1868.  I did most of the writing on women's issues for the newspaper.  I published  editorials on jury duty and prostitution as well as some standard topics.  But in 1869, the newspaper collapsed in bankruptcy.
	Meanwhile, Susan and I separated from our longtime associates in the women's rights movement and we formed the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869.  I was the NWSA's president and Susan Anthony was vice-president.
	By 1871, I had gone lecturing all the way to California, where western women found my suffrage advocacy less shocking.  In addition to suffrage, my chief lecture point was educational opportunity for girls.  The Centennial Exposition brought me to Philadelphia in 1876, and I also made regular trips to Washington to speak on behalf of the federal suffrage amendment.  I spent most of the 1880's working on my book, The History of Woman Suffrage. After Henry's death in 1887, I spent increasing amounts of time in England with my daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch.  This, in turn, helped spark my interest in the International Council of Women that formed in 1888.  My speech there celebrated the fortieth anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention.  In that same year, I also attempted to cast a ballot in a case similar to other unsuccessful test of the Fifteenth Amendment.  Two years later, the suffrage associations reunited, and I served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association from 1890-1892.
	Though I never attended another suffrage convention after stepping down from the presidency, my days of radical leadership were not over.  As the suffrage movement grew increasingly conservative and ineffective, I again turned to the pen rather than the platform.  In my eightieth year, I shocked even feminists with the publication of The Woman's Bible (1895), a carefully researched argument against women's subordinate position in religion that- like the Revolution- was more reasonable than its inflammatory title implied.  Reverend Anna Howard Shaw and others moved a resolution in the 1896 NAWSA convention disassociating the organization from the book, and despite Susan B. Anthony's impassioned plea, the motion passed.  This outrage gave me no pause, however, and in 1898, I added a second volume.
	In the same year, I published my autobiography, Eighty Years and More(1898), and I continued to write on broad topics for newspapers and magazines.  While the NAWSA concentrated with increasing  exclusivity on suffrage, I remembered that the original movement had included far more than suffrage- and that it was I who had to fight for the addition of suffrage on the agenda.  As I aged, my writing focused more on issues that directly concerned women's personal lives, particularly dress reform, divorce, and the damaging influence of religious and educational systems on the female population.
	In June of 1902, Susan Anthony spent a week in my home and she found me almost blind, but still alert.  A few months later, on October 26, 1902, I died quietly at the age of eighty three.
The Nineteenth Amendment, allowing 26 million American women the right to vote, became the law of the land on August 18, 1920.  Unfortunately, Elizabeth Cady Stanton did not live long enough to vote freely.
	Elizabeth Cady Stanton's writings, her speeches, her enthusiasm and her life provide inspiration for generations of American feminists, even to the present day.  I think that Elizabeth, were she here today, would be pleased to see her work was not in vain.  And that the revolution she and other ladies of Seneca Falls began that hot July day in 1848 did not end 76 years ago when women acquired suffrage.  And that her life still inspires new  genrations of young women.  If it were possible for me to meet with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, I would be delighted to take part in that opportunity.  Stanton's spirit lives on today whenever and wherever American women use their voices and their votes to proclaim equality.


	Works Cited

Faber, Doris.  Oh Lizzie! The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton.  New York: Lothrop, Lee, and 	Shepard Company, 1972.

Franck, Irene and David Brownstone. Women's World: A Timeline of Women in History.  New 	York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995.

Rossi, Alice S.  The Feminist Papers: From Adams to deBeauvoir.  New York: Columbia 	University Press, 1973.

Weatherford, Doris.  American Women's History. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emilie du Chatelet 4.TXT
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Emilie du Chatelet


	Emilie du Chatelet grew up in a society where there were not many
education opportunities for women.  She was born in Paris on December 17,
1706 and grew up in a household where marriage was the only way one
could improve their place in society.  During her early childhood, Emilie
began to show such promise in the area of academics that soon she was able
to convince her father that she was a genius who needed attention.  Provided
with good education, she studied and soon mastered Latin, Italian and
English.  She also studied Tasso, Virgil, Milton and other great scholars of
the time.
	In spite of her talents in the area of languages, her true love was
mathematics.  Her study in this area was encouraged be a family friend, M.
de Mezieres, who recognized her talent.  Emilie's work in mathematics was
rarely original or as captivating as that of other female mathematicians but it
was substantive.
	At the age of nineteen she married Marquis du Chatelet.  During the
first two years of their marriage, Emilie gave birth to a boy and a girl, and
later at the age of 27 the birth of another son followed.  Neither the children
or her husband deterred her from fully grasping and indulging in the social
life of the court.  
	Some of Emilie's most significant work came from the period she
spent with Voltaire, one of the most intriguing and brilliant scholars of this
time, at Cirey-sur-Blaise.  For the two scholars this was a safe and quiet place
distant from the turbulence of Paris and court life.  She started studying the
works of Leibniz but she then started to analyze the discoveries of Newton. 
She was extremely success in translating his whole book on the principals of
mathematics into French.  She also added to this book an "Algebraical
Commentary" which very few general readers understood.
	To realize the significance of her work for future French scholars it is
important to understand the social context within which she lived and
worked.  One of Emilie's most significant tutors was Pierre Louis de
Maupertuis, a renown mathematician and astronomer of the time.  The
struggle for success did not come easy even for Emilie.  As a student her
curiosity and unrelentedness caused her to place impossible demands on her
tutors.  Such nature caused her to engage in dispute with her tutor at the time,
Samuel Koenig.  Their dispute was about the subject of the infinitely small
which ended their friendship.
	In 1740 when Emilie's book Institutions de physique was published,
Koenig started a rumor that the work was merely a rehash of his lessons with
her.  Of course this mad Emilie very angry and for help she turned to the
Academy of Sciences and Maupertuis, with whom she had discussed there
ideas long before she engaged Koenig as her tutor.  The intelligent scientists
of the time were aware of her capabilities of performing the work.  However
she did not feel that she had received the support she deserved.  This was the
first time that she felt that being a woman really worked against her.
	The years Emilie spent with Voltaire at Cirey were some of the most
productive years of her life.  Their scholarly work was very intense.  When
there were no guests both of them stayed at their desks almost all day long.
	In the spring of 1748, Emilie met and fell in love with the Marquis de
Saint-Lambert, a courtier and poet.  This affair did not destroy her friendship
with Voltaire.  Even when she found out that she was carrying Saint-
Lambert's child, Voltaire was there to support her.  Along with Voltaire and
Saint-Lambert, she was able to convince her husband that it was his child she
was carrying.
	During the course of her pregnancy in 1749 she finished her work with
Clairaut, an old friend with whom she had been studying, but her book on
Newton was not completed yet.  She was determined to finish it and with that
goal she took on a very regimented lifestyle of only work.	
	In early September of 1749, she gave birth to a baby girl.  For several
days, Emilie seemed happy and healthy.  On September 10, 1749 she
suddenly died.  Emilie's death was soon followed by the death of the baby
girl.
	Emilie died at the age of 43.  Among her greatest achievements were
her Institutions du physique and the translation of Newton's Principia, which
was published after her death.  Emilie du Chatelet was one of many women
whose contributions to the field of mathematics are still felt today and helped
shape the course of mathematics throughout history.
	 
								





Bibliography

2 sources on the Internet

Encyclopedia Britannica 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emilie du Chatelet.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Emilie du Chatelet


	Emilie du Chatelet grew up in a society where there were not many
education opportunities for women.  She was born in Paris on December 17,
1706 and grew up in a household where marriage was the only way one
could improve their place in society.  During her early childhood, Emilie
began to show such promise in the area of academics that soon she was able
to convince her father that she was a genius who needed attention.  Provided
with good education, she studied and soon mastered Latin, Italian and
English.  She also studied Tasso, Virgil, Milton and other great scholars of
the time.
	In spite of her talents in the area of languages, her true love was
mathematics.  Her study in this area was encouraged be a family friend, M.
de Mezieres, who recognized her talent.  Emilie's work in mathematics was
rarely original or as captivating as that of other female mathematicians but it
was substantive.
	At the age of nineteen she married Marquis du Chatelet.  During the
first two years of their marriage, Emilie gave birth to a boy and a girl, and
later at the age of 27 the birth of another son followed.  Neither the children
or her husband deterred her from fully grasping and indulging in the social
life of the court.  
	Some of Emilie's most significant work came from the period she
spent with Voltaire, one of the most intriguing and brilliant scholars of this
time, at Cirey-sur-Blaise.  For the two scholars this was a safe and quiet place
distant from the turbulence of Paris and court life.  She started studying the
works of Leibniz but she then started to analyze the discoveries of Newton. 
She was extremely success in translating his whole book on the principals of
mathematics into French.  She also added to this book an "Algebraical
Commentary" which very few general readers understood.
	To realize the significance of her work for future French scholars it is
important to understand the social context within which she lived and
worked.  One of Emilie's most significant tutors was Pierre Louis de
Maupertuis, a renown mathematician and astronomer of the time.  The
struggle for success did not come easy even for Emilie.  As a student her
curiosity and unrelentedness caused her to place impossible demands on her
tutors.  Such nature caused her to engage in dispute with her tutor at the time,
Samuel Koenig.  Their dispute was about the subject of the infinitely small
which ended their friendship.
	In 1740 when Emilie's book Institutions de physique was published,
Koenig started a rumor that the work was merely a rehash of his lessons with
her.  Of course this mad Emilie very angry and for help she turned to the
Academy of Sciences and Maupertuis, with whom she had discussed there
ideas long before she engaged Koenig as her tutor.  The intelligent scientists
of the time were aware of her capabilities of performing the work.  However
she did not feel that she had received the support she deserved.  This was the
first time that she felt that being a woman really worked against her.
	The years Emilie spent with Voltaire at Cirey were some of the most
productive years of her life.  Their scholarly work was very intense.  When
there were no guests both of them stayed at their desks almost all day long.
	In the spring of 1748, Emilie met and fell in love with the Marquis de
Saint-Lambert, a courtier and poet.  This affair did not destroy her friendship
with Voltaire.  Even when she found out that she was carrying Saint-
Lambert's child, Voltaire was there to support her.  Along with Voltaire and
Saint-Lambert, she was able to convince her husband that it was his child she
was carrying.
	During the course of her pregnancy in 1749 she finished her work with
Clairaut, an old friend with whom she had been studying, but her book on
Newton was not completed yet.  She was determined to finish it and with that
goal she took on a very regimented lifestyle of only work.	
	In early September of 1749, she gave birth to a baby girl.  For several
days, Emilie seemed happy and healthy.  On September 10, 1749 she
suddenly died.  Emilie's death was soon followed by the death of the baby
girl.
	Emilie died at the age of 43.  Among her greatest achievements were
her Institutions du physique and the translation of Newton's Principia, which
was published after her death.  Emilie du Chatelet was one of many women
whose contributions to the field of mathematics are still felt today and helped
shape the course of mathematics throughout history.
	 
								





Bibliography

2 sources on the Internet

Encyclopedia Britannica 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Bronte.TXT
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Emily Jane Bront  remains a mystery. Very little is known about her. There is little information, and much of what we have is contradictory. She is the author of only one novel and a few bits of poetry. This gives people little to build on. The majority of what we know about her comes from her sister, Charlotte, who is another well known author. From what is known, it would appear that Emily led an ordinary life of a nineteenth century female. She attended boarding school and learned domestic skills at home. In other ways her life was unusual and even eccentric, contributing to the originality of her great novel.
	Emily Jane Bront  was born on July 30, 1818 in Thornton, Yorkshire. She was the fifth child and fourth daughter of Reverend Patrick Bront  and Maria Branwell Bront . When she was two years old, the family moved to Haworth. This remained her home until she passed away in December of 1848 at the age of thirty.
	Both of Emily's parents influenced her literary education. Her mother published one essay, and her father published four books and a little poetry. In 1821, Maria died of cancer, leaving Emily and her four siblings motherless. Her sister, Elizabeth, came to live as a housekeeper and was responsible for training the girls in the household arts. 
	
	While at home doing housework, Emily secretly worked on poetry. In 1845, Charlotte discovered some of Emily's poems and confessed that she, too, had written some poetry. As it turned out, so had Anne. After much persuading, the poems were published in a small book entitled Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Pseudonyms were used because the girls wanted their poetry to be taken seriously. Only two copies were sold. The failure led all three to begin work on novels: Emily on Wuthering Heights, Charlotte on Jane Eyre, and Anne on Agnes Grey. All three novels were successful and published in 1847 and 1848.
	During this time, their brother, Branwell, had become addicted to alcohol and drugs, and was dying. Emily, the one closest to him, was the only one tried to help, not judge him. She beat out the flames with her bare hands when he wrapped himself in a blanket and set it on fire while he was drunk. Despite all of Emily's efforts, Branwell died in September of 1848. He was only thirty years of age. Emily caught a cold at his funeral and never left home again. She died on December 19, 1848 at the age of thirty. She never knew of the great success of her one and only novel, Wuthering Heights.


 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Dickenson.TXT
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	The year 1830 is a crucial date in English history.  You see, this is the year that one of the most influential poets in the world was born.  Emily Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, an old fashioned Puritan town.  Rarely did she go outside to meet strangers or walk in the garden.  Emily felt uncomfortable outside of her house and even if she did travel, it wasn't for more than one hour.  She was greatly impacted by her father, who was a lawyer, politician, and treasurer of Amherst College.  The turning point in Emily's life occurred while she was on a business trip in Washington D.C. with her father. There, Emily met a Presbyterian Minister.  Soon enough, she deeply fell in love with this man , whose name was Charlies Wadsworth.  Even though the two were acquaintances, Emily felt a bond between herself and the much older and already married minister.  However, although Charles was kind to her, he did not return her love.  Eight years later, in1862, Charlies left for San Francisco, Calafornia with his family.  It was about this time that Emily totally secluded herself from the world and started what would be world  famous poems throughout the future .  She adopted her ideas on poetry from her personal life, her fondness of nature, death, and her dislike of organized religion.  War is occasionally pulled into Emily's poems also.

	Emily seemed truly concerned over happenings in her personal life.  So she mainly focused her writings on the loss of her lover.  In "I Never Saw A Moor," she describes things that she had never seen or experienced before but she knows what they are about.  Here, Emily is trying to express herself on why she thinks Charles left her.  She is desperately searching for answers.  Emily attempted to teach others a lesson when she wrote "Tell All The Turth, But Tell It Slant."  In this work, she wishes that Charles had given her a reason why he left so abruptly.  She is stressing that people should tell all the truth, but lay it down easily so it does not cause strife.  "Heart! We Will Forget Him!" Explains her feelings that she still has for Charles.  However, she strived to put memories of Charles behind her and to move on in life.  Emily hoped to see her lost love in eternity sometime.

	On the other hand, her love for Charles was not the only thing that she wrote about.  "The Spider Holds A Silver Ball" explains why we should admire a spider's web.  A spider took an excessive amount of time to build the silver ball, or pearl, that we call a web.  The spider cherishes its web, so we should respect that. In the poem "There's A Certain Slant Of Light," we must realize that when hard times attack us, we need to fight back by ourselves.  We can not always depend on nature for help.  Emily wrote "The Sky Is Low" to contrast the similarities of life and nature.  She speaks of nature being an uncontrollable and unpredictable force just like people inhibit these same traits.  

	Death was certainly not a disclosed subject to Emily.  "I Shall Keep Singing" inspires us all to consider death as a brand new beginning.  It says look forward to death because it will relieve you of all your worries and frustrations.  "The GraveMy Little Cottage Is" also encourages us to battle through struggles and eventually death will bring us relaxation.  In "The Dying Need But Little Dear," Emily once again stresses on having a laid back attitude toward death.  She absolutely put faith in ger beliefs about death and where she was spending eternity.  This is probably why Emily was not terrified of death the least bit.

	Despite Emily's ignorance of death itself, she still had to face it.  In 1884, her health gave way at the age of fifty four and she became ill.  Two years later, Emily Dickinson died.  All of her poems were found by Tom Higginson, a close friend of hers, and by her neighbor.  They were all  neatly organized in  blue folders in her house.  Little did she know that her poems would sit the pace for years to come.  Her poems would be examined by students, professors, and those who had common characteristics to her.  To end on a thoughtful note, remember to follow Emily's words wisely and "Tell all the truth, but tell it slant."      

	 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Dickinso1.TXT
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Emily Dickinson


        Emily Dickinson was raised in a traditional New England home in the mid
1800's.  Her father along with the rest of the family had become Christians and
she alone decided to rebel against that and reject the Church.  She like many of
her contemporaries had rejected the traditional views in life and adopted the
new transcendental outlook.
        Massachusetts, the state where Emily was born and raised in, before the
transcendental period was the epicenter of religious practice.  Founded by the
puritans, the feeling of the avenging had never left the people.  After all of
the "Great Awakenings" and religious revivals the people of New England began to
question the old ways.  What used to be the focal point of all lives was now
under speculation and often doubted.  People began to search for new meanings in
life.  People like Emerson and Thoreau believed that answers lie in the
individual.  Emerson set the tone for the era when he said, "Whoso would be a
[hu]man, must be a non-conformist."  Emily Dickinson believed and practiced this
philosophy.
        When she was young she was brought up by a stern and austere father.  In
her childhood she was shy and already different from the others.  Like all the
Dickinson children, male or female, Emily was sent for formal education in
Amherst Academy.  After attending Amherst Academy with conscientious thinkers
such as Helen Hunt Jackson, and after reading many of Emerson's essays, she
began to develop into a free willed person.  Many of her friends had converted
to Christianity, her family was also putting enormous amount of pressure for her
to convert.  No longer the submissive youngster she would not bend her will on
such issues as religion, literature and personal associations.
        She maintained a correspondence with Rev. Charles Wadsworth over a
substantial period of time.  Even though she rejected the Church as a entity she
never did reject or accept God.  Wadsworth appealed to her because he had an
incredibly powerful mind and deep emotions.  When he left the East in 1861 Emily
was scarred and expressed her deep sorrow in three successive poems in the
following years.  They were never romantically involved but their relationship
was apparently so profound that Emily's feelings for him she sealed herself from
the outside world.
        Her life became filled with gloom and despair until she met Judge Otis P.
Lord late in her life.  Realizing that they were well into their lives they
never were married.  When Lord passed away Emily's health condition which has
been hindered since childhood worsened.
        In Emily's life the most important things to her were love, religion,
individuality and nature.  When discussing these themes she followed her
lifestyle and broke away from traditional forms of writing and wrote with an
intense energy and complexity never seen before and rarely seen today.  She was
a rarity not only because of her poetry but because she was one of the first
female pioneers into the field of poetry.
        Emily often speaks of love in her poems, but she did it in such a way
that would make people not want to fall in love.  She writes of parting,
separation and loss.  This is supported by the experiences she felt with
Wadsworth and Otis P. Lord.

                        Not with a club the heart is broken,
                                nor with a stone;
                        A whip so small you could not see it,

        I've known This seems to be an actual account of the emotions she
experienced during her relationship with Otis Lord.
        Individuality played a pervasive role in her life as a result of her
bout with separation.  Emily did not conform to society.  She did not believe it
was society's place to dictate to her how she should lead her life.  Her poems
reflect this sense of rebellion and revolution against tradition.

                        From all the jails the boys and girls
                                Ecstatically leap,-
                        Beloved, only afternoon

        That prison doesn't keep. In this poem Emily shows her feelings
towards formalized schooling.  Being a product of reputable college one
would think that she would be in favor of this.  But as her beliefs in
transcendentalism grew so did her belief in individuality.
        Emily also went against the Church which was an extreme rarity of the
time.  Similar to many other that shared her beliefs she too did not think that
a set religion was the way for salvation.

                        Some keep the Sabbath going to Church;
                        I keep it staying at home,
                        With a bobolike for a chorister,

         With an orchard for a dome. According to this poem Emily clearly
states that nature is her source of guidance and she has little need for the
Church as an institution.
        Like Thoreau, Emily believed that people need to understand nature
before they could begin to comprehend humanity because humanity was just a part
of nature.  Unlike many other she felt that nature was beautiful and must be
understood.

                        Has it feet like water-lilies?
                        Has it feathers like a bird?
                        Is it brought from famous countries
                        Of which I have never heard?
                        (Will there really be a morning?)

        Further on in the poem she goes on to ask if the scholar or "some
wise man from the skies" knows where to find morning.  It can be inferred
that morning, something so common place and taken for granted, cannot be
grasped by even the greatest so called minds.
        Emily also saw the frightful part of nature, death was an extension of
the natural order.  Probably the most prominent theme in her writing is death.
She took death in a relatively casual way when compared to the puritan beliefs
that surrounded her life.  Death to her is just the next logical step to life
and compares it to a carriage ride, or many other common place happenings.

                        Because I could not stop for Death-
                        He kindly stopped for me-
                        The Carriage held but just Ourselves-

         And Immortality. Life according to Emily is brief and the people
living out their lives have little control.

                        In this short life
                        That only lasts an hour,
                        How much, how little,

          Is within out power! However non-religious she may appear and
however insignificant she believes life to be she does however show some
signs in accepting life after death.

                        This world is not conclusion;
                        A sequel stands beyond,
                        Invisible, as music,
                        But positive as sound.

          To Emily the most important things in her life were religion,
individuality, nature and death.  She may not have believed in God but He did
have a profound impact throughout her childhood.  Emily and Emerson alike felt
the most important thing was to maintain ones individuality as she did.  She was
fascinated by both nature and death and she attempted to explain both in her
writings.



















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Dickinso2.TXT
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Emily Dickinson
Delve into a world constructed from images and thoughts streaming along at the speed of light. Watch them flow as they for buildings, people, animals and objects. Streaming along at the speed of light, one can only catch glimpses of what is truly concealed within by the river. As it travels through the mind, it touches everything. Forming, altering, defining, nothing is truly what it seems or what we interpret it to be. Hidden within the stream lies powers that are truly incomprehensible to the human mind.
In "Your thoughts don't have words..." Emily Dickinson intertwines this realization within the constructs of her poem. Dickinson explores the complex world of the mind through her poem. She delves into the realization that what we know and what flows though are minds are truly two different things and that these two things are as different as night and day.
In the first two lines "Your thoughts don't have words every day, they come a single time" can be best put into an analogy. One's thoughts come streaming into one's mind, flooding and saturating ones thoughts. Because one's thoughts come pouring in without any restraint, the mind must maintain itself in the only way it seems possible. Thus, our thoughts speak with words, sentences, images that we can comprehend and understand.
The next two lines, lines three and four, further solidify this interpretation. "Like signal esoteric sips of the Communion Wine..." communicates the idea that what we are able to think and comprehend is only a fraction what truly flows through our minds. As fast as we can interpret our thoughts, thousands more stream by without us even realizing it. As the lines state, the thoughts that we interpret are as occasional as when we sip the Communion Wine, coming to us only once every so often because we are always preoccupied with so many other things. However, despite the fact that we only realize a tiny fraction of the thoughts that comes to us, they are truly as precious as the Communion Wine.
Lines five and six bring the realization that all that is our thoughts are just the ideas and concepts that we are familiar with. Thus, making it easier for our minds to interpret the concepts with greater ease. "Which while you taste so native seems so easy so to be..." reiterates this concept. The lines are saying that the thoughts that we interpret are familiar, or native, to us and that is why they are so easy to comprehend. This realization, however, brings to light a rather disturbing fact in that if out thoughts are really only those that we are familiar with, then thousands of ideas and revelations pass through our minds, untouched because we are unable to comprehend what relevance they truly have or what importance they contain within them. Such a concept also establishes why those that we would deem intelligent are so because they are capable of interpreting more of there thoughts than we would normally disregard as nonsense. In the final two lines of Dickinson's poem, the entire poem is summed up and brought to a close with the idea that we do not even realize that we are only experiencing a fraction of the thoughts and emotions that flow through out minds. "You cannot comprehend its price nor it's frequency," states a profound revelation that Dickinson has. And that revelation is that our thoughts are more precious than we know. They define us and allow us to interpret our world to suit out needs and desires. Out thoughts are our own no matter what anyone says. Furthermore, we do not even realize that we are only experiencing a fraction of what truly goes through our heads. Instead, we believe everything that we are able to interpret is all that goes through our head.
The human mind only utilizes ten percent of its true capacity. Dickinson's poem seems to center around this notion and the idea that because of this we see the world as we would like it to be and in ways that we are familiar with. Which leaves the question then, what is the world truly like? If everyone interprets the world in different ways, then the concept of an idea world differs from one person to another because everyone defines the world in different ways. Also, the meanings of life and love are left open to interpretation because our minds defines them as different meanings than everyone else.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\EMILY DICKINSO3.TXT
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EMILY DICKINSON: 
DEATH TAKES LIFE IN POETRY
Emily Dickinson is regarded as "one of the greatest American poets that have ever existed."(Benfey 5) The unique qualities of her brief, but emotional, poems were so uncommon that they made her peerless in a sense that her writing could not be compared to. Her diverse poetic character could be directly connected to her tragic and unusual life. The poems that she wrote were often about death and things of that nature, and can be related to her distressed existence. Dickinson's forthright examination of her philosophical and religious skepticism, her unorthodox attitude toward her sex and calling, and her distinctive style-characterized by elliptical compressed expression, striking imagery and innovative poetic structure-have earned widespread acclaim, and her poems have become some of the best loved in American literature.
Although only seven of Dickinson's poems were published during her lifetime and her work drew harsh criticism when it first appeared, many of her short lyrics on the subjects of nature, love, death, and immortality are now considered among the most emotionally and intellectually profound in the English language.
Biographers generally agree that, "Emily Dickinson experienced an emotional crisis of an undetermined nature in the early 1860's."(Cameron 26) Dickinson's antisocial behavior became excessive following 1869. "Her refusal to leave her home or to meet visitors, her gnomic sayings, and her habit of always wearing a white dress earned her a reputation of eccentricity among her neighbors."(Cameron 29) Her intellectual and social isolation further increased when her father died suddenly in 1874 and he was left to care for her invalid mother. The death of her mother in 1882 followed two years later by the death of Judge Otis P. Lord, a close family friend and her most satisfying romantic attachment, contributed to what Dickinson described as an 'attack of nerves'."(Cameron 29)
Emily Dickinson's distressed state of mind is believed to have inspired her to write more abundantly: in 1862 alone she is thought to have composed over 300 poems.
"Her absorption in the world of feeling found some relief in associations with nature; yet although she loved nature and wrote many nature lyrics, her interpretations are always more or less swayed by her own state of being."(Benfey 22) "The quality of her writing is profoundly stirring, because it betrays, not the intellectual pioneer, but the acutely observant woman, whose capacity for feeling was profound."(Bennet 61)
All seven of the poems published during her lifetime were published anonymously and some were done without consent. "The editors of the periodicals in which her lyrics appeared made significant alterations to them in attempt to regularize the meter and grammar, consequently discouraging Dickinson from seeking further publication."(Fuller 17)
When her poetry was first published in a complete unedited edition after her death, Emily was acknowledged as a poet who was truly ahead of her time. However, there is no doubt that critics are justified in complaining that, "Her work was often cryptic in thought and unmelodious in expression."(Bennet 64)
Today, an increasing number of studies from diverse critical viewpoints are devoted to her life and works, thus securing Dickinson's status as a major poet.
"There's a certain slant of light" is a poem in which seasonal change becomes a symbol of inner change. The relationship of inner and outer change is contrasted. "It begins with a moment of arrest that signals the nature and meaning of winter. It tells that summer passed but insists that the passing occurred so slowly that it did not seem like the betrayal that it really was."(Bloom 122) The comparison to the slow fading of grief also implies a failure of awareness on the speaker's part. The second and third lines begin a description of a transitional period, and their claim that the speaker felt no betrayal shows that she had to struggle against this feeling. The next eight lines create, "A personified scene of late summer or early autumn. The distilled quiet allows time for contemplation."(Eberwein 354) The "twilight long begun" suggests that the speaker is getting used to the coming season and is aware that change was occurring before she truly noticed it. "These lines reinforce the poems initial description of a slow lapse and also convey the idea that foreknowledge of decline is part of the human condition."(Bloom 124) The personification of the polite but coldly determined guest, who insists on leaving no matter how earnestly she is asked to stay, is convincing on the realistic level. "On the level of analogy, the courtesy probably corresponds to the restrained beauty of the season, and the cold determination corresponds to the inevitability of the year's cycle."(Bloom 122) The movement from identification with sequestered nature to nature as a departing figure communicates the involvement of humans in the seasonal life cycle. "The last four lines shift the metaphor and relax the tension. Summer leaves by secret means. The missing wing & keel suggest a mysterious fluidity-greater than that of air or water. Summer escapes into the beautiful, which is a repository of creation that promises to send more beauty into the world."(Eberwein 355) The balanced picture of the departing guest has prepared us for this low-key conclusion.
A number of Emily Dickinson's poems about poetry relating the poet to an audience probably have their genesis in her own frustrations and uncertainties about the publication of her own work. "This is my letter to the World," written about 1862, the year of Emily Dickinson's greatest productivity looks forward to the fate of her poems after her death. The world that never wrote to her is her whole potential audience who will not recognize her talent or aspirations. "She gives nature credit for her heart and material in a half apologetic manner, as if she were merely the carrier of nature's message."(Bloom 297) The fact that this message is committed to people who will come after her transfers the uncertainty of her achievement to its future observers, as if they were somehow responsible for its neglect while she was alive. "The plea that she be judged tenderly for nature's sake combines an insistence on imitation of nature as the basis of her art with a special plea for tenderness towards her own fragility or sensitivity; but poetry should be judged by how well the poet achieves his or her intention and not by the poem alone, as Emily Dickinson surely knew."(Bloom 297) "This particular poem's generalization about her isolation-and its apologetic tone-tends toward the sentimental, but one can detect some desperation underneath the softness."(Bloom 298)
Her poem, "Tell all the Truth, but tell it slant--" immediately reminds us of all the indirection in Emily Dickinson's poems: her condensations, vague references, renowned puzzles, and perhaps even her slant rhymes. "The idea of artistic success lying in circuit-that is, in confusion and symbolism-goes well with the stress on amazing sense and staggering paradoxes which we have seen her express elsewhere."(Eberwein 171) The notion that Truth is too much for our infirm delight is puzzling. "On the very personal level for Emily's mind, "infirm delight" would correspond to her fear or experience and her preference for anticipation over fulfillment. For her, Truth's surprise had to remain in the world of imagination. However, superb surprise sounds more delightful than frightening."(Bloom 89) Lightning indeed is a threat because of its physical danger and its accompanying thunder is scary, but it is not clear how dazzling truth can blind us-unless it is the deepest of spiritual truths. These lines can be simplified to mean that raw experience needs artistic elaboration to give it depth and to enable us to contemplate it. The contemplation theme is reasonably convincing but, "The poem coheres poorly and uses an awed and apologetic tone to cajole us into disregarding its faults."(Bloom 89)
"Success is counted sweetest," Dickinson's most famous poem about compensation is more complicated and less cheerful. "It proceeds by inductive logic to show how painful situations create knowledge and experience not otherwise available."(Eberwein 18) The poem opens with a generalization about people who never succeed. They treasure the idea of success more than others do. Next, the idea is given additional physical force by the declaration that only people in great thirst understand the nature of what they need. The use of "comprehend" about a physical substance creates a metaphor for spiritual satisfaction. "Having briefly introduced people who are learning through deprivation, Emily goes onto the longer description of a person dying on a battlefield. The word "host," referring to an armed troop, gives the scene an artificial elevation intensified by the royal color purple. These seemingly victorious people understand the nature of victory much less than does a person who has been denied it and lies dying. His ear is forbidden because it must strain to hear and will soon not hear at all."(Eberwein 19) The bursting of strains near the moment of death emphasize the greatness of sacrifices. This is a harsh poem. It asks for agreement with an almost cruel doctrine, although its harshness is often overlooked because of its crisp illustrated quality and its pretended cheerfulness. "On the biographical level, it can be seen as a celebration of the virtues and rewards of Emily Dickinson's renunciatory way of life, and as an attack on those around her who achieved worldly success."(Bloom 158)
"I heard a fly buzz-when I died-" is often seen as a representative of Emily Dickinson's style and attitude. The first line is as arresting an opening as one could imagine. By describing the moment of her death, the speaker lets you know she has already died. "In the first stanza, the death room's stillness contrasts with a fly's buzz that the dying person hears, and the tension pervading the scene is likened to the pauses within a storm. The second stanza focuses on the concerned onlookers, whose strained eyes and gathered breath emphasize their concentration in the face of a sacred event: the arrival of the "King," who is death. In the third stanza, attention shifts back to the speaker, who has been observing her own death with all the strength of her remaining senses."(Eberwein 201) Her final willing of her keepsakes is a psychological event, not something she speaks. Already growing detached from her surroundings, she is no longer interested in material possessions; instead she leaves behind whatever people can treasure and remember. She is getting ready to guide herself towards death. "But the buzzing fly intervenes at the last instant; the phrase "and then" indicates that this is a casual event, as if the ordinary course of life were in no way being interrupted by her death."(Bloom 365) "The fly's "blue buzz" is one of the most famous pieces of synesthesia in Emily Dickinson's poems. This image represents the fusing of color and sound by the dying person's diminishing senses. The uncertainty of the fly's darting motions parallels her state of mind. Flying between the light and her, it seems to both signal the moment of death and represent the world that she is leaving."(Bloom 365) The last two lines show the speakers confusion of her eyes that she does not want to admit. She is both distancing fear and revealing her detachment from life.
"Pain-has an element of Blank" deals with a self-contained and timeless suffering, mental rather than physical. The personification of pain makes it identical with the sufferer's life. The blank quality serves to blot out the origin of the pain and the complications that pain brings. The second stanza insists that such suffering is aware only of its continuation. "Just as the sufferer's life has become pain, so time has become pain. Its present is an infinity, which remains exactly like the past. This infinity, and the past, which it reaches back to, are aware only of an indefinite future of suffering."(Eberwein 76) The description of the suffering self as being enlightened is ironic because even though this enlightenment is the only light in the darkness, it is still characterized by suffering.
"In "This World is not Conclusion," Emily Dickinson dramatizes a conflict faith in immortality and severe doubt."(Bloom 55) Her earliest editors omitted the last eight lines of the poem distorting its meaning and creating a flat conclusion. The complete poem can be divided into two parts: the first twelve lines and the final eight lines.(Eberwein 89) It starts by emphatically affirming that there is a world beyond death which we cannot see but which we still can understand intuitively, as we do music. Lines four through eight introduce conflict. Immortality is attractive but puzzling. "Even wise people must pass through the riddle of death without knowing where they are going."(Bloom 55) The ungrammatical "don't" combined with the elevated diction of "philosophy" and "sagacity" suggests the irritability of a little girl. "In the next four lines, the speaker struggles to assert faith. Her faith now appears in the form of a bird that is searching for reasons to believe. But available evidence proves as irrelevant as twigs and as indefinite as the directions shown by a spinning weathervane. The desperation of a bird aimlessly looking for its way is analogous to the behavior of preachers whose gestures and hallelujahs cannot point the way to faith."(Bloom 56) These last two lines suggest that the narcotic which these preachers offer cannot still their own doubts, in addition to the doubts of others.
Although the difficult "This Consciousness that is aware" deals with death, it is at least equally concerned with discovery of personal identity through the suffering that accompanies dying. "The poem opens by dramatizing the sense of mortality which people often feel when they contrast their individual time bound lives to the world passing by them."(Eberwein 49) Word order in the second stanza is reversed. "The speaker anticipates moving between experience and death-that is, from experience into death by means of the experiment of dying. Dying is an experiment because it will test us, and allow us, and no one else, to know if our qualities are high enough to let us survive beyond death."(Bloom 137) The last stanza offers a summary that makes the death experience an analogy for other means of gaining self-knowledge in life. "Neither boastful nor fearful, this poem accepts the necessity of painful testing."(Bloom 137)
Even this modest selection of Emily Dickinson's poems reveal that death is her principal subject. In fact, because the topic is related to many of her other concerns, it is difficult to say how many of her poems concentrate on death, but over half of them, at least partly, and about third centrally, feature it. Most of these poems also touch on the subject of religion-although she did write about religion without mentioning death. Life in a small New England town in Dickinson's time contained a high mortality rate for young people. As a result, there were frequent death-scenes in homes. "This factor contributed to her preoccupation with death, as well as her withdrawal from the world, her anguish over her lack of romantic love, and her doubts about fulfillment beyond the grave."(Cameron 114) Years ago, Emily Dickinson's interest in death was often criticized as being morbid, but in time, "Readers tend to be impressed by her sensitive and imaginative handling of this painful subject."(Stonum 83) Her poems concentrating on death can be divided into four categories: those focusing on death as possible extinction, those dramatizing the question of whether the soul survives death, those asserting a firm faith in immortality, and those directly treating God's concern with people's lives and destinies.
"If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry we should feel that in the work of Emily Dickinson, America, or New England rather, had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world, and could not be left out of any record of it."(Benfey 66)
works cited
Bedard, Michael. Emily. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Benfey, Christopher. Emily Dickinson : Life of a Poet. New york: George Braziller,
1986.
Bennet, Paula. Emily Dickinson : Woman Poet. New York: Univ of Iowa Press, 1991.
Bloom, Harold. Emily Dickinson (Modern Critical Views). New York: Chelsea House,
1999.
Cameron, Sharon. Choosing Not Choosing : Dickinson's Fascicles. New York:
University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Dickinson, Emily. Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. New York: Little Brown & Co,
1976.
Eberwein, Jane Donahue. An Emily Dickinson Encyclopedia. New York: Greenwood
Publishing Group, 1998.
Fuller, Jamie. The Diary of Emily Dickinson. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996.
Stonum, Gary Lee. The Dickinson Sublime (Wisconsin Project on American Writers).
New York: Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1990.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Dickinson 4.TXT
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        Emily Dickinson was raised in a traditional New England home in the mid 1800's.  Her father along with the rest of the family had become Christians and she alone decided to rebel against that and reject the Church.  She like many of her contemporaries had rejected the traditional views in life and adopted the new transcendental outlook.
        Massachusetts, the state where Emily was born and raised in, before the transcendental period was the epicenter of religious practice.  Founded by the puritans, the feeling of the avenging had never left the people.  After all of the "Great Awakenings" and religious revivals the people of New England began to question the old ways.  What used to be the focal point of all lives was now under speculation and often doubted.  People began to search for new meanings in life.  People like Emerson and Thoreau believed that answers lie in the individual.  Emerson set the tone for the era when he said, "Whoso would be a [hu]man, must be a non-conformist."  Emily Dickinson believed and practiced this philosophy.  
        When she was young she was brought up by a stern and austere father.  In her childhood she was shy and already different from the others.  Like all the Dickinson children, male or female, Emily was sent for formal education in Amherst Academy.  After attending Amherst Academy with conscientious thinkers such as Helen Hunt Jackson, and after reading many of Emerson's essays, she began to develop into a free willed person.  Many of her friends had converted to Christianity, her family was also putting enormous 
amount of pressure for her to convert.  No longer the submissive youngster she would not bend her will on such issues as religion, literature and personal associations.  
        She maintained a correspondence with Rev. Charles Wadsworth over a substantial period of time.  Even though she rejected the Church as a entity she never did reject or accept God.  Wadsworth appealed to her because he had an incredibly powerful mind and deep emotions.  When he left the East in 1861 Emily was scarred and expressed her deep sorrow in three successive poems in the following years.  They were never romantically involved but their relationship was apparently so profound that Emily's feelings for him she sealed herself from the outside world.  
        Her life became filled with gloom and despair until she met Judge Otis P. Lord late in her life.  Realizing that they were well into their lives they never were married.  When Lord passed away Emily's health condition which has been hindered since childhood worsened.
        In Emily's life the most important things to her were love, religion, individuality and nature.  When discussing these themes she followed her lifestyle and broke away from traditional forms of writing and wrote with an intense energy and complexity never seen before and rarely seen today.  She was a rarity not only because of her poetry but because she was one of the first female pioneers into the field of poetry.  
        Emily often speaks of love in her poems, but she did it in such a way that would make people not want to fall in love.  She writes of parting, separation and loss.  This is supported by the 
experiences she felt with Wadsworth and Otis P. Lord.  
                        Not with a club the heart is broken,
                                nor with a stone;
                        A whip so small you could not see it,
                                I've known
This seems to be an actual account of the emotions she experienced during her relationship with Otis Lord.
        Individuality played a pervasive role in her life as a result of her bout with separation.  Emily did not conform to society.  She did not believe it was society's place to dictate to her how she should lead her life.  Her poems reflect this sense of rebellion and revolution against tradition.
                        From all the jails the boys and girls
                                Ecstatically leap,-
                        Beloved, only afternoon
                                That prison doesn't keep.
In this poem Emily shows her feelings towards formalized schooling.  Being a product of reputable college one would think that she would be in favor of this.  But as her beliefs in transcendentalism grew so did her belief in individuality.
        Emily also went against the Church which was an extreme rarity of the time.  Similar to many other that shared her beliefs she too did not think that a set religion was the way for salvation.
                        Some keep the Sabbath going to Church;
                        I keep it staying at home,
                        With a bobolike for a chorister,
                        With an orchard for a dome.
According to this poem Emily clearly states that nature is her source of guidance and she has little need for the Church as an institution.
        Like Thoreau, Emily believed that people need to understand nature before they could begin to comprehend humanity because humanity was just a part of nature.  Unlike many other she felt that nature was beautiful and must be understood.
                        Has it feet like water-lilies?
                        Has it feathers like a bird?
                        Is it brought from famous countries
                        Of which I have never heard? 
                                                (Will there really be a morning?)
Further on in the poem she goes on to ask if the scholar or "some wise man from the skies" knows where to find morning.  It can be inferred that morning, something so common place and taken for granted, cannot be grasped by even the greatest so called minds.
        Emily also saw the frightful part of nature, death was an extension of the natural order.  Probably the most prominent theme in her writing is death.  She took death in a relatively casual way when compared to the puritan beliefs that surrounded her life.  Death to her is just the next logical step to life and compares it to a carriage ride, or many other common place happenings.
                        Because I could not stop for Death-
                        He kindly stopped for me-
                        The Carriage held but just Ourselves-
                        And Immortality.
Life according to Emily is brief and the people living out their lives have little control.
                        In this short life
                        That only lasts an hour,
                        How much, how little,
                        Is within out power!
However non-religious she may appear and however insignificant she believes life to be she does however show some signs in accepting life after death.
                        This world is not conclusion;
                         A sequel stands beyond,
                        Invisible, as music,
                         But positive as sound.
        To Emily the most important things in her life were religion, individuality, nature and death.  She may not have believed in God but He did have a profound impact throughout her childhood.  Emily and Emerson alike felt the most important thing was to maintain ones individuality as she did.  She was fascinated by both nature and death and she attempted to explain both in her writings.




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Dickinson.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


        Emily Dickinson was raised in a traditional New England home in the mid 1800's.  Her father along with the rest of the family had become Christians and she alone decided to rebel against that and reject the Church.  She like many of her contemporaries had rejected the traditional views in life and adopted the new transcendental outlook.
        Massachusetts, the state where Emily was born and raised in, before the transcendental period was the epicenter of religious practice.  Founded by the puritans, the feeling of the avenging had never left the people.  After all of the "Great Awakenings" and religious revivals the people of New England began to question the old ways.  What used to be the focal point of all lives was now under speculation and often doubted.  People began to search for new meanings in life.  People like Emerson and Thoreau believed that answers lie in the individual.  Emerson set the tone for the era when he said, "Whoso would be a [hu]man, must be a non-conformist."  Emily Dickinson believed and practiced this philosophy.  
        When she was young she was brought up by a stern and austere father.  In her childhood she was shy and already different from the others.  Like all the Dickinson children, male or female, Emily was sent for formal education in Amherst Academy.  After attending Amherst Academy with conscientious thinkers such as Helen Hunt Jackson, and after reading many of Emerson's essays, she began to develop into a free willed person.  Many of her friends had converted to Christianity, her family was also putting enormous 
amount of pressure for her to convert.  No longer the submissive youngster she would not bend her will on such issues as religion, literature and personal associations.  
        She maintained a correspondence with Rev. Charles Wadsworth over a substantial period of time.  Even though she rejected the Church as a entity she never did reject or accept God.  Wadsworth appealed to her because he had an incredibly powerful mind and deep emotions.  When he left the East in 1861 Emily was scarred and expressed her deep sorrow in three successive poems in the following years.  They were never romantically involved but their relationship was apparently so profound that Emily's feelings for him she sealed herself from the outside world.  
        Her life became filled with gloom and despair until she met Judge Otis P. Lord late in her life.  Realizing that they were well into their lives they never were married.  When Lord passed away Emily's health condition which has been hindered since childhood worsened.
        In Emily's life the most important things to her were love, religion, individuality and nature.  When discussing these themes she followed her lifestyle and broke away from traditional forms of writing and wrote with an intense energy and complexity never seen before and rarely seen today.  She was a rarity not only because of her poetry but because she was one of the first female pioneers into the field of poetry.  
        Emily often speaks of love in her poems, but she did it in such a way that would make people not want to fall in love.  She writes of parting, separation and loss.  This is supported by the 
experiences she felt with Wadsworth and Otis P. Lord.  
                        Not with a club the heart is broken,
                                nor with a stone;
                        A whip so small you could not see it,
                                I've known
This seems to be an actual account of the emotions she experienced during her relationship with Otis Lord.
        Individuality played a pervasive role in her life as a result of her bout with separation.  Emily did not conform to society.  She did not believe it was society's place to dictate to her how she should lead her life.  Her poems reflect this sense of rebellion and revolution against tradition.
                        From all the jails the boys and girls
                                Ecstatically leap,-
                        Beloved, only afternoon
                                That prison doesn't keep.
In this poem Emily shows her feelings towards formalized schooling.  Being a product of reputable college one would think that she would be in favor of this.  But as her beliefs in transcendentalism grew so did her belief in individuality.
        Emily also went against the Church which was an extreme rarity of the time.  Similar to many other that shared her beliefs she too did not think that a set religion was the way for salvation.
                        Some keep the Sabbath going to Church;
                        I keep it staying at home,
                        With a bobolike for a chorister,
                        With an orchard for a dome.
According to this poem Emily clearly states that nature is her source of guidance and she has little need for the Church as an institution.
        Like Thoreau, Emily believed that people need to understand nature before they could begin to comprehend humanity because humanity was just a part of nature.  Unlike many other she felt that nature was beautiful and must be understood.
                        Has it feet like water-lilies?
                        Has it feathers like a bird?
                        Is it brought from famous countries
                        Of which I have never heard? 
                                                (Will there really be a morning?)
Further on in the poem she goes on to ask if the scholar or "some wise man from the skies" knows where to find morning.  It can be inferred that morning, something so common place and taken for granted, cannot be grasped by even the greatest so called minds.
        Emily also saw the frightful part of nature, death was an extension of the natural order.  Probably the most prominent theme in her writing is death.  She took death in a relatively casual way when compared to the puritan beliefs that surrounded her life.  Death to her is just the next logical step to life and compares it to a carriage ride, or many other common place happenings.
                        Because I could not stop for Death-
                        He kindly stopped for me-
                        The Carriage held but just Ourselves-
                        And Immortality.
Life according to Emily is brief and the people living out their lives have little control.
                        In this short life
                        That only lasts an hour,
                        How much, how little,
                        Is within out power!
However non-religious she may appear and however insignificant she believes life to be she does however show some signs in accepting life after death.
                        This world is not conclusion;
                         A sequel stands beyond,
                        Invisible, as music,
                         But positive as sound.
        To Emily the most important things in her life were religion, individuality, nature and death.  She may not have believed in God but He did have a profound impact throughout her childhood.  Emily and Emerson alike felt the most important thing was to maintain ones individuality as she did.  She was fascinated by both nature and death and she attempted to explain both in her writings.




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Emily Jane Bronte.TXT
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Emily Jane Bronte


     Emily Jane Bronte remains a mystery. Very little is known about her. There is
little information, and much of what we have is contradictory. She is the author
of only one novel and a few bits of poetry. This gives people little to build on.
The majority of what we know about her comes from her sister, Charlotte, who is
another well known author. From what is known, it would appear that Emily led an
ordinary life of a nineteenth century female. She attended boarding school and
learned domestic skills at home. In other ways her life was unusual and even
eccentric, contributing to the originality of her great novel.

	Emily Jane Bront  was born on July 30, 1818 in Thornton, Yorkshire. She
was the fifth child and fourth daughter of Reverend Patrick Bront  and Maria
Branwell Bront . When she was two years old, the family moved to Haworth. This
remained her home until she passed away in December of 1848 at the age of thirty.

	Both of Emily's parents influenced her literary education. Her mother
published one essay, and her father published four books and a little poetry. In
1821, Maria died of cancer, leaving Emily and her four siblings motherless. Her
sister, Elizabeth, came to live as a housekeeper and was responsible for
training the girls in the household arts.

	While at home doing housework, Emily secretly worked on poetry. In 1845,
Charlotte discovered some of Emily's poems and confessed that she, too, had
written some poetry. As it turned out, so had Anne. After much persuading, the
poems were published in a small book entitled Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton
Bell. Pseudonyms were used because the girls wanted their poetry to be taken
seriously. Only two copies were sold. The failure led all three to begin work on
novels: Emily on Wuthering Heights, Charlotte on Jane Eyre, and Anne on Agnes
Grey. All three novels were successful and published in 1847 and 1848.

	During this time, their brother, Branwell, had become addicted to
alcohol and drugs, and was dying. Emily, the one closest to him, was the only
one tried to help, not judge him. She beat out the flames with her bare hands
when he wrapped himself in a blanket and set it on fire while he was drunk.
Despite all of Emily's efforts, Branwell died in September of 1848. He was only
thirty years of age. Emily caught a cold at his funeral and never left home
again. She died on December 19, 1848 at the age of thirty. She never knew of the
great success of her one and only novel, Wuthering Heights.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eric Eazy E Wright.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Eric "Eazy-E" Wright


A Life Interrupted By:  Taylor Evans

	Born September 7, 1963, Eric "Eazy-E" Wright's early reputation on the
streets of Compton, California, was a hustler eager to apply his street
knowledge to his legitimate game.  He dropped out of high school in the tenth
grade, but refused that to interrupt his success.
	In the late `80's he turned to rap music.  Along with Ice Cube, Dr. Dre,
DJ Yella, and M.C. Ren established the most successful and controversial rap
group in history.  As N.W.A, they blasted police cruelty and challenged the
establishment.  They eventually took their message of inner-city struggle to
millions of fans worldwide.
	 As a soloist, Eazy's career was even more incredible.  He launched
Compton/Ruthless Records in 1987 and by 1988 had two hit acts-JJ. Fad and
Michel'le. During the summer of the same year, N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton LP
frightened the media into labeling the group "gangsters".  This was a label the
group wore and exploited with such force that by the time Eazy released his solo
project Eazy-Duz-It that fall, the stage of musical funk and lyrical fight had
long been set.
	"Boyz-N-The-Hood" , "We Want Eazy", "Eazy-Duz-It".  His voice fueled a
legion of hits.  In the early `90's, he joined other West Coast rappers,
including M.C. Hammer, Ice T, Tone-Loc, and Young MC, in a stop the violence
campaign led by the single "We're All In The Same Gang".  With N.W.A, Eazy broke
down all the doors of mass exposure previously closed to rap music.
	Attempts to rock the young musician's foundation were generally useless.
Arrests for performing N.W.A's biggest hit "F*** The Police", and other attempts
at censorship only helped pave the way for his success.  By the time the group
had released its last album, Efil4zaggin, in 1991, they had sold more than six
million records.
	As a businessman, Eazy had built a solid commodity with his Ruthless
Records label.  Some of his more famous signings were: Above The Law, Bone-
Thugs-N-Harmony, and D.O.C.   His ability to promote and market these acts was
on the strength of his radio show, "Ruthless Radio Show".   As an on-air
personality, Eazy gave his audience tickets to his performances, talked to fans,
and also became more famous with the young black Americans.
	Few really knew the man behind the scenes.  His charitable nature
benefited such organizations as Athletes and Entertainers For Kids, United
Colors, and the Make A Wish Foundation.
	By the time he was thirty, Eazy had survived a swirl of controversy.
His "We Want Eazy" lyrics had come to life with everything from his age to his
political devotion.  However, he continued to sell records to his million-plus
fan base.  Even a conspiracy to assassinate him, left Eazy with only an even
stronger urge to reunite the original members of N.W.A.  Unfortunately, part of
that goal wasn't realized.
	Eric Wright died Sunday, March 26, in Los Angeles from complications
with AIDS.  With only his family at his bedside, he released a statement saying
that he had full-blown AIDS and warned others of the dangers of multiple sex
partners.  Yet another message to his always loyal fans.
	Months later, on the weekend that would have been his thirty-second
birthday, KKBT/The Beat canceled its regular Saturday and Sunday night
programming in order to broadcast a two-hour special on the life and times of
one of hip-hop's most influential figures.  Once again, Eazy's voice came to
life, as it always had on record, and as it always will to those who remember
the legacy of a man who refused to be broken.



















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eric EazyE Wrights.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
A Life Interrupted
By:  Taylor Evans
			
	Born September 7, 1963, Eric "Eazy-E" Wright's early reputation on the streets of Compton, California, was a hustler eager to apply his street knowledge to his legitimate game.  He dropped out of high school in the tenth grade, but refused that to interrupt his success.
	In the late `80's he turned to rap music.  Along with Ice Cube, Dr. Dre, DJ Yella, and M.C. Ren established the most successful and controversial rap group in history.  As N.W.A, they blasted police cruelty and challenged the establishment.  They eventually took their message of inner-city struggle to millions of fans worldwide.
	 As a soloist, Eazy's career was even more incredible.  He launched Compton/Ruthless Records in 1987 and by 1988 had two hit acts-JJ. Fad and Michel'le.   
During the summer of the same year, N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton LP frightened the media into labeling the group "gangsters".  This was a label the group wore and exploited with such force that by the time Eazy released his solo project Eazy-Duz-It that fall, the stage of musical funk and lyrical fight had long been set.
	"Boyz-N-The-Hood" , "We Want Eazy", "Eazy-Duz-It".  His voice fueled a legion of hits.  In the early `90's, he joined other West Coast rappers, including M.C. Hammer, Ice T, Tone-Loc, and Young MC, in a stop the violence campaign led by the single "We're All In The Same Gang".  With N.W.A, Eazy broke down all the doors of mass exposure previously closed to rap music.

	Attempts to rock the young musician's foundation were generally useless.  Arrests for performing N.W.A's biggest hit "F*** The Police", and other attempts at censorship only helped pave the way for his success.  By the time the group had released its last album, Efil4zaggin, in 1991, they had sold more than six million records.
	As a businessman, Eazy had built a solid commodity with his Ruthless Records label.  Some of his more famous signings were: Above The Law, Bone-Thugs-N-Harmony, and D.O.C.   His ability to promote and market these acts was on the strength of his radio show, "Ruthless Radio Show".   As an on-air personality, Eazy gave his audience tickets to his performances, talked to fans, and also became more famous with the young black Americans.
	Few really knew the man behind the scenes.  His charitable nature benefited such organizations as Athletes and Entertainers For Kids, United Colors, and the Make A Wish Foundation. 
	By the time he was thirty, Eazy had survived a swirl of controversy.  His "We Want Eazy" lyrics had come to life with everything from his age to his political devotion.  However, he continued to sell records to his million-plus fan base.  Even a conspiracy to assassinate him, left Eazy with only an even stronger urge to reunite the original members of N.W.A.  Unfortunately, part of that goal wasn't realized.
	Eric Wright died Sunday, March 26, in Los Angeles from complications with AIDS.  With only his family at his bedside, he released a statement saying that he had full-blown AIDS and warned others of the dangers of multiple sex partners.  Yet another message to his always loyal fans.
	Months later, on the weekend that would have been his thirty-second birthday, KKBT/The Beat canceled its regular Saturday and Sunday night programming in order to broadcast a two-hour special on the life and times of one of hip-hop's most influential figures.  Once again, Eazy's voice came to life, as it always had on record, and as it always will to those who remember the legacy of a man who refused to be broken.  
	
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ernest Hemingwa1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Hemingway was one of the greatest writers of the century. He was born at the close of the old century but was able to see the Disorders of the new century. Hemingway was marvelous in bringing about his pictorial effects for his readers even in his drunken state. Hemingway was skilled in the way he presented the "real" and "concrete" to be the first essentials in his writing. He put life back on the page so that we could see the grim reality of the truth. Hemingway's style brought minute details to the surface so that the readers would understand his meanings. In the stories that I have chosen the critics have analyzed the story. In this paper I intend to prove that Ernest Hemingways writing in "Soldiers Home" and "Hills Like White Elephants" influenced American writing styles through Symbols, Themes and writing techniques.
In several of Hemingway's short stories, he uses one or more animals as symbols around which the story revolves. As central symbols, Hemingway's animals are the manifestations of the psychological states and emotional desire of the main characters in the stories. He uses the symbols to enable the reader to comprehend the often not stated psychological forces that motivates them. Hemingway's use of symbolism is a contribution to the richness of his characters. It provides the reader with a vehicle through which they can associate. Without them the stories would lose much of their color and clarity. In the short story "Soldiers Home," Majorie Smelstor said " the title of this story suggests a familiar American landmark and symbol, The soldier's home, a place for retired military to live and relive their war experiences" In this tale, however, the soldier's home is neither a haven for ex-soldiers nor an environment for reminiscing" (MaGill 2170). Another symbol is the lies that Kerb lives with every day. Marjorie Smelstor said "For the townspeople do not want to hear the truth about the atrocities of battle, preferring, instead, lies about the heroics of war" (MaGill 2170). Marjorie Smelstor said In the end of the story "Mrs. Kerb's reasserts her maternal role, reminding her son that she held him next to her heart when he was a tiny baby, Reducing kerb's to the juvenile lie:" "I know, mummy... I'll try and be a good boy for you" (MaGill 2171). The other story that I have chosen is "Hills Like White Elephants" it has many different symbols that relate to peoples lives. Hal Hollady said "The name of the girl (Jig) is a symbolic name. "It is a name of a lively dance". "The name implies that she may change her mind about the abortion [at any time] (MaGill 1020). This story does not come out and tell you what is going on between the man and the woman. The symbols relate to what is happening. "One of the important symbols is the bamboo bead curtain [that hangs] across the doorway of the station bar room" (Gilmor 47 ). The curtain[according to the critics] represents the man's desire to maintain the status quo in their relationship. "The curtain represents their emotional separation as well, for they regard it differently as they do the more familiar symbol of the hills" (Organ 11). "Hills refer to the shape of the belly of a pregnant woman, and white elephant is an idiom that refers to useless or unwanted things" (Organ 11). Making more specific symbol of the bead curtain, Elliot thinks that when jig takes hold of the two strain's of beads they represent the rosary beads and her also being a catholic. When Jig plays with the beads the man thinks that she is playing with a child's toy, thus the curtain may symbolize the unborn child. "The abortion is not merely a perfectly natural or simple operation to her, it is a symbolic act. Jig thinks this will cut her off irrevocably from what is good and alive in the world (MaGill 1019). [Towards the end of the story] the landscape takes on a powerful [picture]. It describes where the couple waits for the train. "The country is "brown and dry". The girl feels that the dry is a representation to herself as the barren. On the other side of the tracks the fields are green with several trees (MaGill 1020). In these two stories Hemingway demonstrates how he uses the symbols to display the emotion of the characters. Hemingway's themes are the main plots of the stories that sometimes uneventful. It is not what does happen but what is not said that is important. In the "Soldiers Home" " The detached objective voice in this story is characteristic of Hemingway's work and serves to maintain a constant tension between narration and subject matter" (Wilson 205 ). "One of the stories central concern is described by a term that was once fashionable "the generation gap" (Wilson 205). "The gap is more like a chasm that separates the ex-marine from the town's people" (MaGill 2171). "Before the war, the conventional values of Kerb's hometown had been, for the most part, American values" (MaGill 2171). When the main character kerb came home from the war he is changed but the townspeople are not. "The conflict is between challenger and challenged. The tension between
Americans moving into the modern world and Americans protecting Victorians values" (MaGill 2173 ). It just happened that after World War 1. The soldiers were among the chief challengers. "Kerbs return from the war changed by his experiences, but the local citizenry is exactly what they were before the war, sure of themselves and their values" (Magill 2173). "Like Kerbs of "Soldiers Home" he will later retract his denial of love [but] is not truthful in his retraction (Magill 2173). In the main themes of "Hills like white Elephant" the story is mostly dialog and has very little action. The critic's describe this story like "A game of chess". "Hemingway's story deals with the sterility and vacuity of the modern world" (Halladay 1019). [This is] a masterfully compressed story of a couple's discussion concerning a man's proposal that the[ girl jig], summits to an abortion (Wilson 205). Hemingway's characters seem to live in a world without God, traditions or values. "He is quite literal minded, quite pragmatic, quite unemotional: an admirable fellow by modern patriarchal standards. The woman, on the other hand, is unreasonable enough to imagine that hills look like white elephants. "There might be some virtue to having a child who would surely be like a "white elephant, "a sacred beast in some cultures, but in America or Europe, something that is more trouble than it is worth" (MaGill 1020). The man well situated in his life and does not want to be bothered with more responsibility. "The boredom of the man and desperation of the girl reveal the emptiness of the postwar generation and the critical necessity of taking responsibility for the quality of one's life" (MaGill 1020). The girl jig, tries to talk to him about it but does not get the response she wants so she ends up not wanting to talk at all. Marjorie Smelstor said "She is tugging at the American's sympathy strings and playing him like a fiddle" (Gagne 2). In this story Jig is a tragic figure seemingly driven into a barren and empty existence by her love for this man. "Hemingway's brief and seemingly objective story is a powerful condemnation of the aimlessness, hypocrisy, moral and spiritual poverty of the modern world" (MaGill 1021). In the end the couple presumably board the train; she has the abortion; and their relationship continues its downward drift into a barren emptiness. Hemingway was a unique individual as a writer. He influenced many writers with the technique of his writing style. Young said "[Hemingway's] relationship between [his stories and] his own life is an immediate and intricate one (Marowski, Stine 5). Some stories appear to report details of actual experience as faithfully as he might have entered them in his diary. Young said, "In others the ploy of his imagination has transformed experiences into a new and different reality" (Marowski, Stine 5). This style is what made Hemingway different from the other writers. Paul Rosenfeld said, "In the story "Soldiers Home" this is one of Hemingway's form half left in limbo of the stencil. The happy relief to this and other stories that he left incomplete pieces (Guton 211). Hemingway's narrative technique, sentence structure, dialogue, and the use of several symbolism are imagery strategies that create a marriage between form and content in the story. "Horce P. Jones points out that Hemingway makes a couple of errs in the story" (Monteiro 50). " First it's clear that both errs were deliberate on Hemingway's part. It serves as suttle but telling tail to establish the cool detached irony he evidently wanted for ["Soldiers Home"](Horce 50). " It [is] unlikely that the editors missed Hemingway's err with the discrepancy of dates and months" (Monteiro 50). [One] err is when [Hemingway writes that] Soldier Kerbs returns home years later after the war was over. Kerbs missed out on the town celebrating the return of the soldiers. The other err Hemingway wrote was that Kerbs was a soldier who had enlisted in the marines in 1917, but the story refers to Kerbs as a soldier. "To refer to a marine in these terms is anathema" (Monteiro 51). The editor felt this was how Hemingway wanted the story to be with the errs so he left it the way it was. Marjorie Smelstor said "The sentence structure was suited to the message of restraint of the famous Hemingway code of "grace under pressure" (Gagne 2171). The context in which the details are presented makes this apparent. It guides the reader to clearly ironic tone [this] controls [the readers] interpretation of [the] facts as presented" (Monteiro 50). "In style and technique of "Hills Like White Elephants" is a quintessential early Hemingway story, the use of the language of speech as the basis for the story, the insistence on the presentation rather than contrary the condensation and the intensity are all basic elements of his theory of fiction" (MaGill 198). "Hemingways technique plays an important role in this story. The use of clear and economical style to reveal a relationship which is troubled and complex is ironic (MaGill 198). The story is carefully written. Through out the reader will understand the relationship between the American and the girl. " The language is simple and even colloquial, this expresses feelings" (Gagne 3). The story starts out with Spanish as the language so you would think of the setting of Mexico or Spain. "Hemingway uses the language so it would not be a mistake or inconceivable" (Gagne 3). In using this technique he is able to keep you in suspense of the story, but also have you understand his way of writing. Hemingway [uses a single word, "anise" to] reveal his greatness as a writer to the "unerring details" conveyed. ["The word "anise"] portrays the conflict and strain in communication between the girl and the [American] as they discuss whether or not to abort the embryo" ( Passey 32). "Anise" is a cleansing drink. It has a seed that aids in expelling gas from the alimentary canal to relieve colic. Colic is a paroxysm of abdominal pain localized in a hollow organ. The American orders this drink for him and the girl. "This clearly shows you that the conflict and lack of communication between the two of them" (Passey 33). The answer is still unresolved and the girl must choose between the man and the baby. At the end of the story the reader is not sure of the girl's decision. Hemingway left the end of the story unresolved. In his life time Ernest Hemingway enjoyed tremendous success as a writer. His ability to describe a story in detail was his best talent. On the two stories, Ernest showed his unique ability of story telling. Hemingway was very clever in using Symbols to bring his characters to life. Hemingway wrote many of war stories but was never a soldier. He just had the talent of looking at life and writing it down in a symbolic way. Most all the critics come up with the conclusion that Hemingway was truly talented. He influenced other American writers with his style, symbols, themes and technique.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ernest Hemingway 4.TXT
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Ernest Hemingway 
 
 
 
Chris Ivie  
American Literature 
Dr. Breeden 
10/2/96 


 
	Many of Ernest Hemingway's books have had different meaning and all could be interpreted in 
different way, but there has never been so much written about his other stories. Well the Old Man and the 
Sea had more written about it than any of his other novels and there have never been so many different 
types of interpretations about his other novels.  The Old Man and the Sea is a book in which can be 
interpreted in many different ways.  Here you will read what many critics have composed about the story 
of a great writer, Ernest Hemingway.  Many of the critics have the same outlook on the works of  
Hemingway.  Hemingway's work The Old man and the Sea can be looked at in many different 
perspectives.  All the critics believed that his styling of writing was very defined.    
 
	In 1944 Ernest Hemingway went to Havana, Cuba and it was there he wrote  a letter to Maxwell 
Perkins which states he has a idea on a new novel called The Old Man and the Sea ( Nelson and Jones 
139). Hemingway first got his idea for The Old Man and the Sea  from the stories that he had heard in the 
small fish cities in Cuba by a man named Carlos Gutierrez.  He had known of this man for about twenty 
years and the stories of the fighting marlins. It was then that he imagined that man under the two 
circumstances and came up with the idea.  After about twenty years of pondering on the story , he decided 
that he would start on the novel of The Old Man and the Sea.  The story The Old Man and the Sea is 
about a old man named Santiago who has to over come the great forces of nature.  Things seem to always 
go wrong for him because originally he started out going to fish for some dinner, then he caught the 
biggest marlin ever and it pulled him out in the bay of Cuba even more then he was.  After he was pulled 
out, he hurt his hands and couldn't risk going to sleep because of the risk of sharks. When the sharks 
finally attacked he lost the marlin which had become a great part of him because he knew that no one 
would believe him when he told them the size of the marlin. This has to be one of the most memorable 
fights in a novel that I have ever seen, but I think that the way he put the novel together was just as good 
as that of the fight. 
 
	When he put them together it was then that he relized that what he was actually writing about 
was a struggle of man vs. nature.  He liked the idea of man vs. nature and decided to use it in the struggle 
scene with the marlin.  Magill wrote," the book can be seen as a fable of the unconquerable spirit of man, 
a creature capable of snatching  spiritual victories from the circumstances of disaster and material defeat" 
(Magill  4325). Also it is said," the conflict is of  the strength of a ordinary man and the power of 
nature"(Magill 4325).  I feel that Santiago plays a large role in the novel by being able not to give in and 
prove to the element of nature that he would over come them in the long run.  
 
	 Magill  wrote," The Old Man and the Sea is a direct descendant of Moby Dick"(Magill 4326).  
He feels that  the struggle between Santiago and the marlin is very much like that of the whale and the 
captain in Moby Dick. The similarities between The Old Man and the Sea  and Moby Dick are extremely 
noticeable after reading both of the stories back to back, but there are differences in the story line. The 
main difference is that Santiago never comes out with anything unlike the captain in Moby Dick.  
Santiago was left with just a broken boat, a bad fishing pole, and the misery of defeat.   
	 
	The story could also be interpreted as being religious because of the struggle that Santiago was 
put though. Also it is felt by some people to be religious because of the way he only cut his palms( from 
the rope), his feet( on the front of the boat) and his head(when the bow hit him in the head). It is often 
portrayed as that of Jesus on the cross.  I don't know if I really agree with this interpretation of it being 
religious.  The reason I don't agree with this is because if everytime someone got cut on the hands and feet 
in a movie or book  then I guess that they too resemble that of Jesus on the cross. 
 
	This story has many different interpretations to it, but would the interpretations be if the story 
contained everyone from the village in it and sowed how the were raised, born, educated, and bore 
children. This story could have been well over a thousand pages if the above were included (Plimpton 
125). The big question that I ask is though,  if all the above were included in the novel,  how different do 
you think that the interpretation would be?  I feel that the interpretations would be so very different 
because the whole story be circled around that of the battle between Santiago and the marlin.  Also, I 
believe that the religious interpretations would be not as strong because of dealing more with the life of 
the city people and that of Santiago. 
	  
	Hemingway is a writer who creates things out of his head. If he wasn't a genius then how come 
did he win a Pulitzer Pride for the story The Old Man and the Sea Hemingway states," I knew two or three 
things about the situation, but I didn't know the story" " I didn't even know if that big fish was going to 
bite for the old man when it started smelling around the bait. I had to write on inventing out of 
knowledge.  You reject everything that is not or can't be completely true."(Bruccoli 179)  I think that 
Hemingway is a genius for writing this novel because in my point of view it shows the battle between 
human and nature and that really caught my attention rereading this novel for the third time.  I also 
caught the moral of the story in my point of view, and that is not everything good that you have is always 
going to be there. To me that means alot because that moral also refers alot about your family as well as 
friends. 
 
	Hemingway is looked upon as one of the greatest writers to ever set foot on this earth in the 
twentieth century.  He is a writer who is know for leaving very little left unsaid or leave you wondering, 
for example, what's going to happen, is he gonna die or not.  As you could see in this novel he got to the 
point in a direct manner without leaving anything unsaid and he definitely didn't leave you thinking about 
if Santiago was going to live or not.  
 
	Many people do not like the writings of Ernest Hemingway because they feel most everything 
that he writes about is unhappy or make believe. Fredrick Busch said at one point in time ," He didn't 
want to read that of which was unhappy or make believe" referring to Hemingway's work  (Bryfonski  
130).  Many have said to believe that The Old Man and the Sea  
was written about the life of Ernest Hemingway, which in reality it was written about a Cuban by the 
name of Carlos Gutierrez.  However some of the parts in this story do relate to things Hemingway has 
experienced.   
 
	In conclusion,  The Old Man and the Sea can be interpreted in many different forms, but I think 
it isn't how you interpret it.  Don't get me wrong some people like to read to see how many ways you can 
interpret it but ,  you should read a novel to learn from others mistakes and also for the pleasure of 
expanding you knowledge American and English literature.  I could name many different books in which 
I have read that have actually left a impact on my life in some sort or another.   
	 


 
	Bibliographies 
Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway.  
	Mississippi: UP Mississippi, 1986 
 
Bryfonski, Dedria. Contemporary Authors. Michigan: Bok Towers,1984 
 
Magill,Frank M. Masterplots. 8 vols., New Jersey: Salem Press,1976 
 
Nelson, Gerald B., and Glory Jones.  
	Hemingway: Life and Works. New York: Facts on File 	Publications,1984 
 
Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Five Decades of Criticism .  
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1974 
 
Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Six Decades of Criticism. 
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1982 
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ernest Hemingway.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Ernest Hemingway 
 
 
 
Chris Ivie  
American Literature 
Dr. Breeden 
10/2/96 


 
	Many of Ernest Hemingway's books have had different meaning and all could be interpreted in 
different way, but there has never been so much written about his other stories. Well the Old Man and the 
Sea had more written about it than any of his other novels and there have never been so many different 
types of interpretations about his other novels.  The Old Man and the Sea is a book in which can be 
interpreted in many different ways.  Here you will read what many critics have composed about the story 
of a great writer, Ernest Hemingway.  Many of the critics have the same outlook on the works of  
Hemingway.  Hemingway's work The Old man and the Sea can be looked at in many different 
perspectives.  All the critics believed that his styling of writing was very defined.    
 
	In 1944 Ernest Hemingway went to Havana, Cuba and it was there he wrote  a letter to Maxwell 
Perkins which states he has a idea on a new novel called The Old Man and the Sea ( Nelson and Jones 
139). Hemingway first got his idea for The Old Man and the Sea  from the stories that he had heard in the 
small fish cities in Cuba by a man named Carlos Gutierrez.  He had known of this man for about twenty 
years and the stories of the fighting marlins. It was then that he imagined that man under the two 
circumstances and came up with the idea.  After about twenty years of pondering on the story , he decided 
that he would start on the novel of The Old Man and the Sea.  The story The Old Man and the Sea is 
about a old man named Santiago who has to over come the great forces of nature.  Things seem to always 
go wrong for him because originally he started out going to fish for some dinner, then he caught the 
biggest marlin ever and it pulled him out in the bay of Cuba even more then he was.  After he was pulled 
out, he hurt his hands and couldn't risk going to sleep because of the risk of sharks. When the sharks 
finally attacked he lost the marlin which had become a great part of him because he knew that no one 
would believe him when he told them the size of the marlin. This has to be one of the most memorable 
fights in a novel that I have ever seen, but I think that the way he put the novel together was just as good 
as that of the fight. 
 
	When he put them together it was then that he relized that what he was actually writing about 
was a struggle of man vs. nature.  He liked the idea of man vs. nature and decided to use it in the struggle 
scene with the marlin.  Magill wrote," the book can be seen as a fable of the unconquerable spirit of man, 
a creature capable of snatching  spiritual victories from the circumstances of disaster and material defeat" 
(Magill  4325). Also it is said," the conflict is of  the strength of a ordinary man and the power of 
nature"(Magill 4325).  I feel that Santiago plays a large role in the novel by being able not to give in and 
prove to the element of nature that he would over come them in the long run.  
 
	 Magill  wrote," The Old Man and the Sea is a direct descendant of Moby Dick"(Magill 4326).  
He feels that  the struggle between Santiago and the marlin is very much like that of the whale and the 
captain in Moby Dick. The similarities between The Old Man and the Sea  and Moby Dick are extremely 
noticeable after reading both of the stories back to back, but there are differences in the story line. The 
main difference is that Santiago never comes out with anything unlike the captain in Moby Dick.  
Santiago was left with just a broken boat, a bad fishing pole, and the misery of defeat.   
	 
	The story could also be interpreted as being religious because of the struggle that Santiago was 
put though. Also it is felt by some people to be religious because of the way he only cut his palms( from 
the rope), his feet( on the front of the boat) and his head(when the bow hit him in the head). It is often 
portrayed as that of Jesus on the cross.  I don't know if I really agree with this interpretation of it being 
religious.  The reason I don't agree with this is because if everytime someone got cut on the hands and feet 
in a movie or book  then I guess that they too resemble that of Jesus on the cross. 
 
	This story has many different interpretations to it, but would the interpretations be if the story 
contained everyone from the village in it and sowed how the were raised, born, educated, and bore 
children. This story could have been well over a thousand pages if the above were included (Plimpton 
125). The big question that I ask is though,  if all the above were included in the novel,  how different do 
you think that the interpretation would be?  I feel that the interpretations would be so very different 
because the whole story be circled around that of the battle between Santiago and the marlin.  Also, I 
believe that the religious interpretations would be not as strong because of dealing more with the life of 
the city people and that of Santiago. 
	  
	Hemingway is a writer who creates things out of his head. If he wasn't a genius then how come 
did he win a Pulitzer Pride for the story The Old Man and the Sea Hemingway states," I knew two or three 
things about the situation, but I didn't know the story" " I didn't even know if that big fish was going to 
bite for the old man when it started smelling around the bait. I had to write on inventing out of 
knowledge.  You reject everything that is not or can't be completely true."(Bruccoli 179)  I think that 
Hemingway is a genius for writing this novel because in my point of view it shows the battle between 
human and nature and that really caught my attention rereading this novel for the third time.  I also 
caught the moral of the story in my point of view, and that is not everything good that you have is always 
going to be there. To me that means alot because that moral also refers alot about your family as well as 
friends. 
 
	Hemingway is looked upon as one of the greatest writers to ever set foot on this earth in the 
twentieth century.  He is a writer who is know for leaving very little left unsaid or leave you wondering, 
for example, what's going to happen, is he gonna die or not.  As you could see in this novel he got to the 
point in a direct manner without leaving anything unsaid and he definitely didn't leave you thinking about 
if Santiago was going to live or not.  
 
	Many people do not like the writings of Ernest Hemingway because they feel most everything 
that he writes about is unhappy or make believe. Fredrick Busch said at one point in time ," He didn't 
want to read that of which was unhappy or make believe" referring to Hemingway's work  (Bryfonski  
130).  Many have said to believe that The Old Man and the Sea  
was written about the life of Ernest Hemingway, which in reality it was written about a Cuban by the 
name of Carlos Gutierrez.  However some of the parts in this story do relate to things Hemingway has 
experienced.   
 
	In conclusion,  The Old Man and the Sea can be interpreted in many different forms, but I think 
it isn't how you interpret it.  Don't get me wrong some people like to read to see how many ways you can 
interpret it but ,  you should read a novel to learn from others mistakes and also for the pleasure of 
expanding you knowledge American and English literature.  I could name many different books in which 
I have read that have actually left a impact on my life in some sort or another.   
	 


 
	Bibliographies 
Bruccoli, Matthew J. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway.  
	Mississippi: UP Mississippi, 1986 
 
Bryfonski, Dedria. Contemporary Authors. Michigan: Bok Towers,1984 
 
Magill,Frank M. Masterplots. 8 vols., New Jersey: Salem Press,1976 
 
Nelson, Gerald B., and Glory Jones.  
	Hemingway: Life and Works. New York: Facts on File 	Publications,1984 
 
Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Five Decades of Criticism .  
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1974 
 
Wagner, Linda W. Ernest Hemingway, Six Decades of Criticism. 
	Michigan: Michigan State UP, 1982 
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ernest Miller Hemingway 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++




	Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak 
Park, Illinois.  His father was the owner of a prosperous real 
estate business.  His father, Dr. Hemingway, imparted to Ernest the 
importance of appearances, especially in public.  Dr. Hemingway 
invented surgical forceps for which he would not accept money.  He 
believed that one should not profit from something important for 
the good of mankind.  Ernest's father, a man of high ideals, was 
very strict and censored the books he allowed his children to read. 
He forbad Ernest's sister from studying ballet for it was 
coeducational, and dancing together led to "hell and damnation". 
	Grace Hall Hemingway, Ernest's mother, considered herself pure 
and proper.  She was a dreamer who was upset at anything which 
disturbed her perception of the world as beautiful.  She hated 
dirty diapers, upset stomachs, and cleaning house; they were not 
fit for a lady.  She taught her children to always act with 
decorum.  She adored the singing of the birds and the smell of 
flowers.  Her children were expected to behave properly and to 
please her, always.
	Mrs. Hemingway treated Ernest, when he was a small boy, as if 
he were a female baby doll and she dressed him accordingly.  This 
arrangement was alright until Ernest got to the age when he wanted 
to be a "gun-toting Pawnee Bill".  He began, at that time, to pull 
away from his mother, and never forgave her for his humiliation. 
	The town of Oak Park, where Ernest grew up, was very old 
fashioned and quite religious.  The townspeople forbad the word 
"virgin" from appearing in school books, and the word "breast" was 
questioned, though it appeared in the Bible. 
	Ernest loved to fish, canoe and explore the woods.  When he 
couldn't get outside, he escaped to his room and read books.  He 
loved to tell stories to his classmates, often insisting that a 
friend listen to one of his stories.  In spite of his mother's 
desire, he played on the football team at Oak Park High School.
	As a student, Ernest was a perfectionist about his grammar and 
studied English with a fervor.  He contributed articles to the 
weekly school newspaper.  It seems that the principal did not 
approve of Ernest's writings and he complained, often, about the 
content of Ernest's articles. 
	Ernest was clear about his writing; he wanted people to "see 
and feel" and he wanted to enjoy himself while writing.  Ernest 
loved having fun.  If nothing was happening, mischievous Ernest 
made something happen.  He would sometimes use forbidden words just 
to create a ruckus.  Ernest, though wild and crazy, was a warm, 
caring individual.  He loved the sea, mountains and the stars and 
hated anyone who he saw as a phoney.   
	During World War I, Ernest, rejected from service because of a 
bad left eye, was an ambulance driver, in Italy, for the Red 
Cross.    Very much like the hero of A Farewell to Arms, Ernest is 
shot in his knee and recuperates in a hospital, tended by a caring 
nurse named Agnes.  Like Frederick Henry, in the book, he fell in 
love with the nurse and was given a medal for his heroism.
	Ernest returned home after the war, rejected by the nurse with 
whom he fell in love.  He would party late into the night and 
invite, to his house, people his parents disapproved of.  Ernest's 
mother rejected him and he felt that he had to move from home. 

	He moved in with a friend living in Chicago and he wrote 
articles for The Toronto Star.  In Chicago he met and then married 
Hadley Richardson.  She believed that he should spend all his time 
in writing, and bought him a typewriter for his birthday.  They 
decided that the best place for a writer to live was Paris, where 
he could devote himself to his writing.  He said, at the time, that 
the most difficult thing to write about was being a man.  They 
could not live on income from his stories and so Ernest, again, 
wrote for The Toronto Star. 
	Ernest took Hadley to Italy to show her where he had been 
during the war.  He was devastated, everything had changed, 
everything was destroyed.   
	Hadley became pregnant and was sick all the time.  She and 
Ernest decided to move to Canada.  He had, by then written three 
stories and ten poems.  Hadley gave birth to a boy who they named 
John Hadley Nicano Hemingway.  Even though he had his family Ernest 
was unhappy and decided to return to Paris.  It was in Paris that 
Ernest got word that a publisher wanted to print his book, In Our 
Time, but with some changes.  The publisher felt that the sex was 
to blatant, but Ernest refused to change one word. 
	Around 1925, Ernest started writing a novel about a young man 
in World War I, but had to stop after a few pages, and proceeded to 
write another novel, instead.  This novel was based on his 
experiences while living in Pamplona, Spain.   He planned on 
calling this book Fiesta, but changed the name to The Sun Also 
Rises, a saying from the Bible.  This book, as in his other books, 
shows Hemingway obsessed with death. 
	In 1927, Ernest found himself unhappy with his wife and son.  
They decided to divorce and he married Pauline, a woman he had been 
involved with while he was married to Hadley.  A year later, Ernest 
was able to complete his war novel which he called A Farewell to 
Arms.  The novel was about the pain of war, of finding love in this 
time of pain.  It portrayed the battles, the retreats, the fears, 
the gore and the terrible waste of war. 
	This novel was well-received by his publisher, Max Perkins,but 
Ernest had to substitute dashes for the "dirty" language.  Ernest 
used his life when he wrote; using everything he did and everything 
that ever happened to him.  He nevertheless remained a private 
person; wanting his stories to be read but wanting to be left 
alone.  He once said, "Don't look at me.  Look at my words."  A 
common theme throughout Hemingway's stories is that no matter how 
hard we fight to live, we end up defeated, but we are here and we 
must go on.   
	At age 31 he wrote Death in the Afternoon, about bullfighting 
in his beloved Spain.  Ernest was a restless man; he traveled all 
over the United States, Europe, Cuba and Africa.  At the age of 37 
Ernest met the woman who would be his third wife; Martha Gellhorn, 
a writer like himself.  He went to Spain, he said, to become an 
"antiwar correspondent", and found that war was like a club where 
everyone was playing the same game, and he was never lonely.  
Martha went to Spain as a war correspondent and they lived 
together.  He knew that he was hurting Pauline, but like his need 
to travel and have new experiences, he could not stop himself from 
getting involved with women.  
	In 1940 he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls and dedicated it to 
Martha, whom he married at the end of that year.   He found 
himself traveling between Havana, Cuba and Ketchum, Idaho, which he 
did for the rest of his life.  During World War II, Ernest became a 
secret agent for the United States.  He suggested that he use his 
boat, the "Pillar", to surprise German submarines and attack them 
with hidden machine guns.  It was at this time that Ernest, always 
a  drinker, started drinking most of his days away.  He would host 
wild, fancy parties and did not write at all during the next three 
years.
	At war's end, Ernest went to England and met an American 
foreign correspondent named Mary Welsh.  He divorced Martha and 
married Mary in Havana, in 1946.  Ernest was a man of extremes; 
living either in luxury or happy to do without material things.  
Ernest, always haunted by memories of his mother, would not go to 
her funeral when she died in 1951.  He admitted that he hated his 
mother's guts. 
	Ernest wrote The Old Man and the Sea in only two months.  He 
was on top of the world, the book was printed by Life Magazine and 
thousands of copies were sold in the United States.  This novel and 
A Farewell to Arms were both made into movies. 
	In 1953 he went on a safari with Mary, and he was in heaven 
hunting big game.   Though Ernest had a serious accident, and later 
became ill, he could never admit that he had any weaknesses; 
nothing would stop him, certainly not pain.  In 1954 he won the 
Nobel Prize for Literature.  Toward the end, Ernest started to 
travel again, but almost the way that someone does who knows that 
he will soon die.  He suddenly started becoming paranoid and to 
forget things.  He became obsessed with sin; his upbringing was 
showing, but still was inconsistent in his behavior.  He never got 
over feeling like a bad person, as his father, mother and 
grandfather had taught him.  In the last year of his life, he lived 
inside of his dreams, similar to his mother, who he hated with all 
his heart.  He was suicidal and had electric shock treatments for 
his depression and strange behavior. 
	On a Sunday morning, July 2, 1961, Ernest Miller Hemingway 
killed himself with a shotgun. 
	


	Ernest Hemingway takes much of the storyline of his novel, A 
Farewell to Arms, from his personal experiences.  The main 
character of the book, Frederick Henry, often referred to as 
Tenete, experiences many of the same situations which Hemingway, 
himself, lived.  Some of these similarities are exact while some 
are less similar, and some events have a completely different 
outcome.
	Hemingway, like Henry, enjoyed drinking large amounts of 
alcohol.  Both of them were involved in World War I, in a medical 
capacity, but neither of them were regular army personnel.  Like 
Hemingway, Henry was shot in his right knee, during a battle.
	Both men were Americans, but a difference worth noting was 
that Hemingway was a driver for the American Red Cross, while Henry 
was a medic for the Italian Army.  In real life, Hemingway met his 
love, Agnes, a nurse, in the hospital after being shot; Henry met 
his love, Catherine Barkley, also a nurse, before he was shot and 
hospitalized.   In both cases, the relationships with these women 
were strengthened while the men were hospitalized.  Another 
difference is that Hemingway's romance was short-lived, while, the 
book seemed to indicate that, Henry's romance, though they never 
married, was strong and would have lasted.  In A Farewell to Arms, 
Catherine and her child died while she was giving birth, this was 
not the case with Agnes who left Henry for an Italian Army officer. 
	It seems to me that the differences between the two men were 
only surface differences.  They allowed Hemingway to call the novel 
a work of fiction.  Had he written an autobiography the book would 
probably not have been well-received because Hemingway was not, at 
that time, a well known author.  Although Hemingway denied critics' 
views that A Farewell to Arms was symbolic, had he not made any 
changes they would not have been as impressed with the war 
atmosphere and with the naivete of a young man who experiences war 
for the first time.  Hemingway, because he was so private, probably 
did not want to expose his life to everyone, and so the slight 
changes would prove that it was not himself and his own experiences 
which he was writing about.
	I believe that Hemingway had Catherine and her child die, not 
to look different from his own life, but because he had a sick and 
morbid personality.  There is great power in being an author, you 
can make things happen which do not necessarily occur in real life. 
 It is obvious that Hemingway felt, as a young child and throughout 
his life, powerless, and so he created lives by writing stories.  
Hemingway acted out his feelings of inadequacy and powerlessness by 
hunting, drinking, spending lots of money and having many 
girlfriends.
	I think that Hemingway was obsessed with death and not too 
sane.  His obsession shows itself in the morbid death of Miss 
Barkley and her child.  Hemingway was probably very confused about 
religion and sin and somehow felt or feared that people would or 
should be punished for enjoying life's pleasures.
	Probably, the strongest reason for writing about Catherine 
Barkley's death and the death of her child was Hemingway's belief 
that death comes to everyone; it was inevitable.  Death ends life 
before you have a chance to learn and live.  He writes, in A 
Farewell to Arms, "They threw you in and told you the rules and the 
first time they caught you off base they killed you.  ... they 
killed you in the end.  You could count on that.  Stay around and 
they would kill you."
	Hemingway, even in high school, wrote stories which showed 
that people should expect the unexpected.  His stories offended and 
angered the principal of his school.  I think that Hemingway liked 
shocking and annoying people; he was certainly rebellious.  If he 
would have written an ending where Miss Barkley and her child had 
lived, it would have been too easy and common; Hemingway was 
certainly not like everyone else, and he seemed to be proud of that 
fact.  Even the fact that Hemingway wrote curses and had a lot of 
sex in his books shows that he liked to shock people.  When his 
publisher asked that he change some words and make his books more 
acceptable to people, Hemingway refused, then was forced to 
compromise.
	I think that the major difference between Hemingway and Henry 
was that Henry was a likable and normal person while Hemingway was 
strange and very difficult.  Hemingway liked doing things his way 
and either people had to accept him the way he was or too bad for 
them.  I think that Hemingway probably did not even like himself 
and that was one reason that he couldn't really like other people. 
 Hemingway seemed to use people only for his own pleasure, and 
maybe he wanted to think that he was like Henry who was a nicer 
person.


	In the book, Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Farewell 
to Arms, Malcolm Cowley focuses on the symbolism of rain.  He sees 
rain, a frequent occurrence in the book, as symbolizing disaster.  
He points out that, at the beginning of A Farewell to Arms, Henry 
talks about how "things went very badly" and how this is connected 
to "At the start of the winter came permanent rain".
	Later on in the book we see Miss Barkley afraid of rain.  She 
says, "Sometimes I see me dead in it", referring to the rain.  It 
is raining the entire time Miss Barkley is in childbirth and when 
both she and her baby die. 
	Wyndham Lewis, in the same book of critical essays, points out 
that Hemingway is obsessed with war, the setting for much of A 
Farewell to Arms.  He feels that the author sees war as an 
alternative to baseball, a sport of kings.  He says that the war 
years "were a democratic, a levelling, school".  For Hemingway, 
raised in a strict home environment, war is a release; an 
opportunity to show that he is a real man. 
	The essayist, Edgar Johnson says that for the loner "it is 
society as a whole that is rejected, social responsibility, social 
concern" abandoned.  Lieutenant Henry, like Hemingway, leads a 
private life as an isolated individual.  He socializes with the 
officers, talks with the priest and visits the officer's brothel, 
but those relationships are superficial.  This avoidance of real 
relationships and involvement do not show an insensitive person, 
but rather someone who is protecting himself from getting involved 
and hurt.  It is clear that in all of Hemingway's books and from 
his own life that he sees the world as his enemy.  Johnson says, 
"He will solve the problem of dealing with the world by taking 
refuge in individualism and isolated personal relationships and 
sensations". 
	John Killinger says that it was inevitable that Catherine and 
her baby would die.  The theme, that a person is trapped in 
relationships, is shown in all Hemingway's stories.  In A Farewell 
to Arms Catherine asks Henry if he feels trapped, now that she is 
pregnant.  He admits that he does, "maybe a little".  This idea, 
points out Killinger, is ingrained in Hemingway's thinking and that 
he was not too happy about fatherhood.  In Cross Country Snow, Nick 
regrets that he has to give up skiing in the Alps with a male 
friend to return to his wife who is having a baby.  In Hemingway's 
story Hills Like White Elephants the man wants his sweetheart to 
have an abortion so that they can continue as they once lived.  In 
To Have and Have Not, Richard Gordon took his wife to "that dirty 
aborting horror".  Catherine's death, in A Farewell to Arms, saves 
the author's hero from the hell of a complicated life. 


	ENDNOTES						
				


		


 . Peter Buckley, Ernest, The Dial Press: 1978, p.96
 . Peter Buckley, p.97
 . Peter Buckley, p.98
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.112
 . Peter Buckley, p.114
 . Peter Buckley, p.117
 . Peter Buckley, p.123
 . Peter Buckley, p.127
 . Peter Buckley, p.129
 . Peter Buckley, p.135
 . Peter Buckley, p.138
 . Peter Buckley, p.144
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.154
 . Peter Buckley, p.160
 .  Malcolm Cowley, "Rain as Disaster", Twentieth Century         
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, 
Inc.:1970, pp.54-55 
 .  Wyndham Lewis, "The Dumb Ox in Love and War", Twentieth 
Century Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, 
Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970, p.76
 .  Edgar Johnson, "Farewell the Separate Peace", Twentieth 
Century Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, 
Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970, pp.112-113
 .  John Killinger, "The Existential Hero", Twentieth Century 
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, 
Inc.:1970, pp.103-105
 



 

 





















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ernest Miller Hemingway.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++




	Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak 
Park, Illinois.  His father was the owner of a prosperous real 
estate business.  His father, Dr. Hemingway, imparted to Ernest the 
importance of appearances, especially in public.  Dr. Hemingway 
invented surgical forceps for which he would not accept money.  He 
believed that one should not profit from something important for 
the good of mankind.  Ernest's father, a man of high ideals, was 
very strict and censored the books he allowed his children to read. 
He forbad Ernest's sister from studying ballet for it was 
coeducational, and dancing together led to "hell and damnation". 
	Grace Hall Hemingway, Ernest's mother, considered herself pure 
and proper.  She was a dreamer who was upset at anything which 
disturbed her perception of the world as beautiful.  She hated 
dirty diapers, upset stomachs, and cleaning house; they were not 
fit for a lady.  She taught her children to always act with 
decorum.  She adored the singing of the birds and the smell of 
flowers.  Her children were expected to behave properly and to 
please her, always.
	Mrs. Hemingway treated Ernest, when he was a small boy, as if 
he were a female baby doll and she dressed him accordingly.  This 
arrangement was alright until Ernest got to the age when he wanted 
to be a "gun-toting Pawnee Bill".  He began, at that time, to pull 
away from his mother, and never forgave her for his humiliation. 
	The town of Oak Park, where Ernest grew up, was very old 
fashioned and quite religious.  The townspeople forbad the word 
"virgin" from appearing in school books, and the word "breast" was 
questioned, though it appeared in the Bible. 
	Ernest loved to fish, canoe and explore the woods.  When he 
couldn't get outside, he escaped to his room and read books.  He 
loved to tell stories to his classmates, often insisting that a 
friend listen to one of his stories.  In spite of his mother's 
desire, he played on the football team at Oak Park High School.
	As a student, Ernest was a perfectionist about his grammar and 
studied English with a fervor.  He contributed articles to the 
weekly school newspaper.  It seems that the principal did not 
approve of Ernest's writings and he complained, often, about the 
content of Ernest's articles. 
	Ernest was clear about his writing; he wanted people to "see 
and feel" and he wanted to enjoy himself while writing.  Ernest 
loved having fun.  If nothing was happening, mischievous Ernest 
made something happen.  He would sometimes use forbidden words just 
to create a ruckus.  Ernest, though wild and crazy, was a warm, 
caring individual.  He loved the sea, mountains and the stars and 
hated anyone who he saw as a phoney.   
	During World War I, Ernest, rejected from service because of a 
bad left eye, was an ambulance driver, in Italy, for the Red 
Cross.    Very much like the hero of A Farewell to Arms, Ernest is 
shot in his knee and recuperates in a hospital, tended by a caring 
nurse named Agnes.  Like Frederick Henry, in the book, he fell in 
love with the nurse and was given a medal for his heroism.
	Ernest returned home after the war, rejected by the nurse with 
whom he fell in love.  He would party late into the night and 
invite, to his house, people his parents disapproved of.  Ernest's 
mother rejected him and he felt that he had to move from home. 

	He moved in with a friend living in Chicago and he wrote 
articles for The Toronto Star.  In Chicago he met and then married 
Hadley Richardson.  She believed that he should spend all his time 
in writing, and bought him a typewriter for his birthday.  They 
decided that the best place for a writer to live was Paris, where 
he could devote himself to his writing.  He said, at the time, that 
the most difficult thing to write about was being a man.  They 
could not live on income from his stories and so Ernest, again, 
wrote for The Toronto Star. 
	Ernest took Hadley to Italy to show her where he had been 
during the war.  He was devastated, everything had changed, 
everything was destroyed.   
	Hadley became pregnant and was sick all the time.  She and 
Ernest decided to move to Canada.  He had, by then written three 
stories and ten poems.  Hadley gave birth to a boy who they named 
John Hadley Nicano Hemingway.  Even though he had his family Ernest 
was unhappy and decided to return to Paris.  It was in Paris that 
Ernest got word that a publisher wanted to print his book, In Our 
Time, but with some changes.  The publisher felt that the sex was 
to blatant, but Ernest refused to change one word. 
	Around 1925, Ernest started writing a novel about a young man 
in World War I, but had to stop after a few pages, and proceeded to 
write another novel, instead.  This novel was based on his 
experiences while living in Pamplona, Spain.   He planned on 
calling this book Fiesta, but changed the name to The Sun Also 
Rises, a saying from the Bible.  This book, as in his other books, 
shows Hemingway obsessed with death. 
	In 1927, Ernest found himself unhappy with his wife and son.  
They decided to divorce and he married Pauline, a woman he had been 
involved with while he was married to Hadley.  A year later, Ernest 
was able to complete his war novel which he called A Farewell to 
Arms.  The novel was about the pain of war, of finding love in this 
time of pain.  It portrayed the battles, the retreats, the fears, 
the gore and the terrible waste of war. 
	This novel was well-received by his publisher, Max Perkins,but 
Ernest had to substitute dashes for the "dirty" language.  Ernest 
used his life when he wrote; using everything he did and everything 
that ever happened to him.  He nevertheless remained a private 
person; wanting his stories to be read but wanting to be left 
alone.  He once said, "Don't look at me.  Look at my words."  A 
common theme throughout Hemingway's stories is that no matter how 
hard we fight to live, we end up defeated, but we are here and we 
must go on.   
	At age 31 he wrote Death in the Afternoon, about bullfighting 
in his beloved Spain.  Ernest was a restless man; he traveled all 
over the United States, Europe, Cuba and Africa.  At the age of 37 
Ernest met the woman who would be his third wife; Martha Gellhorn, 
a writer like himself.  He went to Spain, he said, to become an 
"antiwar correspondent", and found that war was like a club where 
everyone was playing the same game, and he was never lonely.  
Martha went to Spain as a war correspondent and they lived 
together.  He knew that he was hurting Pauline, but like his need 
to travel and have new experiences, he could not stop himself from 
getting involved with women.  
	In 1940 he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls and dedicated it to 
Martha, whom he married at the end of that year.   He found 
himself traveling between Havana, Cuba and Ketchum, Idaho, which he 
did for the rest of his life.  During World War II, Ernest became a 
secret agent for the United States.  He suggested that he use his 
boat, the "Pillar", to surprise German submarines and attack them 
with hidden machine guns.  It was at this time that Ernest, always 
a  drinker, started drinking most of his days away.  He would host 
wild, fancy parties and did not write at all during the next three 
years.
	At war's end, Ernest went to England and met an American 
foreign correspondent named Mary Welsh.  He divorced Martha and 
married Mary in Havana, in 1946.  Ernest was a man of extremes; 
living either in luxury or happy to do without material things.  
Ernest, always haunted by memories of his mother, would not go to 
her funeral when she died in 1951.  He admitted that he hated his 
mother's guts. 
	Ernest wrote The Old Man and the Sea in only two months.  He 
was on top of the world, the book was printed by Life Magazine and 
thousands of copies were sold in the United States.  This novel and 
A Farewell to Arms were both made into movies. 
	In 1953 he went on a safari with Mary, and he was in heaven 
hunting big game.   Though Ernest had a serious accident, and later 
became ill, he could never admit that he had any weaknesses; 
nothing would stop him, certainly not pain.  In 1954 he won the 
Nobel Prize for Literature.  Toward the end, Ernest started to 
travel again, but almost the way that someone does who knows that 
he will soon die.  He suddenly started becoming paranoid and to 
forget things.  He became obsessed with sin; his upbringing was 
showing, but still was inconsistent in his behavior.  He never got 
over feeling like a bad person, as his father, mother and 
grandfather had taught him.  In the last year of his life, he lived 
inside of his dreams, similar to his mother, who he hated with all 
his heart.  He was suicidal and had electric shock treatments for 
his depression and strange behavior. 
	On a Sunday morning, July 2, 1961, Ernest Miller Hemingway 
killed himself with a shotgun. 
	


	Ernest Hemingway takes much of the storyline of his novel, A 
Farewell to Arms, from his personal experiences.  The main 
character of the book, Frederick Henry, often referred to as 
Tenete, experiences many of the same situations which Hemingway, 
himself, lived.  Some of these similarities are exact while some 
are less similar, and some events have a completely different 
outcome.
	Hemingway, like Henry, enjoyed drinking large amounts of 
alcohol.  Both of them were involved in World War I, in a medical 
capacity, but neither of them were regular army personnel.  Like 
Hemingway, Henry was shot in his right knee, during a battle.
	Both men were Americans, but a difference worth noting was 
that Hemingway was a driver for the American Red Cross, while Henry 
was a medic for the Italian Army.  In real life, Hemingway met his 
love, Agnes, a nurse, in the hospital after being shot; Henry met 
his love, Catherine Barkley, also a nurse, before he was shot and 
hospitalized.   In both cases, the relationships with these women 
were strengthened while the men were hospitalized.  Another 
difference is that Hemingway's romance was short-lived, while, the 
book seemed to indicate that, Henry's romance, though they never 
married, was strong and would have lasted.  In A Farewell to Arms, 
Catherine and her child died while she was giving birth, this was 
not the case with Agnes who left Henry for an Italian Army officer. 
	It seems to me that the differences between the two men were 
only surface differences.  They allowed Hemingway to call the novel 
a work of fiction.  Had he written an autobiography the book would 
probably not have been well-received because Hemingway was not, at 
that time, a well known author.  Although Hemingway denied critics' 
views that A Farewell to Arms was symbolic, had he not made any 
changes they would not have been as impressed with the war 
atmosphere and with the naivete of a young man who experiences war 
for the first time.  Hemingway, because he was so private, probably 
did not want to expose his life to everyone, and so the slight 
changes would prove that it was not himself and his own experiences 
which he was writing about.
	I believe that Hemingway had Catherine and her child die, not 
to look different from his own life, but because he had a sick and 
morbid personality.  There is great power in being an author, you 
can make things happen which do not necessarily occur in real life. 
 It is obvious that Hemingway felt, as a young child and throughout 
his life, powerless, and so he created lives by writing stories.  
Hemingway acted out his feelings of inadequacy and powerlessness by 
hunting, drinking, spending lots of money and having many 
girlfriends.
	I think that Hemingway was obsessed with death and not too 
sane.  His obsession shows itself in the morbid death of Miss 
Barkley and her child.  Hemingway was probably very confused about 
religion and sin and somehow felt or feared that people would or 
should be punished for enjoying life's pleasures.
	Probably, the strongest reason for writing about Catherine 
Barkley's death and the death of her child was Hemingway's belief 
that death comes to everyone; it was inevitable.  Death ends life 
before you have a chance to learn and live.  He writes, in A 
Farewell to Arms, "They threw you in and told you the rules and the 
first time they caught you off base they killed you.  ... they 
killed you in the end.  You could count on that.  Stay around and 
they would kill you."
	Hemingway, even in high school, wrote stories which showed 
that people should expect the unexpected.  His stories offended and 
angered the principal of his school.  I think that Hemingway liked 
shocking and annoying people; he was certainly rebellious.  If he 
would have written an ending where Miss Barkley and her child had 
lived, it would have been too easy and common; Hemingway was 
certainly not like everyone else, and he seemed to be proud of that 
fact.  Even the fact that Hemingway wrote curses and had a lot of 
sex in his books shows that he liked to shock people.  When his 
publisher asked that he change some words and make his books more 
acceptable to people, Hemingway refused, then was forced to 
compromise.
	I think that the major difference between Hemingway and Henry 
was that Henry was a likable and normal person while Hemingway was 
strange and very difficult.  Hemingway liked doing things his way 
and either people had to accept him the way he was or too bad for 
them.  I think that Hemingway probably did not even like himself 
and that was one reason that he couldn't really like other people. 
 Hemingway seemed to use people only for his own pleasure, and 
maybe he wanted to think that he was like Henry who was a nicer 
person.


	In the book, Twentieth Century Interpretations of A Farewell 
to Arms, Malcolm Cowley focuses on the symbolism of rain.  He sees 
rain, a frequent occurrence in the book, as symbolizing disaster.  
He points out that, at the beginning of A Farewell to Arms, Henry 
talks about how "things went very badly" and how this is connected 
to "At the start of the winter came permanent rain".
	Later on in the book we see Miss Barkley afraid of rain.  She 
says, "Sometimes I see me dead in it", referring to the rain.  It 
is raining the entire time Miss Barkley is in childbirth and when 
both she and her baby die. 
	Wyndham Lewis, in the same book of critical essays, points out 
that Hemingway is obsessed with war, the setting for much of A 
Farewell to Arms.  He feels that the author sees war as an 
alternative to baseball, a sport of kings.  He says that the war 
years "were a democratic, a levelling, school".  For Hemingway, 
raised in a strict home environment, war is a release; an 
opportunity to show that he is a real man. 
	The essayist, Edgar Johnson says that for the loner "it is 
society as a whole that is rejected, social responsibility, social 
concern" abandoned.  Lieutenant Henry, like Hemingway, leads a 
private life as an isolated individual.  He socializes with the 
officers, talks with the priest and visits the officer's brothel, 
but those relationships are superficial.  This avoidance of real 
relationships and involvement do not show an insensitive person, 
but rather someone who is protecting himself from getting involved 
and hurt.  It is clear that in all of Hemingway's books and from 
his own life that he sees the world as his enemy.  Johnson says, 
"He will solve the problem of dealing with the world by taking 
refuge in individualism and isolated personal relationships and 
sensations". 
	John Killinger says that it was inevitable that Catherine and 
her baby would die.  The theme, that a person is trapped in 
relationships, is shown in all Hemingway's stories.  In A Farewell 
to Arms Catherine asks Henry if he feels trapped, now that she is 
pregnant.  He admits that he does, "maybe a little".  This idea, 
points out Killinger, is ingrained in Hemingway's thinking and that 
he was not too happy about fatherhood.  In Cross Country Snow, Nick 
regrets that he has to give up skiing in the Alps with a male 
friend to return to his wife who is having a baby.  In Hemingway's 
story Hills Like White Elephants the man wants his sweetheart to 
have an abortion so that they can continue as they once lived.  In 
To Have and Have Not, Richard Gordon took his wife to "that dirty 
aborting horror".  Catherine's death, in A Farewell to Arms, saves 
the author's hero from the hell of a complicated life. 


	ENDNOTES						
				


		


 . Peter Buckley, Ernest, The Dial Press: 1978, p.96
 . Peter Buckley, p.97
 . Peter Buckley, p.98
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.104
 . Peter Buckley, p.112
 . Peter Buckley, p.114
 . Peter Buckley, p.117
 . Peter Buckley, p.123
 . Peter Buckley, p.127
 . Peter Buckley, p.129
 . Peter Buckley, p.135
 . Peter Buckley, p.138
 . Peter Buckley, p.144
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.152
 . Peter Buckley, p.154
 . Peter Buckley, p.160
 .  Malcolm Cowley, "Rain as Disaster", Twentieth Century         
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, 
Inc.:1970, pp.54-55 
 .  Wyndham Lewis, "The Dumb Ox in Love and War", Twentieth 
Century Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, 
Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970, p.76
 .  Edgar Johnson, "Farewell the Separate Peace", Twentieth 
Century Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, 
Prentice-Hall, Inc.:1970, pp.112-113
 .  John Killinger, "The Existential Hero", Twentieth Century 
Interpretations of A Farewell to Arms, Jay Gellens, Prentice-Hall, 
Inc.:1970, pp.103-105
 



 

 





















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Euclid Father Of Geometry.TXT
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Euclid: Father Of Geometry
Euclid
The Father of Geometry
Very little is known of the father of geometry, also known as Euclid. Records show that he lived somewhere around 300 B.C., but that date is sketchy. He was a Greek mathematician and is probably best known for his work Elements. Since little is known about the personal life of Euclid, it is difficult to do a biography on him.
His chief work, entitled Elements, is a comprehensive treatise on mathematics. It includes 13 volumes that entail such subjects as plane geometry, dealing with the properties of flat surfaces and of planar figures, such as the triangle; proportion in general, a particular kind of relation between groups of numbers or quantities; the properties of numbers; incommensurable magnitudes; and solid geometry, branch of geometry that deals with the properties and measurement of geometric figures in three-dimensional space. Some people say that the geometrical sections of Elements were actually rearrangements of Exodus previous work. However Euclid himself is said to have made several discoveries in his Number Theory, which is a branch of mathematics that deals with the properties and relationships of numbers.
Most historians believe Euclid was educated at Athens. His teachers may have included pupils of Plato, who was a philosopher and one of the most influential thinkers in Western philosophy. Euclid tought geometry in Alexandria and opened a school of mathematics there. He also wrote Data, which was a collection of geometrical theorems; Phenomena, a description of the heavens; and The Division of the Scale, which is a mathematical discussion of music. But yet again many historians believe many of these works (other than the Elements) were spuriously credited to him, others disagree and say that indeed his works are that of his own.
Euclid's Elements was used as a text for 2000 years, and even today a modified version of its first few books forms the basis of high school instruction in plane geometry. The first printed edition of Euclid's works was a translation from Arabic to Latin, which appeared at Venice in 1482.
Euclid is called the father of geometry. He has earned the respect from all mathematicians, and is regarded as the creator of the Elements, which is based on almost every point of geometry. Students learn about him every time they open their math book.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Eva Peron.TXT
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Eva Peron
Thesis: Her experience as a member of the lower class who
overcame poverty and her belief in bringing justice
to the poor made everything that she did for the
people of Argentina possible.
I. Taking action
A. Collections for the needy
B. The Secretariat
II. Continuing the action
A. The Eva Peron Foundation
B. The Social Help Crusade
C. The Hospital Train
D. Twelve hospitals
III. Helping women
IV. Helping children
V. Helping the elderly
VI. Seeing Eva's viewpoint
Eva Peron
'Mi vida por Peron!' ('My life for Peron!') [Evita]
cried a thousand times before the roaring crowds, and
then she died. There are parallels that could be
drawn between her life and the lives of other
obsessively ambitious women who have forced their way
through poverty and fame.but instead popular memory
finds parallels between Evita's life and the lives of
the saints, because she did it all for someone else.
(Guillermoprieto 100)
From Colonel Juan Peron's election in 1946 until her death from cancer
in 1952, Eva Duarte de Peron greatly altered the lives of the Argentine
people. Knowing from her childhood what it was like to belong to the
lower class population of Argentina, she felt she had the inside
connection to making conditions better for her "descamisados," or
"shirtless ones." Her experience as a member of the lower class who
overcame poverty and her belief in bringing justice to the poor made
everything she did for the people of Argentina possible.
Social injustice was everywhere in Argentina. It was too much for Eva
to bear, so she decided to take action (Peron 12). Eva Duarte met her
opportunity to work for the government when an earthquake destroyed most
of the city of San Juan on January 15, 1944. She helped take
collections for the needy (To Be I). Later, she chose to work in the
Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare. In this department she was
able to meet many people and hear all of their stories and problems
(Peron 71). She was especially interested in the lower class, the
working class of Argentines. Coming from a family among the working
class, she knew what they were going through. She had a special
understanding of the working class and felt comfortable working with
them to improve their situation (79). Eva considered each worker that
came into her office a friend, and she was a loyal friend to each of
them (81). In all of this, her main purpose was to give justice to the
poor.
In 1945 she married Colonel Juan Peron, who became Argentina's president
in 1946 (Taylor 39). Eva helped him a great deal with his campaign and
she won the hearts of the lower class citizens. When Peron took office,
Eva, nicknamed Evita by the descamisados, acted as de facto minister of
health and labor (Mc Henry 301). She also continued her work in the
Secretariat for no salary. Her only earnings were the love and
affection from Peron and the Argentine people (Peron 125).
On June 19, 1948, Evita founded the Maria Eva Duarte de Peron
Foundation, or EPF. This foundation was created to provide national
safety where the government was weak (To Be II). The Foundation's work
was necessary in the lower class areas of the country, rather than in
the cities. Eva believed that the descamisados were the base, the
foundation, of the revolution. They were an essential part of the
country's people (Peron 80).
The Social Help Crusade created housing and neighborhoods that were
affordable for the poor. The crusade also created jobs for the
unemployed and school food programs. It provided inexpensive hospital
supplies and free medication. Workers' unions donated many of these
materials. Evita began The Eva Peron Hospital Train, which provided
free check-ups, vaccinations, x-rays, and general medical care to people
who either did not have access to hospitals or who could not afford a
visit to the doctor (To Be II). Twelve hospitals and two "policlinicos"
(hospitals for the railroad workers) were built with the same objective
as the Hospital Train. These hospitals attracted the best doctor in the
country, and the charge for a visit was minimal, if any (To Be II,
Larson 3). Along with all these efforts, Evita and her foundation
concentrated specifically on helping the women, the children, and the
elderly of the lower class.
Evita fought for the passage of the women's suffrage law, which was
finally approved in 1947 after many years of being "put on the back
burner" (To Be II). She formed the Peronista Feminist Party in 1949 (Mc
Henry 301). She also set up special homes for young women who left home
for the city with little or no money, as she had done when she was young
(Guillermoprieto 105). One of these homes was called the General San
Martin Home for Women Employees. Evita frequently ate her evening meal
here with the young ladies who were staying (To Be II).
Evita commented, "The country which forgets its children renounces its
future" (To Be II). With this in mind, the EPF founded orphanages
called The Children's City and The Student's City. These cities were
created for orphans, children whose families had no place to stay, and
children who could not be cared for at home (To Be II). The Foundation
also constructed 1,000 schools (To Be II) plus agricultural schools,
nursery schools, daycare centers, and workshops (To Be II).
In order to cater to the elderly, the EPF created homes for senior
citizens. As Larson commented, "Evita believed that seniors should live
in a place that encouraged them to go on living, not just wait for
death" (3). The Foundation kept this thought in mind when the homes
were built. The villages were designed so the seniors could continue
their occupations and hobbies if they chose to do so (Larson 3). People
over sixty years of age who had no source of income were granted
pensions. Evita also introduced the Declaration of Rights of Senior
Citizens to President Peron on August 28, 1948. This declaration of
rights was included in the National Constitution in 1949 (To Be II).
Evita did not have specific reasons to help the descamisados. She did
everything based on her deepest feelings. She did not call the work she
did charity. Nor did she call her work social solidarity, benevolence,
or social welfare. She called her actions justice (Peron 5, 121).
It is easy to see that Evita accomplished a lot for her people. She
introduced the descamisados to a better style of living. She gave them
health care and an opportunity for a good education. She gave Argentine
women the right to vote and a place to go while beginning their career.
She gave the orphans a home and the elderly a place to retire. All of
these things she did without expecting anything in return. The only
thing she desired was the love of her people and of Peron.
Works Cited
Guillermoprieto, Alma. "Little Eva." The New Yorker 2
December 1996:98+
Larson, Dolane. "Evita's Legacy." Evita Peron Historical
Research Foundation. 10 January 1997.
http://www.evitaperon.org/legacy/ (2 April 1999).
Mc Henry, Robert, ed. "Eva Peron." The New Encyclopedia
Britannica: Macropaedia. 1993 ed.
[Peron, Eva.] evita by evita: Eva Duarte Peron Tells Her Own
Story. Redwood City, CA: Proteus Publishing Co., Inc.,
1978.
Taylor, J.M. Eva Peron: The Myths of a Woman. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1979.
To Be Evita. Part I. Trans. Dolane Larson. Evita Peron
Historical Research Foundation. April, 1997.
http://evitaperon.org/biography/part1.html (9 April 1999).
To Be Evita. Part II. Trans. Dolane Larson. Evita Peron
Historical Research Foundation. April, 1997.
http://evitaperon.org/biography/part2.html (9 April 1999).
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI.TXT
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EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI 
Every time you turn on the TV or radio and hear a weather forecast, one man is responsible for the birth of meteorology, the science of predicting the weather. His name is Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian scientist and mathematician. In 1643, he invented perhaps one of the most important devices in predicting weather: the barometer.
Evangelista Torricelli was born October 15th, 1608 in what is now known as Faenza, Italy. Little information is known about his early years of life. In 1624 he entered the Jesuit College of Faenza, then moved on to the Collegio Romano in Rome. Here his talents and intellect were recognized and he was then moved on to the University of Sapienza, now known as the University of Rome, to be taught by the great Italian professor, Castelli. Also during this time, Torricelli served as Castelli's secretary from 1636 to 1642. Over the next nine years he served a large number of professors as a secretary and learned much from each of them.
Torricelli is included in our textbook for his two major contributions to the world of science. First of all, he invented the barometer, a device that is still used today to measure the amount of atmospheric pressure, which is helpful for detecting inclement weather. Secondly, he is the namesake for a unit of pressure known as the Torr. The invention of the barometer is considered by most to be his biggest contribution to science. While serving as Galileo's secretary from 1641 to 1642, he learned many things about pressure and temperature from the great scientist. Galileo had been struggling to create a water thermometer. He could not understand why water could not be suspended in a tube taller than 34 feet. After much research, Torricelli discovered the answer: air has weight. The water could not stay in the tube due to the incredible amount of pressure being exerted on it by the air above. His invention of the mercury filled barometer in 1643 proved this theory and also proved the existence of air pressure.
In his lifetime, Torricelli had many great accomplishments and contributions to the areas of science and mathematics. He was the first man to create a sustained vacuum, which led to the discovery of the barometer. He proved that the flow of liquid through an opening is proportional to the square root of the height of the liquid, a theory that is now known as Torricelli's theorem. He succeeded Galileo as the court mathematician to Grand Duke Ferdinando II of Tuscany. He also found the length of the arc of a cycloid, which is the curve that is traced by a point on the circumference of a rotating circle. In other mathematical areas, he determined the point in the plane of a triangle where the sum of its distances from the vertices is the smallest. This is also known as the isogonic center. In 1644 he published a book about his studies in projectile motion, entitled Opera Geometrica. Torricelli also had significant talents in the grinding of lenses for telescopes and microscopes. He supported himself in the final years of his life with these talents.
On the evening of October 25th, 1647, Evangelista Torricelli died at the young age of 39 in the palace of Duke Ferdinando. He had fathered many important discoveries in his short life. With the naming of the Torr. after him, along with the moon's Crater Torricelli and Rue Torricelli, a street in Paris, he is surely to never be forgotten by the scientific community or the rest of the world.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Evita Peron.TXT
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Evita Peron


	In 1949 the most familiar scene in Argentina was the one played out
almost daily at the Ministry of Labor in Buenos Aires. There, under the glare of
camera lights, a former radio star and movie actress, now the most powerful
woman in South America, would enter her office past a crush of adoring,
impoverished women and children. Evita Peron, the wife of President Juan Peron,
would sit at her desk and begin one of the great rituals of Peronism, the
political movement she and her husband created. It was a pageant that sustained
them in power. She would patiently listen to the stories of the poor, then reach
into her desk to pull out some money. Or she would turn to a minister and ask
that a house be built. She would caress filthy children. She would kiss lepers,
just as the saints had done. To many Argentines, Evita Peron was a flesh-and-
blood saint; later, 40,000 of them would write to the pope attesting to her
miracles.

	She was born on May 7, 1919, in Los Toldos, and baptized Maria Eva, but
everyone called her Evita. Her father abandoned the family shortly after her
birth. Fifteen years of poverty followed and, in early 1935, the young Evita
fled her stifling existence to go to Buenos Aires. Perhaps, as some have said,
she fell in love with a tango singer who was passing through.

	She wanted to be an actress, and in the next few years supported herself
with bit parts, photo sessions for titillating magazines and stints as an
attractive judge of tango competitions. She began frequenting the offices of a
movie magazine, talking herself up for mention in its pages. When, in 1939, she
was hired as an actress in a radio company, she discovered a talent for playing
heroines in the fantasy world of radio soap opera.

	This was a period of political uncertainty in Argentina, yet few people
were prepared for the military coup that took place in June 1943. Among the many
measures instituted by the new government was the censorship of radio soap
operas. Quickly adapting to the new environment, Evita approached the officer in
charge of allocating airtime, Colonel Anibal Imbert. She seduced him, and Imbert
approved a new project Evita had in mind, a radio series called Heroines of
History. Years later, people would say that Evita had been a prostitute.

	Six months after Evita met Imbert, an earthquake struck Argentina.
Colonel Juan Peron, the secretary of labor in the military government, launched
a collection for the victims. He arranged for the Buenos Aires acting community
to donate its time for an evening's entertainment, with the proceeds going to
disaster relief. Evita was present on the big night, and she wanted to meet the
colonel. Peron had risen quickly in the government and had accomplished a major
coup with the unions, essentially taking control of them. But Evita probably
knew nothing of this. Not political in the conventional sense, she was attracted
instead by the colonel's dashing figure and his aura of power. They talked for
hours and left together. Within days Evita had moved into Peron's apartment.

	In February, Peron engineered the ouster of the president and took over
the war ministry for himself. Evita continued her radio portrayals of famous
women, but her ambitions lay in the movies. She wanted Peron to help her in her
film career, and he did by procuring the film itself, a commodity difficult to
obtain during World War II. He offered it to a movie studio in exchange for
Evita's starring role in a film. When she arrived for the first day of filming,
it was in a war ministry limousine.

	Four months into their relationship, Evita was named president of a new
actors' union Peron had created. (Any actors who wanted to work were obliged to
join.) Soon afterward, she began a daily radio broadcast called Toward a Better
Future. It was government propaganda, and it was the first time Evita's dramatic
talents had been harnessed to advance the political interests she was picking up
from Peron.

	When World War II ended in 1945, Peron, then vice president, became a
target of demonstrations because of his widely known fascist sympathies. In the
fall of 1945, the army demanded his resignation, saying he was a lightning rod
for discontent. Peron acceded, reluctantly.

	But he refused to go quietly. Peron controlled the unions, and the
unions controlled millions of men. Appearing in early October before 15,000
unionists (Evita was present), he announced that his last act as secretary of
labor-a post he still held-would be to grant a general wage increase. His
pandering won loud cheers as he exhorted the crowd to "carry on our triumphal
march!"

	That evening Peron learned that he was going to be arrested by the army,
which could not risk leaving the popular leader on the street. He and Evita fled
Buenos Aires but were apprehended a short time later. They were driven back to
the capital, where Peron was put aboard a navy boat and spirited away.

	Evita and Peron had made no secret of their relationship, despite his
being the most visible man in a country where even the ruthless bowed to
Catholic convention. Now a group of women gathered at their apartment building
to shout insults at Evita. One woman spat on the doorstep. Uncowed, Evita left
the apartment to try to get Peron out of prison. But she could not even learn
where he was being held, that became the great mystery in the streets of Buenos
Aires. Where was Peron?

	He passed a letter out of prison, and it was published in the newspapers.
He also managed to have himself transferred to Buenos Aires for medical
attention, thus contriving to be in the city because he knew about plans to free
him already underway. Many have claimed that Evita set these plans in motion by
offering herself to union leaders. All that is known for sure is that in the
early-morning hours of October 16, groups of workers began walking toward the
center of the capital. Hundreds of thousands of people moved with such
deliberateness that the government could do nothing without shedding blood. The
crowd was demanding only one thing-Peron.


	Listening to the demonstrators outside, Peron smugly told his captors to
reinstate him or risk a major uprising. They agreed, and that evening Peron
spoke to 200,000 people from the balcony of the presidential palace. He told
them to disperse peacefully, but with this order in mind: they were not to go to
work the next day-October 17-but to celebrate their victory instead. For many
years to come, October 17th would be the great day of Peronist Argentina,
transformed by government propaganda into a glorious and bloody workers'
revolution. Four days later, Peron and Evita were married.

	Peron soon won the presidency. The very day he was sworn in, Evita
caused a scandal. Still the movie star, she appeared at the inaugural ball in a
dress that left her shoulder-the one practically touching the cardinal in
attendance-entirely bare. More than two years at Peron's side had taught her a
great deal about politics.

	Evita quickly became the darling of the Argentine media. Their approval
was hardly surprising. After all, her husband controlled them. By 1947, he had
already replaced the justices of the Supreme Court with his own appointees,
including Evita's brother-in-law. In his second term, police torture would
become routine. But to win re-election, he needed a new constitution, one that
did away with the one-term limitation on the presidency. He pushed that reform
through in March 1949.

	Another innovation Peron sponsored -just as calculated and one for which
Evita was widely credited-was women's suffrage. No one could argue with women's
suffrage; it was long past due. But when the law was enacted, the full power of
the propaganda machine went to turning newly enfranchised women into Peron
handmaidens.

	Such comments went far toward creating a cult of personality around Juan
Peron. Evita had learned her part so well that, even if she did not write most
of the lines, she improvised to perfection. She would build upon in every
speech: "Peron is everything...We all feed from his light." People were
increasingly feeding from the light of Evita Peron as well.

	In 1948 a foundation was created in Evita's name. Its object was to
advance social charity, and while it frequently resorted to extortion the
foundation was a phenomenal success. From the idea of the foundation sprang a
range of programs designed to advance the Peronist cult of personality: youth
sports leagues with Evita's profile on every uniform, hospitals with her
initials on the linen, polio vaccines that bore her name. It was around this
time that Evita began her almost daily sessions with the poor.

	By 1951 her name was being advanced for the vice presidency, and in
August a labor meeting was called to endorse a Peron-Peron ticket. But on August
22, Evita went on radio to renounce the post. She wanted only a supporting role
in Peron's "marvelous chapter in history." The date of her renunciation became
the second great day of Peronism. The government portrayed it as an act of
supreme selflessness.
	Only a month later, Evita was diagnosed with cancer of the uterus. When
news of her illness got out, people began holding special masses. Miracles were
reported. She died professing love for her people and receiving their
expressions of devotion in return. In such an atmosphere, Peron's re-election
itself became a sort of ritual, so that when Evita voted from her hospital bed,
the nurses fell to their knees and kissed her ballot box.

	After the election, a biopsy revealed that the cancer had spread. In
June 1952, Peron's congress named Evita the Spiritual Leader of the Nation. Her
own final contribution to that deification came in her will, in which she wrote
that she wanted "the poor, the old, the children, and the workers to continue
writing to me as they did in my lifetime." She died on July 26, 1952, at the age
of 33.

	A specialist was brought in to embalm the body and make it "definitively
incorruptible." Evita's body lay in state for 13 days-and even then the crowds
showed no sign of diminishing.

	In the decades that followed, Peronism continued to occupy a place in
Argentine political life, taking the form mainly of anti-government terrorism.
In 1971, after a number of demands by terrorists, the Argentine government
agreed to return Evita's body. It was shipped to Peron in Spain.

	That year, Peron was allowed to return to Argentina; two years later he
was president again. He died in office, and it was his wife and successor,
Isabel, who brought Evita's body back to Argentina, in the hope that the aura of
a saint would again dazzle the public.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Evita Saint or Sinner .TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Evita:  Saint or Sinner?
	The story of Eva Peron is a fascinating one .  Evita, as she is known, enjoyed a rise
to power like no other.  The details of this ascension are often disputed, making Santa
Evita's tale all the more intriguing.   .   .
	Maria Eva Duarte was born on May 7, 1919,1 the fifth and youngest illegitimate
child of Juan Duarte and his mistress, Juan Ibarguen.  The week of her birth was known as
Tragic Week, when the army massacred striking workers, perhaps a foreshadow of what
was to come in her life.2
	Eva spent her childhood in an adobe farmhouse, with farm animals and earthen
floors.  In the farming trade, Juan Duarte incurred many debts, eventually leaving him with
nothing.  Thus, early in her life, Eva learnt the humiliation of poverty.
	The Duartes were further put down by the stiff Argentine caste system, which
divided the poor from the wealthy.  Being a bastard child, Eva and her four sisters were
seen as 'brats,' and were stopped from associating with the other village children. 
Rejection, thrown upon young Eva through no fault of her own, would not be forgotten
nor forgiven.3 
	At age fifteen, Eva Duarte set out to become a radio actress.  She knew she could
be like the women in the movie magazines she either stole or borrowed from her friends. 
Eva met singer Agustin Magaldi, and, packed her bags and sneaked out of her mother's
boarding house to the city of Buenos Aires. 
	Once Eva learned the rules of the 'casting couch,' she dropped Magaldi and began
her ascent to stardom.  For years she wandered the streets, auditioned, and did whatever
she had to do, no matter how distasteful.  Eva gained modeling work and small parts in
radio plays, frequenting nightclubs, and began to find better work. 
	After several jobs in theatres, she was interviewed by the magazine Sintonia.  After
Eva started an affair with the magazine's owner, he began to give her good exposure.  This
led to jobs in the film industry.  Though she made several, she had no talent to be seen in
any of her films.4
	Eva's body was what sold her to the masses.  She could have any man that she
wanted, and soon set her sights on Colonel Juan Peron, who had political ruthlessness, a
passion for younger women (especially good-looking actresses), and was a 48-year-old
widower.5	
	On January 15, 1944, San Juan Argentina was hit by a terrible earthquake.  A gala
benefit show was held to support the relief effort, where Eva and Colonel Peron first met. 
They were seen leaving the gala together.6
	Their attraction was not kept secret.  Evita- what she liked to be called, now that
she was a celebrity- and Peron became inseparable.  Their attraction became a personal
bond as well as a political alliance.  She was active in formation of policy and penned plays
about the Peronist 'Revolution.'  By her account, Juan himself was responsible for the coup
of 1943.  This and other similar events disturbed military officers greatly.
	The U.S. Ambassador to Argentina, Spruille Braden, openly criticized the
Argentine government, and schemed to overthrow it.  Peron labeled his opposition as
foreign intervention, and made his own cause a national one.7
	This helped Peron become the most important man in the government, and thus a
target of much criticism.  Military officers hated him, and the President ordered him to
resign his position.  They decided to arrest Peron and place him under 'protective custody.' 
It was October 12, 1945.
	Peron, while in prison, won the support of the labor unions.  Strikes took place,
and the workers took to the streets.  The government had underestimated Peron's
popularity.  On October 16, Peron's release was successfully bargained for.  On October
17, he was back in Buenos Aires.  However, he would not make and appearance to the
public.  The 'descamisados,' or 'shirtless ones,' still filled the streets.	
	The President needed Peron to speak to the people.  Having little choice, he met
Peron's extreme demands.  This included a new cabinet, and everyone in it would be a
Peron supporter.  After terms were settled, Peron made his appearance, and was cheered
like no Argentine before him.8
	When Peron ran for President in 1946, he won by the largest electoral vote in
Argentine history.9 
	Juan Peron and Eva were married on October 21, 1945.  Evita was an active first
lady.  She campaigned for women's suffrage, yet her view of feminism was different than
that of today.  Evita believed in a traditional woman's responsibilities, a woman who
directed her activism toward the cause of man.  "For women, to be a Peronist means,
above all, loyalty to Peron, subordination to Peron, and blind trust in Peron."10
	Speaking on Juan's behalf to the 'descamisados,' Eva is quoted as saying  "He is
God for us. . .we cannot conceive of heaven without Peron.  He is our sun, our air, our
water, our life. . ."11
	Evita was a hero to 'los descamidos,' as she herself had been poor and knew what
poverty meant.  She had her own court for them.  The poor would disclose their troubles
to Evita.  If money was their problem, they were handed at least a 100 peso note.  Any
problem would be dealt with.  Jobs would be found for the unemployed.  Evita's strong
men would seek a husband who had left his wife (he would rarely refuse to return).  She
truly was a saint to them, Santa Evita.12
	Evita developed a strong following with women.  She gave them the right to vote,
set up homes for single working girls, and introduced the idea of a career woman.
	Santa Evita was now more popular than Peron himself.  Evita attempted to use this
popularity to run for Vice President.  However, major army officers feared she would
succeed the President, and stopped her nomination.  The military still hated her, and could
not stand for her to be thought of as commander-in-chief.13
	In January of 1951, surgeons noticed the beginnings of uterine cancer.  Eva
rejected medical advice and refused to undergo a hysterectomy.  Her health worsened
rapidly, and finally had surgery.  It was too late.  Eva Duarte de Peron died on July 26,
1952 and Argentina wept.  Hundreds of thousands lined the streets.  Peron himself was
shocked.  "I did not know they loved her so much."14
	Newspapers could use all the paper they desired in reporting the life and death of
Evita, despite a paper shortage.  The news of her passing was rebroadcast at 15-minute
intervals.  The country came to a halt.15
	Evita's tomb was planned.  It would be lined with 16 statues of her.  A 140-foot tall
statue of a 'descamido' would tower along the Buenos Aires skyline.
	While the tomb was being erected, Evita's temporary resting place was the Labor
Confederation Headquarters.  In 1955, agents of the new President, Pedro Arambulu, stole
the corpse, placed it into the army lorry, and drove away.
	The remains of Eva Peron could be used as a powerful symbol against any
government, and the location of them became a primary concern of Argentines.  Rumors
stated that she had been incinerated, that her body was in Chile with her mother and sisters,
that she was not in fact dead, but living in exile with Peron.  For years rumors circulated,
until, in time, Evita became a memory, a lost symbol of hope to the poor of Argentina.

*               *               *
	On September 2, 1971, Juan Peron was reunited with the body of his second wife,
Evita.  He openly wept.  "She is not dead.  She is sleeping. . .Only sleeping!"
	Evita's blonde hair had been cut off at the neck.  Further examination showed that
cuts were present all over her body, her nose was broker, both knees broken, and the chest
was marked with six holes.
	Later repaired, the body was placed in a new coffin, upstairs in Peron's cottage.
	Evita had been missing seventeen years.
	The embalmed body was put on display in December of 1974, beside General
Peron's sealed coffin.  Twenty-four years after Eva's death, In October 1976, the body of
Maria Eva Duarte de Peron was returned to the family, and now lies in an armored private
vault fifteen feet underground, in Buenos Aires.
	Evita's body should not be stolen again.  It is not in the actual vault, but one
underneath the family tomb.  Beneath three steel plates, each locked with a different
combination, in total silence and darkness, in another chamber lies the corpse of Eva
Peron.
	"I will return.  And I will be millions."16



















Endnotes

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Evita Saint or Sinner.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Evita:  Saint or Sinner?


	The story of Eva Peron is a fascinating one .  Evita, as she is known,
enjoyed a rise to power like no other.  The details of this ascension are often
disputed, making Santa Evita's tale all the more intriguing.   .   .
	Maria Eva Duarte was born on May 7, 1919,1 the fifth and youngest
illegitimate child of Juan Duarte and his mistress, Juan Ibarguen.  The week of
her birth was known as Tragic Week, when the army massacred striking workers,
perhaps a foreshadow of what was to come in her life.2
	Eva spent her childhood in an adobe farmhouse, with farm animals and
earthen floors.  In the farming trade, Juan Duarte incurred many debts,
eventually leaving him with nothing.  Thus, early in her life, Eva learnt the
humiliation of poverty.
	The Duartes were further put down by the stiff Argentine caste system,
which divided the poor from the wealthy.  Being a bastard child, Eva and her
four sisters were seen as 'brats,' and were stopped from associating with the
other village children. Rejection, thrown upon young Eva through no fault of her
own, would not be forgotten nor forgiven.3
	At age fifteen, Eva Duarte set out to become a radio actress.  She knew
she could be like the women in the movie magazines she either stole or borrowed
from her friends. Eva met singer Agustin Magaldi, and, packed her bags and
sneaked out of her mother's boarding house to the city of Buenos Aires.
	Once Eva learned the rules of the 'casting couch,' she dropped Magaldi
and began her ascent to stardom.  For years she wandered the streets, auditioned,
and did whatever she had to do, no matter how distasteful.  Eva gained modeling
work and small parts in radio plays, frequenting nightclubs, and began to find
better work.
	After several jobs in theatres, she was interviewed by the magazine
Sintonia.  After Eva started an affair with the magazine's owner, he began to
give her good exposure.  This led to jobs in the film industry.  Though she made
several, she had no talent to be seen in any of her films.4
	Eva's body was what sold her to the masses.  She could have any man that
she wanted, and soon set her sights on Colonel Juan Peron, who had political
ruthlessness, a passion for younger women (especially good-looking actresses),
and was a 48-year-old widower.5
	On January 15, 1944, San Juan Argentina was hit by a terrible earthquake.
 A gala benefit show was held to support the relief effort, where Eva and
Colonel Peron first met. They were seen leaving the gala together.6
	Their attraction was not kept secret.  Evita- what she liked to be
called, now that she was a celebrity- and Peron became inseparable.  Their
attraction became a personal bond as well as a political alliance.  She was
active in formation of policy and penned plays about the Peronist 'Revolution.'
By her account, Juan himself was responsible for the coup of 1943.  This and
other similar events disturbed military officers greatly.
	The U.S. Ambassador to Argentina, Spruille Braden, openly criticized the
Argentine government, and schemed to overthrow it.  Peron labeled his opposition
as foreign intervention, and made his own cause a national one.7
	This helped Peron become the most important man in the government, and
thus a target of much criticism.  Military officers hated him, and the President
ordered him to resign his position.  They decided to arrest Peron and place him
under 'protective custody.' It was October 12, 1945.
	Peron, while in prison, won the support of the labor unions.  Strikes
took place, and the workers took to the streets.  The government had
underestimated Peron's popularity.  On October 16, Peron's release was
successfully bargained for.  On October 17, he was back in Buenos Aires.
However, he would not make and appearance to the public.  The 'descamisados,' or
'shirtless ones,' still filled the streets.
	The President needed Peron to speak to the people.  Having little choice,
he met Peron's extreme demands.  This included a new cabinet, and everyone in it
would be a Peron supporter.  After terms were settled, Peron made his appearance,
and was cheered like no Argentine before him.8
	When Peron ran for President in 1946, he won by the largest electoral
vote in Argentine history.9
	Juan Peron and Eva were married on October 21, 1945.  Evita was an
active first lady.  She campaigned for women's suffrage, yet her view of
feminism was different than that of today.  Evita believed in a traditional
woman's responsibilities, a woman who directed her activism toward the cause of
man.  "For women, to be a Peronist means, above all, loyalty to Peron,
subordination to Peron, and blind trust in Peron."10
	Speaking on Juan's behalf to the 'descamisados,' Eva is quoted as saying
"He is God for us. . .we cannot conceive of heaven without Peron.  He is our sun,
our air, our water, our life. . ."11
	Evita was a hero to 'los descamidos,' as she herself had been poor and
knew what poverty meant.  She had her own court for them.  The poor would
disclose their troubles to Evita.  If money was their problem, they were handed
at least a 100 peso note.  Any problem would be dealt with.  Jobs would be found
for the unemployed.  Evita's strong men would seek a husband who had left his
wife (he would rarely refuse to return).  She truly was a saint to them, Santa
Evita.12
	Evita developed a strong following with women.  She gave them the right
to vote, set up homes for single working girls, and introduced the idea of a
career woman.
	Santa Evita was now more popular than Peron himself.  Evita attempted to
use this popularity to run for Vice President.  However, major army officers
feared she would succeed the President, and stopped her nomination.  The
military still hated her, and could not stand for her to be thought of as
commander-in-chief.13
	In January of 1951, surgeons noticed the beginnings of uterine cancer.
Eva rejected medical advice and refused to undergo a hysterectomy.  Her health
worsened rapidly, and finally had surgery.  It was too late.  Eva Duarte de
Peron died on July 26, 1952 and Argentina wept.  Hundreds of thousands lined the
streets.  Peron himself was shocked.  "I did not know they loved her so much."14
	Newspapers could use all the paper they desired in reporting the life
and death of Evita, despite a paper shortage.  The news of her passing was
rebroadcast at 15-minute intervals.  The country came to a halt.15
	Evita's tomb was planned.  It would be lined with 16 statues of her.  A
140-foot tall statue of a 'descamido' would tower along the Buenos Aires skyline.
	While the tomb was being erected, Evita's temporary resting place was
the Labor Confederation Headquarters.  In 1955, agents of the new President,
Pedro Arambulu, stole the corpse, placed it into the army lorry, and drove away.
	The remains of Eva Peron could be used as a powerful symbol against any
government, and the location of them became a primary concern of Argentines.
Rumors stated that she had been incinerated, that her body was in Chile with her
mother and sisters, that she was not in fact dead, but living in exile with
Peron.  For years rumors circulated, until, in time, Evita became a memory, a
lost symbol of hope to the poor of Argentina.

*               *               *

	On September 2, 1971, Juan Peron was reunited with the body of his
second wife, Evita.  He openly wept.  "She is not dead.  She is sleeping. . .
Only sleeping!"
	Evita's blonde hair had been cut off at the neck.  Further examination
showed that cuts were present all over her body, her nose was broker, both knees
broken, and the chest was marked with six holes.
	Later repaired, the body was placed in a new coffin, upstairs in Peron's
cottage.
	Evita had been missing seventeen years.
	The embalmed body was put on display in December of 1974, beside General
Peron's sealed coffin.  Twenty-four years after Eva's death, In October 1976,
the body of Maria Eva Duarte de Peron was returned to the family, and now lies
in an armored private vault fifteen feet underground, in Buenos Aires.
	Evita's body should not be stolen again.  It is not in the actual vault,
but one underneath the family tomb.  Beneath three steel plates, each locked
with a different combination, in total silence and darkness, in another chamber
lies the corpse of Eva Peron.
	"I will return.  And I will be millions."16



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Evita.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	In 1949 the most familiar scene in Argentina was the one played out almost daily
at the Ministry of Labor in Buenos Aires. There, under the glare of camera lights, a former
radio star and movie actress, now the most powerful woman in South America, would
enter her office past a crush of adoring, impoverished women and children. Evita Peron,
the wife of President Juan Peron, would sit at her desk and begin one of the great rituals
of Peronism, the political movement she and her husband created. It was a pageant that
sustained them in power. She would patiently listen to the stories of the poor, then reach
into her desk to pull out some money. Or she would turn to a minister and ask that a
house be built. She would caress filthy children. She would kiss lepers, just as the saints
had done. To many Argentines, Evita Peron was a flesh-and-blood saint; later, 40,000 of
them would write to the pope attesting to her miracles. 

	She was born on May 7, 1919, in Los Toldos, and baptized Maria Eva, but
everyone called her Evita. Her father abandoned the family shortly after her birth. Fifteen
years of poverty followed and, in early 1935, the young Evita fled her stifling existence to
go to Buenos Aires. Perhaps, as some have said, she fell in love with a tango singer who
was passing through. 	

	She wanted to be an actress, and in the next few years supported herself with bit
parts, photo sessions for titillating magazines and stints as an attractive judge of tango
competitions. She began frequenting the offices of a movie magazine, talking herself up
for mention in its pages. When, in 1939, she was hired as an actress in a radio company,
she discovered a talent for playing heroines in the fantasy world of radio soap opera. 

	This was a period of political uncertainty in Argentina, yet few people were
prepared for the military coup that took place in June 1943. Among the many measures
instituted by the new government was the censorship of radio soap operas. Quickly
adapting to the new environment, Evita approached the officer in charge of allocating
airtime, Colonel Anibal Imbert. She seduced him, and Imbert approved a new project
Evita had in mind, a radio series called Heroines of History. Years later, people would say
that Evita had been a prostitute.

	Six months after Evita met Imbert, an earthquake struck Argentina. Colonel Juan
Peron, the secretary of labor in the military government, launched a collection for the
victims. He arranged for the Buenos Aires acting community to donate its time for an
evening's entertainment, with the proceeds going to disaster relief. Evita was present on
the big night, and she wanted to meet the colonel. Peron had risen quickly in the
government and had accomplished a major coup with the unions, essentially taking control
of them. But Evita probably knew nothing of this. Not political in the conventional sense,
she was attracted instead by the colonel's dashing figure and his aura of power. They
talked for hours and left together. Within days Evita had moved into Peron's apartment. 

	In February, Peron engineered the ouster of the president and took over the war
ministry for himself. Evita continued her radio portrayals of famous women, but her
ambitions lay in the movies. She wanted Peron to help her in her film career, and he did by
procuring the film itself, a commodity difficult to obtain during World War II. He offered
it to a movie studio in exchange for Evita's starring role in a film. When she arrived for the
first day of filming, it was in a war ministry limousine. 

	Four months into their relationship, Evita was named president of a new actors'
union Peron had created. (Any actors who wanted to work were obliged to join.) Soon
afterward, she began a daily radio broadcast called Toward a Better Future. It was
government propaganda, and it was the first time Evita's dramatic talents had been
harnessed to advance the political interests she was picking up from Peron. 

	When World War II ended in 1945, Peron, then vice president, became a target of
demonstrations because of his widely known fascist sympathies. In the fall of 1945, the
army demanded his resignation, saying he was a lightning rod for discontent. Peron
acceded, reluctantly. 

	But he refused to go quietly. Peron controlled the unions, and the unions
controlled millions of men. Appearing in early October before 15,000 unionists (Evita was
present), he announced that his last act as secretary of labor-a post he still held-would be
to grant a general wage increase. His pandering won loud cheers as he exhorted the crowd
to "carry on our triumphal march!" 

	That evening Peron learned that he was going to be arrested by the army, which
could not risk leaving the popular leader on the street. He and Evita fled Buenos Aires but
were apprehended a short time later. They were driven back to the capital, where Peron
was put aboard a navy boat and spirited away. 

	Evita and Peron had made no secret of their relationship, despite his being the
most visible man in a country where even the ruthless bowed to Catholic convention. Now
a group of women gathered at their apartment building to shout insults at Evita. One
woman spat on the doorstep. Uncowed, Evita left the apartment to try to get Peron out of
prison. But she could not even learn where he was being held, that became the great
mystery in the streets of Buenos Aires. Where was Peron? 

	He passed a letter out of prison, and it was published in the newspapers. He also
managed to have himself transferred to Buenos Aires for medical attention, thus contriving
to be in the city because he knew about plans to free him already underway. Many have
claimed that Evita set these plans in motion by offering herself to union leaders. All that is
known for sure is that in the early-morning hours of October 16, groups of workers began
walking toward the center of the capital. Hundreds of thousands of people moved with
such deliberateness that the government could do nothing without shedding blood. The
crowd was demanding only one thing-Peron. 


	Listening to the demonstrators outside, Peron smugly told his captors to reinstate
him or risk a major uprising. They agreed, and that evening Peron spoke to 200,000
people from the balcony of the presidential palace. He told them to disperse peacefully,
but with this order in mind: they were not to go to work the next day-October 17-but to
celebrate their victory instead. For many years to come, October 17th would be the great
day of Peronist Argentina, transformed by government propaganda into a glorious and
bloody workers' revolution. Four days later, Peron and Evita were married. 

	Peron soon won the presidency. The very day he was sworn in, Evita caused a
scandal. Still the movie star, she appeared at the inaugural ball in a dress that left her
shoulder-the one practically touching the cardinal in attendance-entirely bare. More than
two years at Peron's side had taught her a great deal about politics. 
	
	Evita quickly became the darling of the Argentine media. Their approval was
hardly surprising. After all, her husband controlled them. By 1947, he had already replaced
the justices of the Supreme Court with his own appointees, including Evita's
brother-in-law. In his second term, police torture would become routine. But to win
re-election, he needed a new constitution, one that did away with the one-term limitation
on the presidency. He pushed that reform through in March 1949. 

	Another innovation Peron sponsored -just as calculated and one for which Evita
was widely credited-was women's suffrage. No one could argue with women's suffrage; it
was long past due. But when the law was enacted, the full power of the propaganda
machine went to turning newly enfranchised women into Peron handmaidens. 

	Such comments went far toward creating a cult of personality around Juan Peron.
Evita had learned her part so well that, even if she did not write most of the lines, she
improvised to perfection. She would build upon in every speech: "Peron is everything...We
all feed from his light." People were increasingly feeding from the light of Evita Peron as
well. 

	In 1948 a foundation was created in Evita's name. Its object was to advance social
charity, and while it frequently resorted to extortion the foundation was a phenomenal
success. From the idea of the foundation sprang a range of programs designed to advance
the Peronist cult of personality: youth sports leagues with Evita's profile on every uniform,
hospitals with her initials on the linen, polio vaccines that bore her name. It was around
this time that Evita began her almost daily sessions with the poor.

	By 1951 her name was being advanced for the vice presidency, and in August a
labor meeting was called to endorse a Peron-Peron ticket. But on August 22, Evita went
on radio to renounce the post. She wanted only a supporting role in Peron's "marvelous
chapter in history." The date of her renunciation became the second great day of
Peronism. The government portrayed it as an act of supreme selflessness.
	Only a month later, Evita was diagnosed with cancer of the uterus. When news of
her illness got out, people began holding special masses. Miracles were reported. She died
professing love for her people and receiving their expressions of devotion in return. In
such an atmosphere, Peron's re-election itself became a sort of ritual, so that when Evita
voted from her hospital bed, the nurses fell to their knees and kissed her ballot box. 

	After the election, a biopsy revealed that the cancer had spread. In June 1952,
Peron's congress named Evita the Spiritual Leader of the Nation. Her own final
contribution to that deification came in her will, in which she wrote that she wanted "the
poor, the old, the children, and the workers to continue writing to me as they did in my
lifetime." She died on July 26, 1952, at the age of 33.

	A specialist was brought in to embalm the body and make it "definitively
incorruptible." Evita's body lay in state for 13 days-and even then the crowds showed no
sign of diminishing. 

	In the decades that followed, Peronism continued to occupy a place in Argentine
political life, taking the form mainly of anti-government terrorism. In 1971, after a number
of demands by terrorists, the Argentine government agreed to return Evita's body. It was
shipped to Peron in Spain. 

	That year, Peron was allowed to return to Argentina; two years later he was
president again. He died in office, and it was his wife and successor, Isabel, who brought
Evita's body back to Argentina, in the hope that the aura of a saint would again dazzle the
public. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\F Scott Fitzgerald 2 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
 F. Scott Fitzgerald
 	Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald is known as one of the most important American writers of his time.  He wrote about the troubling time period in which he lived known as the Jazz Age.  During this era people were either rich or dreamt of great wealth.  Fitzgerald fell into the trap of wanting to be wealthy, and suffered great personal anguish because of these driving forces.  I have chosen to write a term paper on F.Scott Fitzgerald.  The goal of this presentation is to show F. Scott Fitzgerald's life through his defeats and triumphs and how these situations affected his life as a writer.  	 
	Fitzgerald's life started in the Midwestern part of the United States.  On September 24, 1896, he  was born  in St. Paul, Minnesota.  F. Scott Fitzgerald was of Irish heritage on both sides and was distantly related to Francis Scott Key, for whom he is named, and to Maryland aristocracy.   His parents, Edward Fitzgerald of the Glen Mary Farm near Rockville, Maryland and Mary McQuillan of St. Paul wed February 13, 1890 in Washington, D.C.  Fitzgerald's maternal grandfather was a very successful wholesale merchant.  His grandfather's early death and his father's inability to keep a job, forced the family to be extremely dependent on the wealth of his grandfather's estate.  Fitzgerald attended the St. Paul Academy as a child.  In 1911 he entered the Newman School in Hackensack, NJ.  Growing up with a father who was out of work and who relied on his wife's inheritance gave Fitzgerald a mixed feeling of guilt and shame and yet he felt love for both his parents.   These inner conflicts in his early life could have contributed to his inability to manage his finances, along with his constant obsession of gaining extreme wealth.
  	Fitzgerald later went to Princeton University, where writing and football were his main interests.  It was there that he met friends Edmund Wilson and John Peale Bishop.  Fitzgerald was too small to play football so he joined a fraternity called the triangle club, the second most prestigious cliche on campus, football being first.  After Princeton, Fitzgerald was quoted as saying to a friend "I want to be the greatest writer who ever lived don't you (Bruccoli, 1981)."  In 1917, Fitzgerald joined the army and prepared to fight in World War I.  It was soon after his mobilization that he sold his first story to the Smart Set.  This was the beginning of Fitzgerald's passion for writing, and  at this time Fitzgerald also met his future wife Zelda while serving in the army.
	Unable to make sufficient money to win the love of Zelda and not being sent away to war encouraged Fitzgerald to go back to Minnesota to start on another book.  This book was barely published, but it persuaded Zelda to marry him.  So on the third of April of 1920 in St. Patrick's Cathedral New York City they were married.  
	Fitzgerald's first novel, This Side of Paradise"  sold 20,000 copies in one week.  Fitzgerald was excited about the money he could make with his writings and this started Fitzgerald's habit of writing a series of short stories after each novel.  Then Fitzgerald began experimenting with his writing talent.  Fitzgerald wrote his first and only play in November 1923 called "The Vegetable or from President to Postman" it flopped leaving Fitzgerald broken hearted and unmotivated.  At this time the Fitzgerald's toured Europe and began their history of drinking and destroying their lives.
	In July, 1922, Fitzgerald wrote a note to a friend saying "I want to see where I stand.  I want to write something new something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned (Bruccoli, 1981)."  After many attempts at writing a masterpiece, on April 11, 1925, Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby was released.
	The Fitzgeralds continued to roam Europe with daughter "Scottie." Fitzgerald was unable to manage his finances and was constantly in debt.   He was always living beyond his means and borrowing money from his next unwritten story.  During this period of Fitzgerald's life he was relying on short stories as the main and only income.  It has been figured by Matt Bruccoli that during Fitzgerald's life span he made around $386,382 an average of $21,466.
	In 1930, Zelda had her first nervous breakdown.  She was institutionalized as Scott tried very hard to write his next novel.  Much of her time was spent at Johns Hopkins University.  Fitzgerald spent much time writing Tender is the Night.  Tender is the Night is based mostly upon Zelda's schizophrenia and her fifteen months in a Swedish sanitarium.  This book has its characters showing symbolism of the pain that Fitzgerald rendered while taking care of Zelda.
	Ernest Hemingway and Fitzgerald were great friends throughout each others lives.  Each wrote about each other in a symbolistic manner.  It is said that Hemingway wrote about how Zelda's insanity caused Fitzgerald to lose sight of his writing.  
	Fitzgerald moved to Hollywood in 1937 to work on movie scripts.  There he wrote his Pat Hobby stories and began work on The Last Tycoon.  During this time, he was also seeing Sheilah Graham, a Hollywood gossip columnist.  Fitzgerald suffered a heart attack at Graham's apartment and died on December 21, 1940.  She was the only other women Fitzgerald had ever been with.  At this time Fitzgerald had completed less than half of The Last Tycoon.  It was later published on October 1941.  Fitzgerald was buried at Rockville Union Cemetery in Rockville, Maryland.  This poem written by Fitzgerald was found after his death and perhaps best describes Fitzgerald's unsettling life.  It reads as follows:         
                             "Your books were in your desk
		      I guess and some unfinished
		      Chaos in your head                                                                             		                 Was dumped to nothing by the great janitress of destinies" 
		     (Bruccoli, 1984).
 Eight years after the death of Fitzgerald Zelda died in a fire.
	Fitzgerald's life was filled with ups and downs but mostly downs.  He was a struggling writer that was at the peak of his career in life before he knew how to handle success.  He made a masterpiece from his struggles and problems.  Fitzgerald's life was spent trying to accomplish two things; being part of the high society and writing a book that would make him famous.  He accomplished one for the ability to do the other.  It destroyed him to see his wife losing her mind for the sake of his writing, but he couldn't stand the pain he felt when he failed.  It was an obsession to improve his masterpiece, The Great Gatsby , and when could not go beyond it, he felt like a failure.
	Fitzgerald died trying to resurrect his name from the has beens, and put it at the top where it once was.  As one of his quotes reads "So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past" (Grolier Encyclopedia, 1993). Showing his failed attempts to reach back into the past made him into someone who felt he had no control upon his destiny, because it could never be as successful as his past.  He did  know that his work would have a permanent claim upon the American Literary World.  
	Fitzgerald's life mirrored his novels.  His live was filled love and tragedy.  He pursued his dreams, and in real life, often lived those dreams.  He longed to capture his youth and its purity.  He produced thousands of short stories, often times to support their frivolous lifestyles as well as to tell their stories. Many scholars have critiqued his work and their desire to interpret Fitzgerald's work line the shelves of libraries.   The Great Gatsby is a Great American Classic in which hundreds of thousands of copies are sold each year to high school and college students every where.  Much of his work has been translated into 35 languages.  It's ironic that  more of Fitzgerald's books are sold every year than were sold during his lifetime.  Sometimes it takes more than a lifetime to reach your goals and Fitzgerald found a way to accomplish his goals without living forever.   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\F Scott Fitzgerald 2.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
 F. Scott Fitzgerald
 	Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald is known as one of the most important American writers of his time.  He wrote about the troubling time period in which he lived known as the Jazz Age.  During this era people were either rich or dreamt of great wealth.  Fitzgerald fell into the trap of wanting to be wealthy, and suffered great personal anguish because of these driving forces.  I have chosen to write a term paper on F.Scott Fitzgerald.  The goal of this presentation is to show F. Scott Fitzgerald's life through his defeats and triumphs and how these situations affected his life as a writer.  	 
	Fitzgerald's life started in the Midwestern part of the United States.  On September 24, 1896, he  was born  in St. Paul, Minnesota.  F. Scott Fitzgerald was of Irish heritage on both sides and was distantly related to Francis Scott Key, for whom he is named, and to Maryland aristocracy.   His parents, Edward Fitzgerald of the Glen Mary Farm near Rockville, Maryland and Mary McQuillan of St. Paul wed February 13, 1890 in Washington, D.C.  Fitzgerald's maternal grandfather was a very successful wholesale merchant.  His grandfather's early death and his father's inability to keep a job, forced the family to be extremely dependent on the wealth of his grandfather's estate.  Fitzgerald attended the St. Paul Academy as a child.  In 1911 he entered the Newman School in Hackensack, NJ.  Growing up with a father who was out of work and who relied on his wife's inheritance gave Fitzgerald a mixed feeling of guilt and shame and yet he felt love for both his parents.   These inner conflicts in his early life could have contributed to his inability to manage his finances, along with his constant obsession of gaining extreme wealth.
  	Fitzgerald later went to Princeton University, where writing and football were his main interests.  It was there that he met friends Edmund Wilson and John Peale Bishop.  Fitzgerald was too small to play football so he joined a fraternity called the triangle club, the second most prestigious cliche on campus, football being first.  After Princeton, Fitzgerald was quoted as saying to a friend "I want to be the greatest writer who ever lived don't you (Bruccoli, 1981)."  In 1917, Fitzgerald joined the army and prepared to fight in World War I.  It was soon after his mobilization that he sold his first story to the Smart Set.  This was the beginning of Fitzgerald's passion for writing, and  at this time Fitzgerald also met his future wife Zelda while serving in the army.
	Unable to make sufficient money to win the love of Zelda and not being sent away to war encouraged Fitzgerald to go back to Minnesota to start on another book.  This book was barely published, but it persuaded Zelda to marry him.  So on the third of April of 1920 in St. Patrick's Cathedral New York City they were married.  
	Fitzgerald's first novel, This Side of Paradise"  sold 20,000 copies in one week.  Fitzgerald was excited about the money he could make with his writings and this started Fitzgerald's habit of writing a series of short stories after each novel.  Then Fitzgerald began experimenting with his writing talent.  Fitzgerald wrote his first and only play in November 1923 called "The Vegetable or from President to Postman" it flopped leaving Fitzgerald broken hearted and unmotivated.  At this time the Fitzgerald's toured Europe and began their history of drinking and destroying their lives.
	In July, 1922, Fitzgerald wrote a note to a friend saying "I want to see where I stand.  I want to write something new something extraordinary and beautiful and simple and intricately patterned (Bruccoli, 1981)."  After many attempts at writing a masterpiece, on April 11, 1925, Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby was released.
	The Fitzgeralds continued to roam Europe with daughter "Scottie." Fitzgerald was unable to manage his finances and was constantly in debt.   He was always living beyond his means and borrowing money from his next unwritten story.  During this period of Fitzgerald's life he was relying on short stories as the main and only income.  It has been figured by Matt Bruccoli that during Fitzgerald's life span he made around $386,382 an average of $21,466.
	In 1930, Zelda had her first nervous breakdown.  She was institutionalized as Scott tried very hard to write his next novel.  Much of her time was spent at Johns Hopkins University.  Fitzgerald spent much time writing Tender is the Night.  Tender is the Night is based mostly upon Zelda's schizophrenia and her fifteen months in a Swedish sanitarium.  This book has its characters showing symbolism of the pain that Fitzgerald rendered while taking care of Zelda.
	Ernest Hemingway and Fitzgerald were great friends throughout each others lives.  Each wrote about each other in a symbolistic manner.  It is said that Hemingway wrote about how Zelda's insanity caused Fitzgerald to lose sight of his writing.  
	Fitzgerald moved to Hollywood in 1937 to work on movie scripts.  There he wrote his Pat Hobby stories and began work on The Last Tycoon.  During this time, he was also seeing Sheilah Graham, a Hollywood gossip columnist.  Fitzgerald suffered a heart attack at Graham's apartment and died on December 21, 1940.  She was the only other women Fitzgerald had ever been with.  At this time Fitzgerald had completed less than half of The Last Tycoon.  It was later published on October 1941.  Fitzgerald was buried at Rockville Union Cemetery in Rockville, Maryland.  This poem written by Fitzgerald was found after his death and perhaps best describes Fitzgerald's unsettling life.  It reads as follows:         
                             "Your books were in your desk
		      I guess and some unfinished
		      Chaos in your head                                                                             		                 Was dumped to nothing by the great janitress of destinies" 
		     (Bruccoli, 1984).
 Eight years after the death of Fitzgerald Zelda died in a fire.
	Fitzgerald's life was filled with ups and downs but mostly downs.  He was a struggling writer that was at the peak of his career in life before he knew how to handle success.  He made a masterpiece from his struggles and problems.  Fitzgerald's life was spent trying to accomplish two things; being part of the high society and writing a book that would make him famous.  He accomplished one for the ability to do the other.  It destroyed him to see his wife losing her mind for the sake of his writing, but he couldn't stand the pain he felt when he failed.  It was an obsession to improve his masterpiece, The Great Gatsby , and when could not go beyond it, he felt like a failure.
	Fitzgerald died trying to resurrect his name from the has beens, and put it at the top where it once was.  As one of his quotes reads "So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past" (Grolier Encyclopedia, 1993). Showing his failed attempts to reach back into the past made him into someone who felt he had no control upon his destiny, because it could never be as successful as his past.  He did  know that his work would have a permanent claim upon the American Literary World.  
	Fitzgerald's life mirrored his novels.  His live was filled love and tragedy.  He pursued his dreams, and in real life, often lived those dreams.  He longed to capture his youth and its purity.  He produced thousands of short stories, often times to support their frivolous lifestyles as well as to tell their stories. Many scholars have critiqued his work and their desire to interpret Fitzgerald's work line the shelves of libraries.   The Great Gatsby is a Great American Classic in which hundreds of thousands of copies are sold each year to high school and college students every where.  Much of his work has been translated into 35 languages.  It's ironic that  more of Fitzgerald's books are sold every year than were sold during his lifetime.  Sometimes it takes more than a lifetime to reach your goals and Fitzgerald found a way to accomplish his goals without living forever.   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\F SCOTT FITZGERALD.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
             F. SCOTT FITZGERALD
								DIANA CHOW
								03/25/96
 	Welcome to the roaring 1920's!  The Jazz Age. A period within time which the passive behaviors, beliefs, and purity of the past generations, were tossed aside to create room for the changes America
was about to experience! The birth of independent voting rights for women, lavishing parties,  and where excitement was to be found in every corner. This was the era in which the people were considered the "Lost
Generation," and from this environment emerged a eminent writer of those times. Francis Scott Fitzgerald. 
	Born to the calm and submissive atmosphere of St. Paul Minnesota, he came from a line of highly regarded men and women from his family's past. His most famous relative by far was Francis Scott
Key. The writer of our national anthem. Though he was certainly the most famous Fitzgerald, his mother was the most eccentric. Often dressed in miss-matched shoes and had a peculiar behavior, she at one time stared
at a woman whose husband was dying and said: "I'm trying to decide how you'll look in the mourning." 
	"I helped him by encouraging his urge to write adventures. It was also his best work. He did not shine in his other subjects. It was the pride in his literary work that put him in his real bent." Recalls his
St. Paul Academy teacher. From that prestigious school he then traveled and began attendance in Princeton University. Not a promising student he was often late to his classes. His excuse was once "Sir-it's absurd to
expect me to be on time. I'm a genius!!!" Though the "Princeton years" we not his most memorable, it provided an outlet for his writing, and talent. 
	During his junior year he left Princeton and entered the army in 1917. Though he was never sent to battle for his country, there he began work on the short story, The Romantic Egoist, which was
published as This Side of Paradise. Though rejected it later returns as a imitated nationwide sensation. When time and America began evolving, then was his work beginning to receive its time awaited praise. The Jazz
Age had arrived! By this period Fitzgerald had already found his love and married the enchanting Zelda Syre. She was an accomplished writer, ballet dancer, and painter. Though every one of these qualities were
contributions to her vivid personality, her flaws were seen by many! "Her rudeness, selfishness and lack of self restraint! She abuses men terribly then cuts and breaks dates with them, yawns in their faces, and they
come back for more!" recalls Fitzgerald. As the jaded, rebellious "flaming youth" of the new era went on, it brought life to Fitzgerald's story which became and instant hit. This Side of Paradise. And during America's
decade of prosperity, excess, and abandon, he became noted as the spokesman for the Jazz Age.
	He continued to write, and he then achieved his strongest and greatest work which described the weaknesses and the ideals which America lost. The Great Gatsby. Now considered a classic of our
times, it marked the beginning of the author's decline in popularity. This and several other factors effected his writing. Zelda's schizophrenia, lack of inspiration, efforts in remaining a good father for his daughter
Scottie, and financial difficulties.	
	"...Ability to perceive the reality behind the glittering carnival, the face behind the mask." This was the work of Fitzgerald in which our society and numerous prominent American writers respect
today. Without Fitzgerald's writings a piece of our heritage and culture in the 20's may have been lost. The unmatched voice of the Jazz Age.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Faith Ringold.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Faith Ringold
Who was Faith
Ringold ? Born in New York , Faith Ringold was an
African American artist who started school in 2nd grade .
While she was at home , her mother taught her the basic
skills . She knew how to read before she went to school .
In her early childhood she use to be sick every so often ,
she could not attend school regularly ; however, her mother
use to bring her drawing books and pencils . Therefore ,
she spent most of her time drawing . So, as she grew older
and began to go to school , one day her teacher asked her
to draw a mountain. Because she was born and raised in
New York, she had never seen a mountain before;
therefore, she could not draw the mountain properly . The
professor told her " you cannot be an artist, " and she said
to the professor " yes I could and I will be artist . " She had
great internal locus of control and self-confidence . She
believed she could do it and she did it . Her mother was a
fashion designer . She was very close to her mother, and
her father was a great role model for her . He also use to
draw , in other words he inspired faith to become an artist .
Faith Ringold was a bright artist . She benefited a
scholarship in college . While in college she had the
opportunity to ship her works at an inexpensive price to sell
outside the country. 1960 she learned what African art was
as a black artist . She also learned to mix her European
training with the African art . She learned about African
designs , and African American art . Faith Ringold wrote
her stories and painted them on her works . She painted
the tradition of African art and design she drew her family 's
every day life . Faith Ringold was an artist who justify her
culture and her existence with the black art . She expressed
who she was through her art . She had great interest for
children . She admired the courage of Harriet Tubman and
Rosa Park . Faith believed that visual art in America join
women in many directions . She hated sexism and racism .
She said that people motivated her to become an artist and
she believed that she could change the world and she could
do everything with her willingness . In many occasions she
asked people to never give up anything that appears to be
difficult to them, always try, try until they get what they
need.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Family Practice.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Family Practice: Summary


	The American family today, has the same problems that the American
family of yesterday had. Daniel A. Sugarman, a psychologist in "Family Practice"
introduces us to several case studies that seem to be the main nucleus of family
problems today. He has put together a system called "Seven Ways to Keep the
Peace at Home," in which he describes seven different problems within our
American households today that can cause  daily emotional and physical pain
within the family structure. The Seven case studies are based on children's
values that are driven by their parents emotions. "Giving up the myth of the
perfect Family," is the starting point. This is where the parents low self
esteem is driven into their child. The next step, "Tell it like you feel It,"
describes how families should share their feelings and not hold them in. After
that comes, "Don't play telephone", this is where a third person is used to
communicate between two parties. Another step is, "Make your blueprints
Flexible," you should not pre-plan your child's life for them. Then he goes into
the next step, which is about Contracts called, "Learn to use contracts." With
this step the family makes contracts with one another and then monitors and up
dates them so often. This helps with everybody holding to their end of the deal
when it comes to the family issues. One of the worst steps of all is, "Stop the
"Good Guy-"Bad Guy, " routine. I feel that having someone to blame for every
problem that arises can devastate a child. Parents need to think about what they
are going to say before they say it. The last step is, "Get rid of old emotional
Baggage," I have personal experience in this category. I had a hard time in
letting go of the old when trying to start new.
	These seven steps that Dr. Sugarman has came up with are great ideas in
dealing with Family problems. Parents are the teachers and kids are the students.
Students can only learn by observing and role playing. Parents have to
incorporate the daily stresses of life and vent their emotions and adult matters
outside of the classroom and learn that what they do and say will be the example
they set for their children. This will eventually lead to a  happier household.
Families have to work at being families everyday and always remember that,
"Their is no perfect family."




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ferdinand Prosche.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Ferdinand Prosche: Life And Achievements of A Pioneer


      German engineer Ferdinand Porsche is certainly one of the most important
figures - if not the most imporant and influent-in the history of automobile
making. This outstanding Teuton was born on September 3rd, 1875 in Mafferdorf,
Germany. One of the most remarkable accomplishments of his carrer was that his
work was not limited to one factory, but instead he worked in many of the most
renowned car-making factories of the time.

        His life as an engineer started early, at the age of 22, when he
designed an electric engine. In 1900 he was hired by a carmaker of the time,
Lohner. He installed one of his engines on a Lohner and showed it in the Paris
World Fair. The car was the show-stopper of the event, and later obtained
positive results in several races.

       Other less important events happened between 1900 and 1923, when he was
hired by the most important carmaker of the time, Daimler Motoren A.G. (Which in
1926 would join Benz to form Daimler-Benz A.G.) During this time, first with
Daimler and then with Daimler-Benz, he became member of the board of directors,
and designed the famed S (Sportlich) and SS (Super Sportlich). Prizes and
university degrees did not take long to appear, and in the same year he joined
Daimler, 1923, he was named Sir Ferdinand Porsche by the Italian government and
recieved an Honoris Causa from the Stuttgart Technical Institute.

        Porsche worked in the design of Mercedes-Benz cars until 1928, when he
left because of disagreements the other other chief engineer of the factory,
Hans Nibel. But his last development in the factory was probably one of the most
important: The curious, exotic and fast SSKL.

        After Porsche left Mercedes, he was soon hired to design the now extint
Austria cars, and later joined another very important German auto maker, Auto
Union. In this factory he designed the famous and complex 16-cylinder race cars.
While working in Auto Union, he formed with his son "Ferry" an independent
factory that had their last name, Porsche, as name. Ferry worked as design head.

       In another example of versatility and excellence, he won the contract for
building the Volkswagen, a car that, according to the beliefs of Adolf Hitler,
was going to put every German citizen on wheels. And it did. With help form the
Nazi government, he started building the Volkswagen plant. Finally, the car hit
showrooms on 1939, but the war postponed it's full production until 1945.The
Volkswagen became more then a car, it became a symbol of easy, reliable
engineering and design, and broke every mass production record for a car. It is
still produced today, after almost 60 years in countries like Mexico.

        After building cars for almost everyone interested in hiring him,
Ferdinand Porsche finally put all his concentration in his own factory, located
in Zuffenhausen. In 1948 and 1949 he works with his son Ferry in the design and
production of his first model, the famed 356.

        In 1950, at the age of seventy-five and after living one of the most
prolific lives (in the automotive sense), Ferdinand Porsche dies. His legacy in
the automotive world is invaluable. His cars and his work with them, flawless.
He is one of those people who rarely put foot on this planet. He is one of those
people who have crossed the barrier that separates leyends form immortals, who
will be remembered for many generations to come as a pioneer of the most
important invention of the century, and maybe the millenium. Ferdinand Porsche
had to be born with a car on his mind. Porsche. There is no substitute.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Francis Scott Fitzgerald.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Francis Scott Fitzgerald


 	Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald is known as one of the most important
American writers of his time.  He wrote about the troubling time period in which
he lived known as the Jazz Age.  During this era people were either rich or
dreamt of great wealth.  Fitzgerald fell into the trap of wanting to be wealthy,
and suffered great personal anguish because of these driving forces.  I have
chosen to write a term paper on F.Scott Fitzgerald.  The goal of this
presentation is to show F. Scott Fitzgerald's life through his defeats and
triumphs and how these situations affected his life as a writer.
     Fitzgerald's life started in the Midwestern part of the United States.
On September 24, 1896, he  was born  in St. Paul, Minnesota.  F. Scott
Fitzgerald was of Irish heritage on both sides and was distantly related to
Francis Scott Key, for whom he is named, and to Maryland aristocracy.   His
parents, Edward Fitzgerald of the Glen Mary Farm near Rockville, Maryland and
Mary McQuillan of St. Paul wed February 13, 1890 in Washington, D.C.  Fitzgerald'
s maternal grandfather was a very successful wholesale merchant.  His
grandfather's early death and his father's inability to keep a job, forced the
family to be extremely dependent on the wealth of his grandfather's estate.
Fitzgerald attended the St. Paul Academy as a child.  In 1911 he entered the
Newman School in Hackensack, NJ.  Growing up with a father who was out of work
and who relied on his wife's inheritance gave Fitzgerald a mixed feeling of
guilt and shame and yet he felt love for both his parents.   These inner
conflicts in his early life could have contributed to his inability to manage
his finances, along with his constant obsession of gaining extreme wealth.
  	Fitzgerald later went to Princeton University, where writing and
football were his main interests.  It was there that he met friends Edmund
Wilson and John Peale Bishop.  Fitzgerald was too small to play football so he
joined a fraternity called the triangle club, the second most prestigious cliche
on campus, football being first.  After Princeton, Fitzgerald was quoted as
saying to a friend "I want to be the greatest writer who ever lived don't you
(Bruccoli, 1981)."  In 1917, Fitzgerald joined the army and prepared to fight in
World War I.  It was soon after his mobilization that he sold his first story to
the Smart Set.  This was the beginning of Fitzgerald's passion for writing, and
at this time Fitzgerald also met his future wife Zelda while serving in the army.
	Unable to make sufficient money to win the love of Zelda and not being
sent away to war encouraged Fitzgerald to go back to Minnesota to start on
another book.  This book was barely published, but it persuaded Zelda to marry
him.  So on the third of April of 1920 in St. Patrick's Cathedral New York City
they were married.
     Fitzgerald's first novel, This Side of Paradise"  sold 20,000 copies in
one week.  Fitzgerald was excited about the money he could make with his
writings and this started Fitzgerald's habit of writing a series of short
stories after each novel.  Then Fitzgerald began experimenting with his writing
talent.  Fitzgerald wrote his first and only play in November 1923 called "The
Vegetable or from President to Postman" it flopped leaving Fitzgerald broken
hearted and unmotivated.  At this time the Fitzgerald's toured Europe and began
their history of drinking and destroying their lives.
	In July, 1922, Fitzgerald wrote a note to a friend saying "I want to see
where I stand.  I want to write something new something extraordinary and
beautiful and simple and intricately patterned (Bruccoli, 1981)."  After many
attempts at writing a masterpiece, on April 11, 1925, Fitzgerald's The Great
Gatsby was released.
	The Fitzgeralds continued to roam Europe with daughter "Scottie."
Fitzgerald was unable to manage his finances and was constantly in debt.   He
was always living beyond his means and borrowing money from his next unwritten
story.  During this period of Fitzgerald's life he was relying on short stories
as the main and only income.  It has been figured by Matt Bruccoli that during
Fitzgerald's life span he made around $386,382 an average of $21,466.
	In 1930, Zelda had her first nervous breakdown.  She was
institutionalized as Scott tried very hard to write his next novel.  Much of her
time was spent at Johns Hopkins University.  Fitzgerald spent much time writing
Tender is the Night.  Tender is the Night is based mostly upon Zelda's
schizophrenia and her fifteen months in a Swedish sanitarium.  This book has its
characters showing symbolism of the pain that Fitzgerald rendered while taking
care of Zelda.
	Ernest Hemingway and Fitzgerald were great friends throughout each
others lives.  Each wrote about each other in a symbolistic manner.  It is said
that Hemingway wrote about how Zelda's insanity caused Fitzgerald to lose sight
of his writing.
	Fitzgerald moved to Hollywood in 1937 to work on movie scripts.  There
he wrote his Pat Hobby stories and began work on The Last Tycoon.  During this
time, he was also seeing Sheilah Graham, a Hollywood gossip columnist.
Fitzgerald suffered a heart attack at Graham's apartment and died on December 21,
1940.  She was the only other women Fitzgerald had ever been with.  At this time
Fitzgerald had completed less than half of The Last Tycoon.  It was later
published on October 1941.  Fitzgerald was buried at Rockville Union Cemetery in
Rockville, Maryland.  This poem written by Fitzgerald was found after his death
and perhaps best describes Fitzgerald's unsettling life.  It reads as follows:

                "Your books were in your desk
		      I guess and some unfinished
		      Chaos in your head
                Was dumped to nothing by the great janitress of destinies"
		     (Bruccoli, 1984).

Eight years after the death of Fitzgerald Zelda died in a fire.
     Fitzgerald's life was filled with ups and downs but mostly downs.  He
was a struggling writer that was at the peak of his career in life before he
knew how to handle success.  He made a masterpiece from his struggles and
problems.  Fitzgerald's life was spent trying to accomplish two things; being
part of the high society and writing a book that would make him famous.  He
accomplished one for the ability to do the other.  It destroyed him to see his
wife losing her mind for the sake of his writing, but he couldn't stand the pain
he felt when he failed.  It was an obsession to improve his masterpiece, The
Great Gatsby , and when could not go beyond it, he felt like a failure.
	Fitzgerald died trying to resurrect his name from the has beens, and put
it at the top where it once was.  As one of his quotes reads "So we beat on,
boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past" (Grolier
Encyclopedia, 1993). Showing his failed attempts to reach back into the past
made him into someone who felt he had no control upon his destiny, because it
could never be as successful as his past.  He did  know that his work would have
a permanent claim upon the American Literary World.
     Fitzgerald's life mirrored his novels.  His live was filled love and
tragedy.  He pursued his dreams, and in real life, often lived those dreams.  He
longed to capture his youth and its purity.  He produced thousands of short
stories, often times to support their frivolous lifestyles as well as to tell
their stories. Many scholars have critiqued his work and their desire to
interpret Fitzgerald's work line the shelves of libraries.   The Great Gatsby is
a Great American Classic in which hundreds of thousands of copies are sold each
year to high school and college students every where.  Much of his work has been
translated into 35 languages.  It's ironic that  more of Fitzgerald's books are
sold every year than were sold during his lifetime.  Sometimes it takes more
than a lifetime to reach your goals and Fitzgerald found a way to accomplish his
goals without living forever.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Frank Lincoln Wright.TXT
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Frank Lincoln Wright


 ".......having a good start not only do I fully intend to be the
greatest architect who has yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest
architect who will ever live.  Yes, I intend to be the greatest architect of all
time." - Frank Lloyd Wright 1867-1959


CHILDHOOD

	Born in Richland Center, in southwestern Wisconsin, on June 8, 1867
(Sometimes reported as 1869) Frank Lincoln Wright (Changed by himself to Frank
Lloyd Wright) was raised in the influence of a welsh heritage.  The Lloyd-Jones
family, his mother's side of the family, had great influence on Mr. Wright
throughout his life.  The family was Unitary in faith and lived close to each
other.  Major aspects within the Lloyd-Jones family included education,
religion,  and nature.  Wright's family spent many evenings listening to William
Lincoln Wright read the works of Emerson, Thoreau, and Blake outloud.  Also his
aunts Nell and Jane opened a school of their own pressing the philosophies of
German educator, Froebel.  Wright was brought up in a comfortable, but certainly
not warm household.  His father, William Carey Wright who worked as a preacher
and a musician, moved from job to job,  dragging his family across the United
States.  His parents divorced when Wright was still young.  His mother Anna
(Lloyd-Jones) Wright, relied heavily on upon her many brothers sisters and
uncles, and was intellectually guided by his aunts and his mother.

	Before her son was born, Anna Wright had decided that her son was gong
to be a great architect.  Using Froebel's geometric blocks to entertain and
educate her son, Mrs. Wright must have struck genius her son possessed.  Use of
the imagination was encouraged and Wright was given free run of the playroom
filled with paste, paper, and cardboard.  On the door were the words, SANCTUM
SANCTORUM (Latin for: place of inviolable privacy).  Mr. Wright was seen as a
dreamy and sensitive child, and cases of him running away while working on the
farmlands with some uncles is noted.  This pattern of running away continued
throughout his lifetime.

WRIGHT'S FIRST BREAK

	In 1887, at the age of twenty, Frank Lloyd Wright moved to Chicago.
During the late nineteenth century, Chicago was a booming, crazy place.  With an
education of Engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Wright found a job as
a draftsman in a Chicago architectural firm.  During this short time with the
firm of J. Lyman Silsbee, Wright started on his first project, the "Hillside
Home" for his aunts, Nell and Jane. Impatiently moving forward, Wright got a job
at one of the best known firms in Chicago at the time, Adler and Sullivan.
Sullivan was to become Wright's greatest mentor.

LOUIS SULLIVAN:  LIEBER MEISTER

	Wright Referred to Sullivan as "Lieber Meister" (beloved master).  He
admired his talent for ornamation, and his skill of drawing intricate plans and
designs.  Wright picked up on his ways of Sullivan and soon became ahead of
Alder in importance within the firm.  Wright's relationship between he and his
employer caused great amounts of tension between Wright and his fellow draftsmen,
and as well as in-between Sullivan and Adler.  Wright was assigned the
residential contracts of the firm.  His work soon greatend as he accepted jobs
outside of the firm.  When Sullivan found out about this in 1893, he called
Wright on a breach of contract.  Rather than to drop the "night jobs", Wright
walked out of the firm.  When Wright left the company, Sullivan's quantity of
contract declined quickly.  Sullivan soon ran into economic troubles and his
international reputation dwindled by 1920.  Sullivan was soon reguarded as
worthless to the architectural world.  He resorted to alcoholism and died in
1924 without regaining the glory of what was held in their early years of
Chicago.

LIFE AFTER THE FIRM

	Wright quickly built up a practice in residential architecture.  At one
point in his career, Wright would produce 135 buildings in ten years.  Wright
took a different approach to architecture by designing the furniture, light
fixtures, and other things that were in the structures that he made.  He
developed a unique type of architecture that was known as the "Prairie" style.
Dominated by the horizontal line, the style would make-up the type of buildings
designed in the 1900-1913 era of his career.  Wright had two other distinctive
styles and a period for each one of them, one being the Textile block (1917-
1924) and the other the Usonian (1936-1959).
	In 1909 Wright took off for Europe, once again leaving a stable life,
with six children, a wife and a well established business.  He traveled to
Europe to seek greater fame and recognition.  Wright did not stay long in Europe.
 He left in 1910 to Chicago and Wisconsin to start construction of his second
home, Taliesin in 1911.  In the year 1913 he got a contract for midway gardens
in downtown Chicago.  Which today is only the drawings.  In 1914 disaster struck
Wright's life, on one fateful day, when Taliesin was completed, his mistress,
two children and four of Wright's leading workmen were murdered by a crazed
servant.  Talesin was also burned to the ground.  Wright soon left to Japan.

WRIGHT'S ACCOPLISMENTS IN LIFE

	By the time Frank Lloyd Wright died in 1959, he had produced
architecture for more than seventy years.  Wright has changed many styles and
set new standards.  His Organic approach has put influence on many drafters of
today.  In the design of the house he would use materials to blend the house
into the setting.  He manipulated stone, brick, glass, wood, stucco, concrete,
and copper in ways that it had never been done before. There are many amazing
buildings designed by him.  The amount seems almost uncountable.
     The Robie  house is considered to be a masterpiece of Wright's career.
Made of a few different materials, the house was intended by Wright to have a "
homey" or a feeling of unity.  The light fixtures and other items were built
into the house to keep the unity effect alive.  The house was designed and built
between 1906 and 1910, the house is located in Chicago.  The building was
commissioned by Frederick C. Robie, a 30 year old engineer at the time he
approached Wright.  The house, in my opinion shows the exact definition of the "
Prairie" style.  The way that it's built on a narrow city lot and the way it's
horizontal lines are, show the short, flat look of that style.
	The Imperial Hotel provided Wright with an architectural as well as
engineering challenge.  The hotel was finished in 1922 and was criticized for
its aesthetic design, but when it survived the 1923 earthquake that left Tokyo
in shambles, it was praised.  Wright designed a "floating foundation" for the
building.  I believe that Wright had designed the hotel perfectly for the
Japanese.  The simpleness and horizontal line of his prairie style, fit in the
culture perfectly: as in, fitting in to their style of architecture.  Wright's
trait of using natural material was also common to the Japanese culture.
     Fallingwater was another one of Mr. Wright's masterpieces it also had
the exact definition of the organic architecture.  Wright utilized mostly
concrete and stone to create his masterpiece the concrete gives this house a
smooth look.  The cantilevers make the ledges appear to be self-supporting.  The
different layers made the building look like a waterfall.  Wright built the
house around existing trees.  He also made the chimney around an already
existing boulder.  Fallingwater is an amazing house, the rooms and ledges are
all very different than the traditional boxy houses of Wright's time period.
Fallingwater seems to sprout form its surroundings almost like a plant.
     The Guggenheim Museum has been considered as Wright's last great feats.
Sadly but true, the museum was opened shortly after his death.  The huge
skylight provides light for the entire museum.  The spiral/snail shell design
seems to grow out of the ground.  The design allows people to see the art in a
continuous manner.  The viewers are intended to take an elevator to the top and
walk all the way down viewing the exhibits.
	Wright never retired; he died on April 9, 1959 at the age of ninety-two
in Arizona. He was interred at the graveyard at Unity Chapel (which was
considered to be his first building) at Taliesin in Wisconsin.  In 1985,
Olgivanna Wright passed away and one of her wishes was to have Frank Lloyd
Wright's remains cremated and the ashes put next to hers at Taliesin West, after
much controversy this was done.  The epitaph at his Wisconsin grave site reads: "
"Love of an idea is the love of god".




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Frank Lloyd Wright Biography 787.TXT
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ARTIST'S BIOGRAPHY







FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT













"Beautiful buildings are more than scientific.  They are true organisms, spiritually



conceived; works of art, using the best technology by inspiration rather than the



idiosyncrasies of mere taste or any averaging by the committee mind."







"The good building is not one that hurts the landscape, but one which makes the



landscape more beautiful than it was before the building was built."







"My building will last at least 300 years.







" No house should ever be on any hill or on anything. It should be of the hill, belonging



to it, so hill and house could live together each the happier for the other."







- Frank Lloyd Wright (1867~1959)















Frank Lloyd Wright was born at Frank Lincoln Wright in Richland



Center in southwestern Wisconsin, on June 8, 1867.  He is one of the most universally



acclaimed and admired of all American architects, and his name is known worldwide to



laymen as well as to architects and historians.  Wright's buildings and theories seem to



have had only a slight impact on the evolution of 20the-century architecture.  His early



influences were his clergyman father's playing of Bach and Beethoven and his mother's



gift of geometric blocks. Wright spent many summers of his youth in Spring Green, he



came to view architecture as subject to the same rules that govern organic growth. Like,



plants buildings should "grow out of the soil and be a part of it."  He entered the



University of Wisconsin at 15 as a special student, studying engineering because the



school had no course in architecture.



In 1887, at the age of twenty, Frank Lloyd Wright, broke from the



comfort of his childhood in Wisconsin and moved to Chicago.  With education in



Engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Wright found a job as a draftsman in a



Chicago architectural firm of J.Lyman Silsbee.  During his short time with Silsbee, Frank



began his first project, the Hillside Home for his Aunts Nell and Jane.  Frank left his fist



job within a year and found a position with one of the best known firms in Chicago at the



turn of the century, Alder & Sullivan.  Sullivan was to become Wright's greatest mentor.



With the new industrial age, came a growing suburban population, and a division between



home and work. While the firm of Alder & Sullivan concentrated on the demand for



downtown commercial building, Wright was assigned the residential contracts.  His work



soon expanded as he accepted jobs outside the firms assigning.  Sullivan discovered this in



1893 and called Frank on a breach of contract.  Wright walked out of the firm.



As an independent architect, Wright became the leader of a style



known as the Prairie school.  Houses with low-pitched roofs and extended lines that blend



into the landscape typify the style.   Wright took an integral approach to architecture by



designing the interior furnishings of the building as well as the structure.  In 1909 Wright



took off for Europe, his travel brought him fame across the sea at a greater level than that



he had received in his native homeland.  Wright returned in 1910 to Chicago and



Wisconsin.  In 1916 he designed the Imperial Hotel in  Tokyo, which survived a 1923



earthquake.  The Imperial Hotel project provided Wright with an engineering problem as



well as an architectural challenge. Wright had managed to design a "floating foundation"



for the building which combined oriental simplicity, in modern world comfort.  Returning



to the United States in 1922, Wright pursued the use of new material in residential homes,



concrete.



As early as 1894 Wright was defining his philosophy of architecture



"organic architecture"1 and his ideology of the use of materials and space.  He worked



with indirect lighting, air conditioning, panel heating and developed the idea of a corner



window.  By the time of his death in 1959, Frank Lloyd Wright had produced architecture



for more than seventy years.  What is even more remarkable is that Wright had redesigned



American architecture for at least a century and created an area of the domain which



America could claim as it's own.



I believe that Frank Lloyd Wright's works has particular relevance



in today's world.  Although Wright never established a style that dominated American or



European culture, his designs influenced the architecture of the future . i.e.. Wright



developed certain techniques that are still seen in buildings today.





BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Horizon Press New York:   'An Autobiography Frank Lloyd Wright' 1977

2. Olgivanna Lloyd Wright :   'Frank Lloyd Wright, His Life, His Work, His Words' (First published in Great Britain 1970)

3. Richard G. Tansey & Fred S. Kleiner:   'Gardner's Art Through The Ages - Tenth Edition' 1996

4. The dictionary of art / editor, Jane Turner.  New York : Grove's Dictionaries, 1996



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Frank Lloyd Wright.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	
".......having a good start not only do I fully intend to be the greatest architect who has
yet lived, but fully intend to be the greatest architect who will ever live.  Yes, I intend to
be the greatest architect of all time." - Frank Lloyd Wright 1867-1959



CHILDHOOD

	Born in Richland Center, in southwestern Wisconsin, on June 8, 1867
(Sometimes reported as 1869) Frank Lincoln Wright (Changed by himself to Frank Lloyd
Wright) was raised in the influence of a welsh heritage.  The Lloyd-Jones family, his
mother's side of the family, had great influence on Mr. Wright throughout his life.  The
family was Unitary in faith and lived close to each other.  Major aspects within the
Lloyd-Jones family included education,  religion,  and nature.  Wright's family spent
many evenings listening to William Lincoln Wright read the works of Emerson, Thoreau,
and Blake outloud.  Also his aunts Nell and Jane opened a school of their own pressing
the philosophies of German educator, Froebel.  Wright was brought up in a comfortable,
but certainly not warm household.  His father, William Carey Wright who worked as a
preacher and a musician, moved from job to job,  dragging his family across the United
States.  His parents divorced when Wright was still young.  His mother Anna
(Lloyd-Jones) Wright, relied heavily on upon her many brothers sisters and uncles, and
was intellectually guided by his aunts and his mother.

	Before her son was born, Anna Wright had decided that her son was gong to be a
great architect.  Using Froebel's geometric blocks to entertain and educate her son, Mrs.
Wright must have struck genius her son possessed.  Use of the imagination was
encouraged and Wright was given free run of the playroom filled with paste, paper, and
cardboard.  On the door were the words, SANCTUM SANCTORUM (Latin for: place of
inviolable privacy).  Mr. Wright was seen as a dreamy and sensitive child, and cases of
him running away while working on the farmlands with some uncles is noted.  This
pattern of running away continued throughout his lifetime.

WRIGHT'S FIRST BREAK

	In 1887, at the age of twenty, Frank Lloyd Wright moved to Chicago.  During the
late nineteenth century, Chicago was a booming, crazy place.  With an education of
Engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Wright found a job as a draftsman in a
Chicago architectural firm.  During this short time with the firm of J. Lyman Silsbee,
Wright started on his first project, the "Hillside Home" for his aunts, Nell and Jane. 
Impatiently moving forward, Wright got a job at one of the best known firms in Chicago
at the time, Adler and Sullivan.  Sullivan was to become Wright's greatest mentor.  

LOUIS SULLIVAN:  LIEBER MEISTER

	Wright Referred to Sullivan as "Lieber Meister" (beloved master).  He admired
his talent for ornamation, and his skill of drawing intricate plans and designs.  Wright
picked up on his ways of Sullivan and soon became ahead of Alder in importance within
the firm.  Wright's relationship between he and his employer caused great amounts of
tension between Wright and his fellow draftsmen, and as well as in-between Sullivan and
Adler.  Wright was assigned the residential contracts of the firm.  His work soon greatend
as he accepted jobs outside of the firm.  When Sullivan found out about this in 1893, he
called Wright on a breach of contract.  Rather than to drop the "night jobs", Wright
walked out of the firm.  When Wright left the company, Sullivan's quantity of contract
declined quickly.  Sullivan soon ran into economic troubles and his international
reputation dwindled by 1920.  Sullivan was soon reguarded as worthless to the
architectural world.  He resorted to alcoholism and died in 1924 without regaining the
glory of what was held in their early years of Chicago.

LIFE AFTER THE FIRM

	Wright quickly built up a practice in residential architecture.  At one point in his
career, Wright would produce 135 buildings in ten years.  Wright took a different
approach to architecture by designing the furniture, light fixtures, and other things that
were in the structures that he made.  He developed a unique type of architecture that was
known as the "Prairie" style.  Dominated by the horizontal line, the style would make-up
the type of buildings designed in the 1900-1913 era of his career.  Wright had two other
distinctive styles and a period for each one of them, one being the Textile block
(1917-1924) and the other the Usonian (1936-1959).
	In 1909 Wright took off for Europe, once again leaving a stable life, with six
children, a wife and a well established business.  He traveled to Europe to seek greater
fame and recognition.  Wright did not stay long in Europe.  He left in 1910 to Chicago
and Wisconsin to start construction of his second home, Taliesin in 1911.  In the year
1913 he got a contract for midway gardens in downtown Chicago.  Which today is only
the drawings.  In 1914 disaster struck Wright's life, on one fateful day, when Taliesin
was completed, his mistress, two children and four of Wright's leading workmen were
murdered by a crazed servant.  Talesin was also burned to the ground.  Wright soon left
to Japan.

WRIGHT'S ACCOPLISMENTS IN LIFE

	By the time Frank Lloyd Wright died in 1959, he had produced architecture for
more than seventy years.  Wright has changed many styles and set new standards.  His
Organic approach has put influence on many drafters of today.  In the design of the house
he would use materials to blend the house into the setting.  He manipulated stone, brick,
glass, wood, stucco, concrete, and copper in ways that it had never been done before. 
There are many amazing buildings designed by him.  The amount seems almost
uncountable. 
	The Robie  house is considered to be a masterpiece of Wright's career.  Made of a
few different materials, the house was intended by Wright to have a "homey" or a feeling
of unity.  The light fixtures and other items were built into the house to keep the unity
effect alive.  The house was designed and built between 1906 and 1910, the house is
located in Chicago.  The building was commissioned by Frederick C. Robie, a 30 year
old engineer at the time he approached Wright.  The house, in my opinion shows the
exact definition of the "Prairie" style.  The way that it's built on a narrow city lot and the
way it's horizontal lines are, show the short, flat look of that style.
	The Imperial Hotel provided Wright with an architectural as well as engineering
challenge.  The hotel was finished in 1922 and was criticized for its aesthetic design, but
when it survived the 1923 earthquake that left Tokyo in shambles, it was praised.  Wright
designed a "floating foundation" for the building.  I believe that Wright had designed the
hotel perfectly for the Japanese.  The simpleness and horizontal line of his prairie style,
fit in the culture perfectly: as in, fitting in to their style of architecture.  Wright's trait of
using natural material was also common to the Japanese culture.
	Fallingwater was another one of Mr. Wright's masterpieces it also had the exact
definition of the organic architecture.  Wright utilized mostly concrete and stone to create
his masterpiece the concrete gives this house a smooth look.  The cantilevers make the
ledges appear to be self-supporting.  The different layers made the building look like a
waterfall.  Wright built the house around existing trees.  He also made the chimney
around an already existing boulder.  Fallingwater is an amazing house, the rooms and
ledges are all very different than the traditional boxy houses of Wright's time period. 
Fallingwater seems to sprout form its surroundings almost like a plant.
	The Guggenheim Museum has been considered as Wright's last great feats.  Sadly
but true, the museum was opened shortly after his death.  The huge skylight provides
light for the entire museum.  The spiral/snail shell design seems to grow out of the
ground.  The design allows people to see the art in a continuous manner.  The viewers are
intended to take an elevator to the top and walk all the way down viewing the exhibits.
	Wright never retired; he died on April 9, 1959 at the age of ninety-two in Arizona. 
He was interred at the graveyard at Unity Chapel (which was considered to be his first
building) at Taliesin in Wisconsin.  In 1985, Olgivanna Wright passed away and one of
her wishes was to have Frank Lloyd Wright's remains cremated and the ashes put next to
hers at Taliesin West, after much controversy this was done.  The epitaph at his
Wisconsin grave site reads: "Love of an idea is the love of god". 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Franklin Delano Roosevelt 2.TXT
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3639
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, (1882-1945), 32nd of the United States. Roosevelt became president in March 1933 at the depth of the Great Depression, was reelected for an unprecedented three more terms, and died in office in April 1945, less than a month before the surrender of Germany in World War II. Despite an attack of poliomyelitis, which paralyzed his legs in 1921, he was a charismatic optimist whose confidence helped sustain the American people during the strains of economic crisis and world war. He was one of America's most controversial leaders. Conservatives claimed that he undermined states' rights and individual liberty. Though Roosevelt labored hard to end the Depression, he had limited success. It was not until 1939 and 1940, with the onset of heavy defense spending before World War II, that prosperity returned. Roosevelt also displayed limitations in his handling of foreign policy. In the 1930's he was slow to warn against the menace of fascism, and during the war he relied too heavily on his charm and personality in the conduct of diplomacy. Still, Roosevelt's historical reputation is deservedly high. In attacking the Great Depression he did much to develop a partial welfare state in the United States and to make the federal government an agent of social and economic reform. His administration indirectly encouraged the rise of organized labor and greatly invigorated the . His foreign policies, while occasionally devious, were shrewd enough to sustain domestic unity and the allied coalition in World War II. Roosevelt was a president of stature. The future president was born on Jan. 30, 1882, at the family estate in Hyde Park, N.Y. His father, James (1828-1900), was descended from Nicholas Roosevelt, whose father had emigrated from Holland to New Amsterdam in the 1640's. One of Nicholas' two sons, Johannes, fathered the line that ultimately produced President Theodore Roosevelt. The other son, Jacobus, was James' great-great-grandfather. James graduated from Union College (1847) and Harvard Law School, married, had a son, and took over his family's extensive holdings in coal and transportation. Despite substantial losses in speculative ventures, he remained wealthy enough to journey by private railroad car, to live graciously on his Hudson River estate at Hyde Park, and to travel extensively. Four years after his first wife died in 1876, James met and married Sara Delano, a sixth cousin. She, too, was a member of the Hudson River aristocracy. Her father, one of James' business associates, had made and lost fortunes in the China trade before settling with his wife and 11 children on the west bank of the Hudson. Sara had sailed to China as a girl, attended school abroad, and moved in high social circles in London and Paris. Though only half her husband's age of 52 at the time of her marriage in 1880, she settled in happily at Hyde Park. Their marriage was serene until broken by James' death in 1900. His record at Harvard, which he attended between 1900 and 1904, was only slightly more impressive. Thanks to his excellent preparation at Groton, he was able to complete his course of study for his B.A. in 1903, in only three years. During his fourth year he served as editor of the Crimson, the college newspaper. However, he was not accepted for Porcellian, Harvard's most prestigious social club, and he did not receive much stimulation in the classroom. As at Groton, his grades were mediocre, and he showed no excitement about his studies. At this point politics gave him a sense of purpose. The Democratic organization in Dutchess county, the area around Hyde Park, needed a candidate for the New York state Senate in 1910. Party leaders recognized that although Roosevelt had no political experience he had assets as a candidate: the wealth to finance a campaign, and the best-known political name in the United States. Roosevelt worked as never before during the campaign. Acquiring a car, he crisscrossed the county in his quest for support. He showed skill at making himself agreeable to voters and a willingness to listen to the advice of political veterans. As at Groton and Harvard, during his political career he proved open and adaptable. For all these reasons Roosevelt won impressively in the usually Republican district. Roosevelt made an immediate impact in the legislative session of 1911. At that time U. S. senators from New York were elected by the legislature,not by popular vote. The Democrats, with majorities in both houses, prepared to select William F. Sheehan, a transportation and utilities magnate who was the choice of Tammany Hall, New York City's powerful political machine. A few Democrats balked at the choice. Roosevelt joined them and became their leader. But Roosevelt and his allies took some consolation in having forced the withdrawal of Sheehan and in attracting nationwide attention. It was an auspicious start to a career in politics. As assistant secretary (1913-1920), Franklin Roosevelt reminded many people of TR. He advocated a big Navy, preparedness, a strong presidency, and an active foreign policy. In 1917 he enthusiastically supported war against Germany, and in 1918 he took pleasure in visiting the front in Europe. Sometimes he clashed with Daniels, a progressive with pacifist leanings. But Daniels was tolerant of his subordinate. The secretary appreciated Roosevelt's dexterous handling of admirals, departmental employees, and labor unions, which were active in naval yards, and his opposition to the collusive bidding and price-fixing practiced by defense contractors. FDR's years of service as assistant secretary gave him administrative experience and a host of contacts in Washington and the Democratic party. In 1928, Roosevelt vaulted suddenly to national prominence. After helping Smith get the presidential nomination, he set off for Warm Springs, where he looked forward to weeks of therapy. But Smith urgently needed a strong gubernatorial candidate on the Democratic ticket in New York, and he pressured Roosevelt into running. Smith lost the election to Herbert , the Republican presidential candidate, who carried New York by 100,000 votes. Roosevelt, more popular upstate than Smith, successfully bridged the urban-rural gap in the Democratic party and beat his opponent, state Attorney General Albert Ottinger, by 25,000 votes. It was a striking triumph in an otherwise Republican year. During his two terms, Governor Roosevelt battled a Republican legislature for many progressive measures. These included reforestation, state-supported old-age pensions and unemployment insurance, legislation regulating working hours for women and children, and public development of electric power. He named skilled people to important positions, including James Farley, a New York City contractor, as chairman of the state Democratic Committee; Frances Perkins, a social worker, as state industrial commissioner; and Samuel Rosenman, an able young lawyer, as his speech writer and counsel. All became important aides during Roosevelt's presidency. In 1931, when the Depression was serious, Roosevelt became the first governor to set up an effective state relief administration. Harry Hopkins, a social worker who later served as his closest adviser in Washington, directed it. In a series of "fireside chats" Governor Roosevelt also proved a persuasive speaker over the new medium of radio. He was reelected in 1930 by 750,000 votes, the largest margin in state history. By March 4, 1933, when Roosevelt was inaugurated at the age of 51, the economic situation was desperate. Between 13 and 15 million Americans were unemployed. Of these, between 1 and 2 million persons were wandering about the country looking for jobs. Hundreds of thousands squatted in tents or ramshackle dwellings in "Hoovervilles," makeshift villages on the outskirts of cities. Panic-stricken people hoping to rescue their deposits had forced 38 states to close their banks. From the beginning, Roosevelt tried to restore popular confidence. "The only thing we have to fear," he said in his inaugural address, "is fear itself--nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror." He added that he would not stand by and watch the Depression deepen. If necessary, he would "ask the Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet the crisis--broad executive power to wage a war against the emergency, as great as the power that would be given to me if we were in fact invaded by a foreign foe." He then closed the rest of the banks--declaring a "bank holiday"--and called Congress into special session. His first legislative requests were conservative. He began by securing passage of an emergency banking bill. Instead of nationalizing the banks--as a few reformers wished--it offered aid to private bankers. A few days later the president forced through an Economy Act that cut $400 million from government payments to veterans and $100 million from the salaries of federal employees. This deflationary measure hurt purchasing power. FDR concluded his early program by securing legalization of beer of 3.2% alcoholic content by weight. By the end of 1933, ratification of the 21st Amendment to the U. S. had ended prohibition altogether. His relief program was more far-reaching. A series of measures took the nation off the gold standard, thereby offering some assistance to debtors and exporters. He also got Congress to appropriate $500 million in federal relief grants to states and local agencies. Harry Hopkins, who headed the newly created Federal Emergency Relief Administration, quickly spent the money. By early 1935 he had supervised the outlay of $1.5 billion more in direct grants, and in work relief under the Civil Works Administration (CWA) of 1933-1934. In 1933, Congress also approved funding for the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), and the Public Works Administration (PWA). The CCC eventually employed more than 2.5 million young men on valuable conservation work. The HOLC offered desperately needed assistance to mortgagors and homeowners. The PWA, while slow to act, ultimately pumped billions into construction of large-scale projects. Though left-wing critics demanded higher appropriations, most Americans were grateful for these measures. The relief programs of them gave hope to the have-nots--blacks and the unemployed--and did much to restore confidence in the government. FDR placed his hopes for economic recovery in two agencies created in the productive "100 Days" of the 1933 special session of Congress. These were the National Recovery Administration (NRA) and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The NRA encouraged management and labor to establish codes of fair competition within each industry. These codes outlined acceptable pricing and production policies and guaranteed labor the rights of collective bargaining, minimum wages, and maximum hours. The AAA focused on raising farm prices, a goal to be achieved through the setting of production quotas approved by farmers in referenda. Once the quotas limiting production were established, farmers who cooperated would receive subsidies. After a promising start the NRA lost its effectiveness. Union spokesmen grumbled that the courts undercut the labor guarantees. Progressives complained that the NRA exempted monopolies from antitrust prosecution. Small businessmen protested that the codes favored large corporations. Some employers were slow to sign the codes, and others evaded them. If the PWA and other spending agencies had moved more quickly to promote purchasing power, these liabilities might not have been serious. As it was, the PWA was slow to spend its funds, hard times persisted, and evasion spread. Well before the Supreme Court declared the agency unconstitutional in May 1935, the NRA had failed in its aims of sponsoring government-business cooperation and promoting recovery. The AAA was a little more successful. Agricultural income increased by 50% in Roosevelt's first term. Some of this increase, however, was attributable to terrible droughts. These, ruining thousands of farmers in the Great Plains, caused cuts in supply and contributed to higher prices for crops produced elsewhere. AAA acreage quotas also led some landlords to evict tenants from their lands. Moreover, as the AAA improved farm prices, it forced consumers, millions of whom lacked adequate food and decent clothing, to pay more for the necessities of life. Roosevelt, it seemed, was fighting scarcity with more scarcity. These early measures displayed Roosevelt's strengths and weaknesses as an economic thinker. On the one hand, he showed that he was flexible, that he would act, and that he would use all his executive powers to secure congressional cooperation. Frequent press conferences, speeches, and fireside chats--and the extraordinary charisma that he displayed on all occasions--instilled a measure of confidence in the people and halted the terrifying slide of 1932 and 1933. These were important achievements that brought him and his party the gratitude of millions of Americans. FDR also refrained from large-scale deficit spending or from tax policies that would have redistributed income. Purchasing power, essential to rapid recovery, therefore failed to increase substantially. Roosevelt, a practical political leader and a moderate in economics, helped preserve capitalism without significantly correcting its abuses or ending the Depression. In 1935, Roosevelt turned slightly to the left. He sponsored bills aimed at abolishing public-utility holding companies, at raising taxes on the wealthy, and at shifting control of monetary policy from Wall Street bankers to Washington. When Congress balked, Roosevelt compromised. The bills revealed Roosevelt's loss of faith in government-business cooperation. They helped undercut demagogues like Sen. Huey Long (D-La.), who was agitating for tougher laws against the rich. But they did not signify a commitment to radical, antibusiness policies. While these struggles were taking place, Roosevelt worked successfully for three significant acts passed in 1935. One, a relief appropriation, led to creation of the Works Progress Administration (WPA). The WPA disbursed some $11 billion in work relief to as many as 3.2 million Americans a month between 1935 and 1942. The second measure, the Wagner Act, set up the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), which effectively guaranteed labor the right to bargain collectively on equal terms with management. In part because of the Wagner Act, in part because of overdue militance by spokesmen for industrial unionism, the labor movement swelled in the 1930's and 1940's. The third reform was social security. The law provided for federal payment of old-age pensions and for federal-state cooperation in support of unemployment compensation and relief of the needy blind, of the disabled, and of dependent children. The act, though faulty in many ways, became the foundation of a partial welfare state with which later administrations dared not tamper. Controversy disrupted the president's second term. His troubles began in February 1937, when he called for a "court reform" plan that would have permitted him to add up to six judges to the probusiness U.S. Supreme Court. The court's conservative majority had angered FDR by declaring some New Deal legislation, including the NRA and AAA, unconstitutional. Congress, reflecting widespread reverence for the court, refused to do his bidding. At the time, militant workers staged "sit-down" strikes in factories. Though Roosevelt opposed the sit-downs, conservatives were quick to blame him for the growing activism of organized labor. In the fall of 1937 a sharp recession, caused in large part by cuts in federal spending earlier in the year, staggered the country. Taken aback, Roosevelt waited until the spring of 1938 before calling for increased federal spending to recharge purchasing power. His procrastination revealed again his reluctance to resort to deficit spending. These developments in 1937 and 1938 severely damaged his standing in Congress, which had grown restive under his strong leadership as early as 1935. In FDR's second term, therefore, the lawmakers proved cooperative only long enough to approve measures calling for public housing, fair labor standards, and aid to tenant farmers. None of these acts, however, was generously funded or far-reaching. Meanwhile, Congress cut back presidential requests for relief spending and public works. After Republican gains in the 1938 elections, a predominantly rural conservative coalition in Congress proved still more hostile. Henceforth it rejected most of the urban and welfare measures of Roosevelt's administrations. Cordell Hull of Tennessee served as secretary of state from 1933 to 1944, but Roosevelt's desire to engage in personal diplomacy left Hull in a reduced role. In 1933 the president's "bombshell message" to the London Economic Conference, saying that the United States would not participate in international currency stabilization, ended any immediate hope of achieving that objective. In the same year he extended diplomatic recognition to the USSR, still a relative outcast in world diplomacy. Roosevelt and Hull worked smoothly in behalf of reciprocal trade agreements and in making the United States the "good neighbor" of the Latin American. By the mid-1930's dictatorial regimes in Germany, Japan, and Italy were casting their shadows across the blank pages of the future. In 1936, in his speech accepting renomination as president, Roosevelt had said, "This generation of Americans has a rendezvous with destiny." By 1938, Roosevelt was spending increasing amounts of time on international affairs. Until then he had acquiesced in congressional "neutrality" acts designed to keep the United States out of another world war. Roosevelt did not share the isolationist sentiments that lay behind such legislation. But he hoped very much to avoid war, and he dared not risk his domestic program by challenging Congress over foreign policy. For these reasons he was slow to warn the people about the dangers of German fascism. Germany's aggressiveness in 1939 forced Roosevelt to take a tougher stance. Early in the year he tried unsuccessfully to secure revision of a neutrality act calling for an embargo on armaments to all belligerents, whether attacked or attacker. When Hitler overran Poland in September and triggered the formal beginning of World War II, Roosevelt tried again for repeal of the embargo, and succeeded. In 1940 he negotiated an unneutral deal with Britain whereby the British leased their bases in the Western Hemisphere to the United States in return for 50 overaged American destroyers. Roosevelt also secured vastly increased defense expenditures, which brought about domestic economic recovery at last. But he still hoped to keep out of the war and to appease the anti-interventionists in Congress. Thus he remained cautious. To protect the supplies against German submarines, U.S. destroyers began escorting convoys of Allied ships part way across the Atlantic. In the process the destroyers helped pinpoint the location of submarines, which Allied warships duly attacked. Roosevelt did not tell the people about America's unneutral actions on the high seas. When a German submarine fired a torpedo at the American destroyer Greer in September 1941, he feigned surprise and outrage and ordered U. S. warships to shoot on sight at hostile German ships. By December the United States and Germany were engaged in an undeclared war on the Atlantic. Most historians agree that Hitler was a menace to Western civilization, that American intervention was necessary to stop him, and that domestic isolationism hampered the president's freedom of response. But they regret that Roosevelt, in seeking his ends, chose to deceive the people and to abuse his powers. Historians also debate Roosevelt's policies toward Japan, whose leaders were bent on expansion in the 1930's. Hoping to contain this expansion, the president gradually tightened an embargo of vital goods to Japan. He also demanded that Japan halt its aggressive activities in China and Indochina. Instead of backing down, the militarists who controlled Japan decided to fight, by attacking Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on Dec. 7, 1941, and by assaulting the East Indies. These moves left no doubt about Japan's aggressive intentions. In asking for a declaration of war, the president called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy." He brought a united America into World War II. By December 11, the United States was at war with Germany and Italy. Some historians argue, however, that Roosevelt should not have been so unbudging regarding the integrity of China and Indochina, which lay outside America's national interest--or power to protect. If Roosevelt had adopted a more flexible policy toward Japan, he might have postponed a conflict in Asia at a time when war with Hitler was about to erupt. Roosevelt's military policies also provoked controversy. In 1941 critics blamed him for leaving Pearl Harbor unprepared. Extremists even claimed that he invited the Japanese attack in order to have a pretext for war. In 1942 liberals complained when he cooperated with Jean Darlan, the Vichy French admiral who until then had been collaborating with the Axis, in planning the Allied invasion of North Africa. In 1943, FDR's opponents grumbled that his policy of unconditional surrender for the enemy discouraged the anti-Hitler resistance within Germany. Other critics complained that he relied too heavily on strategic bombing. His own generals were angry because he postponed the "second front" against Hitler until June 1944. Such delay, critics added later, infuriated the Soviet Union, which had to carry the brunt of the fighting against Hitler between 1941 and 1944, and sowed the seeds of the Cold War. Some of these criticisms were partly justified. Poor communications between Washington and Hawaii helped the Japanese achieve surprise at Pearl Harbor. Dealing with Darlan was probably not necessary to ensure success in North Africa. Strategic bombing killed millions of civilians and was not nearly so effective as its advocates claimed. The delay in the second front greatly intensified Soviet suspicions of the West. But it is easy to second-guess and to exaggerate Roosevelt's failings as a military leader. The president neither invited nor welcomed the Pearl Harbor attack, which was a brilliantly planned maneuver by Japan. He worked with Darlan in the hope of preventing unnecessary loss of Allied lives. Unconditional surrender, given American anger at the enemy, was a politically logical policy. It also proved reassuring to the Soviet Union, which had feared a separate German-American peace. Establishing the second front required control of the air and large supplies of landing craft, and these were not assured until 1944. In many of these decisions Roosevelt acted in characteristically pragmatic fashion--to win the war as effectively as possible and to keep the wartime alliance together. In these aims he was successful. By 1945, Roosevelt was 63 years old. The events early in that year added to the strains on his heart, and on April 12, 1945, he died suddenly at Warm Springs, Ga. Three days later he was buried at Hyde Park. Despite his limitations, he had been a strong, decent, and highly popular president for more than 12 years.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Franklin Delano Roosevelt.TXT
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1630 
Biography of Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Roosevelt was born at his family's estate at Hyde Park, in Dutchess County, New York on January 30,1882. He was the only child of James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt. James Roosevelt was a moderately successful businessman, with a variety of investments and a special interest in coal. He was also a conservative Democrat who was interested in politics. His home overlooking the Hudson River was comfortable without being ostentatious, and the family occupied a prominent position among the social elite of the area. Sara Delano, 26 years younger than her previously widowed husband, brought to the marriage a fortune considerably larger than that of James Roosevelt. The Delano family had prospered trading with China, and Sara herself had spent some time with her parents in Hong Kong. So, Franklin was born into a pleasant and sociable home, with loving wealthy parents. Roosevelt's parents sent him off to school in 1896. They selected Groton School in Massachusetts, which had a reputation as one of the finest of the exclusive private schools that prepared boys for the Ivy League colleges. Young Roosevelt was a good student, popular with his fellow students as well as with his teachers. Roosevelt moved to New York City, where he entered the Columbia University Law School in 1904. Although he attended classes until 1907, he failed to stay on for his law degree after passing the state examinations allowing him to practice law. For the next three years he was a clerk in a prominent law firm in New York City, but the evidence is clear that he had little interest in law and little enthusiasm to be a lawyer. Well before he finished his work at Columbia, young Franklin Roosevelt had married his distant cousin Anna Eleanor Roosevelt. They had been in love for some time and were determined to marry in spite of the opposition of Franklin's mother. The bride's uncle, President Theodore Roosevelt, was present at the ceremony in New York City on March 17, 1905. Five of their six children grew to maturity: Anna, James, Elliott, Franklin, Jr., and John. The chief problem faced by the young couple during the early years of their marriage was Sara Roosevelt's possessive attitude toward her son. Eleanor's forbearance mitigated this situation, but the problem remained for many years. Roosevelt entered politics in 1910, when he became a candidate for the New York State Senate in a district composed of three upstate farming counties. Democratic leaders had approached young Roosevelt because of his name and local prominence-and because he might be expected to pay his own election expenses. The 28-year-old Roosevelt campaigned hard, stressing his deep personal interest in conservation and other issues of concern in an agricultural area and also his strong support of honest and efficient government. In the first good year for Democrats since the early 1890s he was narrowly elected. He was only the second Democrat to represent his district after the emergence of the Republican Party in 1856. In the state capitol at Albany, Roosevelt gained statewide publicity as the leader of a small group of upstate Democrats who refused to follow the leadership of Tammany Hall, also known as the Tammany Society, the Democratic Party organization of New York City. In particular, they refused to vote for the rich politician William F. "Blue-Eyed Bill" Sheehan for U.S. senator. Roosevelt's group succeeded in blocking the election of Sheehan, which infuriated Tammany Hall. The dramatic struggle drew the attention of New York voters to the tall vigorous new state senator with the magic name of Roosevelt. He soon became a dedicated social and economic reformer, and a political independent. He was reelected in 1912, in spite of a case of typhoid fever that kept him from campaigning. Even before his reelection to the New York legislature, Roosevelt had entered the national political arena by taking part in the campaign of Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey for the Democratic nomination for president. Once again the young state senator was a member of a minority group among New York Democrats. When Wilson won at both the convention and the polls in 1912, his early supporters were rewarded, and Roosevelt became assistant secretary of the United States Navy. Roosevelt resigned his state senate seat and moved to Washington, D.C., to take over the position once occupied by his cousin Theodore Roosevelt. Franklin Roosevelt's years as assistant secretary, from 1913 to 1920, taught him both how to get things accomplished and, just as important for an executive, how to avoid unnecessary trouble. He had the devoted assistance of Louis Howe, who came along to the nation's capital as Roosevelt's assistant. Roosevelt's superior was Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, a North Carolina editor. Daniels was a close friend and devoted follower of Nebraska editor and former Representative William Jennings Bryan, three times the Democratic candidate for president and Wilson's secretary of state. Like Bryan, Daniels was concerned about agrarian issues and was a progressive reformer. He was also an isolationist (someone who believed that the United States should avoid alliances with other nations), who hated the idea of war. Young Roosevelt, an energetic supporter of a bigger navy and soon a warm friend of most of the leading admirals, inevitably had many disagreements with his chief, especially during Wilson's first term. Daniels had the confidence both of the president and of the most influential Democrats in the Congress of the United States; Roosevelt had neither of these. However, in time the two men came to have genuine respect for one another's different talents, and they remained good friends. Personal tragedy struck Roosevelt in August 1921, when he contracted what was diagnosed, after an unfortunate delay, as poliomyelitis. He had been plagued by illness of various sorts during the previous decade, and he had overexerted himself swimming and hiking at Campobello. In great agony and completely unable to walk, Roosevelt seemed to have reached the end of his active public career. Indeed, his mother wanted him to return to Hyde Park for the peace and quiet of the life of a country gentleman. However, backed by the determination of his wife and Louis Howe, Roosevelt decided to return to his work as soon as possible. In spite of the efforts of numerous specialists and of his strenuous exercises, particularly swimming at his "second home" in Warm Springs, Georgia, he was never again able to walk unaided. He spent most of his working hours in a wheelchair, and he walked with leg braces and canes, usually with help. Through the worst years of his paralysis, Roosevelt was amazingly cheerful. Eleanor Roosevelt often acted as her husband's eyes and ears, bringing him information and conferring with people he was no longer readily able to meet. Howe remained close by Roosevelt, assisting him in many ways and planning for his return to public life. Roosevelt continued to busy himself with Democratic politics after his illness. And in 1928 Roosevelt made a run for the Governor of New York, and won by a narrow margin. In October 1929 the economic prosperity that the United States had enjoyed for most of the 1920s came to an abrupt end. Following the stock market crash of October 1929 Roosevelt found himself a depression governor, with new problems to face. In 1930 he was reelected by the unprecedented number of 725,000 votes. In 1932 there was a presidential election and Roosevelt got the Democratic nomination, but had a tough time doing it. Roosevelt had more difficulty in winning the Democratic nomination in 1932 than he had in defeating President Hoover. In spite of Hoover's unprecedented efforts to use the power of the federal government to overcome the Great Depression, he was completely identified with the policies of former U.S. presidents Warren Harding and of Calvin Coolidge, since he had served as secretary of commerce in both administrations. Roosevelt's task was essentially a simple one: to convince the American people that because the Republicans had claimed full credit for the prosperity of the 1920s, they should receive full blame for the depression. Roosevelt was spectacularly successful at this. Roosevelt's first inaugural address, with its pledge to make war upon the depression and its ringing phrase, "we have nothing to fear but fear itself," brought a new style to the U.S. presidency. Not long after being in office Roosevelt started a new program, that would hopefully get the U.S. out of the depression called the "New Deal". After many great accomplishments in office Roosevelt was re-elected in 1936 to his second term, after this term most expected him not to run again in 1940, out of tradition that no president before him served no more than two terms, but he ran anyway and won by a fair margin. In 1938 Hitler of Germany started WWII by invading Poland, and Roosevelt knew it wouldn't be long until the U.S. was brought into the war, so he started supplying the Allies with weapons and ships on a "lend-lease program". Then on December the 7th 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and brought the U.S. into the war. Roosevelt did not live to see the end of World War II. During the war years he had not appeared often in public, but during his campaign for a fourth term in 1944 many who saw him said that he looked pale, thin, and old. The election, which resulted in his victory over New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey, was a strain on the president, as was the long trip to Yalta. In the early spring of 1945 he went to Warm Springs, Georgia, in an effort to recapture his lost energy. There he died of a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945. Harry Truman took the oath of office to become president the same day.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gabriel Garcia Marquez.TXT
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Gabriel Garcia Marquez
Gabriel Gárcia Márquez Gabriel José García Márquez was born on March 6, 1928 in Aracataca, a town in Northern Colombia, where he was raised by his maternal grandparents in a house filled with countless aunts and the rumors of ghosts. But in order to get a better grasp on García Márquez's life, it helps to understand something first about both the history of Colombia and the unusual background of his family. Colombia Colombia won its independence from Spain in 1810, technically making it one of Latin America's oldest democracies, but the sad fact is that this "democracy" has rarely known peace and justice. In the beginning, there was of course Spain and the Indians, happily hating each other as the Spaniards tore the land up in quest for gold, El Dorado, religious converts, and political power. The English, too, played their part, with Drake attacking Riohachi in 1568 and the countless colonial squabbles of the next few centuries. Declaring itself independent from Spain when Napoleon ousted the Spanish King in 1810, the new country experienced a brief period of freedom and then was quickly reconquered in 1815 by the unpleasant and bloody campaigns of General Murillo. So much did their internal bickering allow their fledgling country to fall to the sword of Murillo, the period is immortalized in Colombia's history with the colorful name of la Patria Boba, or "The Booby Fatherland." Round two, however, fell to the Colombians, when Simón Bolívar reliberated the country in 1820 and became its very first president. In 1849, the country was sufficiently advanced enough to concretize their squabbling in the form of two political parties, the Liberals and the Conservatives, who exist to this day. These two parties form the political framework for much of García Márquez's fiction, and understanding their true natures is both a key to his writing and, unfortunately, an important insight to Latin American politics in general. Although initially forming around the nucleus of two distinct and different ideologies, long years of bloody conflict have served to significantly erode the distinctions between the parties. The Conservatives and the Liberals are more like warring factions or clans than any parties with firmly established and radically different ideologies. Both tend to be repressive, both are corrupt, and both terribly abuse power when it falls into their hands; and throughout the sad history of Colombia, both parties have been more or less at war. It has often been said of Colombia's parties that you do not join them, you are born into them; and indeed they act more as territorial and familial units than as peacefully functioning parties with distinct political platforms. In addition, the country is split into two main regional groups -- the costeños of the coastal Caribbean, and the cachacos of the central highland. Both groups use those terms as pejorative of the other, and both view the other with disdain. The costeños tend to be more racially mixed, verbally outgoing, and superstitious. They are primarily the "descendants of pirates and smugglers, with a mixture of black slaves," and as a whole are "dancers, adventurers, people full of gaiety." The cachacos, on the other hand, are more formal, aristocratic, and racially pure, who pride themselves on their advanced cities such as Bogotá and on their ability to speak excellent Spanish. Traditionally, the tropical Caribbean coast has been a Liberal bastion, and the cool mountains and valleys of the interior tend to the Conservative side. García Márquez has often remarked that he views himself as a mestizo and a costeño, both characteristics enabling his formation and development as a writer. Throughout the nineteenth century, Colombia was wracked by rebellions, civil wars of both the local and national variety, and several coups d'etat.This century of bloodshed had its culmination in 1899, when the War of a Thousand Days began -- Colombia's most devastating civil war, a conflict that ended in late 1902 with the defeat of the Liberals. The war claimed the lives of over 100,000 people, primarily peasants and their sons. García Márquez's grandfather fought in that war, and many of its veterans would eventually find their way into immortalization as fictional characters in his work. Another event that would influence his work was the prevalence banana industry and the massacre of 1928. Although coffee is generally considered Colombia's main export, for the first few decades of the twentieth century, bananas were also of crucial importance to the economy. The banana trade had its principle manifestation in the United Fruit Company, an American outfit that had a virtual monopoly on the banana industry, which at the time was the only source of income for many of the costeño areas, including Aracataca. The UFC had unlimited economic power and tremendous political clout, but it was a corrupt and amoral company that abused its Colombian workers terribly. In October of 1928, over 32,000 native workers went on strike, demanding, among other such unreasonable things, toilets and payment in cash rather than company scrip. One night a huge crowd of them gathered to hold a demonstration. In order to quell the incident, the Conservative government sent in the troops, which fired on the unarmed workers, killing hundreds. Over the next few months, more people simply vanished, and finally the whole incident was official denied and struck from the history books. García Márquez would later incorporate the incident in One Hundred Years of Solitude. The next significant event that would eventually affect his writing was a period of time that he himself would live through, a horrible period of time called la violencia, or "the Violence." The Violence has its roots in the banana massacre. At that time, one of the only politicians courageous enough to take a stand against government corruption was a man named Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, a young Liberal member of congress who convened meetings to investigate the incident. Gaitán began to rise in prominence, a champion of the peasants and the poor, but an annoyance to the powerful members of both parties, who viewed him with something akin to fear and loathing. Using radio as his medium, he heralded a time of change, a time when the people would take part in a true democracy and corporations would be forced to act responsibly. By 1946, Gaitán was powerful enough to cause a split in his own party, who had been in power since 1930. The split caused a Conservative return to power, and fearing a reprisal, they began organizing paramilitary groups whose ultimate purpose was to terrorize Liberal voters; which they did admirably, killing thousands of them by the end of the year. In 1947 the Liberals gained control of the Congress, putting Gaitán in charge as party leader. (Despite the Conservative's efforts, the voter turnout was at a record high.) Tensions rose, and on April 9, 1948, Gaitán was assassinated in Bogotá. The city was convulsed by lethal riots for three days, a period called el Bogotázo and responsible for 2500 deaths. La violencia entered a more deadly phase. Guerrilla armies were organized by both parties, and terror swept through the land. Towns and villages were burned, thousands -- including women and children -- were brutally murdered, farms were confiscated, and over a million peasants emigrated to Venezuela. In 1949, Conservatives even gunned down a Liberal politician, in the middle of giving a speech in the very halls of Congress! The Conservatives finally dissolved Congress, declared the country to be in a state of siege, and Liberals (now conveniently branded "communists") were hunted, persecuted, and murdered. The country was ripped apart; la violenciawould claim the lives of some 150,000 Colombians by 1953. The Violence would later become the backdrop to several of García Márquez's novellas and stories, most notably In Evil Hour. His Family The most important relatives of García Márquez were undoubtedly his maternal grandfather and grandmother. His grandfather was Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía, a Liberal veteran of the War of a Thousand Days. He lived in Aracataca, a banana town by the Caribbean, a village which he helped found. The Colonel was something of a hero to the costeños, for among other things, he refused to stay silent about the banana massacres, delivering a searing denunciation of the murders to Congress in 1929. A very complex and interesting man, the Colonel was also an excellent story teller who had lead quite an intriguing life -- when he was younger he shot and killed a man in a duel, and it is said that he had fathered over sixteen children! He would speak of his wartime experiences as if they were "almost pleasant experiences -- sort of youthful adventures with guns." The old Colonel taught the young Gabriel lessons from the dictionary, took him to the circus each year, and was the first one who introduced his grandson to ice -- a miracle to be found at the UFC company store. He also told his young nephew that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man, a lesson that García Márquez would later put into the mouths of his characters. His grandmother was Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes, and would be no less an influence on the young García Márquez than her husband. She was terribly filled with superstitions and folk beliefs, as were her numerous sisters, and they filled the house with stories of ghosts and premonitions, omens and portents -- all of which were studiously ignored by her husband, who once said to young Gabriel, "Don't listen to that. Those are women's beliefs." And yet listen he did, for his grandmother had a unique way of telling stories. No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements, she always delivered them as if they were the implacable truth. It was a deadpan style that, some thirty years later, her grandson would adopt for his greatest novel. García Márquez's parents were more or less strangers to him for the first few years of his life, and the reason behind this is quite interesting. His mother, Luisa Santiaga Márquez Iguarán, was one of the two children born to the Colonel and his wife. A spirited girl, she unfortunately fell in love with a man named Gabriel Eligio García. Unfortunately, for García was something of an anethma to her parents. For one thing, he was a Conservative as well as la hojarasca, a derogatory term applied to the recent residents of the town, drawn by the banana trade. (La hojarasca means "dead leaf," as in something that descends in useless flurries and is best swept away.) Garcia also had a reputation as a philanderer, the father of four illegitimate children. He was not exactly the man the Colonel had envisioned winning the heart of his daughter -- and yet he did, wooing her with violin serenades, love poems, countless letters -- and even telegraph messages. They tried all they could to get rid of the man, but he kept coming back, and it was obvious that their daughter was committed to him. Finally they surrendered to his Latino tenacity, and the Colonel gave her hand in marriage to the former medical student. In order to ease relations, the newlyweds settled in the Colonel's old home town of Riohacha. (The tragicomic story of their courtship would later be adapted and recast as Love in the Time of Cholera.) Early Life Gabriel José García Márquez was born on March 6, 1928 in Aracataca, although his father contends that it was really 1927. Because his parents were still poor and struggling, his grandparents accepted the task of raising him, a common practice at the time. Unfortunately, 1928 was the last year of the banana boom in Aracataca. The strike and its brutal reprisal hit the town hard; over one hundred strikers were shot one night in Aracataca and dumped into a common grave. It was a sad start to his life, one that would later resurface in his writing. Nicknamed Gabito, little Gabriel grew up as a quiet and shy lad, entranced by his grandfather's stories and his grandmother's superstitions. Aside from the Colonel and himself, it was a house of women, and later García Márquez would later remark that their beliefs had him afraid to leave his chair, half terrified of ghosts. And yet all the seeds of his future work were planted in that house -- stories of the civil war and the banana massacre, the courtship of his parents, the sturdy practicality of the superstitious matriarch, the comings and goings of aunts, great aunts, and his grandfather's illegitimate daughters -- later García Márquez would write: "I feel that all my writing has been about the experiences of the time I spent with my grandparents." His grandfather died when he was eight years old, and due to his grandmother's increasing blindness, he went to live with his parents in Sucre, where his father was working as a pharmacist. Soon after he arrived in Sucre, it was decided that he should begin his formal schooling. He was sent to a boarding school in Barranquilla, a port city at the mouth of the Magdalena River. There, he acquired a reputation as being a shy boy who wrote humorous poems and drew cartoons. So serious and non-athletic was he that he was nicknamed "the Old Man" by his classmates. In 1940, when he was twelve, he was awarded a scholarship to a secondary school for gifted students, run by Jesuits. The school -- the Liceo Nacional -- was in Zipaquirá, a city 30 miles to the north of Bogotá. The journey would take a week, and in that time he came to the conclusion that he did not like Bogotá. Exposed to the capital for the first time, he found it dismal and oppressive, and his experience helped confirm his identity as a costeño. In school, he found himself growing quite stimulated by his studies, and in the evening, he often read books aloud to his companions in the dormitory. And much to his amusement, even though he had yet to write anything significant, his great love of literature and his cartoons and stories helped him acquire a reputation as a writer. Perhaps this reputation provided him with a star by which to steer the ship of his imagination; and he would need it, for after graduation in 1946, the eighteen year old "writer" followed his parents wishes and enrolled in the Universidad Nacional in Bogotá as a law student rather than as a journalist. It was during this time that García Márquez met his future wife. While visiting his parents, he was introduced to a 13 year old girl named Mercedes Barcha Pardo. Dark and silent, of Egyptian decent, she was "the most interesting person" he had ever met. After he graduated from the Liceo Nacional, he took a small vacation with his parents before leaving for the University. During that time, he proposed to her. Agreeing, but first wishing to finish primary school, she put off the engagement. Although they wouldn't be married for another fourteen years, Mercedes promised to stay true to him. The Hungry Years Like many great writers attending college for a subject they despised, García Márquez found that he had absolutely no interest in his studies, and he became something of a consummate slacker. He began to skip classes and neglect both his studies and himself, electing to wander around Bogotá and ride the streetcars, reading poetry instead of law. He ate in cheap cafés, smoked cigarettes, and associated with all the usual suspects -- literate socialists, starving artists, and budding journalists. One day, however, his life changed -- all from reading just a simple book. As if all the lines of fate suddenly converged in his hands, he was given a copy of Kafka's The Metamorphosis, translated by none other than Jorge Luis Borges. The book had a profound affect on García Márquez; making him aware that literature did not have to follow a straight narrative and unfold a traditional plot. The effect was liberating: "I thought to myself that I didn't know anyone was allowed to write things like that. If I had known, I would have started writing a long time ago." He also remarked that Kafka's "voice" had the same echoes if his grandmother's -- ". . . That's how my grandmother used to tell stories, the wildest things with a completely natural tone of voice." One of the first things he set out to do was "catch up" on all the literature he had been missing. He began reading voraciously, devouring everything he could get his hands on. He also began writing, and to his surprise, his first story, "The Third Resignation," was published in 1946 by the Liberal Bogotá newspaper El Espectador, and the editor even hailed him as "the new genius of Colombian letters!" García Márquez entered a period of creativity, penning ten more stories for the newspaper over the next few years. As a humanist from a Liberal family, the 1948 assassination of Gaitán had profound effect on García Márquez, and he even participated in the rioting of el Bogotázo, having his own quarters partially burned down. The Universidad Nacional was closed, precipitating his move to the more peaceful North, where he transferred to the Universidad de Cartagena. There he half-heartedly pursued law while writing a daily column for El Universal, a Cartagena newspaper. Deciding to abandon his attempts at law in 1950, he devoted himself to writing, moving to Barranquilla. Over the next few years, he began associating with a literary circle called el grupo de Barranquilla, and under their influence he began to read the work of Hemingway, Joyce, Woolf, and most importantly, Faulkner. He also embarked on a study of the classics, finding tremendous inspiration in the Oedipus Rex cycle by Sophocles. Faulkner and Sophocles would become his two biggest influences throughout the late forties and early fifties. Faulkner amazed him with his ability to reformulate his childhood into a mythical past, inventing a town and a county in which to house his prose. In Faulkner's mythical Yoknapatawpha, García Márquez found the seeds for Macondo; and from Sophocles' Oedipus Rex and Antigone he found the ideas of a plot revolving around society and the abuses of power. García Márquez began to grow dissatisfied with his earlier stories, believing them to be too abstracted from his true experiences. They "were simply intellectual elaborations, nothing to do with my reality." Faulkner taught him that a writer should write about what is close to him; and for years García Márquez had been struggling with his muse -- what did he really want to say? These thoughts would find form when he returned with his mother to his grandfather's house in Aracataca. Preparing it for sale, they found the house in quite ill repair, and yet the "haunted house" evoked such a swirl of memories in his head that he was overwhelmed. Indeed, the whole town seemed dead, frozen in time. He had already been sketching out a story based on his experiences there, a tentative novel to be called La casa, and although he felt that he was not yet ready to perfect it, he had found part of what he was after -- the sense of place. Inspired by his visit, upon returning to Barranquilla he wrote his first novella, Leaf Storm. With a plot device adapted from Antigone and set in a mythical town, the book was completed in a rapid rush of energy. The town was called "Macondo," which was the name of a banana plantation near Aracataca that he used to explore as a child. (Macondo means "banana" in the Bantu language.) Unfortunately in 1952 it was rejected by the first publisher he sent it to, and seized by self-doubt and self-criticism, he tossed it in a drawer. (In 1955, while García Márquez was in Eastern Europe, it was rescued it from its hiding place in Bogotá by his friends and sent to a publisher. This time, it was published.) Despite his rejection and his near poverty, however, he was essentially happy. Living in a brothel, he was surrounded by friends, and he had a steady job writing columns for El Heraldo. In the evening he worked on his fiction and talked with his companions over cigarettes and coffee. Then in 1953, he was seized by a sudden restlessness. Packing up and quitting his job, he set out to sell encyclopedias in La Guajira with a friend. He travelled around a bit, worked on some story ideas, and finally became formally engaged to Mercedes Barcha. In 1954, he moved back to Bogotá and accepted a job on the staff of El Espectador as a writer of stories and film reviews. There, he flirted with socialism, avoided the notice of the current dictator -- Gustavo Rojas Pinilla -- and pondered about his duty as a writer in the time of la violencia. In 1955, an event occurred which would place him back on the path of literature and eventually lead to his temporary exile from Colombia. That year, the Caldas, a small Colombian destroyer, was swamped in high seas on its return to Cartagena. Several sailors were swept overboard and lost, and all died except one remarkable man, Luis Alejandro Velasco, who managed to survive for ten days at sea clinging to a life raft. When he was eventually washed ashore, he quickly became a national hero. Used as propaganda by the government, Velasco did everything from make speeches to advertise watches and shoes. Finally he decided to tell the truth -- the Caldas was carrying illegal cargo, and they were swept overboard by negligence and incompetence, not by a storm at all! Visiting the offices of El Espectador, Velasco offered them his story. After some hesitation, they accepted. Velasco told his story to García Márquez, who acted as a ghostwriter and recast it into his prose. The story was serialized over two full weeks as "The Truth About My Adventure," by Luis Alejandro Velasco, and it created quite a sensation. Extremely unhappy, the Government tossed Velasco out of the Navy. Worried that Pinilla might persecute García Márquez directly, his editors sent him on assignment to Italy to cover the imminent death of Pope Pius XII. When the pontiff's untimely survival made this assignment useless, García Márquez arranged to wander around Europe as a correspondent. After studying film for awhile in Rome, he embarked on a tour of the communist bloc; and later that year his friends managed to get Leaf Storm finally published in Bogotá. García Márquez travelled through Geneva, Rome, Poland and Hungary, finally settling in Paris where he found that he was out of a job -- the Pinilla government shut down the presses of El Espectador. Settling in the Latin Quarter, he lived off of credit, the kindness of his landlady, and money scraped up returning bottles for their deposits. There, influenced by the writings of Hemingway, he typed out eleven drafts of No One Writes to the Colonel and part of Este pueblo de mierda, the book that would later become In Evil Hour. After finishing Colonel, he travelled to London and finally returned to his home continent -- not to Colombia, but to Venezuela, the destination of most Colombian refugees. There he finished Este pueblo de mierda, his work which most directly addresses la violencia. Even though it was obvious that he was developing his own unique voice, he was still unsatisfied. His early stories were too unemotional and abstract. Leaf Storm was too indebted to Faulkner, and No One Writes to the Colonel and In Evil Hour were too far away from his imagined goal, the picture he had been developing for years. He knew his ultimate work would take place in that mythical town of Macondo, but he had yet to find the right tone in which to tell his tale; he had yet to discover his true voice In Venezuela he teamed up with an old friend, Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza, who was now an editor with Elite, a Caracas newsweekly. Throughout the year of 1957, the two toured the communist countries of Europe, searching for an answer to Colombia's ills, contributing articles to various Latin American publications. And while they saw something useful in socialism, García Márquez realized with a sense of depression that communism could be just as terrible as la violencia. After a brief stay in London again, García Márquez returned to Venezuela, where Mendoza was now working for Momento, and offered his old friend another job. Then, in 1958, he risked a visit back to Colombia. Keeping a low profile, he slipped into his native country and married Mercedes Bacha, who had been awaiting him in Barranquilla for four long years. He and his new bride then slipped back to Caracas, which was having its own share of problems. After publishing pieces aimed at American perfidy and the abuses of tyrants, Momento succumbed to political pressure and took an apologist pro-USA stance after Nixon's disastrous visit in May. Angered by their paper's capitulation, García Márquez and Mendoza resigned. Soon after leaving his position at Momento, García Márquez and his wife ended up in Havana, covering the Castro revolution. Inspired by the revolution, he helped form a Bogotá branch of Castro's news agency, Prensa Latina, and began a friendship with Castro that has lasted until this day. In 1959 García Márquez's first son, Rodrigo, was born, and the family moved to New York City, where he supervised the North American branch of Prensa Latina, where he labored under death threats from angry Americans and an increasing sense of disillusionment at the ideological rifts occurring in Cuba's communist party. He resigned his position later that year and moved his family to Mexico City, travelling through the South on a Faulknerian pilgrimage; he would be denied entrance into the USA again until 1971. In Mexico City he wrote subtitles for films and worked on screenplays, and managed to publish some of his work. Rescued from moth-eaten oblivion by his friends, No One Writes to the Colonel was published in 1961, and then Big Mama's Funeral in 1962, the same year with saw the birth of his second son, Gonzalo. Finally his friends convinced him to enter the Colombian Esso literary contest in Bogotá; he revised Este pueblo de mierda, and changed the title from "This Town of Shit" to La mala hora, or In Evil Hour. He submitted it, and it won. The sponsors of the prize sent the book to Madrid to be published, and it greeted the world in 1962 -- to his immense disappointment. The publication was a travesty; the Spanish publisher purged it of all Latin American slang and objectionable material, bowdlerizing it beyond recognition and making the characters speak precise, dictionary Spanish. Heartbroken, García Márquez was forced to repudiate it -- it would take nearly half a decade until the book would be published, restored to his satisfaction. The next few years were years of profound disappointment, producing nothing of much worth except a film script cowritten with Carlos Fuentes. His friends tried to cheer him up in whatever ways they could, but nevertheless, he began to feel like a failure. None of his works had sold over 700 copies. He had never received any royalties. And still, and still, the story of Macondo eluded his grasp. Success And then it happened: his epiphany. On January 1965 he and his family were driving to the Acapulco for a vacation, when the inspiration struck him: he had found his tone. For the first time in twenty years, a stroke of lightning clearly illuminated Macondo. He would later write: "All of a sudden -- I don't know why -- I had this illumination on how to write the book. . . . I had it so completely formed, that right there I could have dictated the first chapter word by word to a typist." And later, regarding that illumination: "The tone that I eventually used in One Hundred Years of Solitude was based on the way my grandmother used to tell stories. She told things that sounded supernatural and fantastic, but she told them with complete naturalness. . . . What was most important was the expression she had on her face. She did not change her expression at all when telling her stories and everyone was surprised. In previous attempts to write, I tried to tell the story without believing in it. I discovered that what I had to do was believe in them myself and write them with the same expression with which my grandmother told them: with a brick face." He turned the car immediately around and headed home. There, he put Mercedes in charge of the family, and he retired to his room to write. And write he did. He wrote every day for eighteen months, consuming up to six packs of cigarettes a day. To provide for the family, the car was sold, and almost every household appliance was pawned so Mercedes could feed the family and keep him supplied with a constant river of paper and cigarettes. His friends started to call his smoke-filled room "the Cave of the Mafia," and after awhile the whole community began helping out, as if they collectively understood that he was creating a masterpiece. Credit was extended, appliances loaned, debts forgiven. After nearly a year of work, García Márquez sent the first three chapters to Carlos Fuentes, who publicly declared: "I have just read eighty pages from a master." Towards the end of the novel, as yet unnamed, anticipation grew, and the buzz of success was in the air. As finishing touches, he placed himself, his wife, and his friends in the novel, and then discovered a name on the last page: Cien años de solidad. Finally he emerged from the Cave, grasping thirteen hundred pages in his hands, exhausted and almost poisoned from nicotine, over ten thousand dollars in debt, and perhaps only a few pages shy of a mental and physical breakdown. And yet, he was happy -- euphoric. In need of postage, he pawned a few more household implements and sent it off to the publisher in Buenos Aires. One Hundred Years of Solitude was published in June 1967, and within a week all 8000 copies were gone. From that point on, success was assured, and the novel sold out a new printing each week, going on to sell half a million copies within three years. It was translated into over two dozen languages, and it won four international prizes. Success had come at last. Gabriel García Márquez was 39 years old when the world learned his name. Suddenly he was beset by fame. Fan mail, awards, interviews, appearances -- it was obvious that his life had changed. In 1969, the novel won the Chianchiano Prize in Italy and was named the Best Foreign Book in France. In 1970, it was published in English and was chosen as one of the best twelve books of the year in the United States. Two years later he was awarded the Rómulo Gallegos Prize and the Neustadt Prize, and in 1971, a Peruvian writer named Mario Vargas Llosa even published a book about his life and work. To counter all this exposure, García Márquez simply returned to writing. Deciding that he would write about a dictator, he moved his family to Barcelona, Spain, which was spending its last years under the
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Galileo.TXT
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Galileo 
Galileo was an early scientist who unlocked some of the universe's
mysteries. His work covered a broad range, from telescopes to
mathematical formulas. His offerings to science earned him the title,
founder of modern science
His most known invention today is the telescope. It
revolutionized studying the stars and allowed him to make many new
discoveries that proved many classical ideas false. The most famous and
controversial of these was the discovery of Jupiter's four bright
satellites. He proved many classical ideas incorrect and formed his own.
He formed laws of falling bodies and pendulums. Legend tells he dropped
two stones of unequal weight from the tower of Pisa. The two hit at
exactly the same time. He also timed a swinging pendulum by his pulse;
this proved each ark took the same time.
He spent his last years writing his masterpiece, "A Dialougue on
the Two Principal Systems of the World." For this he was tried and found
guilty of supporting the Copernican theory.
Gailelo's inventions were shunned by the people of his time. They thought
his ideas were crazy and corrupting . It took fifty years for people to
realize and honor his contributions.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gandhi 4.TXT
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GANDHI

	On October 2, 1869, the "little brown saint" was brought into the world; during this time India was under the British monarchy.  During his early years he did not show the signs of developing into the great leader that he eventually became but nevertheless Gandhi aspired to be a lawyer, follow in the footsteps of his father and become a respected member of the community.  Throughout his life Gandhi fought against colour prejudice, promoted religious harmony and toiled laboriously to gain independence for his country.

	Gandhi was a great man who brought about many changes all over the world but especially in India.  His means of bringing about change and the effect he had on people made him a respected and loved individual.

	Gandhi travelled to South Africa for the first time in the summer of 1892, to try his luck at a law firm.  He was not aware of how deeply he would be involved in South African affairs while he proceeded  on his journey.  Indians in South Africa suffered many disabilities.  For instance, an Indian "had to carry a pass if he appeared on the streets after 9 p.m."(Pg. 24).  Gandhi felt this was completely unfair and by the time he had finished his campaign against colour prejudice in South Africa, "the three pound tax on farm indentured labourers was annulled, Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages were declared valid; free Indians and their wives could continue to come into the country from India"(Pg. 47-48).
Gandhi achieved this status for Indians in South Africa by a method called "Satyagraha" or "passive resistance".  This involved a non-violent means of refusing to co-operate with the government's wishes, thus forcing the government to meet the demands of the resistors.  This method of nonco-operation earned Gandhi a great deal of respect, world-wide acclaim and helped him considerably reduce legalized racism against Indians in South Africa.

	Gandhi was a very patriotic man and believed that people in his country should become one in unity, but he knew that there were obstacles that had to be overcome.  One of the hardest of these obstacles was easing Muslim and Hindu tensions.  Religious tension was one aspect that Gandhi felt he should try to bring to an equilibrium.  He knew that the relations between Hindus and Muslims would determine the future of India.  He wrote a "6,000 word article on 'Hindu-Muslim Tension.  Its Cause and Cure'"(Pg. 36).  Gandhi did not feel that this was enough and was assured of it when he heard about "Hindu-Muslim riots (and) the forcible kidnapping and conversion of women and children from one religious community by men of the other" (Pg. 49).  The situation, as Gandhi, concluded were getting out of hand and so he decided that he needed another means of communicating with his fellow man.  He fasted, abstained from eating, "to reform those who loved him.  (He said) 'you cannot fast against a tyrant for (he) is incapable of love therefore inaccessible to a weapon of love like fasting"(Pg. 23).  Gandhi made up his mind to fast either until death or until reform.  This was enough to bring instantaneous results and soon riots ceased and there were weeks without religiously motivated killings or demonstrations.  Gandhi's ploy had worked.  People all over the world admired the "Mahatma" (father) and his methods of controlling a whole population by their love for him.  This was one stepping stone which had been safely passed and no longer posed a threat to India.

	Throughout his life Gandhi always pondered ways to better the lives of others.  He put himself and his needs last before those of others.  Gandhi knew that to better the lives of Indians living in India he had to work towards Independence.  One major event that paved the way to achieving this was the civil disobedience of the Salt Laws.  The laws "made it punishable to possess salt not purchased from the government salt monopoly"
( Pg. 23).
Gandhi felt that "nothing but organized non-violence (could) check the organized violence of the British government...the non-violence would be expressed through civil-disobedience... and convert the British people making them see the wrong they have done to India"(Pg. 33). Gandhi proceeded to march "241 miles in 24 days"
( Pg. 35) thus rivet the attention of all of India.  When Gandhi reached the end of his march, he was at the coast where there were piles of salt, so he picked up a pile of salt as an act of defiance.  He was arrested but people all over the country were fascinated and intrigued and followed his example by also disobeying the Salt Laws.  This demonstrated to the British government that they were "subjugating India and gave the Indians conviction that they should lift the foreign yoke off their shoulders"(Pg. 102).  This event foreshadowed the achievement of India gaining Independence in the August of 1947.  People in India now felt that they had some reason to work towards independence and others joined in the efforts to free the country from British rule.

	Although Gandhi did lead his country to Independence, his attempts in unifying Hindus and Muslims in India failed miserably.  Riots ceased for a while but restarted.  He led a bad example by getting imprisoned. Some people viewed this as breaking the law and not changing the system.  Although Gandhi may have failed in his attempts of unifying Hindus and Muslims, he did succeed in achieving Independence for India and as a bonus  Muslims in India additionally gained something, the birth of their new nation, Pakistan.

	Gandhi's preaching of non-violence worked on many occasions but also resulted in the bloodshed of thousands of others.  People were so caught up in gaining Independence from the British that they forgot Gandhi's preachings of non-violence and riots ensued and thousands upon thousands of people were killed.  Although many people were killed, if Gandhi hadn't preached non-violence, a great many more people would have lost their lives fighting for Independence, instead millions of people were saved and the end result was victory.

	Gandhi was very successful in changing the ways many Hindus viewed Hinduism and he strengthened their beliefs in the religion.  He changed their ideas about the caste system and he preached peace and non-violence to Hindus all over the country.  He most of all emphasized abstinence, self-denial and sacrificing.  These various lessons made people better human beings with a better outlook on life.

	Mahatma (Mohandas K.) Gandhi was a great leader who captured the hearts of many all over the world just by the techniques he used to achieve his objectives.  He was the most unselfish, hardworking and saintly character anyone ever met until an assassin's bullet prematurely ended his life at the age of seventy-eight.  He fought hard and abolished prejudice against Indians in South Africa, he worked towards easing religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India and  he freed India from British rule and gained them independence through a means unlike any country has ever used, non-violence.
His legacy is courage, his lesson truth, his weapon love.  His life is his monument.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gandhi.TXT
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GANDHI

	On October 2, 1869, the "little brown saint" was brought into the world; during this time India was under the British monarchy.  During his early years he did not show the signs of developing into the great leader that he eventually became but nevertheless Gandhi aspired to be a lawyer, follow in the footsteps of his father and become a respected member of the community.  Throughout his life Gandhi fought against colour prejudice, promoted religious harmony and toiled laboriously to gain independence for his country.

	Gandhi was a great man who brought about many changes all over the world but especially in India.  His means of bringing about change and the effect he had on people made him a respected and loved individual.

	Gandhi travelled to South Africa for the first time in the summer of 1892, to try his luck at a law firm.  He was not aware of how deeply he would be involved in South African affairs while he proceeded  on his journey.  Indians in South Africa suffered many disabilities.  For instance, an Indian "had to carry a pass if he appeared on the streets after 9 p.m."(Pg. 24).  Gandhi felt this was completely unfair and by the time he had finished his campaign against colour prejudice in South Africa, "the three pound tax on farm indentured labourers was annulled, Hindu, Muslim and Parsi marriages were declared valid; free Indians and their wives could continue to come into the country from India"(Pg. 47-48).
Gandhi achieved this status for Indians in South Africa by a method called "Satyagraha" or "passive resistance".  This involved a non-violent means of refusing to co-operate with the government's wishes, thus forcing the government to meet the demands of the resistors.  This method of nonco-operation earned Gandhi a great deal of respect, world-wide acclaim and helped him considerably reduce legalized racism against Indians in South Africa.

	Gandhi was a very patriotic man and believed that people in his country should become one in unity, but he knew that there were obstacles that had to be overcome.  One of the hardest of these obstacles was easing Muslim and Hindu tensions.  Religious tension was one aspect that Gandhi felt he should try to bring to an equilibrium.  He knew that the relations between Hindus and Muslims would determine the future of India.  He wrote a "6,000 word article on 'Hindu-Muslim Tension.  Its Cause and Cure'"(Pg. 36).  Gandhi did not feel that this was enough and was assured of it when he heard about "Hindu-Muslim riots (and) the forcible kidnapping and conversion of women and children from one religious community by men of the other" (Pg. 49).  The situation, as Gandhi, concluded were getting out of hand and so he decided that he needed another means of communicating with his fellow man.  He fasted, abstained from eating, "to reform those who loved him.  (He said) 'you cannot fast against a tyrant for (he) is incapable of love therefore inaccessible to a weapon of love like fasting"(Pg. 23).  Gandhi made up his mind to fast either until death or until reform.  This was enough to bring instantaneous results and soon riots ceased and there were weeks without religiously motivated killings or demonstrations.  Gandhi's ploy had worked.  People all over the world admired the "Mahatma" (father) and his methods of controlling a whole population by their love for him.  This was one stepping stone which had been safely passed and no longer posed a threat to India.

	Throughout his life Gandhi always pondered ways to better the lives of others.  He put himself and his needs last before those of others.  Gandhi knew that to better the lives of Indians living in India he had to work towards Independence.  One major event that paved the way to achieving this was the civil disobedience of the Salt Laws.  The laws "made it punishable to possess salt not purchased from the government salt monopoly"
( Pg. 23).
Gandhi felt that "nothing but organized non-violence (could) check the organized violence of the British government...the non-violence would be expressed through civil-disobedience... and convert the British people making them see the wrong they have done to India"(Pg. 33). Gandhi proceeded to march "241 miles in 24 days"
( Pg. 35) thus rivet the attention of all of India.  When Gandhi reached the end of his march, he was at the coast where there were piles of salt, so he picked up a pile of salt as an act of defiance.  He was arrested but people all over the country were fascinated and intrigued and followed his example by also disobeying the Salt Laws.  This demonstrated to the British government that they were "subjugating India and gave the Indians conviction that they should lift the foreign yoke off their shoulders"(Pg. 102).  This event foreshadowed the achievement of India gaining Independence in the August of 1947.  People in India now felt that they had some reason to work towards independence and others joined in the efforts to free the country from British rule.

	Although Gandhi did lead his country to Independence, his attempts in unifying Hindus and Muslims in India failed miserably.  Riots ceased for a while but restarted.  He led a bad example by getting imprisoned. Some people viewed this as breaking the law and not changing the system.  Although Gandhi may have failed in his attempts of unifying Hindus and Muslims, he did succeed in achieving Independence for India and as a bonus  Muslims in India additionally gained something, the birth of their new nation, Pakistan.

	Gandhi's preaching of non-violence worked on many occasions but also resulted in the bloodshed of thousands of others.  People were so caught up in gaining Independence from the British that they forgot Gandhi's preachings of non-violence and riots ensued and thousands upon thousands of people were killed.  Although many people were killed, if Gandhi hadn't preached non-violence, a great many more people would have lost their lives fighting for Independence, instead millions of people were saved and the end result was victory.

	Gandhi was very successful in changing the ways many Hindus viewed Hinduism and he strengthened their beliefs in the religion.  He changed their ideas about the caste system and he preached peace and non-violence to Hindus all over the country.  He most of all emphasized abstinence, self-denial and sacrificing.  These various lessons made people better human beings with a better outlook on life.

	Mahatma (Mohandas K.) Gandhi was a great leader who captured the hearts of many all over the world just by the techniques he used to achieve his objectives.  He was the most unselfish, hardworking and saintly character anyone ever met until an assassin's bullet prematurely ended his life at the age of seventy-eight.  He fought hard and abolished prejudice against Indians in South Africa, he worked towards easing religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India and  he freed India from British rule and gained them independence through a means unlike any country has ever used, non-violence.
His legacy is courage, his lesson truth, his weapon love.  His life is his monument.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gandhi1.TXT
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Gandhi, a great leader
Few men have ever had as much of an effect on our world as Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948), though he used the message of peace and love, rather than war and destruction. One time a prominent lawyer in South Africa, Gandhi gave up practicing law and returned to India in order to help ease the suffering of the repressed people of his homeland. Gandhi's love for people and his religious fervor made him a revolutionary in many of his ideas and actions. He desired to see India freed from British rule in a bloodless revolution, similar to the "Glorious Revolution" of Seventeenth Century England. Knowing that violence only begets violence, he began the practicing of passive resistance, or as he called it, "Satyagraha" which means "holding onto truth". In his famous Salt March of 1930, Gandhi and thousands of others marched to a coast where salt lay on the beaches to protest the British Governments' prohibition against the Indians making their own salt. Though many were beaten, arrested and killed, no one fought back. Over the course of his life he led three major crusades, rallied support for nonviolent strikes, urged Indians to boycott anything British, and championed women's rights.
Gandhi exemplified many characteristics of a great leader. His love for the people of India was boundless; he wanted nothing more than to serve and help them. Always putting others above himself, he sought to make himself even lower than the lowest member of the Hindu caste system. He even humbled himself to the point of sweeping up excrement left behind by others, hoping to teach that disease was spread in filth. One of his most admirable qualities was that he led by example and never preached that which he was not willing to do himself. A common thread between Gandhi and many other great leaders was that no matter what he did, he did it to the best of his ability. He once said:
"No matter how insignificant the thing you have to do, do it as well as you can,
give it as much of your care and attention as you would give to the thing you regard as most important. For it will be by those things that you shall be judged." He gave up his life and material possessions, fasted, toiled and suffered for his people and their cause. He showed that passiveness is not synonymous with weakness, and became a leader in the truest sense of the word.
Perhaps Gandhi's greatest contribution to the world continued long after his assassination in 1948. Few realize that had it not been for his influence, we may have never witnessed in this country Martin Luther King Junior's "I have a dream" speech, the lunch counter sit-ins, Rosa Parks, or Nelson Mandela's struggle against antiapartheid oppression in South Africa. These people and many more who have followed in his footsteps bear witness to Gandhi's leadership ability and his legacy that will continue for many centuries to come.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gangs.TXT
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Gangs


        Gangs are a violent reality that people have to deal with in today's
cities.  What has made these groups come about? Why do kids feel that being in a
gang is both an acceptable and prestigious way to live?  The long range answer
to these questions can only be speculated upon, but in the short term the
answers are much easier to find.  On the surface, gangs are a direct result of
human beings' personal wants and peer pressure.  To determine how to effectively
end gang violence we must find the way that these morals are given to the
individual. Unfortunately, these can only be hypothesized.  However, by looking
at the way humans are influenced in society, I believe there is good evidence to
point the blame at several institutions.  These include the forces of the media,
the government, theatre, drugs and our economic system.

        On the surface, gangs are caused by peer pressure and greed.  Many teens
in gangs will pressure peers into becoming part of a gang by making it all sound
glamorous.  Money is also an crucial factor.  A kid (a 6-10 year old, who is not
yet a member) is shown that s/he could make $200 to $400 for small part time
gang jobs.  Although these are important factors they are not strong enough to
make kids do things that are strongly against their morals.

        One of the ways that kids morals are bent so that gang violence becomes
more acceptable is the influence of television and movies.  The average child
spends more time at a TV than she/he spends in a classroom.  Since nobody can
completely turn off their minds, kids must be learning something while watching
the TV.  Very few hours of television watched by children are educational, so
other ideas are being absorbed during this period of time.  Many shows on
television today are extremely violent and are often shown this from a gang's
perspective.  A normal adult can see that this is showing how foully that gangs
are living.  However, to a child this portrays a violent gang existance as
acceptable.  'The Ends Justifies the Means' mentality is also taught through
many shows where the "goody guy" captures the "bad guy" through violence and is
then being commended.  A young child sees this a perfectly acceptable because he
knows that the "bad guy" was wrong but has no idea of what acceptable
apprehension techniques are.

          Gore in television also takes a big part in influencing young minds.
Children see gory scenes and are fascinated by these things that they have not
seen before.  Older viewers see gore and are not concerned with the blood but
rather with the pain the victim must feel.  A younger mind doesn't make this
connection.  Thus a gore fascination is formed, and has been seen in several of
my peers.  Unfortunately kids raised with this sort of television end up growing
up with a stronger propensity to becoming a violent gang member or 'violent-
acceptant' person.

          "Gangs bring the delinquent norms of society into intimate contact
with the individual."1, (Marshall B Clinard, 1963).  So, as you can see if TV
leads a child to believe that violence is the norm this will manifest itself in
the actions of the child quite, often in a gang situation.  This is especially
the case when parents don't spend a lot of time with their kids at the TV
explaining what is right and what is wrong.  Quite often newer books and some
types of music will enforce this type of thought and ideas.

          Once this mentality is installed in youngsters they become increasingly
prone to being easily pushed into a gang situation by any problem at home or
elsewhere.  For instance, in poor families with many children or upper-middle
class families where parents are always working, the children will often feel
deprived of love.  Parents can often feel that putting food on the table is
enough love.  Children of these families may often go to the gang firstly out of
boredom and to belong somewhere.  As time goes on, a form of love or kinship
develops between the gang members and the child.  It is then that the bond
between the kid and the gang is completed because the gang has effectively taken
the place of the family.

        The new anti social structure of cities also effects the ease in which a
boy/girl can join a gang. " The formation of gangs in cities, and most recently
in suburbs, is facilitated by the same lack of community among parents.  The
parents do not know what their children are doing for two reasons: First, much
of the parents' lives is outside the local community, while the children's lives
are lived almost totally within it.  Second, in a fully developed community, the
network of relations gives every parent, in a sense, a community of sentries who
can keep him informed of his child's activities.  In modern living-places (city
or suburban), where such a network is attenuated, he no longer has such
sentries."2, (Merton Nisbet, 1971).

        In male gangs problems occur as each is the members tries to be the most
manly.  This often leads to all members participating in "one-up-manship".
Quite often this will then lead to each member trying to commit a bigger and
more violent crime or simply more crimes than the others.  With all members
participating in this sort of activity it makes for a never ending unorganized
violence spree (A sort of Clockwork Orange mentality).  In gangs with more
intellegent members these feelings end up making each member want to be the star
when the groups commit a crime.  This makes the gang much more organized and
improves the morale of members which in turn makes them more dangerous and very
hard for the police to deal with and catch (There is nothing harder to find and
deal with than organized teens that are dedicated to the group).  This sort of
gang is usually common of middle or upper class people although it can happen in
gangs in the projects and other low rent districts too.

        This "one-up-manship" is often the reason between rival gangs fighting.
All gangs feel powerful and they want to be feared.  To do this they try to
establish themselves as the only gang in a certain neighborhood.  After a few
gang fights hatred forms and gang murders and drive-by's begin to take place.
When two gangs are at war it makes life very dangerous for citizens in the area.
Less that 40% of drive-by's kill their intended victim yet over 60% do kill
someone.  This gang application is one of the many reasons that sexual
sterotypes and pressure to conform to the same must be stopped.

        Lastly one of the great factors in joining a gang is for protection.
Although from an objective point of view, we can see joining a gang brings more
danger than it saves you from, this is not always the way it is seen by kids.
In slums such as the Bronx or the very worst case, Compton, children will no
doubt be beaten and robbed if they do not join a gang.  Of course they can
probably get the same treatment from rivals when in a gang.  The gang also
provides some money for these children who quite often need to feed their
families.  The reason kids think that the gang will keep them safe is from
propoganda from the gangs.  Gang members will say that no one will get hurt and
make a public show of revenge if a member is hurt or killed.

          People in low rent areas are most often being repressed due to poverty
and most importantly, race.  This often results in an attitude that motivates
the person to base his/her life on doing what the system that oppresses them
doesn't want. Although this accomplishes little it is a big factor in gang
enrollment.

        So, as you have seen gangs are a product of the environment we have
created for ourselves.  Some of these factors include:  oppression, the media,
greed, violence and other gangs.  There seems to be no way to end the problem of
gangs without totally restructuring the modern economy and value system.  Since
the chance of this happening is minimal, we must learn to cope with gangs and
try to keep their following to a minimum.  Unfortunately there is no real
organized force to help fight gangs.  Of course the police are supposed to do
this but this situation quite often deals with racial issues also and the police
forces regularly display their increasing inability to deal fairly with these
issues.  What we need are more people to form organizations like the "Guardian
Angels" a gang-like group that makes life very tough for street gangs that are
breaking laws.


Bibliography

Margot Webb, Coping with Street Gangs.  Rosen Publishing Group, New York, 1990.

William Foote Whyte, Street Corner Society.  University of Chicago, Chicago,
     1955.

Peter Carroll, South-Central.  Hoyte and Williams, L. A., 1987.

1 Marshall B. Clinard, Sociology of Deviant Behavior.  University of Wisconsin,
     Wisconsin, 1963, Page 179.

2 Merton Nisbet, Contempory Social Problems.  Harcourt, Brace & World, New York,
     1971, Page 588.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gates.TXT
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We read books for a number of reasons but usually because we want
 
to or we have to. When you pick up a book it falls into one of three types, dependent on whether it is a want to or a have to type of book. First there's the kind of book you pick up and like the look of but then the first chapter is so bad that you have to put it down because you are either too confused by the plot or you discover it has been written in some obscure untranslatable language.

The second type is where the first chapter is slightly disappointing but it is worth pursuing so you read on. These books are often the type you recommend to friends although you have only the basic sketch as to what they are about (such as any pulp fiction novel - you've read the story somewhere before but you are on holiday so it is either this or the guide book).

The third type of book is a rare breed indeed. This is the book you read and then read and then read some more. It is the type of book that you miss things for.  If you like computers and want to know more about them, about the history, and about the most important figure in this industry, then this is definitely "the third type of book."

The book that I was able to read was Gates by Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews.  It was about how man named Bill Gates became the foundation of computing industry and how he reinvented an industry- and made himself the richest man in America.  

 	William (Bill) Gates is the computer industry's youngest billionaire. As president and CEO of Microsoft, he has made several important contributions to the world of technology.  Most people would probably picture him as being a computer programmer but not with holding the position of chair and chief executive officer (CEO) of a corporation. Actually, Bill Gates is both a programmer and CEO. To talk about Bill Gates one has to talk about the history of Microsoft. 

Gates' family was financially well off.  His father, William H. Gates II, is a prominent attorney.  His mother, Mary, is the director of First Interstate Bank. Early on in life, Gates' parents placed him into Lakeside, an academically challenging private school. While at Lakeside, Gates met his close friend and future business partner Paul Allen. Together they entered the world of programming at Lakeside. 

It all started on October 28, 1955, in Seattle, Washington, where one of the brains behind Microsoft Corporation was born, William Henry Gates III. At thirteen he started going to Lakeside School. A year later, the Mothers' Club invested in a computer terminal for the students. Gates teamed up with three other students to form The Lakeside Programmers Group. Their first real business deal was a payroll program they wrote for Information Sciences Inc., in 1971. 

At the young age of 15, Gates was able to crash the DEC operating system and the CDC, which were two of the most advanced computer systems at that time. Although his ability to crash these two systems brought him some major trouble, it also led him to his first business adventure. Gates and Allen started the company Traf-O-Data, which earned them $20,000. Gates and Allen developed a machine was able to generate summary statistics on traffic flow from a rubber tube strung across a highway. Unfortunately, Traf-O-Data was not a big success. However, after their Traf-O-Data adventure the Gates and Allen received a job offer with TRW, a corporation that produced software producta. They were able to earn $30,000 a year working with a software development group, which proved to be a very valuable experience for both Allen and Gates.  Then in 1973 Gates started at Harvard University, in Massachusetts.

In December 1974, Paul Allen, the other brain behind Microsoft, saw an article in Popular Electronics describing the Mango Information Technology Systems (MITS) Altair 8800, a home computer kit costing four hundred dollars. This "magazine article...would charge their lives and, ultimately, just about everybody else's". At that time, Gates and Allen contacted MITS to let them know they had a form of the computer language, called Basic, for the Altair 8800. A few months later, the Basic language for the Altair was finished, and they signed a deal with MITS. MITS offered Allen a job and office space for the two of them to work in its headquarters. Gates and Allen referred to themselves as Micro-Soft at that time. Before long, they would set up Microsoft in its own building in Albuquerque, New Mexico. 

In 1977, Gates dropped out of Harvard University. Microsoft was released from their contract with MITS and owned its Basic language program outright. Microsoft also made an agreement with Kuzuhiko Nishi for future software developments in Japan. Two years later Microsoft moved to Seattle, due to the growth of the company. 

Microsoft made a deal with International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) in 1980, regarding a computer language and disk operating system for IBM's new range of personal computers. So, Microsoft signed a deal to have the rights to Q-DOS, an operating system from Seattle Computer Products. They adapted Q-DOS to work with IBM's new personal computer. A year later, Microsoft came out with MS-DOS. 

In 1981, Gates decided that Microsoft should be in the market for application software for personal computers users. Two years later, Microsoft launched their first application program, WORD 1. Gates then announced that Microsoft was going to be launching a new way to use a computer with a Graphical User Interface (GUI) know as Windows. They also introduced a hand-held pointing tool, the mouse, which changed the way one interfaces with the computer. 

Even though Allen had to leave Microsoft for health reasons in 1983, he remains a director of Microsoft. On March 13, 1986, Gates and Allen become instant millionaires when Microsoft was launched onto the stock exchange. Also that year Microsoft moved to Redmond, Washington, to accommodate its twelve hundred employees. With the launch of Windows 3.0 in May 1990, Microsoft become the first personal computer software company to exceed over $1 billion in sales in a single year. In June 1992, Gates accepted the National Medal of Technology from President George Bush. Six months later, Microsoft became the world's largest computer-industry company, based on the total value of its stock.

After this book was published, I would like to mention that Bill Gates is now married whose name is Melinda Gates and now has a daughter named Jennifer Katharine Gates.  Furthermore, he is now worth more then 17 billion dollars.  Of course, I am underestimating Bill Gates's wealth because it only counts his current holdings of Microsoft stock.  The cars, houses, aircraft, helicopters, aircraft carriers, islands, and small European countries that he owns are not figured in.

	I think that the authors wrote this book as part history, part biography, and part computing.  This book is overflowing with detail of computer industry the reason being that the authors are computer experts.  Stephen Manes has covered the computer industry for more than ten years as a columnist and contributing editor for PC Magazine and PC Computing.  Paul Andrews is a high tech reporter for the Seattle Times.  The information in this book is amazing from starting of industry to where it's headed.  And from reading this book, I feel that Bill Gates and Microsoft are one in the same--one does not exist without the other.  "Gates, they say, understands that his company's image is closely linked to his own."  No matter what people say about him, there is no telling where personal computing would be without him. What he has done will affect the computer world for a long time.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\General Lee.TXT
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	Robert E. Lee was born on January 19, 1807 in Stafford, Virginia. 
The son of Lighthorse Harry Lee and was educated at the U.S. Military
academy.  
	In 1829 he graduated  second in his class receiving a commission as
second lieutenant in 1836 and captain in 1838.  He distinguished himself in
the Mexican War and was wounded in the storming of Chapultepec in 1847; 
for his meritorious service  he received his third promotion in rank.
	He became superintendent of the U.S. Military Academy and later
appointed colonel of calvery.  He was in command of the Department of
Texas in 1860 and early the following year was summoned to Washington,
D.C., when war between the states seemed imminent.
	President Abraham Lincoln offered him the field of command of the
Union forces but Lee refused.  On April, 20 when Virginia succeeded from
the Union, he submitted his resignation of the U.S. Army.
	On April 23 he became commander in chief of the military and naval
forces of Virginia.  For a year he was military adviser to Jefferson Davis,
president of the Confederate States of America, and was then placed in
command of the Army in northern Virginia.
	In February 1865 Lee was made commander in chief of all
Confederate armies; two months later the war was virtually ended by his
surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House.
	The masterly strategy of Lee was overcome only by the superior
resources and troop strength of the Union.  His campaigns are almost
universally studied in military schools as models of strategy and tactics,  He
had a capacity for anticipating the actions of his opponents and for
comprehending their weaknesses.
	He made skillful use of interior lines of communication and kept a
convex front toward the enemy so that his reinforcements, transfers, and
supplies could reach their destination over short, direct routes.  His greatest
contribution to military practice however was his use of field fortifications as
aids to maneuvering. 
	 He recognized that a small body of soldiers protected by
entrenchments can hold an enemy force of many times their number, while
the main body outflanks the enemy attacks a smaller force elsewhere.  In his
application of this principle Lee was years ahead of his time; the tactic was
not fully understood or generally adopted until the 20th century.
	He applied for but was never granted the official postwar amnesty.  He
accepted the presidency of Washington College, now Washington and Lee
University.  In the fall of 1865 within a few years it had become and
outstanding institution. 
	
	On October 12, 1870 Lee died at the University and has long been
revered as an ideal by southerners and as a hero by all Americans.  His
antevellum home is now known as Arlington House, the Robert E. Lee
Memorial, and is a national memorial.  In 1975 Lee's citizenship was restored
posthumously by an act of the U.S. Congress. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\George Frederick Handel 4.TXT
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George Frederick Handel

	George Frederick Handel was born on February 24, 1685 in Halle, Germany.  One of the greatest composers of the late baroque period (1700-50) and, during his lifetime, perhaps the most internationally famous of all musicians. Handel was born February 24, 1685, in Halle, Germany, to a family of no musical distinction. His own musical talent, however, expressed itself so clearly that before his tenth birthday he began to receive, from a local organist, the only formal musical instruction he would ever have. Although his first job, beginning just after his 17th birthday, was as church organist in Halle, Handel's musical tendencies lay elsewhere. Thus, in 1703 he traveled to Hamburg, the operatic center of Germany; here, in 1704, he composed his own first opera, Almira, which achieved great success the following year. Once again, however, Handel soon felt the urge to move on, and his instincts led him to Italy, the birthplace of operatic style. 
He stopped first at Florence in the autumn of 1706. In the spring and summer of 1707 and 1708 he traveled to Rome, enjoying the backing of both the nobility and the clergy, and in the late spring of 1707 he made an additional short trip to Naples.  In Italy, Handel composed operas, oratorios, and many small secular cantatas; he ended his Italian visit with the stunning success of his fifth opera, Agrippina (1709), in Venice.
Handel left Italy for a job as court composer and conductor in Hannover, Germany, where he arrived in the spring of 1710. As had been the case in Halle, however, he did not hold this job for long. By the end of 1710 Handel had left for London, where with Rinaldo (1711), he once again scored an operatic triumph.
      After returning to Hannover he was granted permission for a second, short trip to      London, from which, however, he never returned. Handel was forced to face his truancy when in 1714 the elector at Hannover, his former employer, became King George I of England. The reconciliation of these two men may well have occurred, as has often been said, during a royal party on the River Thames in 1715, during which the F major suite from Handel's Water Music was probably played. Under the sponsorship of the duke of Chandos, he composed his oratorio Esther and the 11 Chandos anthems for choir and string orchestra (1717-20). By 1719 Handel had won the support of the king to start the Royal Academy of Music for performances of opera, which presented some of Handel's greatest operas: Radamisto (1720), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano (1724), and Rodelinda (1725). In 1727 Handel became a naturalized British citizen; in 1728 the academy collapsed. He formed a new company the following year. Forced to move to another theater by the Opera of the Nobility, an opponent company, in 1734, he continued to produce opera until 1737,  when both houses failed. Handel suffered a stroke and retired to Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to recover.
In 1738 Handel, as determined as ever, began yet another operatic effort, which ended with his last opera, Deidamia, in 1741. During the 1730s, however, the most important directions taken by Handel were, first, the composition of English dramatic oratorios, notably Athalia (1733) and Saul (1739); and, second, the surge of instrumental music used in connection with the oratorios, including some of Handel's greatest concertos-the solo concertos of op. 4 (1736, five for organ and one for harp) and the 12 concerti grossi of op. 6 (1739). In 1742, Messiah, the      work for which he is best known, was first performed in Dublin. Handel continued composing oratorios at the rate of about two a year, including such masterworks as Samson (1743) and Solomon (1749), until 1751, when his eyesight began to fail.
Handel died in London on April 14, 1759; the last musical performance he heard, on April 6, was of his own Messiah.
Throughout his life Handel avoided the strict techniques of  his exact contemporary Johann Sebastian Bach and achieved his effects through the simplest of means, trusting always his own natural musicianship. The music of both composers, however, sums up the age in which they lived. After them, opera took a different path; the favorite baroque genres of chamber and orchestral music, trio sonata and concerto grosso, were largely abandoned; and the development of the symphony orchestra and the pianoforte led into realms uncharted by the baroque masters. Their influence can't be found in specific examples.
 Handel's legacy lies in the dramatic power and lyrical beauty inherent in all his music. His operas move from the rigid use of traditional schemes toward a more flexible and dramatic treatment of recitative, arioso, aria, and chorus. His ability to build large scenes around a single character was further extended in the dramatic scenas of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the Italian Gioacchino Rossini. Handel's greatest gift to posterity was undoubtedly the creation of the dramatic oratorio genre, partly out of existing operatic traditions and partly by force of his own musical imagination; without question, the oratorios of both the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn and the German composer Felix Mendelssohn owe a large debt to those of Handel. He was one of the first composers to have a biography  written of him (1760), to have centennial celebrations of his birth (1784-86), and to have a complete edition of his music published (40 vol., 1787-97) Ludwig van  Beethoven cherished his set. Although tdel is best known for only a few of his works, such as Water Music and Messiah, more and more attempts are being made to bring his other compositions, especially his operas, before the public. Handel's rich and unique musical genius deserves to be remembered in the magnificent fullness of its enti
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\George Frederick Handel.TXT
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George Frederick Handel

	George Frederick Handel was born on February 24, 1685 in Halle, Germany.  One of the greatest composers of the late baroque period (1700-50) and, during his lifetime, perhaps the most internationally famous of all musicians. Handel was born February 24, 1685, in Halle, Germany, to a family of no musical distinction. His own musical talent, however, expressed itself so clearly that before his tenth birthday he began to receive, from a local organist, the only formal musical instruction he would ever have. Although his first job, beginning just after his 17th birthday, was as church organist in Halle, Handel's musical tendencies lay elsewhere. Thus, in 1703 he traveled to Hamburg, the operatic center of Germany; here, in 1704, he composed his own first opera, Almira, which achieved great success the following year. Once again, however, Handel soon felt the urge to move on, and his instincts led him to Italy, the birthplace of operatic style. 
He stopped first at Florence in the autumn of 1706. In the spring and summer of 1707 and 1708 he traveled to Rome, enjoying the backing of both the nobility and the clergy, and in the late spring of 1707 he made an additional short trip to Naples.  In Italy, Handel composed operas, oratorios, and many small secular cantatas; he ended his Italian visit with the stunning success of his fifth opera, Agrippina (1709), in Venice.
Handel left Italy for a job as court composer and conductor in Hannover, Germany, where he arrived in the spring of 1710. As had been the case in Halle, however, he did not hold this job for long. By the end of 1710 Handel had left for London, where with Rinaldo (1711), he once again scored an operatic triumph.
      After returning to Hannover he was granted permission for a second, short trip to      London, from which, however, he never returned. Handel was forced to face his truancy when in 1714 the elector at Hannover, his former employer, became King George I of England. The reconciliation of these two men may well have occurred, as has often been said, during a royal party on the River Thames in 1715, during which the F major suite from Handel's Water Music was probably played. Under the sponsorship of the duke of Chandos, he composed his oratorio Esther and the 11 Chandos anthems for choir and string orchestra (1717-20). By 1719 Handel had won the support of the king to start the Royal Academy of Music for performances of opera, which presented some of Handel's greatest operas: Radamisto (1720), Giulio Cesare (1724), Tamerlano (1724), and Rodelinda (1725). In 1727 Handel became a naturalized British citizen; in 1728 the academy collapsed. He formed a new company the following year. Forced to move to another theater by the Opera of the Nobility, an opponent company, in 1734, he continued to produce opera until 1737,  when both houses failed. Handel suffered a stroke and retired to Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) to recover.
In 1738 Handel, as determined as ever, began yet another operatic effort, which ended with his last opera, Deidamia, in 1741. During the 1730s, however, the most important directions taken by Handel were, first, the composition of English dramatic oratorios, notably Athalia (1733) and Saul (1739); and, second, the surge of instrumental music used in connection with the oratorios, including some of Handel's greatest concertos-the solo concertos of op. 4 (1736, five for organ and one for harp) and the 12 concerti grossi of op. 6 (1739). In 1742, Messiah, the      work for which he is best known, was first performed in Dublin. Handel continued composing oratorios at the rate of about two a year, including such masterworks as Samson (1743) and Solomon (1749), until 1751, when his eyesight began to fail.
Handel died in London on April 14, 1759; the last musical performance he heard, on April 6, was of his own Messiah.
Throughout his life Handel avoided the strict techniques of  his exact contemporary Johann Sebastian Bach and achieved his effects through the simplest of means, trusting always his own natural musicianship. The music of both composers, however, sums up the age in which they lived. After them, opera took a different path; the favorite baroque genres of chamber and orchestral music, trio sonata and concerto grosso, were largely abandoned; and the development of the symphony orchestra and the pianoforte led into realms uncharted by the baroque masters. Their influence can't be found in specific examples.
 Handel's legacy lies in the dramatic power and lyrical beauty inherent in all his music. His operas move from the rigid use of traditional schemes toward a more flexible and dramatic treatment of recitative, arioso, aria, and chorus. His ability to build large scenes around a single character was further extended in the dramatic scenas of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and the Italian Gioacchino Rossini. Handel's greatest gift to posterity was undoubtedly the creation of the dramatic oratorio genre, partly out of existing operatic traditions and partly by force of his own musical imagination; without question, the oratorios of both the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn and the German composer Felix Mendelssohn owe a large debt to those of Handel. He was one of the first composers to have a biography  written of him (1760), to have centennial celebrations of his birth (1784-86), and to have a complete edition of his music published (40 vol., 1787-97) Ludwig van  Beethoven cherished his set. Although tdel is best known for only a few of his works, such as Water Music and Messiah, more and more attempts are being made to bring his other compositions, especially his operas, before the public. Handel's rich and unique musical genius deserves to be remembered in the magnificent fullness of its enti
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\George Washington 4.TXT
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George Washington
  He was born 1732 and he died in1799. 
George Washington seems today a figure larger than life itself.....almost as he was when he was a familiar person in the halls, homes, shops, and bars of 18th-century city Williamsburg. 
On Duke of Gloucester Street, in the Raleigh Tavern's Apollo Room, or the Governor's Palace Gardens, his powerful frame and his nice attitude..his presence....drew to him the notice that wrote his place in the history of the city, the state, and the nation. 

"His bones and joints are large, as are his hands and feet," friend of Washington George Mercer observed in 1760. He said Washington kept "all the muscles of his face under perfect control, though flexible and expressive of deep feeling when moved by emotion. In conversation he looks you full in the face, is deliberate, deferential and engaging. His voice is agreeable . . . he is a splendid horseman." 

Thomas Jefferson who served with Washington in the House of Burgesses, wrote: "On the whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in a few points indifferent; and it may truly be said, that never did nature and fortune combine more perfectly to make a man great, and to place him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have merited from man an everlasting remembrance." 

In Williamsburg, when it was the seat of Virginia's government, Washington secured his first military commissions, learned and practiced the arts of politics, and moved from the attitude of being just another country squire to become the leader of a continental revolution. 

Born February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland County he was the first son of his father Augustine's second marriage: his mother was the former Mary Ball of Epping Forest. When George was about 3 his family moved to Little Hunting Creek on the Potomac, then to Ferry Farm opposite of Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock in King George County. 

His father died in 1743, and Washington grew nervous under his mother's guidance. He proposed at one point to follow the sea, but he divided his adolescence among the households of relatives, finding a home and a model in his half-brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. From Lawrence he learned trig and surveying and accomplished a taste for ethics, novels, music, and the theater. An officer in the Virginia militia, Lawrence had served with Admiral Edward Vernon...for who the plantation was named, and tinged George with aspirations for military service. 

In the interim, the powerful Fairfax family of neighboring Belvoir introduced him to the accomplishments of wealth and in 1748 provided him his first "adventure". That year Lord Fairfax dispatched him with a party that spent a month surveying Fairfax lands in the still-wild Shenandoah. In the expedition, he began to appreciate the uses and value of land, an appreciation that grew the following year with his appointment as Culpeper County surveyor, certified by the College of William and Mary. 

Lawrence, suffering from a lung complaint took a Barbados voyage in search of health in a warmer climate....and george accompanied him. The younger brother contracted smallpox and returned to Virginia alone, but with a immunity to a disease that destroyed colonial-era armies. Lawrence died in 1752, and the Mount Vernon estate passed by stages into George's hands until he inherited it in 1761. 

Washington also succeeded to Lawrence's militia office. Governor Robert Dinwiddie first appointed him assistant for the southern district of the colony's militia, but soon conferred on him Lawrence's assistantcy for the Northern Neck and Eastern Shore. So it happened that in 1753 the governor sent 21-year-old Washington to warn French troops at Fort Duquesne at the forks of the Ohio (that's modern Pittsburgh) that they were encroaching in territory claimed by Virginia. 

The French ignored the warning and the mission failed, but when Washington returned Dinwiddie had Williamsburg printer William Hunter publish his official report as The Journal of Major George Washington. It made the young officer well-known at home and away. 

Returning to the Ohio in April with 150 men to remove the intruders, Washington got his first taste of war in a fight with a French scouting party. He wrote to his brother Jack, "I heard the bullets whistle, and, believe me, there is something charming in the sound." 

A second fight quickly followed and Washington, retreating to Fort Necessity, was beaten by an even more numerous French force. He surrendered and, in his ignorance of French, signed an embarrassing surrender agreement. But he had opportunities to get revenge for his defeat. The whistling bullets heralded the start of the Seven Years' War, as it was called in Europe. In America it was called the French and Indian War or, sometimes, Virginia's War. Horace Walpole wrote, "The volley fired by a young Virginian in the backwoods of America set the world on fire." 

Washington returned to the field as an friend to General Braddock in 1755 and performed with distinction, despite sickness, in the disastrous campaign against Fort Duquesne. Later that year Dinwiddie gave him command of all Virginia forces and promoted him to colonel. 

In these years Washington had two arguments with English officers who viewed their regular-army commissions as superior compared to of the Virginia militia commander. These disputes may mark the beginning of Washington's anger of British attitudes toward the colonies. 

Operating from a fort at Winchester, Washington protected the Virginia frontier until 1758 when he was made a militia and helped to chase the French from Fort Duquesne for good. 

Washington resigned at war's end and retired to Mount Vernon. He was defeated in elections for the House of Burgesses in 1755 and 1757, but won in 1758 and was seated the following year from Frederick County. For 15 years he devoted himself to his legislative work and his farm. During this period, he also became a family man, marrying the widow Martha Dandridge Custis, the mother of two children, on January 6, 1759, in New Kent County. 

In 1760, Washington took on the additional duties of a Fairfax County justice of the peace. He also found time for the hobbies of a Virginia gentleman--fox hunting, snuff taking, plays, billiards, cards, dancing, and fishing. He delighted in bottles of Madeira, plates of watermelon, and dishes of oysters. 

In these years his resentment of the subordination of American interests to those of England grew. When Parliament attempted to force the Stamp Act in 1769, Washington told someone that Parliament "hath no more right to put their hands into my pocket, without my consent, than I have to put my hands into yours for money." 

By 1774 he was in the forefront of the defense of Virginia liberties and was among the rebellious burgesses who gathered at the Raleigh Tavern on May 27 after Governor Dunmore dissolved the house. Washington signed the resolves proposing a Continental congress and non-importation of British goods. On July 18, he chaired the Alexandria meeting that adopted George Mason's "Fairfax Resolutions." 

Sent to the First Continental Congress, Washington returned home afterward to organize independent militia companies in Northern Virginia and to win election to the Second Continental Congress. In Philadelphia on June 15, 1775, he was offered command of America's forces, accepted, vowed to accept no pay, and left to take over the army at Boston. 

The years that passed before the victory at Yorktown in 1781 were marked as often by frustration as by success. Hampered by shortages of supplies and the disloyalty of enlistments, Washington commanded with caution. He once reported to Congress, "We should on all Occasions avoid a general Action, or put anything to the Risque, unless compelled by a necessity, into which we ought never to be drawn." 

Jefferson wrote: 

"His mind was great and powerful, without being of the very first order; his penetration strong . . . and as far as he saw, no judgment was ever sounder. It was slow in operation, being little aided by invention of imagination, but sure in conclusion. Hence the common remark of his officers, of the advantage he derived from councils of war, where hearing all suggestions, he selected whatever was best; and certainly no general ever planned his battles more judiciously. But if he deranged during the course of the action, if any member of his plan was dislocated by sudden circumstances, he was slow in re-adjustment. The consequence was, that he often failed in the field, and rarely against an enemy in station, as at Boston and York. He was incapable of fear, meeting personal dangers with the calmest unconcern. Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration, was maturely weighed; refraining if he saw a doubt, but, when once decided, going through with his purpose, whatever obstacles opposed." 

Washington regarded Yorktown--a battle he planned in part at the George Wythe House--as "an interesting event that may be productive of much good if properly improved, but if it should be the means of relaxation and sink us into supineness and security, it had better not have happened." 

The war wound down and, as danger dropped, congressional disregard of the Army grew. His troops urged Washington to seize power from the politicians, but he rejected every such suggestion. On March 15, 1783, Washington met his unhappy and rebellious officers at Newburgh, New York, to discourage them from marching on Congress over back pay, but the speech he had prepared proved unpersuasive. 

He decided to read a letter that he had received from a congressman. As he reached into his coat for his glasses, he said, "Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray, but almost blind, in the service of my country." The officers were so touched that some cried, and the day was carried. Biographer James Thomas Flexner wrote, "This was probably the most important single gathering ever held in the United States." 

On April 19, 1783--the anniversary of the Battle of Lexington--Washington said bye to his staff at the Fraunces Tavern in New York and, on the way to Mount Vernon, stopped in Annapolis to resign his commission to Congress. He resumed the life of a plantation squire, and set out to repair his finances. 

He had long hoped to connect the Virginia seaboard to the Ohio and the interior by means of canals he rode away in autumn 1784 on a 650-mile journey for observations. Improvement of his long-neglected farms, however was his primary preoccupation. He wrote to the Marquis de Lafayette, "I have not only retired from all public employments, but I am retiring within myself . . . Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being the order for my march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers." 

The weakness of the government created by the Articles of Confederation concerned Washington and, in 1786, Shays's Rebellion alarmed him. He regrettingly accepted a seat in the federal convention and election to its presidency. His unanimous election as the first president of the United States was certain before the Constitution was even adopted and, again, he accepted with unwillingness. "My movements to the chair of government will be accompanied by feeling not unlike those of a culprit, who is going to the place of his execution," he wrote after the ballot. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office in New York at age 57. 

Washington not only had to organize a government but also to create a role for the highest officer of the new nation. Both tasks earned him enemies. Always opposed to factions, his two administrations prepared the rivalry of the Federalist and Anti-federalist parties. 

Though unopposed for re-election, his second administration was the subject of uncommon, and sometimes indecent and abuse. He had one such attack to an alarm raised against a rabid dog: "Such exaggerated terms as could scarcely be applied to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pickpocket." 

The Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania against a federal excise tax on spirits was his critical domestic challenge. He rode partway to the field at the head of the column of militia raised to put it down. 

After serving as Washington's secretary of state, Jefferson split with the president. The break became permanent. Jefferson wrote, 

"I do believe that General Washington had not a firm confidence in the durability of our government. He was naturally distrustful of men, and inclined gloomy apprehensions; and I was ever persuaded that a belief that we must at length end in something like a British constitution, had some weight in his adoption of the ceremonies of levees, birthdays, pompous meetings with Congress, and other forms of the same character, calculated to prepare us gradually for a change which he believed possible, and to let it come on with as little shock as might be to the public mind." 

Historians credit Washington's conduct of the office with the preservation of the national union under the American Constitution. Washington issued his farewell address on September 7, 1796, and was succeeded by John Adams the following March 4. His last official act was to pardon the participants in the Whiskey Rebellion. 

When relations with France soured in 1798, his Country once more turned to Washington for his service. Adams appointed him lieutenant general of a provisional army. The danger lessened before the troops came together. 

In December 1799, after a day spent riding on his farms in bad weather, Washington's throat became inflamed. At 2 a.m on December14, he awakened his wife to say that he was having trouble breathing. At sunrise she sent for Dr. James Craig, who arrived at 9 a.m. and diagnosed the illness as "inflammatory quinsy." During the morning Washington was bleeding three times and two more doctors came, Elisha Dick of Alexandria and Gustavus Brown. One counseled against bleeding, but more blood was taken. 
At midnight Washington said to his secretary, Tobias Lear; "I am just going. Have me decently buried, and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead. Do you understand me?" 

Lear said, "Yes." 

Washington's last words were, "'Tis well."
    
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\George Washington.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
George Washington
  He was born 1732 and he died in1799. 
George Washington seems today a figure larger than life itself.....almost as he was when he was a familiar person in the halls, homes, shops, and bars of 18th-century city Williamsburg. 
On Duke of Gloucester Street, in the Raleigh Tavern's Apollo Room, or the Governor's Palace Gardens, his powerful frame and his nice attitude..his presence....drew to him the notice that wrote his place in the history of the city, the state, and the nation. 

"His bones and joints are large, as are his hands and feet," friend of Washington George Mercer observed in 1760. He said Washington kept "all the muscles of his face under perfect control, though flexible and expressive of deep feeling when moved by emotion. In conversation he looks you full in the face, is deliberate, deferential and engaging. His voice is agreeable . . . he is a splendid horseman." 

Thomas Jefferson who served with Washington in the House of Burgesses, wrote: "On the whole, his character was, in its mass, perfect, in nothing bad, in a few points indifferent; and it may truly be said, that never did nature and fortune combine more perfectly to make a man great, and to place him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have merited from man an everlasting remembrance." 

In Williamsburg, when it was the seat of Virginia's government, Washington secured his first military commissions, learned and practiced the arts of politics, and moved from the attitude of being just another country squire to become the leader of a continental revolution. 

Born February 22, 1732 in Westmoreland County he was the first son of his father Augustine's second marriage: his mother was the former Mary Ball of Epping Forest. When George was about 3 his family moved to Little Hunting Creek on the Potomac, then to Ferry Farm opposite of Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock in King George County. 

His father died in 1743, and Washington grew nervous under his mother's guidance. He proposed at one point to follow the sea, but he divided his adolescence among the households of relatives, finding a home and a model in his half-brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. From Lawrence he learned trig and surveying and accomplished a taste for ethics, novels, music, and the theater. An officer in the Virginia militia, Lawrence had served with Admiral Edward Vernon...for who the plantation was named, and tinged George with aspirations for military service. 

In the interim, the powerful Fairfax family of neighboring Belvoir introduced him to the accomplishments of wealth and in 1748 provided him his first "adventure". That year Lord Fairfax dispatched him with a party that spent a month surveying Fairfax lands in the still-wild Shenandoah. In the expedition, he began to appreciate the uses and value of land, an appreciation that grew the following year with his appointment as Culpeper County surveyor, certified by the College of William and Mary. 

Lawrence, suffering from a lung complaint took a Barbados voyage in search of health in a warmer climate....and george accompanied him. The younger brother contracted smallpox and returned to Virginia alone, but with a immunity to a disease that destroyed colonial-era armies. Lawrence died in 1752, and the Mount Vernon estate passed by stages into George's hands until he inherited it in 1761. 

Washington also succeeded to Lawrence's militia office. Governor Robert Dinwiddie first appointed him assistant for the southern district of the colony's militia, but soon conferred on him Lawrence's assistantcy for the Northern Neck and Eastern Shore. So it happened that in 1753 the governor sent 21-year-old Washington to warn French troops at Fort Duquesne at the forks of the Ohio (that's modern Pittsburgh) that they were encroaching in territory claimed by Virginia. 

The French ignored the warning and the mission failed, but when Washington returned Dinwiddie had Williamsburg printer William Hunter publish his official report as The Journal of Major George Washington. It made the young officer well-known at home and away. 

Returning to the Ohio in April with 150 men to remove the intruders, Washington got his first taste of war in a fight with a French scouting party. He wrote to his brother Jack, "I heard the bullets whistle, and, believe me, there is something charming in the sound." 

A second fight quickly followed and Washington, retreating to Fort Necessity, was beaten by an even more numerous French force. He surrendered and, in his ignorance of French, signed an embarrassing surrender agreement. But he had opportunities to get revenge for his defeat. The whistling bullets heralded the start of the Seven Years' War, as it was called in Europe. In America it was called the French and Indian War or, sometimes, Virginia's War. Horace Walpole wrote, "The volley fired by a young Virginian in the backwoods of America set the world on fire." 

Washington returned to the field as an friend to General Braddock in 1755 and performed with distinction, despite sickness, in the disastrous campaign against Fort Duquesne. Later that year Dinwiddie gave him command of all Virginia forces and promoted him to colonel. 

In these years Washington had two arguments with English officers who viewed their regular-army commissions as superior compared to of the Virginia militia commander. These disputes may mark the beginning of Washington's anger of British attitudes toward the colonies. 

Operating from a fort at Winchester, Washington protected the Virginia frontier until 1758 when he was made a militia and helped to chase the French from Fort Duquesne for good. 

Washington resigned at war's end and retired to Mount Vernon. He was defeated in elections for the House of Burgesses in 1755 and 1757, but won in 1758 and was seated the following year from Frederick County. For 15 years he devoted himself to his legislative work and his farm. During this period, he also became a family man, marrying the widow Martha Dandridge Custis, the mother of two children, on January 6, 1759, in New Kent County. 

In 1760, Washington took on the additional duties of a Fairfax County justice of the peace. He also found time for the hobbies of a Virginia gentleman--fox hunting, snuff taking, plays, billiards, cards, dancing, and fishing. He delighted in bottles of Madeira, plates of watermelon, and dishes of oysters. 

In these years his resentment of the subordination of American interests to those of England grew. When Parliament attempted to force the Stamp Act in 1769, Washington told someone that Parliament "hath no more right to put their hands into my pocket, without my consent, than I have to put my hands into yours for money." 

By 1774 he was in the forefront of the defense of Virginia liberties and was among the rebellious burgesses who gathered at the Raleigh Tavern on May 27 after Governor Dunmore dissolved the house. Washington signed the resolves proposing a Continental congress and non-importation of British goods. On July 18, he chaired the Alexandria meeting that adopted George Mason's "Fairfax Resolutions." 

Sent to the First Continental Congress, Washington returned home afterward to organize independent militia companies in Northern Virginia and to win election to the Second Continental Congress. In Philadelphia on June 15, 1775, he was offered command of America's forces, accepted, vowed to accept no pay, and left to take over the army at Boston. 

The years that passed before the victory at Yorktown in 1781 were marked as often by frustration as by success. Hampered by shortages of supplies and the disloyalty of enlistments, Washington commanded with caution. He once reported to Congress, "We should on all Occasions avoid a general Action, or put anything to the Risque, unless compelled by a necessity, into which we ought never to be drawn." 

Jefferson wrote: 

"His mind was great and powerful, without being of the very first order; his penetration strong . . . and as far as he saw, no judgment was ever sounder. It was slow in operation, being little aided by invention of imagination, but sure in conclusion. Hence the common remark of his officers, of the advantage he derived from councils of war, where hearing all suggestions, he selected whatever was best; and certainly no general ever planned his battles more judiciously. But if he deranged during the course of the action, if any member of his plan was dislocated by sudden circumstances, he was slow in re-adjustment. The consequence was, that he often failed in the field, and rarely against an enemy in station, as at Boston and York. He was incapable of fear, meeting personal dangers with the calmest unconcern. Perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence, never acting until every circumstance, every consideration, was maturely weighed; refraining if he saw a doubt, but, when once decided, going through with his purpose, whatever obstacles opposed." 

Washington regarded Yorktown--a battle he planned in part at the George Wythe House--as "an interesting event that may be productive of much good if properly improved, but if it should be the means of relaxation and sink us into supineness and security, it had better not have happened." 

The war wound down and, as danger dropped, congressional disregard of the Army grew. His troops urged Washington to seize power from the politicians, but he rejected every such suggestion. On March 15, 1783, Washington met his unhappy and rebellious officers at Newburgh, New York, to discourage them from marching on Congress over back pay, but the speech he had prepared proved unpersuasive. 

He decided to read a letter that he had received from a congressman. As he reached into his coat for his glasses, he said, "Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray, but almost blind, in the service of my country." The officers were so touched that some cried, and the day was carried. Biographer James Thomas Flexner wrote, "This was probably the most important single gathering ever held in the United States." 

On April 19, 1783--the anniversary of the Battle of Lexington--Washington said bye to his staff at the Fraunces Tavern in New York and, on the way to Mount Vernon, stopped in Annapolis to resign his commission to Congress. He resumed the life of a plantation squire, and set out to repair his finances. 

He had long hoped to connect the Virginia seaboard to the Ohio and the interior by means of canals he rode away in autumn 1784 on a 650-mile journey for observations. Improvement of his long-neglected farms, however was his primary preoccupation. He wrote to the Marquis de Lafayette, "I have not only retired from all public employments, but I am retiring within myself . . . Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with all; and this, my dear friend, being the order for my march, I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers." 

The weakness of the government created by the Articles of Confederation concerned Washington and, in 1786, Shays's Rebellion alarmed him. He regrettingly accepted a seat in the federal convention and election to its presidency. His unanimous election as the first president of the United States was certain before the Constitution was even adopted and, again, he accepted with unwillingness. "My movements to the chair of government will be accompanied by feeling not unlike those of a culprit, who is going to the place of his execution," he wrote after the ballot. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office in New York at age 57. 

Washington not only had to organize a government but also to create a role for the highest officer of the new nation. Both tasks earned him enemies. Always opposed to factions, his two administrations prepared the rivalry of the Federalist and Anti-federalist parties. 

Though unopposed for re-election, his second administration was the subject of uncommon, and sometimes indecent and abuse. He had one such attack to an alarm raised against a rabid dog: "Such exaggerated terms as could scarcely be applied to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pickpocket." 

The Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania against a federal excise tax on spirits was his critical domestic challenge. He rode partway to the field at the head of the column of militia raised to put it down. 

After serving as Washington's secretary of state, Jefferson split with the president. The break became permanent. Jefferson wrote, 

"I do believe that General Washington had not a firm confidence in the durability of our government. He was naturally distrustful of men, and inclined gloomy apprehensions; and I was ever persuaded that a belief that we must at length end in something like a British constitution, had some weight in his adoption of the ceremonies of levees, birthdays, pompous meetings with Congress, and other forms of the same character, calculated to prepare us gradually for a change which he believed possible, and to let it come on with as little shock as might be to the public mind." 

Historians credit Washington's conduct of the office with the preservation of the national union under the American Constitution. Washington issued his farewell address on September 7, 1796, and was succeeded by John Adams the following March 4. His last official act was to pardon the participants in the Whiskey Rebellion. 

When relations with France soured in 1798, his Country once more turned to Washington for his service. Adams appointed him lieutenant general of a provisional army. The danger lessened before the troops came together. 

In December 1799, after a day spent riding on his farms in bad weather, Washington's throat became inflamed. At 2 a.m on December14, he awakened his wife to say that he was having trouble breathing. At sunrise she sent for Dr. James Craig, who arrived at 9 a.m. and diagnosed the illness as "inflammatory quinsy." During the morning Washington was bleeding three times and two more doctors came, Elisha Dick of Alexandria and Gustavus Brown. One counseled against bleeding, but more blood was taken. 
At midnight Washington said to his secretary, Tobias Lear; "I am just going. Have me decently buried, and do not let my body be put into the vault in less than three days after I am dead. Do you understand me?" 

Lear said, "Yes." 

Washington's last words were, "'Tis well."
    
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gerard Manely Hopkins.TXT
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Jason Platko
Mrs. Pena
English
28 May, 1996
     Everyone is destined to be great for a moment in their lives.  For Gerard Manley Hopkins this was difficult.  Gerard was a poet that came way before his time and people didn't realize the power he had with words.
     Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the most original poets to write in English at any time period.  He only lived for 45 years and only had three of his poems published during his lifetime.  Gerard was torn between his love of God and his love of poetry.
     Gerard Manley Hopkins, born on July 28 1844, was the eldest of  eight children of a London marine insurance adjuster.  Besides writing books about marine insurance Gerard's father, Manley, also wrote a volume of poetry.  His mother on the other hand was a very pious person.  She was actively involved in the church and impressed her religion on Gerard.  He attended Highgate School where his talent for poetry was first shown.  Some sources say he won as many as seven contests while enrolled at Highgate.
     Gerard in 1864 enrolled at Balliol College, at Oxford, to Read Greats (classics, ancient history, and philosophy).  At this time in his life he wanted to become a painter, like one of his siblings.  His plans changed when he, and three of his friends were drawn in to Catholicism.  He was received by the Church of Newman in October of 1866.  After having taken a first class degree in 1867, he taught at the Oratory School, Birmingham.  Two years later he decided to become a Jesuit when he burned all  his verses as too worldly.  When he entered as a Jesuit he wrote no poems. although the though of crossing the two vocations constantly crossed his mind.  Then in 1875 he told his superior how moved he felt by the wreck of the Deutschland, a ship carrying five nuns exiled from Germany.  His superior expressed his wish that someone would write a poem about it.  Hopkins having his motive wrote his first major work.  He sent his poem to long time friend Robert Bridges who was put off by the poem and called it ''presumptuous juggelry.''  But Hopkins stood his ground, knowing he had something of worth.  His poem brought together his own conversion and the chiefs nun's transfiguring death.  God's wrath and God's love with the face of an epigram.  Hopkins faith was a source of anguish.  He said he never wavered in it, but that he never felt worthy of it.
     Hopkins felt that language must divorce itself from such archaisms as ''ere,'' ''o'er,'' ''wellnigh,'' ''whattime,'' and ''saynot.''  But Hopkins invented many new words like: beechhole (trunk of a beech tree), bloomfall (fall of flowers), bower of bone (body), firedint (spark), firefolk (stars), unleaving (losing leaves), and leafmeal (leaf and piecemeal).
     Gerard Manley Hopkins led a life that he thought was good.  He lived a life that met both his mothers and fathers expectations.  He like his father wrote poetry, but unlike his father didn't like to publicize his works.  And like his mother he was very actively involved in the church, becoming a priest.  But unlike his mother didn't devote his whole life to religion.  Gerard unfortunately only lived to be 45 when he died of typhoid.  He was the professor of classics at University College, Dublin for many years before he passed away.



     When Yeats said that Hopkins' style was merely "the last development of poetic diction" he spoke like a contrary old man.  Hopkins' small and idiosyncratic productions, much of it fragments, must have seemed to Yeats a threat to what had been already achieved without it.  Hopkins poems blended of natural and learned elements, and that its vivid surface leads on occasion not only to clarity but also to darkness.  In many of his poems it is difficult to get its true meanings.  Yvor Winters blamed it on the convenient scapegoat of "Romantic" individualism.  But many others blame it on Hopkins' desire for discipline.  We know that his urge towards sacrifice of intellect and a true religious anonymity was very strong.  His letters to Dixon reveal an unendin 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gerard Manley Hopkins.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Gerard Manley Hopkins


Jason Platko Mrs. Pena English 28 May, 1996

     Everyone is destined to be great for a moment in their lives.  For Gerard
Manley Hopkins this was difficult.  Gerard was a poet that came way before his
time and people didn't realize the power he had with words.
     Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the most original poets to write in
English at any time period.  He only lived for 45 years and only had three of
his poems published during his lifetime.  Gerard was torn between his love of
God and his love of poetry.
     Gerard Manley Hopkins, born on July 28 1844, was the eldest of  eight
children of a London marine insurance adjuster.  Besides writing books about
marine insurance Gerard's father, Manley, also wrote a volume of poetry.  His
mother on the other hand was a very pious person.  She was actively involved in
the church and impressed her religion on Gerard.  He attended Highgate School
where his talent for poetry was first shown.  Some sources say he won as many as
seven contests while enrolled at Highgate.
     Gerard in 1864 enrolled at Balliol College, at Oxford, to Read Greats
(classics, ancient history, and philosophy).  At this time in his life he wanted
to become a painter, like one of his siblings.  His plans changed when he, and
three of his friends were drawn in to Catholicism.  He was received by the
Church of Newman in October of 1866.  After having taken a first class degree in
1867, he taught at the Oratory School, Birmingham.  Two years later he decided
to become a Jesuit when he burned all  his verses as too worldly.  When he
entered as a Jesuit he wrote no poems. although the though of crossing the two
vocations constantly crossed his mind.  Then in 1875 he told his superior how
moved he felt by the wreck of the Deutschland, a ship carrying five nuns exiled
from Germany.  His superior expressed his wish that someone would write a poem
about it.  Hopkins having his motive wrote his first major work.  He sent his
poem to long time friend Robert Bridges who was put off by the poem and called
it ''presumptuous juggelry.''  But Hopkins stood his ground, knowing he had
something of worth.  His poem brought together his own conversion and the chiefs
nun's transfiguring death.  God's wrath and God's love with the face of an
epigram.  Hopkins faith was a source of anguish.  He said he never wavered in it,
but that he never felt worthy of it.
     Hopkins felt that language must divorce itself from such archaisms as
''ere,'' ''o'er,'' ''wellnigh,'' ''whattime,'' and ''saynot.''  But Hopkins
invented many new words like: beechhole (trunk of a beech tree), bloomfall (fall
of flowers), bower of bone (body), firedint (spark), firefolk (stars), unleaving
(losing leaves), and leafmeal (leaf and piecemeal).
     Gerard Manley Hopkins led a life that he thought was good.  He lived a life
that met both his mothers and fathers expectations.  He like his father wrote
poetry, but unlike his father didn't like to publicize his works.  And like his
mother he was very actively involved in the church, becoming a priest.  But
unlike his mother didn't devote his whole life to religion.  Gerard
unfortunately only lived to be 45 when he died of typhoid.  He was the professor
of classics at University College, Dublin for many years before he passed away.
     When Yeats said that Hopkins' style was merely "the last development of
poetic diction" he spoke like a contrary old man.  Hopkins' small and
idiosyncratic productions, much of it fragments, must have seemed to Yeats a
threat to what had been already achieved without it.  Hopkins poems blended of
natural and learned elements, and that its vivid surface leads on occasion not
only to clarity but also to darkness.  In many of his poems it is difficult to
get its true meanings.  Yvor Winters blamed it on the convenient scapegoat of
"Romantic" individualism.  But many others blame it on Hopkins' desire for
discipline.  We know that his urge towards sacrifice of intellect and a true
religious anonymity was very strong.  His letters to Dixon reveal an unendin



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ghandi Biography.TXT
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Khadijah Auckbaraullee
Ms. Ardis
ESP 301
25/05/03




      Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in 1869 in India and was murdered in 1948 by the fanatic Hindu Nathuram Godsey. Gandhi was a Hindu as well and born in the second highest cast. Hindus hold the belief that people get born in a cast in which they stay their whole life. When their behavior according to the religious rules of Hinduism is good they get in a higher cast in their next life. On the other hand, if they behave badly they get in a lower cast. Their are also the Untouchables or people without a cast. People from other casts treat them badly and very often would not even touch them. They live in the biggest poverty and have hardly any chances to live a good life. 
In the time Gandhi was born India was a colony of the British Empire. The British ruled the country for several hundred years. Many people lived in great poverty because the British took all the wealth. After school Gandhi went to London and studied Law in a university. He became a lawyer. Shortly after he was back in India an Indian firm wanted him to go to South Africa where he worked for them. In South Africa the Indians were not welcome by the white settlers. One day Gandhi got pushed out of the train when he refused to leave his seat for a white person. It was then that he decided he would never be pushed down again and to fight for the rights of minorities. He started to lead the Indian workers in South Africa and fought for their rights. He made a very important rule for himself which he used his whole life: never to use violence in his fights, even if others would use violence against him. So he started to fight for the rights of Indian workers in South Africa and he had great success. And he never used violence. 
He started a project (ashram) where people from different religions lived together in peace and freedom. He never made no secrets of anything and was a nice and friendly person throughout his whole life. When he came back to India crowds were already waiting and cheering for him at the harbor and people celebrated his arrival. But that did not make him happy. He wanted to live like most of the people in India: out in the countryside and poor. He wanted to be one of them, one of the country he was born in but was away from them for so long. So he started traveling through the country by train in the third class wagons. There he saw a lot of India and a lot of the ways how people lived and worked there. Very soon he became the leader of the Indian Campaign for Home-Rule. The Indians loved him because he was so close to them. He lived in the country and lived an easy life of joy and satisfaction. And he started spinning. He continued spinning for the rest of his life from then on. He had the opinion that a lot of poverty in India was the result of all the clothes that were produced in and imported from Great Britain to India. Since spinning used to be a common job for people in the Indian villages, Gandhi believed that these imported goods destroyed great parts of India's economy and thus many people lost their work. Gandhi encouraged the people to start spinning again if they do not have anything better to do because so they could make some money and would produce something. One day - as a symbolic event - he asked his followers on a big meeting to throw all their British clothes on a big fire. He encouraged them not to buy any more British clothes but to produce and buy their own Indian clothes. After that many people started to boycott British goods. People in the British factories got unemployed but more people in India had something to do. That was only one step to India's independence from the British. 
Another very important step to independence was that he asked the whole nation to strike for one day. And they did. Nothing worked on that day. There was virtually no traffic, mail was not delivered, factories were not working and - for the British a very important thing - the telegraph lines did not work and the British in India were cut off their mother country. It was then that they first realized Gandhi's power in India. There was another very important event on India's way to independence. The British had control of the salt that was taken out of the sea. Indians had to pay taxes for the salt nobody could live without. Gandhi thought that the rule over the salt industry was one of the British basics to rule India. He started a march over 140 miles (about 200 kilometers) to the ocean. When he started, Gandhi had only a few hundred followers but when they reached the sea they were a group of many thousands of people. People from many villages, which they came by, decided to walk with them. When they arrived at the sea Gandhi took a handful of salt. That was a symbolic action and he asked everybody to do the same. After the police "cleaned" them all away from the beach they decided to walk into the salt factories and take salt from there. The British ordered soldiers to stand before the gate to the factories and not let anyone in. The protesters walked to them and tried to walk in, only five at a time. And the soldiers hit them all until they could not walk any further. Women picked them up and took them away. No one on the side of the protesters used violence. 
Most of Gandhi's actions were a great success. The reason was that the British did not know how to act against an enemy who does not use violence. But it was very important as well that the media all over the world talked about Gandhi and his actions because otherwise there would not have been enough public pressure upon the British officials. More and more people everywhere in the world agreed with Gandhi when they saw the British violence against the non-violent people. And they loved him because he was so close to the people in his country. To work together with the press and to have no secrets was one of the important things of his work. Gandhi went to jail very often in his life. He was arrested several times in South Africa as well as in India. He used the time in jail to think and plan other actions. He also used the time to think about how he could help the Untouchables. He was a religious man and believed in casts but he did not think that God wanted Untouchables to have no rights. He went for long walks through India to collect money for the Untouchables and he fought for their rights his whole life. He also fought for the peaceful understanding of different religions. When fights broke out between Hindus and Moslems he tried to talk to them and when that did not help he started to fast which he did a lot of times in his life. Once he nearly fasted to death when Hindus and Moslems fought against each other. Then the fights stopped and the two religions started to live together in peace again. He also fasted when he heard of violence against the British or against soldiers or policemen. Violence made him very sad and he had more than once the feeling that all he had done was useless when people fought each other again. 
When people came to him and said that it would be their right to kill someone if that person had killed their son or wife Gandhi used to reply: "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind". During the Second World War Britain did not have much power to keep India as a colony anymore and they started to talk about independence. After the war, in 1947 India got finally independent and the British left the country. But Gandhi did not feel like celebrating because religious fights broke out again. But with his speeches to the people and finally with his fast he stopped the violence and people lived together again. But India was divided into India and Pakistan. Pakistan was the part where most people were Muslims and India was the part with mainly Hindus. Gandhi did not want to divide the country but he could not help it. Shortly after his last fast with which he stopped the religious violence a fanatic Hindu shot him at his daily prayer. Gone but never forgotten, for his efforts and his intelligent tactics of peaceful fighting, lived on and influenced many great people in their fight for minority freedom. His mental strength and wisdom still gives us hope today for a greater and brighter future, leaving behind prejudice, violence and separatism, but embracing the kind of living without those and in peace of the mind and universal love. He rained upon us those philosophies that still flow around the world in rivers reaching many world leaders and politicians. A father, husband and peaceful fighter.
REST IN PEACE GREAT MAHATMA!!

1


1





f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Golda Meir.TXT
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Golda Meir


	The state of Israel, established on May 14, 1948, had many great leaders
that helped it to become a state.  One of them was Golda Meir.  Golda Meir was
one of the most energetic and hardworking women in the world.  Without her help,
it is possible that Israel would have never survived as a state in an area
surrounded by Arabs.  With all of the hard work that Golda did for her country,
she still had time for a family.
	When Golda Meir (born Golda Mabovich) was in my opinion one of the most
energetic and  hardworking women in the world.  If she set out to do something,
whether it was to wash her families clothes or to create a Jewish state in the
land of Israel, the job was never left unfinished.  As a child, she decided that
she wanted there to be a Jewish state, where any Jew would not be refused
citizenship.  She spent her whole life working to achieve this goal and in 1948,
her dreams came true.
	After Israel became a state in 1948, there was constant fighting between
the Israeli's and the Arabs.  Without her help, The Israeli's would have
possibly never survived as a state.  In the beginning, Israel hardly had any
weapons. Golda Meir once again decided she wanted to help Israel so she went to
the United States and She went to other countries to try to help Israel out with
this problem by raising money.  In the US, she gave speeches at universities and
she contacted the head government officials to try to borrow some money.  The US
government turned her down but the college students gave her all the money they
could spare.  The government also refused to help Israel out by selling them
weapons.  Once again, the college students tried to do their best by sending
parts to Israel.  In one particular case, Students at the Columbia University
sent a Cadillac overseas, in which the heavy steel body was loaded full of parts
and gunpowder.
	Golda Meir worked for many hours and even with all the effort she put
forth into her country, she still had time for a family.  On December 24, 1917,
she married Morris Myerson of Milwaukee.  After living all around the world,
Golda and her husband Morris decided to settle down in Jerusalem to have a
family. The couple had 2 children, Menachem who was born in 1924, and Sarah who
was born in 1926.  Golda Myerson was now a young mother and she had to spend the
next few years raising her children.  While her children were growing up, she
still kept her ties to the Zionist Movement.  She wrote letters to the leaders
of most of the countries in the world in which she tried to convince them that
the Jewish people needed a country of their own.
	In the beginning of this book, there was an introduction written by
Arthur M. Schlesinger, jr..  He was a Professor of History at Harvard University
for many years.  He served in the White House as a special assistant to
Presidents Kennedy and Johnson.
	In the book Golda Meir, all of the possible subjects that I could think
of, were covered without any problems.  While reading this book, I could not
find any subjects that I even partially objected to.
	I think that the authors of this book did an excellent job in writing it.
This book goes into great detail in describing the early life of Golda Mabovich.
In my opinion, this book didn't have any faults because I have never before spent
any time studying Golda Meir in my life.
	The author of the book Golda Meir, Karen McAuley, is a graduate of
Bennington College.  She has written several textbooks and she has devised
educational programs for High School students.  She currently lives in New York
City.


5/6/96
World History Honors
Mrs. Moffitt
Period 0
McAuley, Karen.

Bibliography

Golda Meir New York.  Chelsea House Publishers,  1985.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Golda Mier.TXT
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5/6/96
World History Honors
Mrs. Moffitt Period 0
McAuley, Karen.  Golda Meir New York.  Chelsea House Publishers,    
	1985.
	The state of Israel, established on May 14, 1948, had many great leaders
that helped it to become a state.  One of them was Golda Meir.  Golda Meir was
one of the most energetic and hardworking women in the world.  Without her
help, it is possible that Israel would have never survived as a state in an area
surrounded by Arabs.  With all of the hard work that Golda did for her country,
she still had time for a family.  
	When Golda Meir (born Golda Mabovich) was in my opinion one of the
most energetic and  hardworking women in the world.  If she set out to do
something, whether it was to wash her families clothes or to create a Jewish
state in the land of Israel, the job was never left unfinished.  As a child, she
decided that she wanted there to be a Jewish state, where any Jew would not be
refused citizenship.  She spent her whole life working to achieve this goal and in
1948, her dreams came true.
	After Israel became a state in 1948, there was constant fighting between
the Israeli's and the Arabs.  Without her help, The Israeli's would have possibly
never survived as a state.  In the beginning, Israel hardly had any weapons. 
Golda Meir once again decided she wanted to help Israel so she went to the
United States and She went to other countries to try to help Israel out with this
problem by raising money.  In the US, she gave speeches at universities and
she contacted the head government officials to try to borrow some money.  The 
US government turned her down but the college students gave her all the money
they could spare.  The government also refused to help Israel out by selling
them weapons.  Once again, the college students tried to do their best by
sending parts to Israel.  In one particular case, Students at the Columbia
University sent a Cadillac overseas, in which the heavy steel body was loaded
full of parts and gunpowder.
	Golda Meir worked for many hours and even with all the effort she put
forth into her country, she still had time for a family.  On December 24, 1917, she
married Morris Myerson of Milwaukee.  After living all around the world, Golda
and her husband Morris decided to settle down in Jerusalem to have a family. 
The couple had 2 children, Menachem who was born in 1924, and Sarah who
was born in 1926.  Golda Myerson was now a young mother and she had to
spend the next few years raising her children.  While her children were growing
up, she still kept her ties to the Zionist Movement.  She wrote letters to the
leaders of most of the countries in the world in which she tried to convince them
that the Jewish people needed a country of their own.
	In the beginning of this book, there was an introduction written by Arthur
M. Schlesinger, jr..  He was a Professor of History at Harvard University for
many years.  He served in the White House as a special assistant to Presidents
Kennedy and Johnson.
	In the book Golda Meir, all of the possible subjects that I could think of,
were covered without any problems.  While reading this book, I could not find
any subjects that I even partially objected to.
	I think that the authors of this book did an excellent job in writing it.  This
book goes into great detail in describing the early life of Golda Mabovich.  In my 

opinion, this book didn't have any faults because I have never before spent any
time studying Golda Meir in my life.
	The author of the book Golda Meir, Karen McAuley, is a graduate of
Bennington College.  She has written several textbooks and she has devised
educational programs for High School students.  She currently lives in New York
City. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\graduation.TXT
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	GRADUATION

	I can still remember it like yesterday.  It was June 6, 1994, the day of my high
school graduation.  This day is the single most important day of my life.  This day was so
important to me because it was the first thing I had to work really hard on to accomplish.
For the first time in my life I felt as if I really could succeed in something.  It helped to
change my life.
	It started out like just another day but things would quickly change.  I  woke up at
7:00 a.m., which is extremely early by my standards, with anticipation of the day I had
been waiting for.  After sitting around for 3 hours I  made my way over to Ludlow High
School.  The graduating class was to be there for 10:00 a.m. to pick up our cap and gown. 
The principal, Mr. James Cavallo, called out everyone's name and proceeded to hand them
their cap and gown.  When he finally handed me my gown I quickly took it and sat to me
admire it.  Its funny how the simplest things can symbolize a whole new beginning.  I sat
and looked at this ugly maroon gown with this weird looking square hat.
	The ceremonies were to be held at the Mullins Center on the campus of the
University of Massachusetts in Amherst.  The ceremonies were to begin at 7:00p.m., yet  I
had to be there at 6:00p.m..  When everyone arrived we rehearsed on how we were  to
walk in and where we were going to sit.  You could the excitement in everyone's eyes. 
No one could wait for the moment in which our diplomas would be handed to us.  They
lined us up by height with the boys to one side and the girls to the other.  Each boy was
paired up with a girl and was to walk in side by side with her when the ceremonies began. 
Once the couple reached the grandstands, where each member of the graduating class
would be sitting , they were to separate with the girls going left and the boys to the right
until everyone was seated.
	The time finally arrived .  It was 7:00p.m. and the music had begun to play.  We
started our slow march to the grandstands and I could here the crowd cheering.  I looked
up to take a look at the audience and quickly found my family waving their hands around
in excitement.  It felt like we had just won a sporting championship and had arrived home
to our beloved fans.  I sat through about an hour of boring speeches which I could not tell
you one single thing about.  I tried to seem interested in what was being said at the
platform to my right but I just couldn't concentrate.  My mind kept wandering to the
moment why I was sitting through this nonsense.  Finally I saw my principal stand up and
then I knew it was time.  He gave a brief  five minute speech and started calling out
names.  When my name was finally called I had a funny feeling come about me.  It was a
feeling that I have not experienced since.  My heart felt like it dropped into my stomach
and I got this cold shivering which produced goose bumps all over my me.  That brief
moment had come and gone and now it was time to celebrate.
	Not only was my high school graduation the first step in helping me to get to
college but it gave me the confidence that I could do anything if I really put my mind to it.
If I had not graduated I would of felt like I couldn't accomplish anything. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Grover Cleveland 4.TXT
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Grover Cleveland

	Grover Cleveland , the twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the United States, was born in Caldwell, New Jersey on March 18, 1837.  He was the first Democratic President who served two terms that did not directly follow each other.  He also was the first President who was elected after the Civil War.
	Grover Cleveland was born the son of a country minister whose name was Richard Falley Cleveland.  His mothers name was Ann Neal Cleveland, the daughter of a publisher.  Grover Cleveland was the fifth child in a family of four brothers and five sisters. 
 
	Grover Cleveland's family let a hard life, having little money and moving around alot.  After Grover Cleveland's father died, he had to help support the family of nine on his wages as a clerk.  He earned only $4.00 a week!  He was unable to go to law school like he wanted to do, so he studied by himself and became an attorney in l859.  Grover Cleveland became interested in politics and held several small offices, including sheriff.  He became Mayor of Buffalo, New York, in 1881 and attacked corruption and dishonesty in govwenment.  He then became Governor in 1882 and was a huge success because of his reputation for honesty.

	Grover Cleveland got married in 1886 to Frances Folsom.  He was the first President to get married in the White House.  Reporters pried into every detail of Grover Cleveland's life which he called "colossal impertinence".  Grover Cleveland had five children.  Esther, his second daughter, was the first and only child of a President to ever be born in the White House.

	In 1884, Grover Cleveland's supporters suggested that he run for President of the United States.  His motto was "a public office is a public trust".  He was elected as the twenty-second President from 1885 until 1889.  He served for four years and then barely lost the next election to Benjamin Harrison, even though he had the majority of the popular vote.  In 1892, he was persuaded to seek office again and he returned to Washington as the twenty-fourth President in 1893 for four more years.  

	This President, called "Uncle Jumbo" by his relatives, was a hard-working President.  He liked to do much of the work himself instead of assigning tasks to other people.  Mr. Cleveland often stayed up until 2 or 3 a.m. going over official business, and sometimes answered the White House Telephone himself.

	Grover Cleveland worked hard at reducing taxes on products that came into the United States, he refused easy money to farmers so that they could reduce their debt, and he refused bigger pensions to Veterans.  These "no" answers made him unpopular at the time, but have caused him to have respect now.  

	People think that they would rate Grover Cleveland at a 9 out of a possible 10, with 10 being the highest score.  This is because he was the only President to be elected one year, loose the next (even though winning the popular vote), and then win the next year.  He was respected for his honesty and hard workmanship.

	In 1879, after Grover Cleveland's second term in office, he returned to New Jersey where he lived a private life with his family.  Occassionally he gave lectures at Universities.  He died in 1908 at the age of 71.   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Grover Cleveland.TXT
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Grover Cleveland

	Grover Cleveland , the twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the United States, was born in Caldwell, New Jersey on March 18, 1837.  He was the first Democratic President who served two terms that did not directly follow each other.  He also was the first President who was elected after the Civil War.
	Grover Cleveland was born the son of a country minister whose name was Richard Falley Cleveland.  His mothers name was Ann Neal Cleveland, the daughter of a publisher.  Grover Cleveland was the fifth child in a family of four brothers and five sisters. 
 
	Grover Cleveland's family let a hard life, having little money and moving around alot.  After Grover Cleveland's father died, he had to help support the family of nine on his wages as a clerk.  He earned only $4.00 a week!  He was unable to go to law school like he wanted to do, so he studied by himself and became an attorney in l859.  Grover Cleveland became interested in politics and held several small offices, including sheriff.  He became Mayor of Buffalo, New York, in 1881 and attacked corruption and dishonesty in govwenment.  He then became Governor in 1882 and was a huge success because of his reputation for honesty.

	Grover Cleveland got married in 1886 to Frances Folsom.  He was the first President to get married in the White House.  Reporters pried into every detail of Grover Cleveland's life which he called "colossal impertinence".  Grover Cleveland had five children.  Esther, his second daughter, was the first and only child of a President to ever be born in the White House.

	In 1884, Grover Cleveland's supporters suggested that he run for President of the United States.  His motto was "a public office is a public trust".  He was elected as the twenty-second President from 1885 until 1889.  He served for four years and then barely lost the next election to Benjamin Harrison, even though he had the majority of the popular vote.  In 1892, he was persuaded to seek office again and he returned to Washington as the twenty-fourth President in 1893 for four more years.  

	This President, called "Uncle Jumbo" by his relatives, was a hard-working President.  He liked to do much of the work himself instead of assigning tasks to other people.  Mr. Cleveland often stayed up until 2 or 3 a.m. going over official business, and sometimes answered the White House Telephone himself.

	Grover Cleveland worked hard at reducing taxes on products that came into the United States, he refused easy money to farmers so that they could reduce their debt, and he refused bigger pensions to Veterans.  These "no" answers made him unpopular at the time, but have caused him to have respect now.  

	People think that they would rate Grover Cleveland at a 9 out of a possible 10, with 10 being the highest score.  This is because he was the only President to be elected one year, loose the next (even though winning the popular vote), and then win the next year.  He was respected for his honesty and hard workmanship.

	In 1879, after Grover Cleveland's second term in office, he returned to New Jersey where he lived a private life with his family.  Occassionally he gave lectures at Universities.  He died in 1908 at the age of 71.   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Guiseppe Garibaldi.TXT
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Guiseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi, b. Nice, France; July 4, 1807, d. Caprera, Italy; June 2, 1882. He was known as Italy's most brilliant soldier of the Risorgimento (the Italian Unification), and one of the greatest guerrilla fighters of all time. While serving (1833-34) in the navy of the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, he came under the influence of Giuseppe Mazzini, the prophet of Italian nationalism. He took part in an abortive republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. Under a death sentence, he managed to escape to South America, where he lived from 1836 to 1848. There he took part in struggles in Brazil and helped Uruguay in its war against Argentina, commanding its small navy and, later, an Italian legion at Montevideo. The warrior achieved international fame through the publicity of his elder Alexandre Dumas. Wearing his colorful gaucho costume, Garibaldi returned to Italy in April 1848 to fight in its war of independence. His exploits against the Austrians in Milan and against the French forces supporting Rome and the Papal States made him a national hero. Overpowered at last in Rome, Garibaldi and his men had to retreat through central Italy in 1849. Anita, his wife and companion-in-arms, died during this retreat. Disbanding his men, Garibaldi again escaped abroad, where he lived successively in North Africa, the United States, and Peru. The "hero of two worlds" could not return to Italy until 1854. In 1859 he helped Piedmont in a new war against Austria, leading a volunteer Alpine force that captured Varese and Como. In May 1860, Garibaldi set out on the greatest venture of his life, the conquest of Sicily and Naples. This time he had no governmental support, but Premier Cavour and King Victor Emmanuel II dared not stop the popular hero. They stood ready to help, but only if he proved successful. Sailing from near Genoa on May 6 with 1,000 Red shirts, Garibaldi reached Marsala, Sicily, on May 11 and proclaimed himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel. At the Battle of Calatafimi (May 30) his guerrilla force defeated the regular army of the king of Naples. A popular uprising helped him capture Palermo--a brilliant success that convinced Cavour that Garibaldi's volunteer army should now be secretly supported by Piedmont. Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina on August 18-19 and in a whirlwind campaign reached Naples on September 7. On October 3-5 he fought another battle on the Volturno River, the biggest of his career. After plebiscites, he handed Sicily and Naples over to Victor Emmanuel when the two met near the Volturno on October 26. Angered at not being named viceroy in Naples, however, Garibaldi retired to his home on Caprera, off Sardinia. Nevertheless, he continued to plot to capture the Papal States. In 1862 the Italian government, fearing international complications, had to intercept him at Aspromonte, where he was wounded in the heel. When he led another private expedition toward Rome in 1867, French troops halted him at Mentana. Subsequently, during the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Garibaldi led a group of volunteers in support of the new French republic. For about two years thereafter Garibaldi lived the life of a farmer on Caprera. In 1870 he offered his services to the French government and fought with his two sons in the Franco-Prussian War. Rome was annexed to Italy in October 1870, and Garibaldi was elected a member of the Italian parliament in 1874. In his last years he sympathized with the developing socialist movement in Italy and other countries. Garibaldi's autobiography, Autobiography of Giuseppe Garibaldi, was published in 1887.
Without Garibaldi's support, the unification of Italy could not have taken place when it did. A gifted leader and man of the people, he knew far better than Cavour or Mazzini how to stir the masses, and he repeatedly hastened the pace of events. Disillusioned in later life with politics, he declared himself a socialist.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gwendolyn Brooks 4.TXT
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Peiffer 1
	Writing with uncommon strength, Gwendolyn Brooks creates haunting images of black America, and their struggle in escaping the scathing hatred of many white Americans.  Her stories, such as in the "Ballad of Rudolph Reed", portray courage and perseverance.  In those like "The Boy Died in My Alley"  Brooks portrays both the weakness of black America and the unfortunate lack of care spawned from oppression.  In "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie" Brooks unveils another aspect of her skill by entering the domestic arena with the lingering limitations imposed by prejudice.  These aspects, such as strength and finesse, are among Brooks great attributes.  Worthy of exploration, Brooks powerful and haunting techniques can be separated and explored in the above mentioned poems.  Each work contains a specific tactic, which effectively promotes her ideas.  It is for that reason, tactics mixed with ideas, which have placed Brooks among the finest poets.
	Perhaps because of Brooks' use of a stiff format, "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed" may be her strongest work.  Imbuing the poem with incredible lines and description, Brooks transforms Rudolph Reed, who is the character the poem is built around, into a storybook hero, or a tragic character whose only flaw was the love he held for his family.  Brooks creates a strong, solid character who is more than another fictional martyr, but a human being.  The Finesse she imbued in this work from the first stylized 
Peiffer 2
stanza:  "Rudolph Reed was oaken.\ His wife was oaken too.\ And his two girls  and his good little man\ Oakened as they grew." (1081, 1-4)  Here brooks' symbolic use of the word oakened, coupled with the use of a rhyme scheme of the second and last sentence of every stanza causes the reader to more deeply feel what the character and his family are going through.  Using the idea of a dream home, Brooks stabbed to the heart of the American dream and where those of African descent fit into it.  Every person, man or woman, has at one time or another dreamt of living in a beautiful home:

          "I am not hungry for berries.\ I am not hungry for        	bread.\ But hungry hungry for a house\ Where at 	night a man in bed\ "May never here the plaster\ stir 	as if in pain.\ May never here the roaches\ Falling like 	fat rain.\ "Where never wife and children need\ Go 	blinking through the gloom.\ Where every room of 	many rooms\ Will be full of room.\ "Oh my house shall 	have its east or west\ Or north or south behind it.\ All 	I know is I shall know it,\ And fight for it when I find it."  	(1081, 5-20)

Without her use of the above dream, Brooks would have been unable to bring an effective human perspective to Rudolph Reed and his family.  Once this human side was 
Peiffer 3
created, the horrible demise of Rudolph Reed struck with an intensity which would otherwise have been lost.
	Losing finesse in place of what at first seems a shallow attempt at poetry, "The Boy Died in My Alley" develops into an incredible exploration of enfeeblement.  Brooks power comes again from her ability to bring the reader into a human world, with human characters.  It explores the pain one person feels, and the hopelessness spawned from it.  Although relatively few people live in an area where crime is so rampant as in "The Boy Died in My Alley", it strikes a chord of fear and depression most in society may relate to.  The use of a strong beat in this poem help to create the frantic yet uncanny depression found throughout the poem:

          "Policeman pounded on my door.\ "Who is it?" 	"POLICE!" Policeman yelled.\ "A boy was dying in your 	Alley.\ A boy is dead, and in your alley.\  And have 	you known this boy before?"\ I have known this boy 	before.\ I have known this boy before, who\ 	ornaments my alley.\ I never saw his face at all.\ I 	never saw his futurefall.\ But I have known this boy.
	(1084, 10-21)	

The staccato rhythm Brooks uses is developed through repeating many of the lines.  The lines are not exact copies, 
Peiffer 4
but keep the poem rolling forward, which is important if Brooks hopes to keep the reader active in the storyline.  Included for the staccato rhythm, is a short curt sentence structure: 
          "Without my having known.\ Policeman said, next 	morning,\ "Apparently died alone."\ "You heard a 	shot?" Policeman said.\ Shots I hear and shots I hear.\ 	I never see the dead." (1083, 1-6)

This use of rhythm is the style the work hinges on.  In many ways the broken sentences remind the reader of the forms the English language have taken for black Americans.  Again, it can be pointed out this was the intention of Brooks.  In ways not seen in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks acts as the conductor of a symphony of words and style.
	An intoxicating work is "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie".  Second only to "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", "Chocolate Mabbie" has an unrivaled depth of character.  Once again, Brooks draws the reader deep into the human soul.  She bares the wheels and cogs which keep people moving.  It is the one thing nearly every man woman and child has felt from one time or another, that Brooks delves into.  Bringing to life a little girl of seven, Brooks creates a vision of human life.  Unfortunately it is painfully aware to the reader Mabbie's crush will never manifest itself beyond herself:
Peiffer 5

          "Oh, warm is the waiting for joys, my dears!\ And it 	cannot be too long.\ Oh, pity the little poor chocolate 	lips\ That carry the bubble of song!\ Out came the 	saucily bold Willie Boone.\ It was woe for our Mabbie 	now.\ He wore like a jewel a lemon-hued lynx\ With 	sand-waves loving her brow.

Mabbie is black, and her crush is white.  Brooks again crushes the readers senses with the struggle of inequality and racism.  As in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks uses both finesse, and human characters.  She allows the reader to feel close to the characters.  She gives them a chance to realize they may have lived through a time in their lives which were as difficult.  
	It is safe to say, Gwendolyn Brooks is a master of styles.  Her ideas come to life on the page through careful examination of possible stylistic interpretations; will it be finesse, rhythm or a combination of both.  Brooks brings out the best a work has to offer with strong, powerful lines, with enough finesse to lull the reader into the story.      	  













An Exploration
of
Style
by: Will Peiffer



















BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peiffer 1
	Writing with uncommon strength, Gwendolyn Brooks creates haunting images of black America, and their struggle in escaping the scathing hatred of many white Americans.  Her stories, such as in the "Ballad of Rudolph Reed", portray courage and perseverance.  In those like "The Boy Died in My Alley"  Brooks portrays both the weakness of black America and the unfortunate lack of care spawned from oppression.  In "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie" Brooks unveils another aspect of her skill by entering the domestic arena with the lingering limitations imposed by prejudice.  These aspects, such as strength and finesse, are among Brooks great attributes.  Worthy of exploration, Brooks powerful and haunting techniques can be separated and explored in the above mentioned poems.  Each work contains a specific tactic, which effectively promotes her ideas.  It is for that reason, tactics mixed with ideas, which have placed Brooks among the finest poets.
	Perhaps because of Brooks' use of a stiff format, "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed" may be her strongest work.  Imbuing the poem with incredible lines and description, Brooks transforms Rudolph Reed, who is the character the poem is built around, into a storybook hero, or a tragic character whose only flaw was the love he held for his family.  Brooks creates a strong, solid character who is more than another fictional martyr, but a human being.  The Finesse she imbued in this work from the first stylized 
Peiffer 2
stanza:  "Rudolph Reed was oaken.\ His wife was oaken too.\ And his two girls  and his good little man\ Oakened as they grew." (1081, 1-4)  Here brooks' symbolic use of the word oakened, coupled with the use of a rhyme scheme of the second and last sentence of every stanza causes the reader to more deeply feel what the character and his family are going through.  Using the idea of a dream home, Brooks stabbed to the heart of the American dream and where those of African descent fit into it.  Every person, man or woman, has at one time or another dreamt of living in a beautiful home:

          "I am not hungry for berries.\ I am not hungry for        	bread.\ But hungry hungry for a house\ Where at 	night a man in bed\ "May never here the plaster\ stir 	as if in pain.\ May never here the roaches\ Falling like 	fat rain.\ "Where never wife and children need\ Go 	blinking through the gloom.\ Where every room of 	many rooms\ Will be full of room.\ "Oh my house shall 	have its east or west\ Or north or south behind it.\ All 	I know is I shall know it,\ And fight for it when I find it."  	(1081, 5-20)

Without her use of the above dream, Brooks would have been unable to bring an effective human perspective to Rudolph Reed and his family.  Once this human side was 
Peiffer 3
created, the horrible demise of Rudolph Reed struck with an intensity which would otherwise have been lost.
	Losing finesse in place of what at first seems a shallow attempt at poetry, "The Boy Died in My Alley" develops into an incredible exploration of enfeeblement.  Brooks power comes again from her ability to bring the reader into a human world, with human characters.  It explores the pain one person feels, and the hopelessness spawned from it.  Although relatively few people live in an area where crime is so rampant as in "The Boy Died in My Alley", it strikes a chord of fear and depression most in society may relate to.  The use of a strong beat in this poem help to create the frantic yet uncanny depression found throughout the poem:

          "Policeman pounded on my door.\ "Who is it?" 	"POLICE!" Policeman yelled.\ "A boy was dying in your 	Alley.\ A boy is dead, and in your alley.\  And have 	you known this boy before?"\ I have known this boy 	before.\ I have known this boy before, who\ 	ornaments my alley.\ I never saw his face at all.\ I 	never saw his futurefall.\ But I have known this boy.
	(1084, 10-21)	

The staccato rhythm Brooks uses is developed through repeating many of the lines.  The lines are not exact copies, 
Peiffer 4
but keep the poem rolling forward, which is important if Brooks hopes to keep the reader active in the storyline.  Included for the staccato rhythm, is a short curt sentence structure: 
          "Without my having known.\ Policeman said, next 	morning,\ "Apparently died alone."\ "You heard a 	shot?" Policeman said.\ Shots I hear and shots I hear.\ 	I never see the dead." (1083, 1-6)

This use of rhythm is the style the work hinges on.  In many ways the broken sentences remind the reader of the forms the English language have taken for black Americans.  Again, it can be pointed out this was the intention of Brooks.  In ways not seen in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks acts as the conductor of a symphony of words and style.
	An intoxicating work is "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie".  Second only to "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", "Chocolate Mabbie" has an unrivaled depth of character.  Once again, Brooks draws the reader deep into the human soul.  She bares the wheels and cogs which keep people moving.  It is the one thing nearly every man woman and child has felt from one time or another, that Brooks delves into.  Bringing to life a little girl of seven, Brooks creates a vision of human life.  Unfortunately it is painfully aware to the reader Mabbie's crush will never manifest itself beyond herself:
Peiffer 5

          "Oh, warm is the waiting for joys, my dears!\ And it 	cannot be too long.\ Oh, pity the little poor chocolate 	lips\ That carry the bubble of song!\ Out came the 	saucily bold Willie Boone.\ It was woe for our Mabbie 	now.\ He wore like a jewel a lemon-hued lynx\ With 	sand-waves loving her brow.

Mabbie is black, and her crush is white.  Brooks again crushes the readers senses with the struggle of inequality and racism.  As in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks uses both finesse, and human characters.  She allows the reader to feel close to the characters.  She gives them a chance to realize they may have lived through a time in their lives which were as difficult.  
	It is safe to say, Gwendolyn Brooks is a master of styles.  Her ideas come to life on the page through careful examination of possible stylistic interpretations; will it be finesse, rhythm or a combination of both.  Brooks brings out the best a work has to offer with strong, powerful lines, with enough finesse to lull the reader into the story.      	











 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Gwendolyn Brooks.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Peiffer 1
	Writing with uncommon strength, Gwendolyn Brooks creates haunting images of black America, and their struggle in escaping the scathing hatred of many white Americans.  Her stories, such as in the "Ballad of Rudolph Reed", portray courage and perseverance.  In those like "The Boy Died in My Alley"  Brooks portrays both the weakness of black America and the unfortunate lack of care spawned from oppression.  In "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie" Brooks unveils another aspect of her skill by entering the domestic arena with the lingering limitations imposed by prejudice.  These aspects, such as strength and finesse, are among Brooks great attributes.  Worthy of exploration, Brooks powerful and haunting techniques can be separated and explored in the above mentioned poems.  Each work contains a specific tactic, which effectively promotes her ideas.  It is for that reason, tactics mixed with ideas, which have placed Brooks among the finest poets.
	Perhaps because of Brooks' use of a stiff format, "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed" may be her strongest work.  Imbuing the poem with incredible lines and description, Brooks transforms Rudolph Reed, who is the character the poem is built around, into a storybook hero, or a tragic character whose only flaw was the love he held for his family.  Brooks creates a strong, solid character who is more than another fictional martyr, but a human being.  The Finesse she imbued in this work from the first stylized 
Peiffer 2
stanza:  "Rudolph Reed was oaken.\ His wife was oaken too.\ And his two girls  and his good little man\ Oakened as they grew." (1081, 1-4)  Here brooks' symbolic use of the word oakened, coupled with the use of a rhyme scheme of the second and last sentence of every stanza causes the reader to more deeply feel what the character and his family are going through.  Using the idea of a dream home, Brooks stabbed to the heart of the American dream and where those of African descent fit into it.  Every person, man or woman, has at one time or another dreamt of living in a beautiful home:

          "I am not hungry for berries.\ I am not hungry for        	bread.\ But hungry hungry for a house\ Where at 	night a man in bed\ "May never here the plaster\ stir 	as if in pain.\ May never here the roaches\ Falling like 	fat rain.\ "Where never wife and children need\ Go 	blinking through the gloom.\ Where every room of 	many rooms\ Will be full of room.\ "Oh my house shall 	have its east or west\ Or north or south behind it.\ All 	I know is I shall know it,\ And fight for it when I find it."  	(1081, 5-20)

Without her use of the above dream, Brooks would have been unable to bring an effective human perspective to Rudolph Reed and his family.  Once this human side was 
Peiffer 3
created, the horrible demise of Rudolph Reed struck with an intensity which would otherwise have been lost.
	Losing finesse in place of what at first seems a shallow attempt at poetry, "The Boy Died in My Alley" develops into an incredible exploration of enfeeblement.  Brooks power comes again from her ability to bring the reader into a human world, with human characters.  It explores the pain one person feels, and the hopelessness spawned from it.  Although relatively few people live in an area where crime is so rampant as in "The Boy Died in My Alley", it strikes a chord of fear and depression most in society may relate to.  The use of a strong beat in this poem help to create the frantic yet uncanny depression found throughout the poem:

          "Policeman pounded on my door.\ "Who is it?" 	"POLICE!" Policeman yelled.\ "A boy was dying in your 	Alley.\ A boy is dead, and in your alley.\  And have 	you known this boy before?"\ I have known this boy 	before.\ I have known this boy before, who\ 	ornaments my alley.\ I never saw his face at all.\ I 	never saw his futurefall.\ But I have known this boy.
	(1084, 10-21)	

The staccato rhythm Brooks uses is developed through repeating many of the lines.  The lines are not exact copies, 
Peiffer 4
but keep the poem rolling forward, which is important if Brooks hopes to keep the reader active in the storyline.  Included for the staccato rhythm, is a short curt sentence structure: 
          "Without my having known.\ Policeman said, next 	morning,\ "Apparently died alone."\ "You heard a 	shot?" Policeman said.\ Shots I hear and shots I hear.\ 	I never see the dead." (1083, 1-6)

This use of rhythm is the style the work hinges on.  In many ways the broken sentences remind the reader of the forms the English language have taken for black Americans.  Again, it can be pointed out this was the intention of Brooks.  In ways not seen in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks acts as the conductor of a symphony of words and style.
	An intoxicating work is "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie".  Second only to "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", "Chocolate Mabbie" has an unrivaled depth of character.  Once again, Brooks draws the reader deep into the human soul.  She bares the wheels and cogs which keep people moving.  It is the one thing nearly every man woman and child has felt from one time or another, that Brooks delves into.  Bringing to life a little girl of seven, Brooks creates a vision of human life.  Unfortunately it is painfully aware to the reader Mabbie's crush will never manifest itself beyond herself:
Peiffer 5

          "Oh, warm is the waiting for joys, my dears!\ And it 	cannot be too long.\ Oh, pity the little poor chocolate 	lips\ That carry the bubble of song!\ Out came the 	saucily bold Willie Boone.\ It was woe for our Mabbie 	now.\ He wore like a jewel a lemon-hued lynx\ With 	sand-waves loving her brow.

Mabbie is black, and her crush is white.  Brooks again crushes the readers senses with the struggle of inequality and racism.  As in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks uses both finesse, and human characters.  She allows the reader to feel close to the characters.  She gives them a chance to realize they may have lived through a time in their lives which were as difficult.  
	It is safe to say, Gwendolyn Brooks is a master of styles.  Her ideas come to life on the page through careful examination of possible stylistic interpretations; will it be finesse, rhythm or a combination of both.  Brooks brings out the best a work has to offer with strong, powerful lines, with enough finesse to lull the reader into the story.      	  













An Exploration
of
Style
by: Will Peiffer



















BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peiffer 1
	Writing with uncommon strength, Gwendolyn Brooks creates haunting images of black America, and their struggle in escaping the scathing hatred of many white Americans.  Her stories, such as in the "Ballad of Rudolph Reed", portray courage and perseverance.  In those like "The Boy Died in My Alley"  Brooks portrays both the weakness of black America and the unfortunate lack of care spawned from oppression.  In "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie" Brooks unveils another aspect of her skill by entering the domestic arena with the lingering limitations imposed by prejudice.  These aspects, such as strength and finesse, are among Brooks great attributes.  Worthy of exploration, Brooks powerful and haunting techniques can be separated and explored in the above mentioned poems.  Each work contains a specific tactic, which effectively promotes her ideas.  It is for that reason, tactics mixed with ideas, which have placed Brooks among the finest poets.
	Perhaps because of Brooks' use of a stiff format, "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed" may be her strongest work.  Imbuing the poem with incredible lines and description, Brooks transforms Rudolph Reed, who is the character the poem is built around, into a storybook hero, or a tragic character whose only flaw was the love he held for his family.  Brooks creates a strong, solid character who is more than another fictional martyr, but a human being.  The Finesse she imbued in this work from the first stylized 
Peiffer 2
stanza:  "Rudolph Reed was oaken.\ His wife was oaken too.\ And his two girls  and his good little man\ Oakened as they grew." (1081, 1-4)  Here brooks' symbolic use of the word oakened, coupled with the use of a rhyme scheme of the second and last sentence of every stanza causes the reader to more deeply feel what the character and his family are going through.  Using the idea of a dream home, Brooks stabbed to the heart of the American dream and where those of African descent fit into it.  Every person, man or woman, has at one time or another dreamt of living in a beautiful home:

          "I am not hungry for berries.\ I am not hungry for        	bread.\ But hungry hungry for a house\ Where at 	night a man in bed\ "May never here the plaster\ stir 	as if in pain.\ May never here the roaches\ Falling like 	fat rain.\ "Where never wife and children need\ Go 	blinking through the gloom.\ Where every room of 	many rooms\ Will be full of room.\ "Oh my house shall 	have its east or west\ Or north or south behind it.\ All 	I know is I shall know it,\ And fight for it when I find it."  	(1081, 5-20)

Without her use of the above dream, Brooks would have been unable to bring an effective human perspective to Rudolph Reed and his family.  Once this human side was 
Peiffer 3
created, the horrible demise of Rudolph Reed struck with an intensity which would otherwise have been lost.
	Losing finesse in place of what at first seems a shallow attempt at poetry, "The Boy Died in My Alley" develops into an incredible exploration of enfeeblement.  Brooks power comes again from her ability to bring the reader into a human world, with human characters.  It explores the pain one person feels, and the hopelessness spawned from it.  Although relatively few people live in an area where crime is so rampant as in "The Boy Died in My Alley", it strikes a chord of fear and depression most in society may relate to.  The use of a strong beat in this poem help to create the frantic yet uncanny depression found throughout the poem:

          "Policeman pounded on my door.\ "Who is it?" 	"POLICE!" Policeman yelled.\ "A boy was dying in your 	Alley.\ A boy is dead, and in your alley.\  And have 	you known this boy before?"\ I have known this boy 	before.\ I have known this boy before, who\ 	ornaments my alley.\ I never saw his face at all.\ I 	never saw his futurefall.\ But I have known this boy.
	(1084, 10-21)	

The staccato rhythm Brooks uses is developed through repeating many of the lines.  The lines are not exact copies, 
Peiffer 4
but keep the poem rolling forward, which is important if Brooks hopes to keep the reader active in the storyline.  Included for the staccato rhythm, is a short curt sentence structure: 
          "Without my having known.\ Policeman said, next 	morning,\ "Apparently died alone."\ "You heard a 	shot?" Policeman said.\ Shots I hear and shots I hear.\ 	I never see the dead." (1083, 1-6)

This use of rhythm is the style the work hinges on.  In many ways the broken sentences remind the reader of the forms the English language have taken for black Americans.  Again, it can be pointed out this was the intention of Brooks.  In ways not seen in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks acts as the conductor of a symphony of words and style.
	An intoxicating work is "The Ballad of Chocolate Mabbie".  Second only to "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", "Chocolate Mabbie" has an unrivaled depth of character.  Once again, Brooks draws the reader deep into the human soul.  She bares the wheels and cogs which keep people moving.  It is the one thing nearly every man woman and child has felt from one time or another, that Brooks delves into.  Bringing to life a little girl of seven, Brooks creates a vision of human life.  Unfortunately it is painfully aware to the reader Mabbie's crush will never manifest itself beyond herself:
Peiffer 5

          "Oh, warm is the waiting for joys, my dears!\ And it 	cannot be too long.\ Oh, pity the little poor chocolate 	lips\ That carry the bubble of song!\ Out came the 	saucily bold Willie Boone.\ It was woe for our Mabbie 	now.\ He wore like a jewel a lemon-hued lynx\ With 	sand-waves loving her brow.

Mabbie is black, and her crush is white.  Brooks again crushes the readers senses with the struggle of inequality and racism.  As in "The Ballad of Rudolph Reed", Brooks uses both finesse, and human characters.  She allows the reader to feel close to the characters.  She gives them a chance to realize they may have lived through a time in their lives which were as difficult.  
	It is safe to say, Gwendolyn Brooks is a master of styles.  Her ideas come to life on the page through careful examination of possible stylistic interpretations; will it be finesse, rhythm or a combination of both.  Brooks brings out the best a work has to offer with strong, powerful lines, with enough finesse to lull the reader into the story.      	











 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hal Riney & Partners.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Ownership/size/locations -

	Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., one of the most famous privately-owned advertising agencies in San Francisco, CA, was founded in 1986 by chairman and CEO Hal P. Riney himself.   With the branch office in Chicago, Hal Riney & Partners Heartland, reaches out to clients in different regions as well.  Both San Francisco and Chicago offices employ a total number of approximately 350 employees.  
Income/profitability -
	As of July 1996, Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., had  an approximate annual billings of $475 million.  The breakdown of gross billings by media are as followes: Newspaper - $38 million; Business Publication - $4.75 million; Transit - $4.75 million; Outdoor advertising - $19 million;  TV - $275.5 million; Radio - $42.7 million; Collateral - $9.5 million; Consumer publication - $57 million; and cable TV - $23.75 million.   Nowadays, the average percentage of  earning for advertising agencies is approximately between .05% to 1% of the total billings.  With a billing of $475 million, it would be logical to assume that Hal Riney & Partners earns approximately $2.375 million to  $4.75 million.   With the acquisition of several new accounts including Acer Group and Sprint Spectrum, Hal Riney's billing is now approaching $600 million. 
Management Profiles -
	The chairman and CEO of Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., is Mr. Hal Riney.  There are over 30 Sr. VPs and VPs holding various positions at the San Francisco office alone.   Some of the key personnel at the San Francisco office includes Vice Chairman - James Travis; Chief Financial Officer & Executive VP - Lyn Muegge; Executive VP & National Creative Director - Joe O'Neill; Executive VP, and Managing Director - David Verklin; Executive VP and Corporate Development - John Yost; and Creative Director - Gerald Andelin. 
	The Chicago office handles a set of different clients with its own different personnel such as Barray Krause - Executive V.P. and Managing Director; Jonathan Harries - Executive V.P. and Executive Creative Director; Catharine Gerber - Senior V.P. and Media Director; and Paul Janas - Senior V.P. and Creative Director.   Hal Riney has recently added Scott Marshall as the president on his pay roll after several unsuccessful search for new partners.   In the past 18 months, Hal Riney had also held conversations with Interpublic Group (who owns McCann-Erickson, Lintas, etc.) and W.Y. Choi (a majority owner of N.W. Ayer & Partners) in attempt to sale his agency.  
Clients -
	Hal Riney & Partners serves a variety of clients from auto maker to fast food restaurant.  Current major clients include Acer Group, Alamo car rental company, Birkenstock, The Walt Disney Company, Cox California PCS, GM Electric vehicle, Public Broadcasting Service, See's Candies, Inc., Kaiser Permanente, Saturn Corporation, Subway Restaurant, Mirage Resorts, Inc., The Good Guys!, Pharmative Corporation, The Stroh Brewery Co., Progressive Insurance, Crystal Geyser Water, Kinko's Service Corporation, Sprint PCS (formerly known as Sprint Spectrum), and Serta, Inc.  
	Sprint PCS, a recently acquired client,  has an estimated budget of $20 - $30 million.  Hal Riney's first responsibility is to build the brand personality and image advertising of Sprint's wireless phone and communication services.  The account is being overseen by Riney co-executive creative director Steve Sweitzer and creative director Dave O'Hare.  Riney will also create regional print and radio ads to tie into Sprint's retail alliance, Radio Shack.  
	In addition to Sprint PCS, Hal Riney is playing a very active role in Saturn Corporation's launch in Japan with the seventh largest Japanese advertising agency, Daiichi Kikaku.  Saturn's goal is to be No. 1 in customer and dealer satisfaction.   
	Despite its success, HR&P had raised a rather controversial campaign in the past.  It would only be fair to present some of the unsuccessful campaigns to achieve the objectivity of this assignment.  One of those controversial ones was the Swedish Bikini Team for Old Milwaukee Beer in 1992.   The campaign was charged and accused of being sexist by native Swedish and various feminist groups in the US.  HR&P withdrew the campaign and later resigned the account. 
Corporate/Creative Philosophy -
	Hal Riney has a special way to "talk to" the American people.   He has a unique way to profile people and make them seem real, thus give them credibility.  His voice was featured at several commercials such as the Bank of America advertisement and the KQED Channel 9 in San Francisco.  According to Michele Kirk, the creative director at Macy's Advertising, Hal Riney won't pick up a client that he has no faith in.   His ads often give the audience a warm and fuzzy feeling similar to the "feel-good" ads for Ronald Regan presidential election in 1984. 
	The agency has recently revamped the creative department to expand the number of creative brains available to work on each account and new business pitch.  Under the new construction, creative directors can pull any staff member in the creative pool to work on any account on an as needed basis.  Previously, each creative team worked exclusively on two or three accounts.   The team approach eliminates all the hierarchy in the creative process thus the creative team helps to get work approved quickly and efficiently.   
	In addition to the reconstruction of his creative department, Hal Riney has his own corporate philosophy.  Riney believes the client's relationship with an agency is like a marriage.   He believes the problems don't get solved by being ignored.  They have to be raised and discussed.  The ones who work through problems will become stronger for the experience.   In other words, if the agency were a person, which would you encourage your daughter to marry?  
Successful Campaigns -
	Hal Riney's successful, "the Saturn Family," campaign began in 1990 by focusing on the Saturn's employees who work in Spring Hill, Tennessee.  For the past two years, the campaign has focused in on the customers - giving the consumers a sense of who the people are, what they do for living or for fun, and how they feel about Saturn cars.  The campaign has boosted Saturn sales of more than 20 percent from 1992 to 1994, as well as the establishment of  brand personality.  The campaign promotes a homespun portraits of the people, not the cars.   One of the recent "Saturn Family" ads featured hundreds of Saturn volunteers building thousands of dollars worth of playground equipment in 12 sites around New York.   This "family" campaign has been going on for over five years, and it is likely the campaign will remain the same.  There is no reason to change a campaign when it is effectively reaching the audience.  
	Aside from Hal Riney's media use, he was also a member of the creative & political team who created the "feel-good" commercials for Ronald Reagan in 1984.   It is hard to determine how "good" of a president Reagan was,  but the campaign did bring victory to Reagan in 1984 in the presidential election.   However, when the Reform Party presidential candidate, Ross Perot, asked Riney for an official campaign role, Riney denied the offer.   Regardless what Riney did in 1992, his "feel-good" campaign for Reagan was a proven success.
New Business wins/losses -
	HR&P's headquarters office in San Francisco has lost some of its luster in the past two years or so, while its Chicago's office has done well with new business wins.   Recent loss of accounts include Peets Coffee & Tea Co., Eddie Bauer, Inc., and Aspen Skiing Co., all with a $5 million in billings.  HR&P also lost the $25 million First Interstate Bank account after Wells Fargo's buyout of F.I. Bank.   
	On the bright side, HR&P Heartland is continuing its business with Kinko Corporation, the nation's largest chain of document production and business service stores, after a four month agency review.   Plus, not to mention First Union Corporation, with an expected billings of $30 million, named Hal Riney & Partners as its new corporate advertising agency.  HR&P will be responsible in producing and developing campaigns to promote the financial services company and the expanding lines of business. 
	HR&P also added Acer America Corporation, a computer company, on its account list.  The advertising agency's main goal is to raise brand awareness among consumers.  Its solution is a witty campaign far removed from the tech-and-spec approach of most computer advertising.  Skyy Spirits Inc. as well awarded HR&P, San Francisco, a $5 million account, to handle advertising for brands like Skyy Vodka, which was previously handled by Monte Sandy & Needham Advertising in Walnut Creek, CA.   
	Other new acquisition includes Sprint Spectrum with an expected billings of $80 million, Cox California PCS and GM Electric Vehicle with estimated billings of $25 million respectively.   Subway Franchise Advertising Board also retains its five-year partner,  HR&P/Heartland, to handle its advertising with an estimated billings at $85 million after a few months of review.  
Special Capabilities - 
	HR&P, Inc. specializes in brand building.  A success example of its brand building capability is Saturn Corporation - the homespun feeling.  Mr. Riney knows what his clients want and like.   Hal Riney's ability to talk to the American people and his ability to talk to the "lower denominator" of the society have won him several accounts as well as keeping them.  Hal Riney has been wanting to retire and to sell off his agency for a few years, but his clients threaten to withdraw their accounts if he quits.   I believe his ability to cope with clients and the general public have enabled him to stay in business since the opening of HR&P in 1986.  
Primary Competitors - 
	In a recent sales pitch with Subway Restaurant, HR&P was one of the three finalists who competed for the account.  The other finalists included New York based agencies - Deutsch Inc.; Devito/Verdi; and Partners & Shevack.   Riney was awarded the account after a lengthy agency review.   HR&P was also competing with two other agencies, Lois/EJL Advertising and Mendelson/Zien Advertising, in the Los Angeles area for the $25 million Cox California PCS, a unit of Cox Communication, Inc., account.   
	It is hard to identify the primary competitors for HR&P since most advertising agencies are competing with one another to an extent.   For instance, HR&P recently won the $5 million Skyy Spirits Inc. account from Monte Sandy & Needham Advertising. MS&A Advertising is a small agency with only 14 employees based in Walnut Creek, CA.  Just a month ago, Hal Riney was competing against several San Francisco agencies such as Atlas & Co., Black Rocket, Team One Advertising and Citron Haligman Bedecarre for the $7 million Powerfood (PowerBar) account.  The size of the competing agencies for Powerfood ranged from 10 employees (Atlas & Co.)  to 200 employees (Team One Advertising, a sub-division of Satchi & Satchi).   Thus, it is hard to identify who the main competitors are based on the billings and the size of the agency.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hal Riney.TXT
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Hal Riney & Partners, Inc


Ownership/size/locations -

	Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., one of the most famous privately-owned
advertising agencies in San Francisco, CA, was founded in 1986 by chairman and
CEO Hal P. Riney himself.   With the branch office in Chicago, Hal Riney &
Partners Heartland, reaches out to clients in different regions as well.  Both
San Francisco and Chicago offices employ a total number of approximately 350
employees. Income/profitability -
	As of July 1996, Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., had  an approximate annual
billings of $475 million.  The breakdown of gross billings by media are as
followes: Newspaper - $38 million; Business Publication - $4.75 million; Transit
- $4.75 million; Outdoor advertising - $19 million;  TV - $275.5 million; Radio
- $42.7 million; Collateral - $9.5 million; Consumer publication - $57 million;
and cable TV - $23.75 million.   Nowadays, the average percentage of  earning
for advertising agencies is approximately between .05% to 1% of the total
billings.  With a billing of $475 million, it would be logical to assume that
Hal Riney & Partners earns approximately $2.375 million to  $4.75 million.
With the acquisition of several new accounts including Acer Group and Sprint
Spectrum, Hal Riney's billing is now approaching $600 million. Management
Profiles -
	The chairman and CEO of Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., is Mr. Hal Riney.
There are over 30 Sr. VPs and VPs holding various positions at the San Francisco
office alone.   Some of the key personnel at the San Francisco office includes
Vice Chairman - James Travis; Chief Financial Officer & Executive VP - Lyn
Muegge; Executive VP & National Creative Director - Joe O'Neill; Executive VP,
and Managing Director - David Verklin; Executive VP and Corporate Development -
John Yost; and Creative Director - Gerald Andelin.
	The Chicago office handles a set of different clients with its own
different personnel such as Barray Krause - Executive V.P. and Managing
Director; Jonathan Harries - Executive V.P. and Executive Creative Director;
Catharine Gerber - Senior V.P. and Media Director; and Paul Janas - Senior V.P.
and Creative Director.   Hal Riney has recently added Scott Marshall as the
president on his pay roll after several unsuccessful search for new partners.
In the past 18 months, Hal Riney had also held conversations with Interpublic
Group (who owns McCann-Erickson, Lintas, etc.) and W.Y. Choi (a majority owner
of N.W. Ayer & Partners) in attempt to sale his agency. Clients -
	Hal Riney & Partners serves a variety of clients from auto maker to fast
food restaurant.  Current major clients include Acer Group, Alamo car rental
company, Birkenstock, The Walt Disney Company, Cox California PCS, GM Electric
vehicle, Public Broadcasting Service, See's Candies, Inc., Kaiser Permanente,
Saturn Corporation, Subway Restaurant, Mirage Resorts, Inc., The Good Guys!,
Pharmative Corporation, The Stroh Brewery Co., Progressive Insurance, Crystal
Geyser Water, Kinko's Service Corporation, Sprint PCS (formerly known as Sprint
Spectrum), and Serta, Inc.
	Sprint PCS, a recently acquired client,  has an estimated budget of $20
- $30 million.  Hal Riney's first responsibility is to build the brand
personality and image advertising of Sprint's wireless phone and communication
services.  The account is being overseen by Riney co-executive creative director
Steve Sweitzer and creative director Dave O'Hare.  Riney will also create
regional print and radio ads to tie into Sprint's retail alliance, Radio Shack.
	In addition to Sprint PCS, Hal Riney is playing a very active role in
Saturn Corporation's launch in Japan with the seventh largest Japanese
advertising agency, Daiichi Kikaku.  Saturn's goal is to be No. 1 in customer
and dealer satisfaction.
	Despite its success, HR&P had raised a rather controversial campaign in
the past.  It would only be fair to present some of the unsuccessful campaigns
to achieve the objectivity of this assignment.  One of those controversial ones
was the Swedish Bikini Team for Old Milwaukee Beer in 1992.   The campaign was
charged and accused of being sexist by native Swedish and various feminist
groups in the US.  HR&P withdrew the campaign and later resigned the account.
Corporate/Creative Philosophy -
	Hal Riney has a special way to "talk to" the American people.   He has a
unique way to profile people and make them seem real, thus give them credibility.
 His voice was featured at several commercials such as the Bank of America
advertisement and the KQED Channel 9 in San Francisco.  According to Michele
Kirk, the creative director at Macy's Advertising, Hal Riney won't pick up a
client that he has no faith in.   His ads often give the audience a warm and
fuzzy feeling similar to the "feel-good" ads for Ronald Regan presidential
election in 1984.
	The agency has recently revamped the creative department to expand the
number of creative brains available to work on each account and new business
pitch.  Under the new construction, creative directors can pull any staff member
in the creative pool to work on any account on an as needed basis.  Previously,
each creative team worked exclusively on two or three accounts.   The team
approach eliminates all the hierarchy in the creative process thus the creative
team helps to get work approved quickly and efficiently.
	In addition to the reconstruction of his creative department, Hal Riney
has his own corporate philosophy.  Riney believes the client's relationship with
an agency is like a marriage.   He believes the problems don't get solved by
being ignored.  They have to be raised and discussed.  The ones who work through
problems will become stronger for the experience.   In other words, if the
agency were a person, which would you encourage your daughter to marry?
Successful Campaigns -
	Hal Riney's successful, "the Saturn Family," campaign began in 1990 by
focusing on the Saturn's employees who work in Spring Hill, Tennessee.  For the
past two years, the campaign has focused in on the customers - giving the
consumers a sense of who the people are, what they do for living or for fun, and
how they feel about Saturn cars.  The campaign has boosted Saturn sales of more
than 20 percent from 1992 to 1994, as well as the establishment of  brand
personality.  The campaign promotes a homespun portraits of the people, not the
cars.   One of the recent "Saturn Family" ads featured hundreds of Saturn
volunteers building thousands of dollars worth of playground equipment in 12
sites around New York.   This "family" campaign has been going on for over five
years, and it is likely the campaign will remain the same.  There is no reason
to change a campaign when it is effectively reaching the audience.
	Aside from Hal Riney's media use, he was also a member of the creative &
political team who created the "feel-good" commercials for Ronald Reagan in 1984.
  It is hard to determine how "good" of a president Reagan was,  but the
campaign did bring victory to Reagan in 1984 in the presidential election.
However, when the Reform Party presidential candidate, Ross Perot, asked Riney
for an official campaign role, Riney denied the offer.   Regardless what Riney
did in 1992, his "feel-good" campaign for Reagan was a proven success. New
Business wins/losses -
	HR&P's headquarters office in San Francisco has lost some of its luster
in the past two years or so, while its Chicago's office has done well with new
business wins.   Recent loss of accounts include Peets Coffee & Tea Co., Eddie
Bauer, Inc., and Aspen Skiing Co., all with a $5 million in billings.  HR&P also
lost the $25 million First Interstate Bank account after Wells Fargo's buyout of
F.I. Bank.
	On the bright side, HR&P Heartland is continuing its business with Kinko
Corporation, the nation's largest chain of document production and business
service stores, after a four month agency review.   Plus, not to mention First
Union Corporation, with an expected billings of $30 million, named Hal Riney &
Partners as its new corporate advertising agency.  HR&P will be responsible in
producing and developing campaigns to promote the financial services company and
the expanding lines of business.
	HR&P also added Acer America Corporation, a computer company, on its
account list.  The advertising agency's main goal is to raise brand awareness
among consumers.  Its solution is a witty campaign far removed from the tech-
and-spec approach of most computer advertising.  Skyy Spirits Inc. as well
awarded HR&P, San Francisco, a $5 million account, to handle advertising for
brands like Skyy Vodka, which was previously handled by Monte Sandy & Needham
Advertising in Walnut Creek, CA.
	Other new acquisition includes Sprint Spectrum with an expected billings
of $80 million, Cox California PCS and GM Electric Vehicle with estimated
billings of $25 million respectively.   Subway Franchise Advertising Board also
retains its five-year partner,  HR&P/Heartland, to handle its advertising with
an estimated billings at $85 million after a few months of review. Special
Capabilities -
	HR&P, Inc. specializes in brand building.  A success example of its
brand building capability is Saturn Corporation - the homespun feeling.  Mr.
Riney knows what his clients want and like.   Hal Riney's ability to talk to the
American people and his ability to talk to the "lower denominator" of the
society have won him several accounts as well as keeping them.  Hal Riney has
been wanting to retire and to sell off his agency for a few years, but his
clients threaten to withdraw their accounts if he quits.   I believe his ability
to cope with clients and the general public have enabled him to stay in business
since the opening of HR&P in 1986. Primary Competitors -
	In a recent sales pitch with Subway Restaurant, HR&P was one of the
three finalists who competed for the account.  The other finalists included New
York based agencies - Deutsch Inc.; Devito/Verdi; and Partners & Shevack.
Riney was awarded the account after a lengthy agency review.   HR&P was also
competing with two other agencies, Lois/EJL Advertising and Mendelson/Zien
Advertising, in the Los Angeles area for the $25 million Cox California PCS, a
unit of Cox Communication, Inc., account.
	It is hard to identify the primary competitors for HR&P since most
advertising agencies are competing with one another to an extent.   For instance,
HR&P recently won the $5 million Skyy Spirits Inc. account from Monte Sandy &
Needham Advertising. MS&A Advertising is a small agency with only 14 employees
based in Walnut Creek, CA.  Just a month ago, Hal Riney was competing against
several San Francisco agencies such as Atlas & Co., Black Rocket, Team One
Advertising and Citron Haligman Bedecarre for the $7 million Powerfood
(PowerBar) account.  The size of the competing agencies for Powerfood ranged
from 10 employees (Atlas & Co.)  to 200 employees (Team One Advertising, a sub-
division of Satchi & Satchi).   Thus, it is hard to identify who the main
competitors are based on the billings and the size of the agency.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hank Williams Jr .TXT
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[Error] - File could not be written...


f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hank Williams Jr.TXT
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Hank Williams Jr.

Jerry Erath
Essay
4 December 12, 1996

	Hank Williams, Jr. was meant to be a superstar from the day he was born.
His father, the legendary Hank Williams, and mother, Audrey Sheppard, both
played an intricate part in his early stardom.  Hank had to overcome many
obstacles in his life including escaping from his father's shadow and a near
death experience in 1975.  Hank's many triumphs, and his ability to overcome
setbacks, have propelled him to a legendary status.
	Born May 26, 1949, in Shreveport, Louisiana, Randall Hank Williams, Jr.
was destined to become a star.  Tragically, his father died on New Years day,
1953, at the young age on twenty nine ("Official Home Page," Biography).
However, his mother, a country singer in her own right, helped Hank Jr. start
one of the earliest, and most successful, childhood careers in country music
history.
	Hank appeared on stage for the first time at the young age of eight.
Hank appeared on the Grand Ole Opry at the age of eleven, singing his father's
songs in his father's style.  At the age of fourteen Hank recorded his first
album, a hit rendition of his father's "Lone Gone Lonesome Blues."  At an age
when most young boys are playing Little League baseball or football, Hank was
learning the piano from Jerry Lee Lewis, appearing on the Ed Sullivan Show, and
performing before crowds of up to twenty thousand.
	In 1969, Hank teamed up with Johnny Cash to perform in the largest
country concert to date.  In 1970, Hank signed the biggest recording contract in
the history of MGM Records.  As proud as he was of being the son of Hank
Williams, Hank got tired of being in his father's shadow.  In high school, known
as "Rockin' Randall," Hank played contemporary rock, however, that had to be
kept secret from all his traditional country fans.  He also liked to listen to
rhythm and blues, however, these types of music were looked down on by many in
Nashville.  Later in his career, Hank even released a couple of rock singles
under the name Bo Cephus on Verve Records, a subdivision of MGM.  The split
between what he wanted to do and what he was expected to do , along with his
long-term alcohol and drug abuse, developed into a downward spiral of his career
that led to a 1974 suicide attempt.
	In early 1975, Hank recorded "Hank Williams, Jr. and Friends," his first
true step to escaping his father's shadow and the past.  Although the album was
a success, MGM wanted him to return to the style that would keep his longtime
country fans happy.  An angry Hank told MGM that he was though with the company
("Bosephus Background," MGM).
	Hank then signed with Warner Brothers ("Bosephus Background," Albums)
and decided to take a vacation before an upcoming tour.  While mountain climbing
with friends in Montana, Hank fell five hundred feet down Ajax Mountain.  The
fall split his head open, shattering his face and exposing his brain.  During
his recovery and numerous reconstructive surgeries, Hank's mother passed away.
	Hank then went through a musical rebirth.  It all started with some
words from his doctor:
		You've been taught to act like, walk like and
 		talk like Hank Williams all your life," he told
		him, "and if you don't get your act together,
		you're going to die like him, too, only you'll
		get there long before he did"(qtd. in "Bosephus
		Background," The Top Ten Reasons). After hearing those words,
Hank set out to continue following his musical dreams.
	It was not until the 1980's that Hank Williams, Jr.'s music became
extremely popular, however, it still was not what traditional country fans
wanted.  In 1987, Hank was finally recognized for his musical talent.  That year
Hank won the first of five straight Entertainer of the Year awards voted to him
by fellow country artists.  His also won his first ever Grammy.
	In the early 1990's, Hank was well known to not only country fans, but
also to the millions who had watched him perform the opening theme for ABC's
Monday Night Football.  Hank won Emmy's in 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993 for the
theme that he wrote.  This gave him the distinction of being the first country
music artist to ever win an Emmy.  Hank also performed at the pregame show of
Super Bowl XXIX in Miami.
	Hank's best known for his legendary concerts.  His concerts have been
compared to parties instead of concerts, with thousands invited.  Hank is a
mixture of a Southern rocker and a "pure" country artist.  He has recorded with
various artists from Willy Nelson and Johnny Cash, to Huey Lewis and Tom Petty.
Hank pioneered the new standard for country music concert tours by making them
both an audio and visual experiences.
	It was once said,
		When music historians reflect on country music
		in the 20th century, two names will, no doubt, stand
		prominent.  Both of those names will be Williams:
		the father who created a legend and his son who
		took the legend, continued it and then molded
		it to fit his own formidable talent-subsequently
		blazing a path and opening doors for a whole new
		generation of platinum-selling country performers(qtd. in
		"Bosephus Background," The Top Ten Reasons).

	There is no doubt that Hank Williams, Jr. will always be considered one
of the greatest country singers of all times.  He has proven time and time again
that he has the ability to overcome even the worst setback, and only become
stronger because of it.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hannibal.TXT
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Hannibal

Twenty-two centuries ago there lived a man named Hannibal, the son of
Hamilcar Barca a Carthaginian. Hamilcar was a general in the Carthaginian
military in the first Punic War. After the defeat of Carthage in the first
Punic War, Hamilcar made Hannibal swear "eternal enmity" to Rome.
In 228 b.c. Hasdrubal, Hannibal`s brother-in-law, succeeded Hamilcar and
became commander. This meant that not only was the leader of the military
but also the political leader as well. In 221 b.c. Hasdrubal was assassinated
and Hannibal became commander in Spain. Hannibal was only 25 years old
when he was put in command of the Carthaginian armies and the Carthaginian
government in Spain. Even at a young age he knew his responsibilities,
so he kept his father's plan of military conquest and his brother-in-law`s
policy of strengthening Carthaginian power by democracy. He married a Spanish
princess and took hostages from the surrounding tribes to ensure their
loyalty to him. As a result of this he expanded the Carthaginian power
toward the Ebro river, which was the written northern boundary of Carthage
by the Rome treaty of 226. Rome attacked Saguntum, a city close to but
clearly on the Carthaginian side of the border. This provoked Hannibal
to take back Saguntum. The romans considered this an act of war. So in
218 b.c. Rome declared war on Carthage. This begins the second Punic War.
After hearing the declaration of war Hannibal immediately starts off towards
Rome. The problem was he had to go by land because Rome controlled the
seas. Hannibal takes an army of thirty-five to forty thousand men, some
on foot and others on horse, along with fifty war elephants across the
Pyrenees and the Alps in August of 218. Bad luck falls into Hannibal's
lap as early snows and landslides kill many of his men and almost all of
his war elephants. While traveling through the Alps he fights battles at
Arausio and Genua, easily defeating the Roman warriors, although his troops
are in horrible shape. He enters Italy with only twenty-six thousand men
and five or six war elephants in September 218. Hannibal and his troops
spent the winter in Po Valley. In the spring of 217 b.c. Hannibal was joined
by the Gauls, northern Italians who were subdued into fighting the Romans.
Now Hannibal had a sufficient army of infantry and cavalry. The hardened
Carthaginian troops easily crushed the Roman armies in their way, but without
siege equipment the Carthaginians could not destroy the Roman cities. So
instead of trying to siege the city they simple killed the Roman soldiers
and moved on. Some times the Romans would retreat into their city surrounded
by high walls so that they would not die. In 217 Hannibal won a major battle
at Lake Trasimene. Hannibal`s army along with the Gauls would roam the
Italian countryside and destroy any opposing army. In 216 he defeated a
huge Roman army at the city of Cannae in southwestern Italy. At Cannae
the Romans loss was much greater than that of Hannibal suffered. The Romans
lost twenty-five thousand men and ten thousand were captured, on the other
hand Hannibal only lost five thousand and seven hundred men. Hannibal,
being a military genius, let the Romans advance at his main infantry, while
his cavalry charged around the sides easily defeating two other groups
of Roman infantry. Then after destroying the two side groups of Romans
the cavalry swept around the back of the main Roman attack force. Hannibal
used this strategy often because it worked so good. Even though he was
killing Roman soldiers he was not destroying any cities. Finally, to get
Hannibal out of Italy, the Romans sent armies led by Scipio, a great Roman
general, to attack carthage in Africa. Carthage ordered Hannibal to Africa
to protect the city of Carthage. This was the clash of the titans, Hannibal
vs. Scipio. They met at Zama, a city near Carthage. This would end up to
be the final battle of the Second Punic War, and the great Hannibal would
be the loser. Hannibal escaped but his army didn't. After the war Carthage
had to pay Rome a very large sum of money and agree to terms that they
could only wage war in Africa, even then they had to have Rome's permission.
Hannibal returned to Carthage and became one of the two chief magistrates
in 196. He then challenged the aristocrats of being corrupt, the aristocrats
told Rome that Hannibal was planning another attack on Rome with Antiochus
III of Syria. Rome, already very angered with Hannibal, deported Hannibal
out of Carthage. So he traveled to Syria and was made a member of the Syrian
court. He then remembered his father's words and advised Antiochus III
to declare war against Rome. Antiochus III did wage war on Rome, the Syrian
War, from 192 b.c. to 189 b.c. Syria was defeated and Hannibal left to
become a member of the Prussian court. He then persuaded Prussia to go
to war against Rome. Instead of directly attacking Rome, Prussia attacked
Rome's ally Pergamum. Rome came into the fight and demanded that Hannibal
be handed over to them. Instead of being humiliated Hannibal took his own
life in 182 b.c. Hannibal Barca, being eternal enemies with Rome, fulfilled
his father's words and while doing so became one the greatest generals
of all time. 



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Harriet Beecher Stowe.TXT
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Harriet Beecher Stowe
Harriet Beecher Stowe was a high
class women, reformer, and writer in the 1800's. She
wrote many anti-slavery documents that helped reform
society. You may know her as the writer of Uncle Tom's
Cabin, the best-selling book in the 1800's about how bad
slavery was. Because of the encouragement if her husband,
Calvin E. Stowe, she became one of the most famous
writers, reformers, and abolitionist women of the 1800's.
Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe was born on June 14,
1811, in Linchfeild, Connecticut. Her father, Reverend
Lyman Beecher, raised her in a strong, religious, abolitionist
environment. She was also very well educated. In 1832,
she moved to Cincinnati with her father. There she learned
about slavery that was taking place in the state underneath
her. In 1836, she married Calvin E. Stowe, a collage
professor who encouraged her writing, that was soon to
make her one of the famous women in American history. A
few years later she moved to Maine because her husband
was excepted into a college as a professor. Harriet
Beecher Stowe is well known for her well written
anti-slavery document, Uncle Tom's Cabin. Uncle Tom's
Cabin is one of Harriet's Most potent pieces of writing. It
was also the 1800's best selling book. She may also be
known for her other, not so famous, anti-slavery
documents known as the following: Dread: the Tale of the
Great Dismissal Swamp, The Minister's Wooing, The Pearl
of Orr's Island, and The Oldtown Folks. These books may
not have been her best pieces of anti-slavery writing, but it
still helped influenced many people into going against
slavery and trying to stop it. Harriet Beecher Stowe may be
significant because she wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin, but she
is significant in other ways. Back during the time of slavery
no one would listen to what an African American would
have to say, let alone an African American slave. It was
very odd in that time to be a rich, high class woman and not
own a slave. But, because of the encouragement of her
husband, and the way she was raised as a child she was
against slavery, and she tried to reform society. By her
writing ability and knowledge of slavery she wrote
anti-slavery documents that almost every northerner read.
The pieces of work influenced many people. A lot of
people would try to stop slavery, just as Harriet would. If
Harriet Beecher Stowe wouldn't have written her stories
people probably wouldn't have been as influenced, and
society today wouldn't be the same. Harriet Beecher
Stowe was one of the most famous abolitionist woman of
the 1800's. She was a high-class women who greatly
influenced people in her writing on anti-slavery. She wrote
many other anti-slavery documents that influenced many
people into becoming abolitionist and reformers of society.
Her husband and father were a great influence on her
writing. Harriet Beecher Stowe is well known for her
masterpiece, Uncle Tom's Cabin which was the best selling
book of the 1800's.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Harriet Tubman 4.TXT
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                         HARRIET TUBMAN


	Harriet Tubman was born 1821in Dorchester county.
She was one of eleven children, and her parents were
slaves.  At the age of seven she was hired to do housework
and to take care of white children on nearby farms.
	In 1944 she married John Tubman, a free black.  In
1949 she escaped to the north to freedom by following the
north star.  Before the outbreak of the American civil war
in 1861 she made 19 journeys back to lead other slaves and
her parents to freedom along the clandestine route known
as the Underground Railroad to Canada.  Harriet was
helped by other abolitionist, and Quakers.
	During the Civil War Harriet served the union army. 
She nursed and cooked for white soldiers.  She acted as
both a scout and a spy leading raiding parties into
confederate territory. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Harriet Tubman.TXT
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                         HARRIET TUBMAN


	Harriet Tubman was born 1821in Dorchester county.
She was one of eleven children, and her parents were
slaves.  At the age of seven she was hired to do housework
and to take care of white children on nearby farms.
	In 1944 she married John Tubman, a free black.  In
1949 she escaped to the north to freedom by following the
north star.  Before the outbreak of the American civil war
in 1861 she made 19 journeys back to lead other slaves and
her parents to freedom along the clandestine route known
as the Underground Railroad to Canada.  Harriet was
helped by other abolitionist, and Quakers.
	During the Civil War Harriet served the union army. 
She nursed and cooked for white soldiers.  She acted as
both a scout and a spy leading raiding parties into
confederate territory. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hayden Carruth 4.TXT
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	Hayden Carruth
	Scrambled Eggs & Whiskey is Hayden Carruth's most recent collection of works. Published in 1996, it reflects a dark, boozed washed view of the world throw the eyes of a 76- year-old man. His works reflect his personal experiences and his opinion on world events. Despite technical merit Carruth works have become depressing. 
	Hayden Carruth is a child of the depression born in Vermont in 1921 where he lived for many tears. He now lives in upstate New York, where he taught in the Graduate Creative Writing Program at Syracuse University, until his recent retierment. He has published twenty-nine books, mostly of poetry but also a novel, four books of criticism, and anthologies as well. Four of his most recent books are Selected Essays & Reviews, Collected Longer Poems, Collected Shorter Poems, 1946-1991, and Suicides and Jazzers. He edited poetry for, Poetry, Harper's, and for 20 years The Hudson Review. He has received fellowships from the Bollingen Foundation, the Guggenheim Foundation, and the National Endowment for the Arts, most recently in 1995, a Lannan Literary Fellowship. He has won many awords including the Lenore Marshall Award, the Paterson Poetry Prize, the Vermont Governor's Medal, the Carl Sandburg Award, the Whiting Award, the Ruth Lily Prize, the National Book Award and The National Book Critics' Circle Award for Collected Shorter Poems, 1946-1991.
	In "Another" Carruth comments on the goal of poetry. He begins by dismissing truth and beauty;
		
		"Truth and beauty 
		were never the
		 aims of proper poetry 
		and the era 
		which proclaimed them 
		was a brutal 
		era."
			-Another

	The era mite have been brutal but "truth and beauty" where and still are a large part of  "proper poetry". The collected works of William Shakespeare and Robert Frost both have great deal of truth and beauty in their works as well as the tragic ordeals in life while Carruth only sees the brutality of life. Carruth goes on to name the goal of poetry as:
		
		"...let
		justice be primary
		when we sing,..."
			-Another
	
	Even though he's primary goal is justice this collection of poems seems to be one long complaint about injustice. It is easy to agree with Carruth in the "Quality of wine" when he says "this wine is really awful, " unlike the poet, it is his unremitting winning that is awful. Like self commentary Carruth writes:

		 "Language is defeated
		in the heavy, heavy day.
		
		Limp lines on the page
		like grass mown in the meadow."
			-The Heaviness

	This utter heaviness can be seen in the horrific poem "The Camp, " all 21 verses of it lament man's hardness of heart. In the second verse, a lighter through reads,

		"As the kittens were born
		the father of the little girl
		bashed the head
		of each one against a rock.
		She watched."
			-The Camps

	In this and many other of his works he illuminates the harshest situations but rarely offers a solution. If justice is truly Carruth goal why does not he offer a solution to his readers instead of concentrating on the hopelessness he sees in life. It would seem that Carruth is in agreement when he writes "True I've notices in who knows how many poems this life is hell, the inferno of everyday, every miserable day,..." from "the Best, the Most". 
	The grizzle details and sad mussing of Carruth's third world, voyeurism reeks of CNN or more likely The Nation,
		"on the beaten earth the right hands heaped
		in a little pile for you to encounter

		on your journey and think of those who
		lost them, help less in a forest, children
		probably bleed to death - a village
		in every possible way abandoned."
			-Mort aux Belges

he seems to trail with a eye for the dark underside. Blind to the joy and triumphs of the human 
spirt.
	At best he writes of the difference between our ideals and our true actions:

		"How we cherish
		the dove on the peaceful flag
		even while the real dove at our bird-feeders
		fight viciously among themselves
		and against the smaller sparrows, finches, and chickadees
		for the seed I place there in abundance."
			-The Chain

	Perhaps the dry, grieving, depression of this collection can be attributed to the impeding death of his daughter due to liver cancer. He includes three poems in the work illuminating this tragedy in his life. First, "Auburn Poem," written to his first wife and mother of his daughter. The second, "Pittsburgh," an account of his time with his daughter at Allegheny General Hospital. The third "Overlooking Pittsburgh," a poem about his daughter's paintings of the city while a patient in the hospital. They are the best of the lot balance some what sweet yet profoundly sad; beautiful but self centered with grieving. 
	Others have lost there youth heath and even loved ones and not been filled with such despair Carruth tells us he has a loving wife good friend and a comfortable life, but he seems to find so little joy in them. Talking future tense of happiness not to be found in his presence. In "Graves," he has a self revelation when he writes:
		
		"I wouldn't go look at the grave
		of Shakespeare if it was just
		down the street. I wouldn't
		look at- " And I stopped, I
		was about to say the grave of God
		until I realized I'm looking at it
		all the time...."
			-Graves

	Perhaps to a man how believes God is dead the mystery that is life ends here and in a demeaning fashion. That view point could tern the colors of life ti gray and the sweetness to bitter. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hayden Carruth.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	Hayden Carruth
	Scrambled Eggs & Whiskey is Hayden Carruth's most recent collection of works. Published in 1996, it reflects a dark, boozed washed view of the world throw the eyes of a 76- year-old man. His works reflect his personal experiences and his opinion on world events. Despite technical merit Carruth works have become depressing. 
	Hayden Carruth is a child of the depression born in Vermont in 1921 where he lived for many tears. He now lives in upstate New York, where he taught in the Graduate Creative Writing Program at Syracuse University, until his recent retierment. He has published twenty-nine books, mostly of poetry but also a novel, four books of criticism, and anthologies as well. Four of his most recent books are Selected Essays & Reviews, Collected Longer Poems, Collected Shorter Poems, 1946-1991, and Suicides and Jazzers. He edited poetry for, Poetry, Harper's, and for 20 years The Hudson Review. He has received fellowships from the Bollingen Foundation, the Guggenheim Foundation, and the National Endowment for the Arts, most recently in 1995, a Lannan Literary Fellowship. He has won many awords including the Lenore Marshall Award, the Paterson Poetry Prize, the Vermont Governor's Medal, the Carl Sandburg Award, the Whiting Award, the Ruth Lily Prize, the National Book Award and The National Book Critics' Circle Award for Collected Shorter Poems, 1946-1991.
	In "Another" Carruth comments on the goal of poetry. He begins by dismissing truth and beauty;
		
		"Truth and beauty 
		were never the
		 aims of proper poetry 
		and the era 
		which proclaimed them 
		was a brutal 
		era."
			-Another

	The era mite have been brutal but "truth and beauty" where and still are a large part of  "proper poetry". The collected works of William Shakespeare and Robert Frost both have great deal of truth and beauty in their works as well as the tragic ordeals in life while Carruth only sees the brutality of life. Carruth goes on to name the goal of poetry as:
		
		"...let
		justice be primary
		when we sing,..."
			-Another
	
	Even though he's primary goal is justice this collection of poems seems to be one long complaint about injustice. It is easy to agree with Carruth in the "Quality of wine" when he says "this wine is really awful, " unlike the poet, it is his unremitting winning that is awful. Like self commentary Carruth writes:

		 "Language is defeated
		in the heavy, heavy day.
		
		Limp lines on the page
		like grass mown in the meadow."
			-The Heaviness

	This utter heaviness can be seen in the horrific poem "The Camp, " all 21 verses of it lament man's hardness of heart. In the second verse, a lighter through reads,

		"As the kittens were born
		the father of the little girl
		bashed the head
		of each one against a rock.
		She watched."
			-The Camps

	In this and many other of his works he illuminates the harshest situations but rarely offers a solution. If justice is truly Carruth goal why does not he offer a solution to his readers instead of concentrating on the hopelessness he sees in life. It would seem that Carruth is in agreement when he writes "True I've notices in who knows how many poems this life is hell, the inferno of everyday, every miserable day,..." from "the Best, the Most". 
	The grizzle details and sad mussing of Carruth's third world, voyeurism reeks of CNN or more likely The Nation,
		"on the beaten earth the right hands heaped
		in a little pile for you to encounter

		on your journey and think of those who
		lost them, help less in a forest, children
		probably bleed to death - a village
		in every possible way abandoned."
			-Mort aux Belges

he seems to trail with a eye for the dark underside. Blind to the joy and triumphs of the human 
spirt.
	At best he writes of the difference between our ideals and our true actions:

		"How we cherish
		the dove on the peaceful flag
		even while the real dove at our bird-feeders
		fight viciously among themselves
		and against the smaller sparrows, finches, and chickadees
		for the seed I place there in abundance."
			-The Chain

	Perhaps the dry, grieving, depression of this collection can be attributed to the impeding death of his daughter due to liver cancer. He includes three poems in the work illuminating this tragedy in his life. First, "Auburn Poem," written to his first wife and mother of his daughter. The second, "Pittsburgh," an account of his time with his daughter at Allegheny General Hospital. The third "Overlooking Pittsburgh," a poem about his daughter's paintings of the city while a patient in the hospital. They are the best of the lot balance some what sweet yet profoundly sad; beautiful but self centered with grieving. 
	Others have lost there youth heath and even loved ones and not been filled with such despair Carruth tells us he has a loving wife good friend and a comfortable life, but he seems to find so little joy in them. Talking future tense of happiness not to be found in his presence. In "Graves," he has a self revelation when he writes:
		
		"I wouldn't go look at the grave
		of Shakespeare if it was just
		down the street. I wouldn't
		look at- " And I stopped, I
		was about to say the grave of God
		until I realized I'm looking at it
		all the time...."
			-Graves

	Perhaps to a man how believes God is dead the mystery that is life ends here and in a demeaning fashion. That view point could tern the colors of life ti gray and the sweetness to bitter. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Heinrich Himmler.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Heinrich Himmler
Reichsfuhrer-SS, head of the Gestapo and the Waffen-SS, Minister of the Interior from 1943 to 1945 and organizer of the mass murder of Jews in the Third Reich, Heinrich Himmler was born in Munich on 7 October 1900. The son of a pious, authoritarian Roman Catholic schoolmaster who had once been tutor to the Bavarian Crown Prince, Himmler was educated at a secondary school in Landshut. He served as an officer cadet in the Eleventh Bavarian Regiment at the end of World War I, later obtaining a diploma in agriculture from Munich Technical High School where he studied from 1918 to 1922. After working briefly as a salesman for a firm of fertilizer manufacturers, the young Himmler joined a para-military, nationalist organization and participated in the Munich Beer-Hall putsch of November 1923 as standard-bearer at the side of Ernst Rohm, Secretary to Gregor Strasser and his deputy district leader in Bavaria, Swabia and the Palatinate, he was also acting propaganda leader of the NSDAP from 1925 to 1930.
After marrying in 1927, Himmler returned to poultry farming for a time but was singularly unsuccessful in the business of raising chickens. In January 1929 he was appointed head of Hitler's personal bodyguard, the black-shirted Schutzstaffel (SS), at that time a small body of 200 men which was subsequently to become under his leadership an all-embracing empire within the Nazi State.
Elected in 1930 to the Reichstag as Nazi deputy for Weser-Ems, Himmler concentrated on extending SS membership - which reached 52,000 by 1933 - and securing its independence from control by Rohm's SA, to which it was initially subordinated. He organized the Security Service (SD) under Reinhard Heydrich, originally an ideological intelligence service of the Party, and together the two men ensured that the Nazis consolidated their power over Bavaria in 1933.
In March 1933 Himmler was appointed Munich Police President and shortly afterwards he became Commander of the political police throughout Bavaria. In September 1933 he was made Commander of all political police units outside Prussia and, though formally under Goering , became head of the Prussian Police and Gestapo on 20 April 1934. The turning-point in Himmler's career was his masterminding of the purge of 30 June 1934 which smashed the power of the SA and paved the way for the emergence of the SS as an independent organization charged with 'safeguarding the . . . embodiment of the National Socialist idea' and translating the racism of the regime into a dynamic principle of action.
By 17 June 1936 Himmler had successfully completed his bid to win control of the political and criminal police throughout the Third Reich, becoming head of the Gestapo in addition to his position as Reichsfuhrer of the SS. A very able organizer and administrator, meticulous, calculating and efficient, Himmler's astonishing capacity for work and irrepressible power-lust showed itself in his accumulation of official posts and his perfectioning of the methods of organized State terrorism against political and other opponents of the regime. In 1933 he had set up the first concentration camp in Dachau and in the next few years, with Hitler's encouragement, greatly extended the range of persons who qualified for internment in the camps. Himmler's philosophical mysticism, his cranky obsessions with mesmerism, the occult, herbal remedies and homeopathy went hand in hand with a narrow-minded fanatical racialism and commitment to the 'Aryan' myth. In a speech in January 1937 Himmler declared that 'there is no more living proof of hereditary and racial laws than in a concentration camp. You find there hydrocephalics, squinters, deformed individuals, semi-Jews: a considerable number of inferior people.' The mission of the German people was 'the struggle for the extermination of any sub-humans, all over the world who are in league against Germany, which is the nucleus of the Nordic race; against Germany, nucleus of the German nation, against Germany the custodian of human culture: they mean the existence or non-existence of the white man; and we guide his destiny'.
Himmler's decisive innovation was to transform the race question from 'a negative concept based on matter-of-course anti- semitism' into 'an organizational task for building up the SS'. Racism was to be safeguarded by the reality of a race society, by the concentration camps presided over by Himmler's Deaths Head Formations in Germany, just as during World War II the theories of 'Aryan' supremacy would be established by the systematic extermination of Jews and Slavs in Poland and Russia. Himmler's romantic dream of a race of blue-eyed, blond heroes was to be achieved by cultivating an elite according to 'laws of selection' based on criteria of physiognomy, mental and physical tests, character and spirit. His aristocratic concept of leadership aimed at consciously breeding a racially organized order which would combine charismatic authority with bureaucratic discipline. The SS man would represent a new human type - warrior, administrator, 'scholar' and leader, all in one - whose messianic mission was to undertake a vast colonization of the East. This synthetic aristocracy, trained in a semi-closed society and superimposed on the Nazi system as a whole, would demonstrate the value of its blood through 'creative action' and achievement.
From the outset of his career as Reichsfuhrer of the SS, Himmler had introduced the principle of racial selection and special marriage laws which would ensure the systematic coupling of people of 'high value'. His promotion of illegitimacy by establishing the State-registered human stud farm known as Lebensborn, where young girls selected for their perfect Nordic traits could procreate with SS men and their offspring were better cared for than in maternity homes for married mothers, reflected Himmler's obsession with creating a race of 'supermen' by means of breeding. Himmler's notorious procreation order of 28 October 1939 to the entire SS that 'it will be the sublime task of German women and girls of good blood acting not frivolously but from a profound moral seriousness to become mothers to children of soldiers setting off to battle' and his demand that war heroes should be allowed a second marriage expressed the same preoccupation.
The small, diffident man who looked more like a humble bank clerk than Germany's police dictator, whose pedantic demeanour and 'exquisite courtesy' fooled one English observer into stating that 'nobody I met in Germany is more normal', was a curious mixture of bizarre, romantic fantasy and cold, conscienceless efficiency. Described as 'a man of quiet unemotional gestures, a man without nerves', he suffered from psycho-somatic illness, severe headaches and intestinal spasms and almost fainted at the sight of a hundred eastern Jews (including women) being executed for his benefit on the Russian front. Subsequent to this experience, he ordered as a 'more humane means' of execution the use of poison gas in specially constructed chambers disguised as shower rooms.
The petty-bourgeois eccentric whose natural snobbery led him to welcome old aristocratic blood into the SS, revived a web of obsolete religious and cosmological dogmas linking new recruits to their distant Germanic ancestors. He cultivated the 'return to the soil' and the dream of German peasant- soldier farms in the East while at the same time proving himself a diabolically skilful organizer of rationalized modern extermination methods. The supreme technician of totalitarian police power who saw himself as a reincarnation of the pre-Christian Saxon, Henry the Fowler, advancing eastwards against the Slavs - he organized the thousandth anniversary of Henry's death in 1936 - Himmler perfectly expressed in his own personality the contradictions of National Socialism. For him, the SS was at one and the same time the resurrection of the ancient Order of the Teutonic Knights with himself as grand master, the breeding of a new Herrenvolk aristocracy based on traditional values of honour, obedience, courage and loyalty, and the instrument of a vast experiment in modern racial engineering. Through this privileged caste which was to be the hard core of German imperial dominion in Europe, the nucleus of a new State apparatus would emerge with its tentacles impinging on all spheres of life in the expanded Third Reich. By recruiting 'Aryans' of different nationalities into his Waffen-SS Himmler envisaged the creation of 'a German Reich of the German Nation' based on the feudal allegiance of its communities to the lordship and protection of the Fuhrer, embodying a Germany that would become the centre of a higher political entity.
By the end of the 1930s the possibility of forging this Greater Germanic Reich of the future came closer to realization as Himmler reached the peak of his power. In October 1939 Hitler appointed him Reichskommissar fur die Festigung des Deutschen Volkstums (Reich Commissar for the Strengthening of Germandom) and he was given absolute control over the newly annexed slice of Poland. Responsible for bringing people of German descent back from outside the Reich into its borders, he set out to replace Poles and Jews by Volksdeutsche from the Baltic lands and various outlying parts of Poland. Within a year over a million Poles and 300,000 Jews had been uprooted and driven eastwards. With the characteristic self- pitying and ascetic ethos of self-abnegation that he inculcated into the SS, Himmler informed the SS-Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler Regiment: 'Gentlemen, it is much easier in many cases to go into combat with a company than to suppress an obstructive population of low cultural level, or to carry out executions or to haul away people or to evict crying and hysterical women.' It was Himmler's master stroke that he succeeded in indoctrinating the SS with an apocalyptic 'idealism' beyond all guilt and responsibility, which rationalized mass murder as a form of martyrdom and harshness towards oneself. Nowhere was this more apparent than in Himmler's notorious speech on 4 October 1943 to the SS Group Leaders in Poznan. 'One principle must be absolute for the SS man: we must be honest, decent, loyal, and comradely to members of our own blood and to no one else. What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me. Such good blood of our own kind as there may be among the nations we shall acquire for ourselves, if necessary by taking away the children and bringing them up among us. Whether the other peoples live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our Kultur. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank ditch is completed for Germany. We shall never be rough or heartless where it is not necessary; that is clear. We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring them ideals. I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very grave matter. Among ourselves it should be mentioned quite frankly, and yet we will never speak of it publicly. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish people.. . . Most of you know what it means to see a hundred corpses lying together, five hundred, or a thousand. To have stuck it out and at the same time - apart from exceptions caused by human weakness - to have remained decent fellows, that is what has made us hard. This is a page of glory in our history which has never been written and shall never be written.'
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Henry David Thoreau.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Henry David Thoreau
Why was Henry David Thoreau such a wonderful writer?
He had many great qualities, but the most important were
his devotion to nature and writing, his desire for
independence, and his experiences he encountered
throughout his life. Henry David Thoreau looked to nature
as the basis of life and writing. He believed that nature is
the reflection of inner spiritual reality. He spent his life in
search of the essentials of reality and of experiences that
would bring him close to these essentials. He lived in a hut
for two years at Walden Pond to rid his body of inessential
things. During Thoreau's stay, he completed his first book
titled, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack
Rivers(1849). Here, he also filled his journals with materials
for his most famous piece, Walden. After he left the hut,
and after college, he became a literary apprentice by
writing essays and poems and by helping edit the
transcendentalist journal, The Dial. When success did not
come, Thoreau remained dedicated to his program of
"education" through intimacy with nature, and also through
writing that would express this experience. It was his life in
nature that was his great theme. In order for Thoreau to
write so much on nature he had to be familiar with it. His
knowledge of the woods and fields, of the rivers, the
ponds, and swamps, of every plant and animal was
outstanding. Emerson even stated, "His power of
observation seemed to indicate additional senses."
Thoureau wrote a book titled Walden(1854) in which the
theme of it was the relationship to the order and beauty of
nature in the human mind. This book consists of records of
Thoreau's stay at Walden Pond. Thoreau's love and
devotion to nature and his writing was a key to his
excellence in writing. Henry David Thoreau also felt that
individualism was a great necessity to his writing style. In
his piece of literature titled "Civil Disobedience", he
expressed his belief in the power and the obligation of the
individual to determine right from wrong, independent of
the dictates of society. Thoreau's friends agreed with his
views, but few practiced it in their own lives as consistently
as he. Thoreau demonstrated his idea of independence in
many ways. He worked for pay intermittently, he made
relationships with many of the towns outcasts, he never
married, he signed off from the First Parish Church rather
than be taxed automatically to support it every year, and he
lived alone in the woods for two years, in seclusion. His
nearest neighbor was at least a mile away. While he was
living independently in the woods, he thought of many new
ideas for his literature. Thoreau even tried to encourage
others to assert their individuality, each in his or her own
way. He also believed that independent, well-considered
actions arose naturally from a questing attitude of mind. He
was first and foremost an explorer, of both the world
around him and the world within him. In his most popular
piece ever, Walden, he stated this: "Be a Columbus to
whole new continents and worlds within you, opening new
channels, not of trade, but of thought,"(Walden, p. 321).
Also, Thoreau's celebration of solitude was a natural
outgrowth of his commitment to the idea of individual
action. This following idea also brought up a point in
Walden. "The man who goes alone can start today; but he
who travels with another must wait till that other is
ready,"(Walden, pg.72) Many of Thoreau's ideas of
individualism can be found as major statements in his
writing. Thoreau came to much of his great literature due to
the amount of experiences he had throughout his life. His
major experience was living at Walden Pond for two years
and learning about his own life and about the wonders of
nature. Thoreau even stated himself, "I learned this, at least,
from experience." Here, he was talking about how he got
all the information for his book Walden totally from
experiences. Although Walden was only moderately
successful in Thoreau's lifetime, his experiment in the
wilderness did spark interest in young people. The book
inspired people to follow his example and go to a lonely
spot and wonder the world and find their place in it. For
many, Walden served as a touchstone. Thoreau said that
he went to the pond to write a book in memory of his
brother, John, who had died three years earlier. Thoreau
also stated, "I went to the woods because I wished to live
deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see
if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I
came to die, discover that I had not lived (Walden p. 90).
At Walden Pond, Thoreau worked on A Week, but he
also became attracted to the Walden Woods and began
making observations in his journal of them. He also began
collecting materials to write lectures. By the time he left
Walden Pond, Thoreau had combined lectures and notes
from his journal to compile into his first draft of his book A
Week. A Week was not very well excepted by the public
though. After the failure of A Week, publishers postponed
the publication of Walden. Eventually, Walden was
published and was moderately successful, and it did make
Thoreau popular. Walden consisted of the journal entries
he had written. It also consisted of things he learned while
he was in the woods. Walden also evolved from a
sometimes shrill justification of Thoreau's unordinary
lifestyle into a complex account of a spiritual journey.
Thoreau's experiences were great attributes in his writing.
Henry David Thoreau was a wonderful writer. He had
many excellent qualities, but the best and most important
were his devotion to nature and his writing, his feeling of
individualism, and his experiences that were used to make
his literature more lifelike. He used nature as his main theme
in his writing. He felt that independence would help him be
a better writer. He also experienced many things in order to
make his writing filled with imagery. Thoreau used all these
elements in order to please the reader's mind with his
literature.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Henry Ford 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
A Biography of Henry Ford

	Henry Ford was an American industrialist, best known for his pioneering
achievements in the automobile industry.  From humble beginnings he was able to
create a company that would rank as one of the giants of American and World
industry long after his death.  There is no doubt that Henry Ford was a successful
business man.  The Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford's legacy, has left its mark
on every continent in the world.  However, Ford didn't gain his success solely on
his innovation in the automobile industry.  He was a friend to the middle class
public as well as the workers in his factories.  For this he was rewarded with
financial success by the same people he looked out for.  Moreover, he repeatedly
gave back to society through donations, philanthropic foundations, and the
creation of organizations that would help to educate and benefit the people. 
Henry Ford was a man who gained world-wide business success through his
innovative ideas, brilliant management skills, and down-to-earth tactics. 

	Henry Ford was born on a farm near Dearborn, Michigan, on July 30,
1863, and educated in district schools. He became a machinist's apprentice in
Detroit at the age of 16. From 1888 to 1899 he was a mechanical engineer, and
later chief engineer, with the Edison Illuminating Company. In 1893, after
experimenting for several years in his leisure hours, he completed the construction
of his first gasoline engine.  His first automobile was completed in 1896.  The
body was a small crude wooden box, it had a single seat, a steering tiller, bicycle
wheels, and an electric bell on the front.  In 1903 he founded the Ford Motor
Company. 

	At first, like his competitors, he made cars that only the wealthy could
afford.  But later he came to believe that every man, no matter what his income,
should own a car.  This resulted in the inexpensive "Model T" in 1908.  It brought
great financial success to his company.  The Model T was in production until 1927
when it was discontinued in favor of a more up-to-date model.  While in
production the company sold over 15 million cars. In 1913 Ford began using
standardized interchangeable parts and assembly-line techniques in his plant.  
Although Ford neither originated nor was the first to employ such practices, he was
chiefly responsible for their general adoption and for the consequent great
expansion of American industry and the raising of the American standard of living. 
By early 1914 this innovation, although greatly increasing productivity, had
resulted in a monthly labor turnover of 40 to 60 percent in his factory, largely
because of the unpleasant monotony of assembly-line work and repeated increases
in the production quotas assigned to workers.  Ford met this difficulty by doubling
the daily wage then standard in the industry, raising it from about $2.50 to $5. 
The net result was increased stability in his labor force and a substantial reduction
in operating costs.  These factors, coupled with the enormous increase in output
made possible by new technological methods, led to an increase in company profits
from $30 million in 1914 to $60 million in 1916. 

	Ford believed that most of the profits should be used to increase the size of
the company's factories.  This was an unusual practice at the time. The other
stockholders wanted to split the profits among themselves in the form of dividends. 
Ford  didn't like opposition in his company so he bought out all the other
stockholders in 1919.  Within the ensuing few years, however, Ford's preeminence
as the largest producer and seller of automobiles in the nation was gradually lost to
his competitors, largely because he was slow to adopt the practice of introducing a
new model of automobile each year, which had become standard in the industry. 
During the 1930s Ford adopted the policy of the yearly changeover, but his
company was unable to regain the position it had formerly held. 
    
	In the period from 1937 to 1941, the Ford company became the only
major manufacturer of automobiles in the Detroit area that had not recognized any
labor union as the collective bargaining representative of employees. At hearings
before the National Labor Relations Board, Henry Ford was found guilty of
repeated violations of the National Labor Relations Act. The findings against him
were upheld on appeal to the federal courts. Ford was constrained to negotiate a
standard labor contract after a successful strike by the workers at his main plant at
River Rouge, Michigan, in April 1941. 

	Early in 1941 Ford was granted government contracts whereby he was, at
first, to manufacture parts for bombers and, later, the entire airplane. He
thereupon launched the construction of a huge plant at Willow Run, Michigan,
where production was begun in May 1942.  It was said the plant could produce a
bomber an hour. Despite certain technical difficulties, by the end of World War II
(1945) this plant had manufactured more than 8000 B-24 Liberator Bombers and
other military planes. 

	Ford was active in several other fields besides those of automobile and
airplane manufacturing.  He was nominated for the office of U.S. senator from
Michigan in 1918 but was defeated in the election. In the following year he
erected the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit at a cost of $7.5 million. He
established the Greenfield Village which is a group of American Historical buildings
and landmarks and he created the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn which exhibits
man's progress in many fields.  Also, he donated large amounts of money to the
philanthropic Ford Foundation which is currently one of the world's largest.  In
1919 he became the publisher of the Dearborn Independent, a weekly journal,
which at first published anti-Semitic material. After considerable public protest,
Ford directed that publication of such articles be discontinued and that a public
apology be made to the Jewish people. 
  
	Advancing age obliged Ford to retire from the active direction of his gigantic
enterprises in 1945. He died on April 7, 1947, in Dearborn, Michigan. Ford left a
personal fortune estimated at $500 to $700 million, bequeathing the largest share
of his holdings in the Ford Motor Company to the Ford Foundation.  Ford
revolutionized American and consequently World industry with his pioneering use
of the assembly line production method.  He turned a small local car company into
one of the world's largest industrial companies.  Henry Ford was a great
businessman and a great human being.  He proved that success cannot simply be
attained with a good product.  He accomplished what many aspire to, but few
actually achieve.  He was able to combine his technological know-how, and
innovative ideas with brilliant managerial practices and respect for his workers and
customers.  Adding in his philanthropic tendencies, it is obvious that Henry Ford is
a perfect model of how to be successful in business and in life.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Henry Ford.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
A Biography of Henry Ford

	Henry Ford was an American industrialist, best known for his pioneering
achievements in the automobile industry.  From humble beginnings he was able to
create a company that would rank as one of the giants of American and World
industry long after his death.  There is no doubt that Henry Ford was a successful
business man.  The Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford's legacy, has left its mark
on every continent in the world.  However, Ford didn't gain his success solely on
his innovation in the automobile industry.  He was a friend to the middle class
public as well as the workers in his factories.  For this he was rewarded with
financial success by the same people he looked out for.  Moreover, he repeatedly
gave back to society through donations, philanthropic foundations, and the
creation of organizations that would help to educate and benefit the people. 
Henry Ford was a man who gained world-wide business success through his
innovative ideas, brilliant management skills, and down-to-earth tactics. 

	Henry Ford was born on a farm near Dearborn, Michigan, on July 30,
1863, and educated in district schools. He became a machinist's apprentice in
Detroit at the age of 16. From 1888 to 1899 he was a mechanical engineer, and
later chief engineer, with the Edison Illuminating Company. In 1893, after
experimenting for several years in his leisure hours, he completed the construction
of his first gasoline engine.  His first automobile was completed in 1896.  The
body was a small crude wooden box, it had a single seat, a steering tiller, bicycle
wheels, and an electric bell on the front.  In 1903 he founded the Ford Motor
Company. 

	At first, like his competitors, he made cars that only the wealthy could
afford.  But later he came to believe that every man, no matter what his income,
should own a car.  This resulted in the inexpensive "Model T" in 1908.  It brought
great financial success to his company.  The Model T was in production until 1927
when it was discontinued in favor of a more up-to-date model.  While in
production the company sold over 15 million cars. In 1913 Ford began using
standardized interchangeable parts and assembly-line techniques in his plant.  
Although Ford neither originated nor was the first to employ such practices, he was
chiefly responsible for their general adoption and for the consequent great
expansion of American industry and the raising of the American standard of living. 
By early 1914 this innovation, although greatly increasing productivity, had
resulted in a monthly labor turnover of 40 to 60 percent in his factory, largely
because of the unpleasant monotony of assembly-line work and repeated increases
in the production quotas assigned to workers.  Ford met this difficulty by doubling
the daily wage then standard in the industry, raising it from about $2.50 to $5. 
The net result was increased stability in his labor force and a substantial reduction
in operating costs.  These factors, coupled with the enormous increase in output
made possible by new technological methods, led to an increase in company profits
from $30 million in 1914 to $60 million in 1916. 

	Ford believed that most of the profits should be used to increase the size of
the company's factories.  This was an unusual practice at the time. The other
stockholders wanted to split the profits among themselves in the form of dividends. 
Ford  didn't like opposition in his company so he bought out all the other
stockholders in 1919.  Within the ensuing few years, however, Ford's preeminence
as the largest producer and seller of automobiles in the nation was gradually lost to
his competitors, largely because he was slow to adopt the practice of introducing a
new model of automobile each year, which had become standard in the industry. 
During the 1930s Ford adopted the policy of the yearly changeover, but his
company was unable to regain the position it had formerly held. 
    
	In the period from 1937 to 1941, the Ford company became the only
major manufacturer of automobiles in the Detroit area that had not recognized any
labor union as the collective bargaining representative of employees. At hearings
before the National Labor Relations Board, Henry Ford was found guilty of
repeated violations of the National Labor Relations Act. The findings against him
were upheld on appeal to the federal courts. Ford was constrained to negotiate a
standard labor contract after a successful strike by the workers at his main plant at
River Rouge, Michigan, in April 1941. 

	Early in 1941 Ford was granted government contracts whereby he was, at
first, to manufacture parts for bombers and, later, the entire airplane. He
thereupon launched the construction of a huge plant at Willow Run, Michigan,
where production was begun in May 1942.  It was said the plant could produce a
bomber an hour. Despite certain technical difficulties, by the end of World War II
(1945) this plant had manufactured more than 8000 B-24 Liberator Bombers and
other military planes. 

	Ford was active in several other fields besides those of automobile and
airplane manufacturing.  He was nominated for the office of U.S. senator from
Michigan in 1918 but was defeated in the election. In the following year he
erected the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit at a cost of $7.5 million. He
established the Greenfield Village which is a group of American Historical buildings
and landmarks and he created the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn which exhibits
man's progress in many fields.  Also, he donated large amounts of money to the
philanthropic Ford Foundation which is currently one of the world's largest.  In
1919 he became the publisher of the Dearborn Independent, a weekly journal,
which at first published anti-Semitic material. After considerable public protest,
Ford directed that publication of such articles be discontinued and that a public
apology be made to the Jewish people. 
  
	Advancing age obliged Ford to retire from the active direction of his gigantic
enterprises in 1945. He died on April 7, 1947, in Dearborn, Michigan. Ford left a
personal fortune estimated at $500 to $700 million, bequeathing the largest share
of his holdings in the Ford Motor Company to the Ford Foundation.  Ford
revolutionized American and consequently World industry with his pioneering use
of the assembly line production method.  He turned a small local car company into
one of the world's largest industrial companies.  Henry Ford was a great
businessman and a great human being.  He proved that success cannot simply be
attained with a good product.  He accomplished what many aspire to, but few
actually achieve.  He was able to combine his technological know-how, and
innovative ideas with brilliant managerial practices and respect for his workers and
customers.  Adding in his philanthropic tendencies, it is obvious that Henry Ford is
a perfect model of how to be successful in business and in life.

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\herman melville a biography and analysis.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

HERMAN MELVILLE: 
A BIOGRAPHY AND ANALYSIS
?
English III
Jon Clausen
Saturday, March 15, 1997


Leave this page blank


CONTENTS
PREFACE, OR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 	 ii
I.	INTRODUCTION 	 1
II.	CHAPTER NAME, OR MAIN IDEA 1 	 n
III.	CHAPTER NAME, OR MAIN IDEA 2 	 n
IV.	CHAPTER NAME, OR MAIN IDEA 3 	 n
V.	CHAPTER NAME, OR MAIN IDEA 4 	 n
VI.	CHAPTER NAME, OR MAIN IDEA 5 	 n
APPENDIX 	 n
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 	 n


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.	Illustration 1 	 n
2.	Illustration 2 	 n
3.	Illustration 3 	 n
4.	Illustration 4 	 n
5.	Illustration 5 	 n


LIST OF TABLES
1.	Table 1 	 n
2.	Table 2 	 n
3.	Table 3 	 n
4.	Table 4 	 n
5.	Table 5 	 n





HERMAN MELVILLE:
A BIOGRAPHY AND ANALYSIS



	Throughout American history, very few authors have earned the right to be called "great."
Herman Melville is one of these few. His novels and poems have been enjoyed world wide for
over a century, and he has earned his reputation as one of  the finest American writers of all time.
A man of towering talent, with intellectual and artistic brilliance, and a mind of deep insight into
human motives and behavior, it is certainly a disgrace that his true greatness was not recognized
until nearly a generation after his death.
	Born in the city of New York on August 1, 1819, Melville was the third child and second son
of Allan Melvill(it wasn't until Allan's death in 1832 that the "e" at the end of Melville was added,
in order to make a more obvious connection with the Scottish Melville clan), a wholesale
merchant and importer then living in comfortable economic circumstances, and of Maria
Gansevoort Melvill, only daughter of  "the richest man in Albany," the respected and wealthy
General Peter Gansevoort, hero of the defense of Fort Stanwix during the American Revolution.
In total, Allan and Maria had eight children. On his father's side, his ancestry, though not so
prosperous as on his mother's, was equally distinguished. Major Thomas Melvill, his grandfather,
was one of the "Indians" in the Boston Tea Party during the events leading to the war and who
had then served his country creditably throughout the hostilities. The Melvill family kept on their
mantelpiece a bottle of tea drained out of Major Melvill's clothes after the Tea Party as a
momento of this occasion.
	Herman attended the New York Male High School from about the age of seven until 1830. By
that time, Allan Melvill's business had begun to fail, due to his credit being overextended. After
futile attempts to re-establish himself, he eventually found it necessary to accept the management
of a New York fur company back in Albany. The family moved there in the autumn of 1830, and
during that time Herman attended, along with his brothers Gansevoort and  Allan, the Albany
Academy. Just as luck seemed to again be favoring the Melvills, Allan's business affairs again
suffered a setback. Excessive worry and overwork finally took their toll upon his health. By
January, 1832, he was both physically and mentally very ill. On January 28, 1832, Allan Melvill
died. The shock of his father's financial collapse and his tragic death only slightly more than a year
later took its toll on Herman's emotions. He was to draw upon this memory two decades later in
his writing of Pierre.
	In order to support the family, Herman took a position as an assistant clerk at a local bank, and
his brothers Gansevoort and Allan took over their late father's fur business. Possibly because of
his mother's concern over his health, Herman left his position at the bank in the spring of 1834
and spent a season working for his Uncle Thomas's farm near Pittsfield. 
	During the winter months of early 1835, Herman left Pittsfield and joined his brothers in the fur
business. Now fifteen and a half, he kept the books of the firm for the following two years. At
some time during this period he enrolled as a student in the Albany Classical School. He also
became am member in the Albany Young Men's Association, a club for debating and reading, of
which his brother was already a member. Such clubs, in absence of public libraries, were popular
in many cities and served a most useful educational purpose. 
	Within a year  or two of education at the Albany Classical School, he had become qualified as a
school teacher. He left his brothers at the now failing fur company and became a teacher at a
one-room schoolhouse outside of Pittsfiesd. On his first day of the new job, the inexperienced
teacher was confronted with thirty students of all ages and levels of skill. Some were his age, and
a few utterly illiterate. In such extreme conditions Herman found it hard to maintain discipline, let
alone teach. After six weeks, he gave up and returned to Albany.
	For a few months, Herman looked for work without success. His leisure hours, though, were
filled with excitement. Early in 1838 he organized a debating club and promptly got into a dispute
over the presidency of the club with a rival member, which he eventually won.
	Before long, Maria Melvill was forced to admit that she could no longer afford to live in
Albany. Faced with the prospect of having to constantly ask her brother Peter for money, she
finally decided to move her family to Lansingburgh, a village not far from Albany near the Hudson
River.
	Herman was in a difficult and unhappy position. Although he was almost twenty years old, he
was not contributing to the family's income and felt ashamed. At the same time, he was unable to
decide on a career or event settle down to a job. Perhaps because he remembered the stories of
his uncle and two cousins who had gone to sea, Herman decided to try his own fate at sea. He
asked his brother Gansevoort to look for a ship's berth for him, and almost immediately, he was
hired as a crewman aboard the St. Lawerence, a three masted ship that was preparing to cross the
Atlantic from New York City to Liverpool, England. 
	The St. Lawerence  left New York on June 3, 1839. Herman could take pride in the fact that he
was earning his own living at last.
	Herman quickly learned humility. He was both better educated than most of his shipmates and
older that many of the common, or unskilled seamen, yet he knew nothing at all about ships or
sailing. He had to learn a whole new language, in which every rope, every task, and every part of
the ship had its own special name. He learned too about the strict discipline of the sea, which
required him to address the officers with respect and follow their orders unquestioningly.
Furthermore, he had to endure the practical jokes, sarcasm, and often cruel humor of the more
experienced crewmen, who traditionally made life difficult for "green" hands on their first voyage.
	 At the time of Herman's visit, Leverpool was growing fast. People straggled into the city from
the famine-stricken farms of Ireland, the poor mining towns of Wales, and the English
countryside, all seeking jobs in the city's docks or factories. Wandering innocently into the slums,
Herman was appalled at the sight of beggars, prostitutes, drunkards, and ragged children living in
conditions worse that he head ever imagined. Years later, he would recall these scenes in his novel
Redburn.
	His next voyage was on the whaling ship Acushnet, a brand new ship registered in New
Bedford, Massachusetts. He departed from New Bedford on January 3, 1841, bound for the
North Pacific. Although bound for the Pacific, the ship and her crew managed to capture several
whales in the Atlantic. After two months of sailing, when the ship reached Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
it had 150 barrels of oil in its hold. These were transferred to another New England ship to be
sent home, and the Acushnet left Rio after only one day ion the scenic port Melville called  "the
bay of all beauties." As they approached Cape Horn, Melville heard many dire stories from his
fellow crewmen about these wild southern waters.
	The men also told whaling tales, of course. Some of these tales concerned an unusual sperm
whale called Mocha Dick. Unusually pale, almost white, Mocha Dick was said to live in the
Pacific and was aggressive, unlike ordinary sperm whales. These tales undoubtedly influenced
Melville's most famous of tales, Moby Dick.
	Although the voyage initially seemed promising, most of the crew, including Melville, didn't
realize that the sperm whale was growing extremely scarce, and the survivors were becoming
wary. Overhunting had taken its toll. Between January and May, the Acushnet sighted nine groups
of whales but was only able to make two or three kills, adding a mere 150 barrels of oil to its
cargo. In June the men killed another whale; another 50 barrels of oil. It now looked as though it
would take years to fill the 2,800 barrels they needed to make a profitable voyage.
	The run of bad luck soured the captain's disposition. Not only was he annoyed at the lack of
whales, he was also suffering from poor health. This was to have been his last voyage, and he was
to retire on its profits. With every passing week, this plan seemed more and more distant. He
became snappish, strict and quarrelsome, so much that both his first and third mates deserted.
Stress began to appear amongst the rest of the crew as well, as men began to fall ill from scurvy
and other nutrition-lacking ailments. Fights and feuds broke out, and Melville no longer rejoiced
in the high quality of his shipmates. As soon as the captain took the Acushnet to the Marquesas
Islands to stock up on fresh food and water, Melville began making plans to depart both ship and
captain. Accompanying Melville was another crewman by the name of Tobias Greene, or "Toby"
as Melville called him. The pair escaped into the wilderness of the island shortly before the ship's
departure, and a brief hunt for them by the remaining crew was unsuccessful. Melville and Toby
remained on the island for four weeks, taken in by the Taipi Indians. Thought to be cannibals, they
proved to be quite hospitable to the deserters. Even so, they were eager to depart, and Toby was
sent to see if he could sight any ships off the coast.  He never returned, thought by Melville to be
captured by another tribe. It was this experience that inspired Melville's first novel, Typee.
	It was here they remained until another whaling ship, the Lucy Ann, arrived at the island. The
ship heard rumors of a white man being held captive by the Taipi, and being short of crew, they
embarked on a "rescue mission," and took Melville as a member of their crew in August 1842.
	Ironically, the voyage on the Lucy Ann proved to be even more miserable that that of the
Acushnet. When the ship docked in Tahiti, Melville managed another daring escape. That same
day he boarded the Charles and Henry as a member of her crew, and they set sail for Hawaii, then
called the Sandwich Islands. This was the final destination of the ship, and in November of 1842,
the crew was disbanded.
	Melville, eager to see the family he missed so, returned to Lansingburgh where his mother still
resided. His family was fascinated with his glorious tales of his journeys at sea; so much so that
Herman's brother Thomas set sail himself. Unfortunately, Herman was in the same situation in
which he was  before these adventures - unemployed. He believed that if he put his stories on
paper, he would find a publisher, and the vexing question of his career would be answered - he
would become a writer.	
	As he sat in his mother's house to write his first novel, Melville turned to the part of his South
Seas adventure about which everyone was most curious:  his "stay among the cannibals." The
story was his own, certainly, but in writing Typee, Melville established a habit that would follow
throughout his career. Hi used his own experiences as the skeleton of the book and fleshed out
the details with his own imagination. In Typee, he wrote about his escape from a whaling vessel
with Toby, and renamed the ship the Dolly  rather than the Acushnet. He also changed their
departure, which in reality he was never in any real danger, to one of great heroics as they
escaped from a horrible fate. In addition, he lengthened their stay on the island from  four weeks
to a grueling four months. He did find a publisher, and Typee, his first book, was published in
1846. 
	The following year, Melville met and fell in love with a woman named Elizabeth Shaw, and
they were married on August 4, 1847. They bought a home in New York City, where they would
remain for the rest of their lives. Together they would have two sons, Malcolm and Stanwix, born
in 1849 and 1851, respectively. Also born to them were two daughters, Elizabeth and Frances, in
1853 and 1855.
	In 1851, the same year as the birth of his second son, Melville has his most famous work
published, Moby Dick, or, The Whale. Between the release of Typee and Moby Dick, Melville
wrote other books of lesser notoriety. Omoo (1847), a book about his stay in Tahiti;  Mardi
(1849), Redburn (1849), about his time spent in Liverpool, and White Jacket (1850).
	Moby Dick, as most people know, is the story of Captain Ahab and his quest, which eventually
becomes and obsessive monomania, to kill the great white whale Moby Dick. Today, Moby Dick
is universally recognized as both Melville's crowning achievement  and a towering classic of 
American literature. The very thing that bothered so many people when it was published - the fact
that it broke the "rules" of writing and did so with such gusto - is now seen as the source of its
power. Today, writers who mix genres or who create unique voices and styles are admired. Thus
Moby Dick is now regarded, not as a failed sea romance or mixed up adventure story, but as a
triumph of creative imagination, an example of how vast and all-embracing a book can be. Along
with Mark Twain's Huckleberry Fin and Walt Whitman's Leaves of  Grass, Moby Dick is
considered a candidate for the greatest American novel. However, as aforementioned, his
greatness was not recognized at this time. 
	Melville's later works, Pierre (1852), The Piazza Tales (1856), The Confidence Man (1857),
the poem Clarel (1876), and the post-mortumously published Billy Bud (1924), went almost
completely unnoticed until the early 1920's, when a student of literature named Raymond Weaver
approached the Melville family and was given permission to examine the papers Herman left 
behind in a tin box after his death. It was here Billy Bud was first discovered and later published,
which introduced a whole new generation to Melville's work. Soon critics, students, and the
general public were reading his novels and stories, and greeting some of them as masterpieces. In
1927, American novelist William Faulkner declared that Moby Dick was the book he most wished
he had written.
	Knowing the quality of his work, one can not help but feel sympathetic to Melville's passing.
He died on September 28, 1891 in his home in New York City, still unknown by the general
public. If any writer deserved to be recognized and praised during their lives, Melville is that
writer. Although unfortunate that his passing went almost unnoticed by the public, he is now and
justly so, an immortal in the annals of American literature, and his work will be looked upon with
both admiration and envy for many years to come.
		


APPENDICES
Any appendices should appear after the text of your term paper.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
Use the Bibliography TaskWizard to help you quickly and easily create a bibliography for your
paper.  Pick the same style as your footnote style. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Herman Melville.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Herman Melville: A Biography And Analysis


	Throughout American history, very few authors have earned the right to
be called "great." Herman Melville is one of these few. His novels and poems
have been enjoyed world wide for over a century, and he has earned his
reputation as one of  the finest American writers of all time. A man of towering
talent, with intellectual and artistic brilliance, and a mind of deep insight
into human motives and behavior, it is certainly a disgrace that his true
greatness was not recognized until nearly a generation after his death.
	Born in the city of New York on August 1, 1819, Melville was the third
child and second son of Allan Melvill(it wasn't until Allan's death in 1832 that
the "e" at the end of Melville was added, in order to make a more obvious
connection with the Scottish Melville clan), a wholesale merchant and importer
then living in comfortable economic circumstances, and of Maria Gansevoort
Melvill, only daughter of  "the richest man in Albany," the respected and
wealthy General Peter Gansevoort, hero of the defense of Fort Stanwix during the
American Revolution. In total, Allan and Maria had eight children. On his father'
s side, his ancestry, though not so prosperous as on his mother's, was equally
distinguished. Major Thomas Melvill, his grandfather, was one of the "Indians"
in the Boston Tea Party during the events leading to the war and who had then
served his country creditably throughout the hostilities. The Melvill family
kept on their mantelpiece a bottle of tea drained out of Major Melvill's clothes
after the Tea Party as a momento of this occasion.
	Herman attended the New York Male High School from about the age of
seven until 1830. By that time, Allan Melvill's business had begun to fail, due
to his credit being overextended. After futile attempts to re-establish himself,
he eventually found it necessary to accept the management of a New York fur
company back in Albany. The family moved there in the autumn of 1830, and during
that time Herman attended, along with his brothers Gansevoort and  Allan, the
Albany Academy. Just as luck seemed to again be favoring the Melvills, Allan's
business affairs again suffered a setback. Excessive worry and overwork finally
took their toll upon his health. By January, 1832, he was both physically and
mentally very ill. On January 28, 1832, Allan Melvill died. The shock of his
father's financial collapse and his tragic death only slightly more than a year
later took its toll on Herman's emotions. He was to draw upon this memory two
decades later in his writing of Pierre.
	In order to support the family, Herman took a position as an assistant
clerk at a local bank, and his brothers Gansevoort and Allan took over their
late father's fur business. Possibly because of his mother's concern over his
health, Herman left his position at the bank in the spring of 1834 and spent a
season working for his Uncle Thomas's farm near Pittsfield.
	During the winter months of early 1835, Herman left Pittsfield and
joined his brothers in the fur business. Now fifteen and a half, he kept the
books of the firm for the following two years. At some time during this period
he enrolled as a student in the Albany Classical School. He also became am
member in the Albany Young Men's Association, a club for debating and reading,
of which his brother was already a member. Such clubs, in absence of public
libraries, were popular in many cities and served a most useful educational
purpose.
	Within a year  or two of education at the Albany Classical School, he
had become qualified as a school teacher. He left his brothers at the now
failing fur company and became a teacher at a one-room schoolhouse outside of
Pittsfiesd. On his first day of the new job, the inexperienced teacher was
confronted with thirty students of all ages and levels of skill. Some were his
age, and a few utterly illiterate. In such extreme conditions Herman found it
hard to maintain discipline, let alone teach. After six weeks, he gave up and
returned to Albany.
	For a few months, Herman looked for work without success. His leisure
hours, though, were filled with excitement. Early in 1838 he organized a
debating club and promptly got into a dispute over the presidency of the club
with a rival member, which he eventually won.
	Before long, Maria Melvill was forced to admit that she could no longer
afford to live in Albany. Faced with the prospect of having to constantly ask
her brother Peter for money, she finally decided to move her family to
Lansingburgh, a village not far from Albany near the Hudson River.
	Herman was in a difficult and unhappy position. Although he was almost
twenty years old, he was not contributing to the family's income and felt
ashamed. At the same time, he was unable to decide on a career or event settle
down to a job. Perhaps because he remembered the stories of his uncle and two
cousins who had gone to sea, Herman decided to try his own fate at sea. He asked
his brother Gansevoort to look for a ship's berth for him, and almost
immediately, he was hired as a crewman aboard the St. Lawerence, a three masted
ship that was preparing to cross the Atlantic from New York City to Liverpool,
England.
	The St. Lawerence  left New York on June 3, 1839. Herman could take
pride in the fact that he was earning his own living at last.
	Herman quickly learned humility. He was both better educated than most
of his shipmates and older that many of the common, or unskilled seamen, yet he
knew nothing at all about ships or sailing. He had to learn a whole new language,
in which every rope, every task, and every part of the ship had its own special
name. He learned too about the strict discipline of the sea, which required him
to address the officers with respect and follow their orders unquestioningly.
Furthermore, he had to endure the practical jokes, sarcasm, and often cruel
humor of the more experienced crewmen, who traditionally made life difficult for
"green" hands on their first voyage.
      At the time of Herman's visit, Leverpool was growing fast. People
straggled into the city from the famine-stricken farms of Ireland, the poor
mining towns of Wales, and the English countryside, all seeking jobs in the city'
s docks or factories. Wandering innocently into the slums, Herman was appalled
at the sight of beggars, prostitutes, drunkards, and ragged children living in
conditions worse that he head ever imagined. Years later, he would recall these
scenes in his novel Redburn.
	His next voyage was on the whaling ship Acushnet, a brand new ship
registered in New Bedford, Massachusetts. He departed from New Bedford on
January 3, 1841, bound for the North Pacific. Although bound for the Pacific,
the ship and her crew managed to capture several whales in the Atlantic. After
two months of sailing, when the ship reached Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, it had 150
barrels of oil in its hold. These were transferred to another New England ship
to be sent home, and the Acushnet left Rio after only one day ion the scenic
port Melville called  "the bay of all beauties." As they approached Cape Horn,
Melville heard many dire stories from his fellow crewmen about these wild
southern waters.
	The men also told whaling tales, of course. Some of these tales
concerned an unusual sperm whale called Mocha Dick. Unusually pale, almost white,
Mocha Dick was said to live in the Pacific and was aggressive, unlike ordinary
sperm whales. These tales undoubtedly influenced Melville's most famous of tales,
Moby Dick.
	Although the voyage initially seemed promising, most of the crew,
including Melville, didn't realize that the sperm whale was growing extremely
scarce, and the survivors were becoming wary. Overhunting had taken its toll.
Between January and May, the Acushnet sighted nine groups of whales but was only
able to make two or three kills, adding a mere 150 barrels of oil to its cargo.
In June the men killed another whale; another 50 barrels of oil. It now looked
as though it would take years to fill the 2,800 barrels they needed to make a
profitable voyage.
     The run of bad luck soured the captain's disposition. Not only was he
annoyed at the lack of whales, he was also suffering from poor health. This was
to have been his last voyage, and he was to retire on its profits. With every
passing week, this plan seemed more and more distant. He became snappish, strict
and quarrelsome, so much that both his first and third mates deserted. Stress
began to appear amongst the rest of the crew as well, as men began to fall ill
from scurvy and other nutrition-lacking ailments. Fights and feuds broke out,
and Melville no longer rejoiced in the high quality of his shipmates. As soon as
the captain took the Acushnet to the Marquesas Islands to stock up on fresh food
and water, Melville began making plans to depart both ship and captain.
Accompanying Melville was another crewman by the name of Tobias Greene, or "Toby"
as Melville called him. The pair escaped into the wilderness of the island
shortly before the ship's departure, and a brief hunt for them by the remaining
crew was unsuccessful. Melville and Toby remained on the island for four weeks,
taken in by the Taipi Indians. Thought to be cannibals, they proved to be quite
hospitable to the deserters. Even so, they were eager to depart, and Toby was
sent to see if he could sight any ships off the coast.  He never returned,
thought by Melville to be captured by another tribe. It was this experience that
inspired Melville's first novel, Typee.
	It was here they remained until another whaling ship, the Lucy Ann,
arrived at the island. The ship heard rumors of a white man being held captive
by the Taipi, and being short of crew, they embarked on a "rescue mission," and
took Melville as a member of their crew in August 1842.
	Ironically, the voyage on the Lucy Ann proved to be even more miserable
that that of the Acushnet. When the ship docked in Tahiti, Melville managed
another daring escape. That same day he boarded the Charles and Henry as a
member of her crew, and they set sail for Hawaii, then called the Sandwich
Islands. This was the final destination of the ship, and in November of 1842,
the crew was disbanded.
	Melville, eager to see the family he missed so, returned to Lansingburgh
where his mother still resided. His family was fascinated with his glorious
tales of his journeys at sea; so much so that Herman's brother Thomas set sail
himself. Unfortunately, Herman was in the same situation in which he was  before
these adventures - unemployed. He believed that if he put his stories on paper,
he would find a publisher, and the vexing question of his career would be
answered - he would become a writer.
     As he sat in his mother's house to write his first novel, Melville
turned to the part of his South Seas adventure about which everyone was most
curious:  his "stay among the cannibals." The story was his own, certainly, but
in writing Typee, Melville established a habit that would follow throughout his
career. Hi used his own experiences as the skeleton of the book and fleshed out
the details with his own imagination. In Typee, he wrote about his escape from a
whaling vessel with Toby, and renamed the ship the Dolly  rather than the
Acushnet. He also changed their departure, which in reality he was never in any
real danger, to one of great heroics as they escaped from a horrible fate. In
addition, he lengthened their stay on the island from  four weeks to a grueling
four months. He did find a publisher, and Typee, his first book, was published
in 1846.
	The following year, Melville met and fell in love with a woman named
Elizabeth Shaw, and they were married on August 4, 1847. They bought a home in
New York City, where they would remain for the rest of their lives. Together
they would have two sons, Malcolm and Stanwix, born in 1849 and 1851,
respectively. Also born to them were two daughters, Elizabeth and Frances, in
1853 and 1855.
	In 1851, the same year as the birth of his second son, Melville has his
most famous work published, Moby Dick, or, The Whale. Between the release of
Typee and Moby Dick, Melville wrote other books of lesser notoriety. Omoo (1847),
a book about his stay in Tahiti;  Mardi (1849), Redburn (1849), about his time
spent in Liverpool, and White Jacket (1850).
	Moby Dick, as most people know, is the story of Captain Ahab and his
quest, which eventually becomes and obsessive monomania, to kill the great white
whale Moby Dick. Today, Moby Dick is universally recognized as both Melville's
crowning achievement  and a towering classic of American literature. The very
thing that bothered so many people when it was published - the fact that it
broke the "rules" of writing and did so with such gusto - is now seen as the
source of its power. Today, writers who mix genres or who create unique voices
and styles are admired. Thus Moby Dick is now regarded, not as a failed sea
romance or mixed up adventure story, but as a triumph of creative imagination,
an example of how vast and all-embracing a book can be. Along with Mark Twain's
Huckleberry Fin and Walt Whitman's Leaves of  Grass, Moby Dick is considered a
candidate for the greatest American novel. However, as aforementioned, his
greatness was not recognized at this time.
     Melville's later works, Pierre (1852), The Piazza Tales (1856), The
Confidence Man (1857), the poem Clarel (1876), and the post-mortumously
published Billy Bud (1924), went almost completely unnoticed until the early
1920's, when a student of literature named Raymond Weaver approached the
Melville family and was given permission to examine the papers Herman left
behind in a tin box after his death. It was here Billy Bud was first discovered
and later published, which introduced a whole new generation to Melville's work.
Soon critics, students, and the general public were reading his novels and
stories, and greeting some of them as masterpieces. In 1927, American novelist
William Faulkner declared that Moby Dick was the book he most wished he had
written.
	Knowing the quality of his work, one can not help but feel sympathetic
to Melville's passing. He died on September 28, 1891 in his home in New York
City, still unknown by the general public. If any writer deserved to be
recognized and praised during their lives, Melville is that writer. Although
unfortunate that his passing went almost unnoticed by the public, he is now and
justly so, an immortal in the annals of American literature, and his work will
be looked upon with both admiration and envy for many years to come.

 APPENDICES

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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create a bibliography for your paper.  Pick the same style as your footnote
style.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hernan Cortes.TXT
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Hernan Cortes
Hernan (also Hernando or Fernando) Cortes was born in Medellin, Estramadura, in Spain in 1485 to a family of minor nobility.
Cortes was sent to study law at the University of Salamanca. In 1501 He left school to fight in a military expedition but became
ill and was forced to stay behind. In 1504 he left to seek fortune in the West Indies, eventually joining Diego Velazquez in the
conquest of Cuba. Velazquez was a Spanish soldier and administrator who would later become governor of Cuba. Cortes
persuaded Velazquez to give him the command of an expedition to Mexico. And this is the beginning of Cortes' legacy.
Cortes set out to Mexico on February 19, 1519, with about 600 men and 20 horses; despite the fact that Velazquez revoked
his permission for the expedition in fear Cortes would not recognize his authority once in position. One month later in March,
Cortes and his entourage landed in Mexico conquering the town of Tabasco. Cortes learned of the Aztec Empire from the
natives of Tabasco who were at awe with the Spaniards.
Meanwhile, the Cubans heard that Cortes was wanted back in Spain so they told him to return but Cortes would not obey.
Cortes organized an independent government, and renounced the authority of Velazquez, acknowledging only the supreme
authority of the Spanish crown. Two of his men were caught trying to take the boat back to Spain and were killed. After
negotiations with Montezuma who was trying to persuade Cortes otherwise, Cortes started his famous march inland. Upon
entrance of Tenochtitlan Cortes and his army overcame the Tlascalans and then formed an alliance with them against the
Aztecs, their enemies.
Cortes and his army at this time entered the Aztec capital city where Cortes was greeted and welcomed with honor.
Apparently there was a prophecy about the return of Quetzalcoatl, a legendary god-king who was light skinned and bearded.
Despite the welcomed reception Cortes believed that attempts would be made to drive him out and in return he imprisoned
Montezuma and forced him to swear allegiance to Charles I, king of Spain.
In June, fighting erupted in the capital. One night was named "Noche Trista" meaning sad night in Spanish, because Cortes
came back and helped kill over 10,000 Aztecs and in the act, thousands of Spaniards died. Suddenly, Cortes started
conquering many villages and brutally killing many Aztecs. By August 13, 1521 Tenochititlan became Mexico City and all
citizens were required to support the Spanish. In Mexico City, things became more Spanish. Many Africans were brought over as slaves and even some women came there.
A government was started and in 1524, 30,000 people lived in Mexico City. This whole new empire was then renamed New
Spain. Meanwhile Cortes was busy killing the natives who had previously lived in the Americas. He even sent some of his highest men
on their own missions as commanders. Cortes himself headed South. In 1522 Cortes conquered Michoacan, a territory near the volcano. By 1526, he had conquered all of present-day Mexico
and Central America. But in 1527, the Spanish officials kicked Cortes out of Mexico. In 1528, Cortes finally got back to Spain and was amazed at his popularity. The people of his hometown Toledo called him the
Captain-General of New Spain. But even this great welcome would not hold Cortes in Spain.
Cortes was granted permission to return to Mexico in 1530 married, and moved to the town of Cuernavaca into a huge castle.
There he found himself constantly being checked on in his activities, property was being kept from him, and his rights constantly
being infringed on. Needless to say he did not like it there and after living there for a few years, he moved back to Toledo,
Spain in 1540. He remained there until his death in 1547. He had lived an exciting but brutal life, but had been bored for his last
many years and was glad to die. Bibliography
Gomara, Francisco Lopez de. Cortes, The Life of the Conqueror by his Secretary, Los Angles: University California Press, 1965
Johnson, William. Cortes, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1975
Smith, Peter. The Liberators of Mexico, Gloucester: John Anthony Caruso, 1967
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hippocrate1.TXT
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Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine


	Hippocrates, greatest physician of antiquity, is regarded as the father
of medicine.  Born on the island of Kos, Greece in the year 460 b.c., says the
earliest biography written by Soranus of Ephesus in the a third century a.d.
Although a native of Kos he was forced to leave the island as the result of a
fire for which he was blamed.  He traveled to many other islands to practice
medicine.  Most of the cases in the two books of Epidemics considered to be
genuine are located at Thasos, a small island in the North Aegean Sea, and at
Abdera, a town on the adjacent mainland; but there are also references to
Cyzicus, on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara, and to Larisa and Meliboea in
Thessaly.   He died, according to tradition, in Larissa, Greece; little else is
known about him.  His name is associated wioth the Hippocratic Oath, though he
probably is not the author of the document.  In fact, of the approximately 70
works ascribed to him in the Hippocratic Collection, Hippocrates may actually
have written about six of them.  The Hippocratic Collection probably is the
remnant of the medical library of the famous Kos school of medicine.  His
teachings, sense of detachment, and ability to make direct, clinical
observations probably influenced the other authors of these works and had much
to do with freeing ancient medicine from superstition.
	Among the more significant works of the Hippocratic Collection is Airs,
Waters, and Places, which, instead of ascribing diseases to divine origin,
disusses their environmental causes. It proposes that considerations such as a
town's weather drinking water, and site along the paths of favorable winds can
help a physician ascertain the general health of citizens.  Three other works-
Prognostic, Coan Prognosis, and Aphorisms -advanced the then- revbolutionary
idea that, by observing enough cases, a physician can predict the course of a
disease.
	The idea of preventative medicine, first concieved in Regimen and
Regimen in Acute Diseases, sterss not only diet but also the patient's general
way of living and how it influences his or her health and well being.  Sacred
Disease, a treastise on epilepsy, revealed the rudimentary knowledge of anatomy
in ancient Greece. Epilepsy was beleived to be caused by insufficient air, which
was thought to be carried by the veins to the brain and limbs.  In Joints the
use of the so-called Hippocratis bench is described for treaating dislocations.
Also interest are Wounds in the Head, Women's Diseases, and Dismembering of the
Feotus in the Womb.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hippocrates 4.TXT
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Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine

	Hippocrates, greatest physician of antiquity, is regarded as the father of medicine.  Born on the island of Kos, Greece in the year 460 b.c., says the earliest biography written by Soranus of Ephesus in the a third century a.d.  Although a native of Kos he was forced to leave the island as the result of a fire for which he was blamed.  He traveled to many other islands to practice medicine.  Most of the cases in the two books of Epidemics considered to be genuine are located at Thasos, a small island in the North Aegean Sea, and at Abdera, a town on the adjacent mainland; but there are also references to Cyzicus, on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara, and to Larisa and Meliboea in Thessaly.   He died, according to tradition, in Larissa, Greece; little else is known about him.  His name is associated wioth the Hippocratic Oath, though he probably is not the author of the document.  In fact, of the approximately 70 works ascribed to him in the Hippocratic Collection, Hippocrates may actually have written about six of them.  The Hippocratic Collection probably is the remnant of the medical library of the famous Kos school of medicine.  His teachings, sense of detachment, and ability to make direct, clinical observations probably influenced the other authors of these works and had much to do with freeing ancient medicine from superstition.
	Among the more significant works of the Hippocratic Collection is Airs, Waters, and Places, which, instead of ascribing diseases to divine origin, disusses their environmental causes. It proposes that considerations such as a town's weather drinking water, and site along the paths of favorable winds can help a physician ascertain the general health of citizens.  Three other works- Prognostic, Coan Prognosis, and Aphorisms -advanced the then- revbolutionary idea that, by observing enough cases, a physician can predict the course of a disease. 
	The idea of preventative medicine, first concieved in Regimen and Regimen in Acute Diseases, sterss not only diet but also the patient's general way of living and how it influences his or her health and well being.  Sacred Disease, a treastise on epilepsy, revealed the rudimentary knowledge of anatomy in ancient Greece. Epilepsy was beleived to be caused by insufficient air, which was thought to be carried by the veins to the brain and limbs.  In Joints the use of the so-called Hippocratis bench is described for treaating dislocations. Also interest are Wounds in the Head, Women's Diseases, and Dismembering of the Feotus in the Womb. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hippocrates.TXT
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Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine

	Hippocrates, greatest physician of antiquity, is regarded as the father of medicine.  Born on the island of Kos, Greece in the year 460 b.c., says the earliest biography written by Soranus of Ephesus in the a third century a.d.  Although a native of Kos he was forced to leave the island as the result of a fire for which he was blamed.  He traveled to many other islands to practice medicine.  Most of the cases in the two books of Epidemics considered to be genuine are located at Thasos, a small island in the North Aegean Sea, and at Abdera, a town on the adjacent mainland; but there are also references to Cyzicus, on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara, and to Larisa and Meliboea in Thessaly.   He died, according to tradition, in Larissa, Greece; little else is known about him.  His name is associated wioth the Hippocratic Oath, though he probably is not the author of the document.  In fact, of the approximately 70 works ascribed to him in the Hippocratic Collection, Hippocrates may actually have written about six of them.  The Hippocratic Collection probably is the remnant of the medical library of the famous Kos school of medicine.  His teachings, sense of detachment, and ability to make direct, clinical observations probably influenced the other authors of these works and had much to do with freeing ancient medicine from superstition.
	Among the more significant works of the Hippocratic Collection is Airs, Waters, and Places, which, instead of ascribing diseases to divine origin, disusses their environmental causes. It proposes that considerations such as a town's weather drinking water, and site along the paths of favorable winds can help a physician ascertain the general health of citizens.  Three other works- Prognostic, Coan Prognosis, and Aphorisms -advanced the then- revbolutionary idea that, by observing enough cases, a physician can predict the course of a disease. 
	The idea of preventative medicine, first concieved in Regimen and Regimen in Acute Diseases, sterss not only diet but also the patient's general way of living and how it influences his or her health and well being.  Sacred Disease, a treastise on epilepsy, revealed the rudimentary knowledge of anatomy in ancient Greece. Epilepsy was beleived to be caused by insufficient air, which was thought to be carried by the veins to the brain and limbs.  In Joints the use of the so-called Hippocratis bench is described for treaating dislocations. Also interest are Wounds in the Head, Women's Diseases, and Dismembering of the Feotus in the Womb. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hitler 4.TXT
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Hitler



1. THE BEGINNING



 



At half past six on the evening of April 20th, 1889 a child was born



in the small town of Branau, Austria. The name of the child was Adolf



Hitler. He was the son a Customs official Alois Hitler, and his third wife



Klara.



 



As a young boy Adolf attendated church regulary and sang in the local



choir. One day he carved a symbol into the bench which resembled the



Swastika he later used as the symbol of the Nazi party. He was a pretty



good student. He received good marks in most of his classes. However in



his last year of school he failed German and Mathematics, and only



succeeded in Gym and Drawing. He drooped out of school at the age of 16,



spending a total of 10 years in school. From childhood one it was his



dream to become an artist or architect. He was not a bad artist, as his



surviving paintings and drawings show but he never showed any originality



or creative imagination. To fullfil his dream he had moved to Vienna the



capital of Austria where the Academy of arts was located. He failed the



first time he tried to get admission and in the next year, 1907 he tried



again and was very sure of success. To his surprise he failed again. In



fact the Dean of the academy was not very impressed with his performance,



and gave him a really hard time and said to him "You will never be



painter." The rejection really crushed him as he now reached a dead end.



He could not apply to the school of architecture as he had no high-school



diploma. During the next 35 years of his live the young man never forgot



the rejection he received in the dean's office that day. Many Historians



like to speculate what would have happened IF.... perhaps the small town



boy would have had a bit more talent....or IF the Dean had been a little



less critical, the world might have been spared the nightmare into which



this boy was eventually to plunge it.



 



2. WORLD WAR I



 



While living in Vienna Hitler he made his living by drawing small



pictures of famous landmarks which he sold as post cards. But he was



always poor. He was also a regular reader of a small paper which claimed



that the Araban race was superior to all and was destined to rule the



world. The paper blamed Communists and Jews for all their problems and



hitler agreed to those views. Hitler agree with most of the points made in



the publication. He continued to live a poor live in Vienna and in 1913



decided to move to Munich. Still living in Vienna and being Austrain by



birth, Hitler showed more loyalty to the Geramny. He thought that the



Aryan race was destined to rule the world. Many believe that he tried to



escape the draft but it was never proven. His live in Munich was not much



better then before and he continued to be poor. Then in 1914 World War I



broke out and Hitler saw this as a great opportunity to show his loyalty to



the "fatherland" by volunteering for the Imperial army. He did not want to



fight in the Austrian Army. Hitler was a good soldier. Many of political



opponents claimed that he was a coward but records clearly show that he was



not. He received to awards of bravery but never achieved a high Rank.



 



In 1918 Germany surrendered and Hitler was very upset about the loss.



He believed that it was the Jews and the Communists who betrayed the



"fatherland" and it was here that his disliking of the Jews most likely



began. Germany after the war was in chaos. With no real Government to



control the country, many groups tried to take control. One day a big



communist group staged a big riot but another group of ex-soldiers



including Hitler managed to hold them back.



 



3. THE NAZI PARTY



 



Since there were not many chances for employment Hitler stayed in the



army. Hitler was assigned the job of going go to various meetings of



groups which sprang up like mushrooms and to report on them. One day



September 12, 1919 - a fateful day in history, Hitler was sent to



investigate a small group which called itself the "German Workers Party".



Hitler was not to happy about his assignment. He thought it wouldn't be



worth it to even go. At the group mainly talked about the Countries



problem and how the Jews, communists and others where threatening the



master race and offered their own solutions. Hitler was bored by the



meeting but when a man stood up and claimed that Bavaria should separate



from Germany, Hitler got up and argued that point. He argued that Germany



and germans must unite into one to survive. His natural ability to speak



imprest the leader of the group and at the end of the meeting he gave



Hitler a pamphlet and an initiation the next meeting. He wasn't interested



in attending but after reading the hand out he accepted. He later joined



the German Workers Party and was in charge of Propaganda. The party was



small at first but Hitler's great skill at deliberating speeches attracted



more and more listeners and it soon became a major party with many



followers. Eventually Adolf Hitler became it's leader and the rest as they



say....is history.



 



4. HITLER IN POWER



 



While spending time in prison for trying to overthrow the government



Adolf Hitler wrote his famous book "Mein Kampf", in which he describes many



problems and where he states that the Jews and communists were responsible



for those problems. He also decided on the "Final Solution" to the "Jewish



Question". It was his goal to eliminate the Jewish race from the European



continent. It is interesting to look and see how a small time boy from



Austria with no education, money or political background could become



within a few years the leader of big nation such as Germany. Historians



believe that Hitler saw a great opportunity to get his views across to the



German people who have lost all hope. Of course people did not start to



support him right away. After he came into power, the Nazi party took



control over every aspect of every day life. Hitler ordered the creation



of a special police force to make sure that all opponents would be



elimanted, the Gestapo. He also gave orders to set up a special force



which would be used to transport and take care of all political prisioners



and people thought to be inferior. The name of the force was the feared



SS. Mass propaganda was used to persuade the German people that the



"Fuhrer" would make the country strong and powerful again. They also used



propaganda against the Jews and other minority groups which were considered



enemies. Teachers had to belong to the Nazi party, and children were



taught that Jews very the source of all their problems. Since the country



was in chaos after the war, and was forced to pay billions in damages, The



Germans saw hope in Adolf Hitler. In the late 20's the depression hit which



made the situation even worse.



 



Hitler in his speeches blamed the Jews and Communists for their



misfortunes and many listed. Unemployment was very high at that time



standing at about 25%. Hitler also spoke out against the unfairness of the



Versailles treaty. Germany lost a lot of its territory. The Empire was no



more. He believed the pure Araban race is destined to rule the world and



wanted to build an Empire that would last a 1000 years. He preached that



all Germans must unite in order for this goal to succeed.



 



Hitler publicly stated his views on the Jews. But the Jews of Germany



didn't see Hitler as a great threat at first. However when Hitler became



chancellor and eventually took over totally they changed their mind. The



first thing he did was to take the Jews their right to vote. Soon they



were not allowed to marry with a pure german, they could not hold positions



such as teachers, doctors lawyers,..and so on. Many Jews only then



realized that he was serious and many fled Germany. Why did so many



Germans follow Hitler? When he took power the economy was basically non



existent. Many looked for answers and hope. Hitler was their answer. He



promised to rebuild the Glorious Germany of the past. First he started to



build up the Wehrmacht. Germany was not allowed to have more than 100,000



men, but Hitler broke the treaty and gave orders to increase that number.



Factories started putting out weapons and people now had jobs. To the



Germans this was a very good sign. Mass rallies were held, where Hitler



continued to use his powers of speech on the German people.



 



5. THE ROAD TO WAR



 



At first the allies did nothing about the fact that Hitler broke the



Treaty. He gave speeches in which he indicated that the German people



needed living space. Later he Marched into the Reihnland, and area which



Germany lost. Next He moved into Austria, his home country and annexed it



without a shoot being fired into the Reich. Following Austria, he wanted



control of the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia which was mainly



German speaking. He also achieved that goal. The allies didn't want



another war so they led Hitler do what he wanted to, but when he Attacked



Poland on September 1st, 1939 the allies no longer stood by and watched.



Britain and France declared war on Germany a few days after later, World



War II began.



 



6. THE DARK SIDE



 



After the Wehrmacht conquered and occupied a territory the SS quickly



followed. They would round up Jews, Communists, Gypsies, Homosexuals and



others which were viewed as "Inferior" according to Nazi racial theory and



enemies of the German people and put on trains. They were all sent to



Concentration camps, which were set up to implement the 'final solution'.



Camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Bergen Belsen were all equipped with



gas chambers to make the killing process quick and efectfull. In those



camps 6 million Jews and many others were killed by the Nazis. Hitler's



army seemed unstoppable but in the end, the allies managed to win many



decisive battles. Eventually on Aril 30th, 1945 Hitler committed suicide



in his bunker by shooting himself in the mouth. His body was burned, but



no ones knows what happened to the "Fuhrer's" ashes. On May 7th, 1945



Germany surrendered unconditionally.



 



7. THE MAN



 



Hitler was one of the most, if not the most cruel man to ever walk the



face of the earth. His believe of the superiorority of the "Aryan" race



made him hate all others. He believed that the slaws to the east should be



made work for the German people. He thought of blacks as being



"Sub-human". And Most of all he hated the Jews. So much that in early



1945, when equipment and manpower was badly needed on the front Hitler



insisited on man and equipment staying and continuing to tranport Jews to



the camps. In his Testament he left his money to his family. And message



to the Germany people "Above all I charge the leaders of the nation and



those under them to scrupulous observance of the laws of race and to



merciless opposition to the universal poisoner of all peoples,



international Jewry."



 



The only people which would be spared where the Scandinavians to the



north, since they were closely related to the German race. With Hitler's



death the Nazi party quickly fated. But there is still a lot of tension in



todays Germany. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hitler His Rise to Power.TXT
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HITLER
The year was 1929, the Great Depression had hit hard all  over the world. People were losing their  jobs, and their way of life was changing drastically right before their eyes; the people needed money fast. They needed to rebuild their lives and get back on their feet again, economically, politically, and socially. They needed a way out of this slump fast, and Hitler was there for the rescue. In 1933, Germany was facing a high unemployment level, leaving people to fend for themselves on the streets, Hitler took advantage of the peoples low moral and made them big promises of the dawn of a new era for Germany.
	The social classes lost their meanings. The middle-class was ruined by the Depression: they were stripped of their livelihoods. The Nazi's promised them the one thing that were desperately in need of to survive: Bread!
	The Nazi's promised to give the farmers repossession of their land. Hitler had a way of persuading people to do what he wants.  He knew what the people wanted and how to make them believe  that they were actually going to get it.  
Hitler was given a chance to go into power despite the doubts of he ability to rule from the Communists and Socialist parties. Unfortunately the both parties were wrong, he was voted into power , in March and was elected without a parliament. Hitler proclaimed a "New Germany."  He believed that German culture was to be kept solid. His way of purifying their race was to burn books Americans, Jew, and Non-Germans. The philosophy was that if you destroy the ideas in the books, you destroy the people's ability to hold and be aware of any other beliefs than what they are told. The people of Germany were not exposed to any ideas that contradicted the beliefs of Hitler. Hitler believed and was correct, that if you destroy and reason for someone to disagree with you, you limit the person's knowledge which limits them from deciding what's right and wrong. 
	Hitler had a way of captivating his audience, he made promises to his people that made them feel strong, proud, and gave them a sense of salvation. He gave them something for which to look forward to. Hitler loved to speak to a large group of people. They were taken by his presence and enchanted by the words he spoke and the emotion he generated through the crowd. His audience would stand there dumbfounded, being swept up with the words he preached and would get caught up with their own reactions to the words. He would say things that made the country's future look optimistic. His followers would applaud him after he spoke, and they would leave holding the same ideas as Hitler and his men followed. Even though people knew Hitler's ideas were wrong, they listened just to be part of such a powerful crowd. People wanted to be included and be part of the happy cheering crowd, so they followed his ideas and cheered him on. They placed Hitler on this high pedestal, showing him loving children, and women. He brained washed his people into thinking he was going to bring them glory; instead it brought them misery and shame.   
In March 1935, Hitler created, formed and organized an army during peacetime. He made this public news. People around the world saw that he developing a strong army, and did nothing to stop it. It's purpose was so the SS would create a superior race. It was the duty of their army to feel as if they are defending their country at all times. This occurred  again when Hitler marched into took over and made it a province. Czechoslovakia, an ally to France, Britain, and the Soviet Union. People gave Sudetenland to Hitler and left Czechoslovakia bare. They were ready to fight but Britain and France helped Hitler, due to his cunning ways. The nation's of Europe just closed there eyes to Hitler's rein of terror,  and gave him control of their ally country without a fight. On March 15, 1939, Hitler took over Prague and destroyed the democratic government. People saw no hope of rising against him. When the Germans finally caught on to his sinister tactics of brainwashing it was too late, no one had control over him.  In November, 1938, Kristolnacht, "The Night of Broken Glass" thousands of Jews were thrown in concentration camps. He organized boycotts at Jewish stores, to hurt them monetarily. Hitler had an amazing amount of power and was expanding rapidly when he introduced Blitzkrieg, German warfare, which included the use of tanks and automatic machine guns.
	At the Polish Corridor and Danzig, France and Britain promised to fight if Poland was invaded. Propaganda films dubbed the words of officials to make it seem as if they were admitting  defeat to Hitler. In January 1939, the "Final Solution", Hitler's answer to his superior race. He told his people they went to war because of the Jews. So Hitler went to Poland, convincing his follower's that they had a right to the land of Poland, Hitler attempted to destroy any one or thing that rose against him. September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and on the third of that month, Great Britain's Prime Minister declared war with Germany.
	Hitler was a brilliant man when it came to planning and organizing people, he had a power to make people follow him blindly with out any question. He fueled the people with dreams and goals of economic and social growth. Unfortunately he had talents but used them immorally. The world might have been a better place if Hitler's skills were used to manage  relief fund for the people struggling due to the depression. Hitler was able to rise to power because he focused on the weak and offered them something that they could have never dreamed of. Hitler was allowed to grow so efficiently because he faced no opposition, because of an intimidation factor over his neighboring nations; they feared defeat and did not want to their people in the line of danger until absolutely necessary. The European nation might have thought that if they leave Hitler alone or give him what he wants he would leave them alone. That lethargic attitude almost destroyed the free world.   
 






							


HITLER
The year was 1929, the Great Depression had hit hard all  over the world. People were losing their  jobs, and their way of life was changing drastically right before their eyes; the people needed money fast. They needed to rebuild their lives and get back on their feet again, economically, politically, and socially. They needed a way out of this slump fast, and Hitler was there for the rescue. In 1933, Germany was facing a high unemployment level, leaving people to fend for themselves on the streets, Hitler took advantage of the peoples low moral and made them big promises of the dawn of a new era for Germany.
	The social classes lost their meanings. The middle-class was ruined by the Depression: they were stripped of their livelihoods. The Nazi's promised them the one thing that were desperately in need of to survive: Bread!
	The Nazi's promised to give the farmers repossession of their land. Hitler had a way of persuading people to do what he wants.  He knew what the people wanted and how to make them believe  that they were actually going to get it.  
Hitler was given a chance to go into power despite the doubts of he ability to rule from the Communists and Socialist parties. Unfortunately the both parties were wrong, he was voted into power , in March and was elected without a parliament. Hitler proclaimed a "New Germany."  He believed that German culture was to be kept solid. His way of purifying their race was to burn books Americans, Jew, and Non-Germans. The philosophy was that if you destroy the ideas in the books, you destroy the people's ability to hold and be aware of any other beliefs than what they are told. The people of Germany were not exposed to any ideas that contradicted the beliefs of Hitler. Hitler believed and was correct, that if you destroy and reason for someone to disagree with you, you limit the person's knowledge which limits them from deciding what's right and wrong. 
	Hitler had a way of captivating his audience, he made promises to his people that made them feel strong, proud, and gave them a sense of salvation. He gave them something for which to look forward to. Hitler loved to speak to a large group of people. They were taken by his presence and enchanted by the words he spoke and the emotion he generated through the crowd. His audience would stand there dumbfounded, being swept up with the words he preached and would get caught up with their own reactions to the words. He would say things that made the country's future look optimistic. His followers would applaud him after he spoke, and they would leave holding the same ideas as Hitler and his men followed. Even though people knew Hitler's ideas were wrong, they listened just to be part of such a powerful crowd. People wanted to be included and be part of the happy cheering crowd, so they followed his ideas and cheered him on. They placed Hitler on this high pedestal, showing him loving children, and women. He brained washed his people into thinking he was going to bring them glory; instead it brought them misery and shame.   
In March 1935, Hitler created, formed and organized an army during peacetime. He made this public news. People around the world saw that he developing a strong army, and did nothing to stop it. It's purpose was so the SS would create a superior race. It was the duty of their army to feel as if they are defending their country at all times. This occurred  again when Hitler marched into took over and made it a province. Czechoslovakia, an ally to France, Britain, and the Soviet Union. People gave Sudetenland to Hitler and left Czechoslovakia bare. They were ready to fight but Britain and France helped Hitler, due to his cunning ways. The nation's of Europe just closed there eyes to Hitler's rein of terror,  and gave him control of their ally country without a fight. On March 15, 1939, Hitler took over Prague and destroyed the democratic government. People saw no hope of rising against him. When the Germans finally caught on to his sinister tactics of brainwashing it was too late, no one had control over him.  In November, 1938, Kristolnacht, "The Night of Broken Glass" thousands of Jews were thrown in concentration camps. He organized boycotts at Jewish stores, to hurt them monetarily. Hitler had an amazing amount of power and was expanding rapidly when he introduced Blitzkrieg, German warfare, which included the use of tanks and automatic machine guns.
	At the Polish Corridor and Danzig, France and Britain promised to fight if Poland was invaded. Propaganda films dubbed the words of officials to make it seem as if they were admitting  defeat to Hitler. In January 1939, the "Final Solution", Hitler's answer to his superior race. He told his people they went to war because of the Jews. So Hitler went to Poland, convincing his follower's that they had a right to the land of Poland, Hitler attempted to destroy any one or thing that rose against him. September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and on the third of that month, Great Britain's Prime Minister declared war with Germany.
	Hitler was a brilliant man when it came to planning and organizing people, he had a power to make people follow him blindly with out any question. He fueled the people with dreams and goals of economic and social growth. Unfortunately he had talents but used them immorally. The world might have been a better place if Hitler's skills were used to manage  relief fund for the people struggling due to the depression. Hitler was able to rise to power because he focused on the weak and offered them something that they could have never dreamed of. Hitler was allowed to grow so efficiently because he faced no opposition, because of an intimidation factor over his neighboring nations; they feared defeat and did not want to their people in the line of danger until absolutely necessary. The European nation might have thought that if they leave Hitler alone or give him what he wants he would leave them alone. That lethargic attitude almost destroyed the free world.   
 


HITLER
The year was 1929, the Great Depression had hit hard all  over the world. People were losing their  jobs, and their way of life was changing drastically right before their eyes; the people needed money fast. They needed to rebuild their lives and get back on their feet again, economically, politically, and socially. They needed a way out of this slump fast, and Hitler was there for the rescue. In 1933, Germany was facing a high unemployment level, leaving people to fend for themselves on the streets, Hitler took advantage of the peoples low moral and made them big promises of the dawn of a new era for Germany.
	The social classes lost their meanings. The middle-class was ruined by the Depression: they were stripped of their livelihoods. The Nazi's promised them the one thing that were desperately in need of to survive: Bread!
	The Nazi's promised to give the farmers repossession of their land. Hitler had a way of persuading people to do what he wants.  He knew what the people wanted and how to make them believe  that they were actually going to get it.  
Hitler was given a chance to go into power despite the doubts of he ability to rule from the Communists and Socialist parties. Unfortunately the both parties were wrong, he was voted into power , in March and was elected without a parliament. Hitler proclaimed a "New Germany."  He believed that German culture was to be kept solid. His way of purifying their race was to burn books Americans, Jew, and Non-Germans. The philosophy was that if you destroy the ideas in the books, you destroy the people's ability to hold and be aware of any other beliefs than what they are told. The people of Germany were not exposed to any ideas that contradicted the beliefs of Hitler. Hitler believed and was correct, that if you destroy and reason for someone to disagree with you, you limit the person's knowledge which limits them from deciding what's right and wrong. 
	Hitler had a way of captivating his audience, he made promises to his people that made them feel strong, proud, and gave them a sense of salvation. He gave them something for which to look forward to. Hitler loved to speak to a large group of people. They were taken by his presence and enchanted by the words he spoke and the emotion he generated through the crowd. His audience would stand there dumbfounded, being swept up with the words he preached and would get caught up with their own reactions to the words. He would say things that made the country's future look optimistic. His followers would applaud him after he spoke, and they would leave holding the same ideas as Hitler and his men followed. Even though people knew Hitler's ideas were wrong, they listened just to be part of such a powerful crowd. People wanted to be included and be part of the happy cheering crowd, so they followed his ideas and cheered him on. They placed Hitler on this high pedestal, showing him loving children, and women. He brained washed his people into thinking he was going to bring them glory; instead it brought them misery and shame.   
In March 1935, Hitler created, formed and organized an army during peacetime. He made this public news. People around the world saw that he developing a strong army, and did nothing to stop it. It's purpose was so the SS would create a superior race. It was the duty of their army to feel as if they are defending their country at all times. This occurred  again when Hitler marched into took over and made it a province. Czechoslovakia, an ally to France, Britain, and the Soviet Union. People gave Sudetenland to Hitler and left Czechoslovakia bare. They were ready to fight but Britain and France helped Hitler, due to his cunning ways. The nation's of Europe just closed there eyes to Hitler's rein of terror,  and gave him control of their ally country without a fight. On March 15, 1939, Hitler took over Prague and destroyed the democratic government. People saw no hope of rising against him. When the Germans finally caught on to his sinister tactics of brainwashing it was too late, no one had control over him.  In November, 1938, Kristolnacht, "The Night of Broken Glass" thousands of Jews were thrown in concentration camps. He organized boycotts at Jewish stores, to hurt them monetarily. Hitler had an amazing amount of power and was expanding rapidly when he introduced Blitzkrieg, German warfare, which included the use of tanks and automatic machine guns.
	At the Polish Corridor and Danzig, France and Britain promised to fight if Poland was invaded. Propaganda films dubbed the words of officials to make it seem as if they were admitting  defeat to Hitler. In January 1939, the "Final Solution", Hitler's answer to his superior race. He told his people they went to war because of the Jews. So Hitler went to Poland, convincing his follower's that they had a right to the land of Poland, Hitler attempted to destroy any one or thing that rose against him. September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and on the third of that month, Great Britain's Prime Minister declared war with Germany.
	Hitler was a brilliant man when it came to planning and organizing people, he had a power to make people follow him blindly with out any question. He fueled the people with dreams and goals of economic and social growth. Unfortunately he had talents but used them immorally. The world might have been a better place if Hitler's skills were used to manage  relief fund for the people struggling due to the depression. Hitler was able to rise to power because he focused on the weak and offered them something that they could have never dreamed of. Hitler was allowed to grow so efficiently because he faced no opposition, because of an intimidation factor over his neighboring nations; they feared defeat and did not want to their people in the line of danger until absolutely necessary. The European nation might have thought that if they leave Hitler alone or give him what he wants he would leave them alone. That lethargic attitude almost destroyed the free world.   
 






							






							

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hitler.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Hitler



1. THE BEGINNING



 



At half past six on the evening of April 20th, 1889 a child was born



in the small town of Branau, Austria. The name of the child was Adolf



Hitler. He was the son a Customs official Alois Hitler, and his third wife



Klara.



 



As a young boy Adolf attendated church regulary and sang in the local



choir. One day he carved a symbol into the bench which resembled the



Swastika he later used as the symbol of the Nazi party. He was a pretty



good student. He received good marks in most of his classes. However in



his last year of school he failed German and Mathematics, and only



succeeded in Gym and Drawing. He drooped out of school at the age of 16,



spending a total of 10 years in school. From childhood one it was his



dream to become an artist or architect. He was not a bad artist, as his



surviving paintings and drawings show but he never showed any originality



or creative imagination. To fullfil his dream he had moved to Vienna the



capital of Austria where the Academy of arts was located. He failed the



first time he tried to get admission and in the next year, 1907 he tried



again and was very sure of success. To his surprise he failed again. In



fact the Dean of the academy was not very impressed with his performance,



and gave him a really hard time and said to him "You will never be



painter." The rejection really crushed him as he now reached a dead end.



He could not apply to the school of architecture as he had no high-school



diploma. During the next 35 years of his live the young man never forgot



the rejection he received in the dean's office that day. Many Historians



like to speculate what would have happened IF.... perhaps the small town



boy would have had a bit more talent....or IF the Dean had been a little



less critical, the world might have been spared the nightmare into which



this boy was eventually to plunge it.



 



2. WORLD WAR I



 



While living in Vienna Hitler he made his living by drawing small



pictures of famous landmarks which he sold as post cards. But he was



always poor. He was also a regular reader of a small paper which claimed



that the Araban race was superior to all and was destined to rule the



world. The paper blamed Communists and Jews for all their problems and



hitler agreed to those views. Hitler agree with most of the points made in



the publication. He continued to live a poor live in Vienna and in 1913



decided to move to Munich. Still living in Vienna and being Austrain by



birth, Hitler showed more loyalty to the Geramny. He thought that the



Aryan race was destined to rule the world. Many believe that he tried to



escape the draft but it was never proven. His live in Munich was not much



better then before and he continued to be poor. Then in 1914 World War I



broke out and Hitler saw this as a great opportunity to show his loyalty to



the "fatherland" by volunteering for the Imperial army. He did not want to



fight in the Austrian Army. Hitler was a good soldier. Many of political



opponents claimed that he was a coward but records clearly show that he was



not. He received to awards of bravery but never achieved a high Rank.



 



In 1918 Germany surrendered and Hitler was very upset about the loss.



He believed that it was the Jews and the Communists who betrayed the



"fatherland" and it was here that his disliking of the Jews most likely



began. Germany after the war was in chaos. With no real Government to



control the country, many groups tried to take control. One day a big



communist group staged a big riot but another group of ex-soldiers



including Hitler managed to hold them back.



 



3. THE NAZI PARTY



 



Since there were not many chances for employment Hitler stayed in the



army. Hitler was assigned the job of going go to various meetings of



groups which sprang up like mushrooms and to report on them. One day



September 12, 1919 - a fateful day in history, Hitler was sent to



investigate a small group which called itself the "German Workers Party".



Hitler was not to happy about his assignment. He thought it wouldn't be



worth it to even go. At the group mainly talked about the Countries



problem and how the Jews, communists and others where threatening the



master race and offered their own solutions. Hitler was bored by the



meeting but when a man stood up and claimed that Bavaria should separate



from Germany, Hitler got up and argued that point. He argued that Germany



and germans must unite into one to survive. His natural ability to speak



imprest the leader of the group and at the end of the meeting he gave



Hitler a pamphlet and an initiation the next meeting. He wasn't interested



in attending but after reading the hand out he accepted. He later joined



the German Workers Party and was in charge of Propaganda. The party was



small at first but Hitler's great skill at deliberating speeches attracted



more and more listeners and it soon became a major party with many



followers. Eventually Adolf Hitler became it's leader and the rest as they



say....is history.



 



4. HITLER IN POWER



 



While spending time in prison for trying to overthrow the government



Adolf Hitler wrote his famous book "Mein Kampf", in which he describes many



problems and where he states that the Jews and communists were responsible



for those problems. He also decided on the "Final Solution" to the "Jewish



Question". It was his goal to eliminate the Jewish race from the European



continent. It is interesting to look and see how a small time boy from



Austria with no education, money or political background could become



within a few years the leader of big nation such as Germany. Historians



believe that Hitler saw a great opportunity to get his views across to the



German people who have lost all hope. Of course people did not start to



support him right away. After he came into power, the Nazi party took



control over every aspect of every day life. Hitler ordered the creation



of a special police force to make sure that all opponents would be



elimanted, the Gestapo. He also gave orders to set up a special force



which would be used to transport and take care of all political prisioners



and people thought to be inferior. The name of the force was the feared



SS. Mass propaganda was used to persuade the German people that the



"Fuhrer" would make the country strong and powerful again. They also used



propaganda against the Jews and other minority groups which were considered



enemies. Teachers had to belong to the Nazi party, and children were



taught that Jews very the source of all their problems. Since the country



was in chaos after the war, and was forced to pay billions in damages, The



Germans saw hope in Adolf Hitler. In the late 20's the depression hit which



made the situation even worse.



 



Hitler in his speeches blamed the Jews and Communists for their



misfortunes and many listed. Unemployment was very high at that time



standing at about 25%. Hitler also spoke out against the unfairness of the



Versailles treaty. Germany lost a lot of its territory. The Empire was no



more. He believed the pure Araban race is destined to rule the world and



wanted to build an Empire that would last a 1000 years. He preached that



all Germans must unite in order for this goal to succeed.



 



Hitler publicly stated his views on the Jews. But the Jews of Germany



didn't see Hitler as a great threat at first. However when Hitler became



chancellor and eventually took over totally they changed their mind. The



first thing he did was to take the Jews their right to vote. Soon they



were not allowed to marry with a pure german, they could not hold positions



such as teachers, doctors lawyers,..and so on. Many Jews only then



realized that he was serious and many fled Germany. Why did so many



Germans follow Hitler? When he took power the economy was basically non



existent. Many looked for answers and hope. Hitler was their answer. He



promised to rebuild the Glorious Germany of the past. First he started to



build up the Wehrmacht. Germany was not allowed to have more than 100,000



men, but Hitler broke the treaty and gave orders to increase that number.



Factories started putting out weapons and people now had jobs. To the



Germans this was a very good sign. Mass rallies were held, where Hitler



continued to use his powers of speech on the German people.



 



5. THE ROAD TO WAR



 



At first the allies did nothing about the fact that Hitler broke the



Treaty. He gave speeches in which he indicated that the German people



needed living space. Later he Marched into the Reihnland, and area which



Germany lost. Next He moved into Austria, his home country and annexed it



without a shoot being fired into the Reich. Following Austria, he wanted



control of the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia which was mainly



German speaking. He also achieved that goal. The allies didn't want



another war so they led Hitler do what he wanted to, but when he Attacked



Poland on September 1st, 1939 the allies no longer stood by and watched.



Britain and France declared war on Germany a few days after later, World



War II began.



 



6. THE DARK SIDE



 



After the Wehrmacht conquered and occupied a territory the SS quickly



followed. They would round up Jews, Communists, Gypsies, Homosexuals and



others which were viewed as "Inferior" according to Nazi racial theory and



enemies of the German people and put on trains. They were all sent to



Concentration camps, which were set up to implement the 'final solution'.



Camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, Bergen Belsen were all equipped with



gas chambers to make the killing process quick and efectfull. In those



camps 6 million Jews and many others were killed by the Nazis. Hitler's



army seemed unstoppable but in the end, the allies managed to win many



decisive battles. Eventually on Aril 30th, 1945 Hitler committed suicide



in his bunker by shooting himself in the mouth. His body was burned, but



no ones knows what happened to the "Fuhrer's" ashes. On May 7th, 1945



Germany surrendered unconditionally.



 



7. THE MAN



 



Hitler was one of the most, if not the most cruel man to ever walk the



face of the earth. His believe of the superiorority of the "Aryan" race



made him hate all others. He believed that the slaws to the east should be



made work for the German people. He thought of blacks as being



"Sub-human". And Most of all he hated the Jews. So much that in early



1945, when equipment and manpower was badly needed on the front Hitler



insisited on man and equipment staying and continuing to tranport Jews to



the camps. In his Testament he left his money to his family. And message



to the Germany people "Above all I charge the leaders of the nation and



those under them to scrupulous observance of the laws of race and to



merciless opposition to the universal poisoner of all peoples,



international Jewry."



 



The only people which would be spared where the Scandinavians to the



north, since they were closely related to the German race. With Hitler's



death the Nazi party quickly fated. But there is still a lot of tension in



todays Germany. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hitler1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Hitler


     The year was 1929, the Great Depression had hit hard all  over the world.
People were losing their  jobs, and their way of life was changing drastically
right before their eyes; the people needed money fast. They needed to rebuild
their lives and get back on their feet again, economically, politically, and
socially. They needed a way out of this slump fast, and Hitler was there for the
rescue. In 1933, Germany was facing a high unemployment level, leaving people to
fend for themselves on the streets, Hitler took advantage of the peoples low
moral and made them big promises of the dawn of a new era for Germany.
	The social classes lost their meanings. The middle-class was ruined by
the Depression: they were stripped of their livelihoods. The Nazi's promised
them the one thing that were desperately in need of to survive: Bread!
     The Nazi's promised to give the farmers repossession of their land.
Hitler had a way of persuading people to do what he wants.  He knew what the
people wanted and how to make them believe  that they were actually going to get
it. Hitler was given a chance to go into power despite the doubts of he ability
to rule from the Communists and Socialist parties. Unfortunately the both
parties were wrong, he was voted into power , in March and was elected without a
parliament. Hitler proclaimed a "New Germany."  He believed that German culture
was to be kept solid. His way of purifying their race was to burn books
Americans, Jew, and Non-Germans. The philosophy was that if you destroy the
ideas in the books, you destroy the people's ability to hold and be aware of any
other beliefs than what they are told. The people of Germany were not exposed to
any ideas that contradicted the beliefs of Hitler. Hitler believed and was
correct, that if you destroy and reason for someone to disagree with you, you
limit the person's knowledge which limits them from deciding what's right and
wrong.
	Hitler had a way of captivating his audience, he made promises to his
people that made them feel strong, proud, and gave them a sense of salvation. He
gave them something for which to look forward to. Hitler loved to speak to a
large group of people. They were taken by his presence and enchanted by the
words he spoke and the emotion he generated through the crowd. His audience
would stand there dumbfounded, being swept up with the words he preached and
would get caught up with their own reactions to the words. He would say things
that made the country's future look optimistic. His followers would applaud him
after he spoke, and they would leave holding the same ideas as Hitler and his
men followed. Even though people knew Hitler's ideas were wrong, they listened
just to be part of such a powerful crowd. People wanted to be included and be
part of the happy cheering crowd, so they followed his ideas and cheered him on.
They placed Hitler on this high pedestal, showing him loving children, and women.
He brained washed his people into thinking he was going to bring them glory;
instead it brought them misery and shame. In March 1935, Hitler created, formed
and organized an army during peacetime. He made this public news. People around
the world saw that he developing a strong army, and did nothing to stop it. It's
purpose was so the SS would create a superior race. It was the duty of their
army to feel as if they are defending their country at all times. This occurred
again when Hitler marched into took over and made it a province. Czechoslovakia,
an ally to France, Britain, and the Soviet Union. People gave Sudetenland to
Hitler and left Czechoslovakia bare. They were ready to fight but Britain and
France helped Hitler, due to his cunning ways. The nation's of Europe just
closed there eyes to Hitler's rein of terror,  and gave him control of their
ally country without a fight. On March 15, 1939, Hitler took over Prague and
destroyed the democratic government. People saw no hope of rising against him.
When the Germans finally caught on to his sinister tactics of brainwashing it
was too late, no one had control over him.  In November, 1938, Kristolnacht,
"The Night of Broken Glass" thousands of Jews were thrown in concentration camps.
He organized boycotts at Jewish stores, to hurt them monetarily. Hitler had an
amazing amount of power and was expanding rapidly when he introduced Blitzkrieg,
German warfare, which included the use of tanks and automatic machine guns.
	At the Polish Corridor and Danzig, France and Britain promised to fight
if Poland was invaded. Propaganda films dubbed the words of officials to make it
seem as if they were admitting  defeat to Hitler. In January 1939, the "Final
Solution", Hitler's answer to his superior race. He told his people they went to
war because of the Jews. So Hitler went to Poland, convincing his follower's
that they had a right to the land of Poland, Hitler attempted to destroy any one
or thing that rose against him. September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland, and
on the third of that month, Great Britain's Prime Minister declared war with
Germany.
	Hitler was a brilliant man when it came to planning and organizing
people, he had a power to make people follow him blindly with out any question.
He fueled the people with dreams and goals of economic and social growth.
Unfortunately he had talents but used them immorally. The world might have been
a better place if Hitler's skills were used to manage  relief fund for the
people struggling due to the depression. Hitler was able to rise to power
because he focused on the weak and offered them something that they could have
never dreamed of. Hitler was allowed to grow so efficiently because he faced no
opposition, because of an intimidation factor over his neighboring nations; they
feared defeat and did not want to their people in the line of danger until
absolutely necessary. The European nation might have thought that if they leave
Hitler alone or give him what he wants he would leave them alone. That lethargic
attitude almost destroyed the free world.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Hopes and dreams.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Hopes and Dreams


	Science has been the backbone of my life ever since my high school days in Malaysia.  Although I studied many science subjects like Physics and Biology, I was especially fond of chemistry.  My fondness of chemistry was attributed to my chemistry teacher Mr. Ang, in the eleventh grade who motivated me to explore every topic in great depth.  He always gave me great advice, and I was greatly influenced by his spirit and values.  
	Before I applied to universities in Malaysia, I attended various seminars which gave advice to students who were applying to universities and colleges.  It is here that I got the most important advice of all, "Chose a major in a field that interests you."  It did not take long before I was accepted to the xxxx University, and I chose Chemical Engineering as my field of study.  Unfortunately, I had to deny the offer since my family had decided to move to the United States of America.
	Moving to the States has not been easy.  I have not only encountered cultural differences, but a lot of difference in the educational system as well.  But my goal to major in Chemistry still remains unchanged, and my options have widened.  Last year, I learned about the Center for Science Excellence in one of my Chemistry classes, but I wasn't aware of the many advantages and rewards of being part of such a remarkable program.
	As a newcomer, I have made numerous mistakes in choosing my courses and I need a lot of good advice and guidance.  The Center for Science Excellence is exactly the type of program that can fulfill these needs, and help to put me on the right track instead me personally learning from costly mistakes.  CSE is center which guides many other science students.  It would be very helpful to make friends with other science students with whom I can exchange knowledge, ideas, and friendship.  The internships that CSE provides to its students would help me gain experience and exposure to various areas in science which interest me, and hopefully guide me to the job of my dream.
	The guided study sessions would be a great asset to my education and would greatly increase my chances of being successful in every class.  The various seminars and guest speakers would give me knowledge that isn't in the school syllabus, and help expand my view of the scientific world.
	Being accepted as part of the Center for Science Excellence will not only help me succeed as a student, but it would give me a head-start towards my goals in life.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Igor Dvorkin biography.TXT
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                                        Igor Dvorkin

Igor was born in the USSR where he trained as an orchestral composer and conductor and then went on to build his career and reputation as a songwriter.

Once established as one of the leading artists in his field, with his songs performed by many of the Soviet Union's leading artists and ensembles, he moved to the Middle East where he specialised in producing traditional and ethnic music from the region.

This experience and knowledge of a wide variety of World Music as well as an accomplished all rounder has made him an invaluable composer for Audio Network

In 1998 he moved to the UK and has written extensively for Audio Network. His music features on a number of high profile programmes for the BBC and ITV companies including Grandstand (BBC Television), Bremner, Bird and Fortune (Vera/C4) and Golf International (Channel 2020/Sky Television).









f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Inventor Project April 1 1996 Albert Einstein.TXT
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Inventor Project April 1, 1996 Albert Einstein


	My name is Albert Einstein.  I was born on March 14, 1879 in Ulm,
Germany.  I was not an inventor in the conventional sense.  I was a physicist
and theorist.  My inventions were not tangible things, but ideas I put on paper
and may later on have led to inventions.  I was not a good student in school.  I
did not pay attention to teachers because I found their lectures and teachings
boring.  Often I would skip class to go study physics on my own.  By the age of
twelve I had taught myself Euclidean Geometry, and slowly beginning to develope
my own theories in physics.
	My first theoretical paper was on Brownian motion.  The paper discussed
the significant predictions I made about particles that are randomly distributed
in a fluid.  My next paper was on the photoelectric effect, which contained a
revolutionary hypothesis on the nature of light.  I proposed that under certain
circumstances light can be considered as consisting of particles, and I also
hypothesized that energy carried by any light particle, called a photon, is
proportional to the frequency of the radiation.  The formula for this is E=hv,
where E is the radiation, h is a universal constant known as Planck's constant,
and v is the frequency of the radiation.  This proposal, that the energy
contained within a light beam is transferred by individual units, or quanta,
contradicted the hundred year old tradition of considering light as a
manifestation of continuous processes.
	My third and most impotant paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies", contained what has become known as the special theory of relativity.
Since the time of  Sir Issac Newton, scientists had been trying to understand
the nature of matter and radiation, and how they interacted in some unified
world picture.  The position that mechanical laws are fundamental has become
known as the mechanical world view, and the position that electrical laws are
fundamental has become known as the electromagnetic world view.  Neither
approach, however, is capable of providing a consistent explanation for the way
radiation and matter interact when viewed from different inertial frames of
reference, that is, an interaction viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest
and an observer moving at unifrom speed.
	In the Spring of 1905 after considering these problems for ten years, I
realized that the crux of the problem lay not in a theory of matter but in a
theory of measuerment.  At the heart of my special theory of relativity was the
realization thet all measurements of time and space depend on judgments as to
whether two distant events occur simultaneously.  This led me to develope a
theory based on two postulates: the principle of relativity, that physical laws
are the same in all inertial reference systems, and the principal of the
invariance of the speed of light, that the speed of light in a vacuum is a
universal constant.  I was thus able to provide a consistent and correct
description of physical events in different inertial frames of reference without
making special assumptions about the nature of matter or radiation, or how they
interact.  This theory is best summed up in the equation E=mc2.  Where E is
energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light squared.
	My final work was a failed attempt at trying to understand all physical
interactions, including electromagnetic interactions and weak and strong
inetractions.  This has come to be known as the Unified Field Theory.  Today
this theory has still not been proven by modern scientists.
	Probably the most noticable invention to come from my work was born from
necessity.  During World War II, it was believed here in the United States that
Nazi Germany was attempting to create an atomic bomb.  As a result of this
believed, and startlingly real, threat the U.S. put forth a major effort at
construction of an atomic bomb.  Even though I myself had no part in the actual
creation of the bomb, many of my theories where used.
	This invention that came from my ideas does not help society in any way,
but it does hinder it considerably.  Because of my invention we live in a world
that may cease to exist at the touch of a button by a power hungry dictator.  My
invention is one of the most serious threats to existance of mankind in today's
world.


Bibliography

Microsoft Encarta 95. Microsoft. IBM PC CD-ROM. 1995

Relativity: The Special and General Theory. Shelley Marion Publishing. New York.
     1975.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ira Aldridge.TXT
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Ira Aldridge
Ira Frederick Aldridge was born on July 24, 1807 in New York. However, his birthplace remained questionable until 40 or so years ago. It has also been listed as Senegal(Africa), and Maryland. However conclusive evidence was found in the 1950s that he was born in New York. Included in this evidence are his British Naturalization papers and Death Certificate. His father was Reverend Daniel Adlridge , a straw vendor and preacher in "Old Zion". His mother was Lurranah. Ira grew up in a house on what is now West Broadway in New York City. He attended the African Free School No.2, which provided free education for Black children. The African Free School was established in 1787 on Cliff Street with one classroom for 40 children. After it was burnt down in 1814, it was relocated to No. 245 William Street. In 1820, A second African Free School was built in 1820 on Mulberry Street. This was known as the Arfrican Free School No. 2. It was here that Ira attended school. However, it is believed that he also attended No. 1 in his earlier childhood years. The African Free Schools are credited with contributing to the Abolitionist movement. They inspired them to fight for equal rights and use themselves as living examples that Blacks and Whites have the same potentials.
Ira spent much of his childhood at neighborhood theaters where he watched Black people perform many roles varying from skits to Shakespearean roles, such as Richard III. He mainly attended two theaters. The first one was the Park Theater that opened in 1798.Two frequent actors were Brits by the names of James and Henry Wallack. In this theater he didn't get such great seats since it was segregated, so he preferred the African Theater, owned by a gentleman by the name of Mr. Brown. One of the actors who frequently performed there was James Hewlett. He was very talented and had a profound impact on young Ira. When he entered his teens he performed a skit called "Opossum up a gum tree" locally. People were impressed, and he was dubbed the "African Roscius." Ira became friendly with the Wallacks and was their personal attendant.
In that time, when Blacks were starting to be accepted in American culture, a religious profession was something to aspire to. Therefore, Daniel constantly urged Ira to follow in his footsteps. He took him out of the theater so he could sit next to him in his church. Daniel desperately wanted to send Ira to theological school. He was sent to Schenactedy College, near New York to study theology. However, the college thought he was not suited for theological studies. Ira never explicitly disobeyed his father, but even Daniel eventually began to realize that Ira had already decided on his career, the theater. In 1825 , when Ira was only 18 years old, he went to England with the Wallacks. He then attended Glasgow College, where many Blacks from the US went to attend college when they were not accepted in the US. He studied Latin Composition there under the tutelage of Professor Sanford. He remained there for 18 months until he moved on to actual acting. During the time he was in college he performed A Slave's Revenge as Oroonoko, a slave sold into slavery several times in the Coburg Theater. His debut was on October Aldridge as Othello in England 10, 1825. To make his name more appealing, he added the last name Keene, but he later dropped it. In 1806, he made history by playing Othello in the Shakespearean play of Othello in Coburg Theater of London. Ira Aldridge became the first black actor to play the role of the black Moorish general named Othello. His performance was an astounding success. Othello became his trademark .He was then dubbed yet again with another name, the Negro Tragedian.
However, a reporter of The Times did not think much of Ira Aldridge, and predicted a short career but he was devastatingly wrong. He was also booked in Brighton Theater for 1825. Aldridge repeated the same routine for quite q while. Othello and Oroonoko each once a week. Many people tried to view his performances. However at the end of his first year of acting he fell ill on the stage and did not perform in 1826. By the time he was acting again in 1827 he was desired by the rest of the world. He performed King Lear and many other plays in Britain. He then appeared in Sheffield, Halifax, Manchester, Newcastle, Edinburgh, Lancaster, Liverpool and Sunderland in that year. During this time, he discovered a talent of his- he could sing. His first singing part was in The Padlock as Mungo.
During his travels, he performed with his proceeds going to help free his enslaved brothers. He traveled for many years. Then he got a big break-Dublin, 1831. He got much renown and was desired back from his native London. Pierre Francois Laporte arranged for Aldridge to come on April 10, 1833 and perform in his Covent Garden for a few days. As expected, it was very inhabited on his first night performing. This is a copy of the playbill.His name is found in the center with a description of him and announcing that this is his first time performing on this stage.
In the following weeks he received countless praise for many literary publications. It was a sensational success. The audience could Covent Garden Playbill feel every beat of his heart. However, some of the more dignified classes found it most displeasing with their racist remarks that his speech was slurred and did not properly represent English.
As soon as his Covent Garden engagement was over, he was invited by the Surrey theater to perform. The Surrey theater was one of the more important of the minor theaters in London. Ira Aldridge's first performance there was on April 22, 1833. On May 10th of that year he received a white part and even though they did all sorts of things to make him look white, it didn't work because it seemed that his inspiration came from his color. Proof of his greatness was in 1933 when Aldridge filled in for Edmund Kean, a renowned actor as Othello when he fell ill.
The next 20 years of Ira Aldridge's career is a blur of tours, provinces and performances. It is not very well known in specifics what he did these twenty years. The African American Review in the Fall '94 edition quotes the researchers at Indiana State University who say the following:
For the next twenty years Aldridge played almost exclusively in the provinces, building up a loyal following and a considerable fortune. He was on the road most of the year. Performing in cities, towns, and villages throughout the British Isles. Restless for new challenges, he extended his Shakespeare repertoire, experimenting with white roles such as Shylock, Richard III, Hamlet, Macbeth and (King) Lear. In July 1852 he set out on his first major European tour and earned standing ovations wherever he went. After three years abroad, he returned to England laden with medals, decorations and honors, but he still could not find regular engagements in London. The trouped through the provinces for a while, toured Europe again, then came back to England once more. By this time he was world famous, but success on the London stage continued to elude him. Finally, after twenty years of touring the British Isles, Ira Aldridge was at least partially accepted to perform in the major theaters of England and Europe.
However, worldwide he received much praise. Dublin called his style "The perfection of acting." Germany prtrayed him as "The greatest of all actors." Danzig said that his Othello, Shylock and Macbeth "Left him without a rival in the theater." Poland referred to his Othello as exactly how Shakespeare meant him to be portrayed. In France he represented " for the first time a hero of tragedy speaking and walking like a common mortal, void of exaggeration either in posture or exclamation". A critic in Russia said he was "the greatest thing in nature." After over twenty five years of experience, an English critic who previously scorned Ira Aldridge for playing white roles adamantly stated:
We find that not only does the sable artist pronounce our language distinctly and correctly, but with elocutional emphasis and propriety, and that his general action is marked with elegance and ease....Mr. Aldridge has formed a conception of Othello peculiarly his manner....He is manifestly an intelligent man, has studied his art with earnestness and gained felicity in it's exercise.
In 1853, Ira Aldridge went on his first continental tour. It was as usual a success and returned to England in 1855 for a provincial tour. He was finally recognized by Queen Victoria and played for her. He became a British citizen, never to return to the Us in 1863. It was during this time Ira Aldridge accumulated about 60 roles in his 27 years of traveling. Ira was now in even more demand. He played in distinguished theaters, what he tried to accomplish all his life. He contemplating doing a New York City tour, but while he was performing in Lodz, Poland he had a respiratory affliction and died there. He was buried with many honors and was mourned by all. He never got to return to America.
I will now tell you about Ira's family. In 1825 he married Margaret Gill of England. She died in 1864. In 1865 he remarried to Countess Amanda von Brandt of Sweden. He had two sons and three daughters. One of them who is considered to be illegitimate was Ira Daniel. He became a language teacher who migrated to Australia in 1867. Three of his other children became opera singers, composers and musicians. His fifth son, who was born posthumously died in infancy.
During Ira's life, he slept with many women and had a few illegitimate children. He was sued by a couple of their husbands. However, it did not make a big dent on his career.
Today, there is a chair dedicated to him in the Shakespeare Memorial Theater in Stratford-on-Avon, England. There are at least 2 Biographies and countless mentions in most Shakespeare books. List of works cited
1. Marshall and Stock, Ira Aldridge, Most of the book, Arcuturus Books, April 1968 in the USA
2. Hill, Errol, Shakespeare in Sable, Pages 17-27, University of Massachusets Press, 1984, Amherst, Massachusets
3. Mortimer, Owen, Speak of me as I am: Ira Aldridge (Internet Abreviated Version) www.netc.net.au/locallit/ira
4. African American Review, Fall 1994 edition
5. Theater Arts at Howard University home page -howard.edu
6. Encarta Online 4/30/99 1:13 PM
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\It Happened To Nancy.TXT
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It Happened To Nancy
This book is a diary that goes through the last two years of a young teenage girl's life,
who got infected with the HIV virus after being date raped . The girl in the book is
named Nancy and she is important enough to have her diary published because her life
went from being a normal teenage girl with normal problems, to an abnormal girl with
AIDS and abnormal problems. She agreed to have her diary published so that other
people who think that AIDS and rape can't ever happen to them can have a different
perspective.
The times in which this diary takes place is from April 14, 1991 to April 12,1993.
the book starts out when Nancy is getting ready to go to a Garth Brooks concert with her
friends El and Red, "Imagine me going to a concert! A Garth Brooks concert!" (p.3), and
ends two days before she dies, "Nancy died in her sleep April 12th two days after her last
entry" (p.219).
In Nancy's diary the places that impacted her life were:- at her home in South
Carolina with her mother, friends and boyfriend, in Phoenix, Arizona with her dad, and in
Idaho with her Aunt Thelma. Nancy mostly loved to stay with her mother, but then had to
leave for her mother's good.
Her home in South Carolina is normal. Her mother was a real-estate agent, so
they didn't see each other that much. Her friends, El, Red, Dorie and Lew, are all part of
a group called the "gaggle", which means talkative or a group of geese. Lew is of coarse
the "gander", meaning the male goose, of the gaggle and Nancy's boyfriend. Nancy's
friends are apart of her life in the biggest way possible, "I'll miss the gaggle, they are like
my sisters and not my brother" (p.174).
In Phoenix, Arizona she lives with her dad during the summer. Her dad loves her
dearly, he is a very protective and caring figure in her life, "Dad lovingly but firmly told
me that if I don't eat every two hours he is going to take me directly to the hospital"
(p.150).
She spent her last couple of months with her aunt Thelma in Idaho. Her aunt was
the biggest influence in her life. Her aunt taught her how to see even the smallest things
and memorize them and paint them or describe them to her aunt as if her aunt was blind,
"Aunt Thelma had me close my eyes and describe the picture of the tiny garden in the
smallest detail" (p.198).
Many people influenced Nancy's life from her aunt Thelma, who taught her
self-discipline, to her three doctors, Dr. Sherian, Dr. Marx, and Dr. B, who all taught her
about AIDS and how to deal with it. Her parents really weren't an influence in her life
because they were too busy with their own.
Nancy didn't really accomplish anything in the last two years of her life. She was
too busy with AIDS and her rape situation. She did accomplish though to have her book
published, which happened the last week of her life. A lady by the name of Dr. B came to
Idaho and talked to Nancy about publishing her diary and Nancy agreed with delight,
" Aunt Thelma excused herself and went up to the house, leaving me and Dr. B to talk
about my book" (p.213).
The biggest disappointment of Nancy's life was when she got raped. This affected
her a lot because other than the fact that her self-esteem had gotten very low, but it left
her with AIDS, and having AIDS changed her life socially, mentally and physically.
AIDS really changed Nancy's social life when everyone found out about it.
Everyone was going out of their way to be nice to her. Then that all stopped and people
started teasing her, by pushing each other close to her and telling her to kiss that person
and give them her "special something". The only people that stayed nice to her after they
found out that she had AIDS was the gaggle.
Mentally she was breaking down. She always cried and thought that everything
was her fault from her parents divorce, to her being raped, to her having AIDS, "I'm
going nuts" (p.139).
Physically she was slowly starting to lose weight , at one point she was 61
pounds, and also was losing energy. She became pale and fragile, "I passed a full-length
mirror......and the creature that looked back at me was like something from a horror flick!
Stringy hair!......sunken eyes and big ugly black things starting on my face and neck"
(p.217).
In the last two years of her life Nancy was strong even though at times her
weaknesses took over. She had to be strong in order to deal with AIDS and her rape
situation, which were all far from gone. On her sixteenth birthday her friend El had a
party for her and they went to the movies and right in the middle of the movie she wet
herself, right there in her seat. She thought she was going to die, but she pulled herself
together in the end, "Everyone, everyone in the whole place, would witness my
humiliation......my pain, my shame" (p.143), "I'll be all right" (p.145).
Nancy's favorite saying or quote is "think about that tomorrow", which she found
by reading a book written by a lady named Scarlett. She would use that quote when she
didn't want to worry or think about the present problem or situation.
Dr.B was the person that wanted to publish Nancy's diary. Nancy agreed and said
that her diary might help other people look at their life in another perspective and never
to say never, because they never know what will happen to them. It worked for me.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jack Kerouac.TXT
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Jack Kerouac
In the beginning Jack Kerouac lived a wild and exciting life outside the realm of
everyday "normal" American life. Though On the Road and The Dharma Bums were
Kerouac's only commercial sucesses, he was a man who changed American literature and
pop-culture. Kerouac virtually created a life-style devoted to life, art, literature, music,
and poetry. When his movement grew out of his control, he came to despise it, and died
lonely on the other side of what he once loved and cherished above all else. But, on the
way he created a style of writing which combined elements of all the great writers, with
speed, common language, real people, and the reality of his life.
In a public junior high school he began to read feverishly. In English classes he
flourished, but socially he did not. Impressed deeply by Mark Twain and Jack London,
Kerouac created his own imaginary world, which he recorded in hand-written
"newspapers." These led to his first "novel" Jack Kerouac Explores the Merrimack,
which he wrote in a notebook at the age of twelve (Clark, 22).
Skipping classes at Lowell High School, in Lowell Massachusetts, Kerouac was
exposed to the work of Thomas Wolfe by a fellow student Sammy Sampas. They
encouraged writing in each other, and Kerouac began writing seriously. Since the
Kerouacs could not afford college, a local priest suggested he try for a football
scholarship (Clark, 32). He was offered two; one from Colombia University and the
other from Boston College. Kerouac opted for Columbia and first spent one year, by the request of the
university, at the Horace Mann School for Boys. Here he didn't fit in with the rich prep-
school crowd, but he was exposed to Hemmingway (Clark, 37). Here, also, in a school
publication his work was first printed (Clark, 39).
After two years of school at Columbia Kerouac made a decision that would
change his life. He always believed he learned more outside of the classroom than in; and
so after a series of arguments with his coach, he quit the team. Not long after he dropped
out of school as well. He served briefly in the navy, and drinking heavily, was discharged
on psychiatric grounds(Clark, 52). Upon his return home he got a job with as a Merchant
Marine. When he wasn't working he spent his time with Allen Ginsberg, Lucien Carr,
William S. Burroughs, and Neal Cassady (Jack Kerouac, 1). His family's disapproval of
his friends led him to a life balancing his friends and family. This is recorded in The
Town and the City, a novel which Ginsberg's professors got published.
Not long after Kerouac began making the now famous series of cross-country trips
with Cassady immortalized in On the Road (On the Road). But it would be seven years
before On the Road would be published (Jack Kerouac, 2). During these trips Kerouac
made several literary discoveries that changed the American Novel. First and foremost he
developed a "sketching" style of writing, inspired by an artist friend named Ed White and
the speed of bop music. Here the main goal was to write on the spot. This became what
he called "the great moment of discovering my soul," (Clark, 102). Later this "sketching"
developed into a style of writing unlike any other.
He would write either on the spot or from memory, but always on many levels; imagination
and reality, psychic and social, poetry and narrative, but always complete honesty. To
Kerouac this was "the only way to write." This style is evident first in Visions of Cody,
Kerouac's tribute to Cassady (Clark, 110). In 1952 Kerouac lived briefly in Mexico City with
Burroughs. Here he wrote Dr. Sax, which was considered shocking even by Ginsberg who told
Kerouac it would never be published because it was "so personal, so full of sex language," 
(Clark, 115). Later Kerouac said Ginsberg was mishandling his career and didn't take advantage
of the sex and drug revolution that was sweeping the country in paperbacks(Clark, 117). Ginsberg
was wrong though. Dr. Sax was published, but not until 1959 (Clark, xvii).
That fall he took a job with the Southern Pacific rail road. On the trains he
developed another adaptation to his writing style. He called this "speed writing" which
was supposed to "clack along all the way like a steam engine pulling a 100-car freight
with a talky caboose at the end." He also became well practiced in describing the
American land-scape, to the point where it almost becomes more of a character than a
setting (Clark,118).
The job on the rail road, and his writing led him to an isolation that brought a
beauty to his writing similar to Dickinson. This is very evident when comparing On the
Road with later works such as The Dharma Bums and Big Sur. But, Ginsberg believed
the isolation was making him too focused on "self as subject matter" but, this is what had
earlier drawn Ginsberg to Kerouac's writing (Clark,119).
In 1953 Viking Press was still considering publishing Kerouac, Malcom Cowley
rejected three of his books, but still considered him "the most interesting writer who is
not being published today." Still On the Road remained unavailable to the American
public (Clark, 123).
Meanwhile, Kerouac was perfecting his "spontaneous writing" style by combining
it with his new "spontaneous prose". Falling deeper into the New York underground
Kerouac began using heroin, dopophine, and barbiturates in addition to the marijuana and
alcohol he had become accustomed to. This experience was recorded in The
Subterraneans which Kerouac wrote in just one 72 hour sitting in which he lost 15
pounds. This was as Jack described "really a fantastic athletic feat as well as mental,"
(Clark, 127). The manuscript thoroughly impressed Burroughs and Ginsberg who asked
Kerouac to give them a detailed statement on his new style. Kerouac replied with a list
titled The Essentials of Spontaneous Prose. This still remains the best explanation of
Kerouac's style; writing "without consciousness in semi-trance... excitedly, swiftly... from
within, out -to be relaxed," (Clark, 128).
In 1954 Kerouac had possibly the most important interview of his life. John
Holmes of The New York Times quoted Jack's refferal to his group of writer and artist
friends as "the beat generation." This became the title of the article in which Holmes
stated "it was Jack Kerouac who invented the phrase, and his unpublished narrative On
the Road is the best record of their lives," (Clark, 133).
A new chapter in Kerouac's life began when he found religion in Buddhism. Kerouac moved again
to Mexico City. Here he wrote some of his longest poems. These were combined into the 242 choruses
of Mexico City Blues. This is described as "an extended sequence of free-association, spontaneous poems.
He also began work on Tristessa which was not completed until the following year (Clark, 139).
From Mexico City Kerouac moved to Berkley and became good friends with Gary
Snyder, a Zen poet, (Jack Kerouac, 2). Kerouac spent a great deal of time during this
period on long hikes with Snyder, who was the complete opposite of Cassady. Snyder's
influence was good for Kerouac's spirituality as well as his writing (Palmer). This time is
recorded in the beautiful descriptions in The Dharma Bums (The Dharma Bums). 1955 was also the time
of the now famous Six Gallery Poetry Reading. It is now considered the night of "the birth of the 
San Francisico Poetry Renaissance." Here many of the "beat generation" writers and artists first
gained fame. They were sad to see the man they regarded as the most talented of them so unhappy, carrying
his life's work around in a tattered rucksack (Jack Kerouac, 2).
Finally, in 1957 On the Road was published and it became a best-seller. One
Times critic referred to the publication as a "historic occasion in so far as the exposure of
an authentic work of art is of any great moment." Kerouac was rapidly gaining fame, but
after six years of literary rejection, he didn't know how to handle it. He was older, sadder,
and smarter than the public had expected. He tried to live up to his wild On the Road
image, which only lead him down the dark spiral of alcoholism (Jack Kerouac, 2). The
publication of On the Road coincided with Ginsberg's launch of the "united front," a
media campaign to join east and west coast artists. Ginsberg quietly slipped away to
Europe and allowed Kerouac to bear the full force of the popular media. The media
portrayed him as advocating illegal and immoral activities, but Kerouac was too drunk
most of the time to intelligently deal with the criticisms and confrontations. He felt like
"a kid dragged in by a cop," (Clark, 164).	His fame was beginning to grow, but this hindered his writing. He became
involved with the wife of respected literary critic Kenneth Rexroth. Initially Rexroth had
regarded Kerouac as "the peer of Celine," (Clark, 147). Needless to say, as Kerouac's
fame spread Rexroth's opinion of him continued to decline until the point where Kerouac
was regarded as "more pitiful than ridiculous." Eventually, Kerouac fell into disregard
with most critics (Jack Kerouac, 2). The critics, as well as Kerouac, believed the "beat
generation" was simply a fad, but Kerouac believed his writing was above the fad (Jack
Kerouac, 2). But by the time The Subteraneans was published critics were saying "The
best way to read Kerouac is with an oxygen mask." But, he Back in Lowell in 1961 Kerouac was hardly writing any more. The ladies of the
town had organized a movement to get Kerouac's books removed from the stores and
libraries. Fed up, he moved with his mother to Florida. His last major writing effort
began and in 10 days he finished Big Sur, the story of the alcohol delirium, paranoia, and
madness he had suffered on a 1960 trip to California. It was written mainly as an apology
and an explanation to everyone he had wronged during that time (Big Sur).
By 1964 many of Cassady and Ginsberg were associating themselves more and
more with the hippies of Ken Kesey, the Merry Pranksters, and The Electric Kool-Aid
Acid Test fame (The Electric...). Kerouac, though, was a conservative at heart and
avoided the psychedelic drug movement (Clark, 193). This eventually to Kerouac being
despised by even those who's careers he began, and lives he had changed. In one meeting
one of the Merry Pranksters had covered a couch with a flag. Ginsberg watched Kerouac
slowly fold it up and "marveled sadly... history was... out of Jack's hands now," (Clark,
201).
Neal Cassady died of a drug overdose in Mexico in 1968. Not long after, Jack
Kerouac died of an abdominal hemorrhage and cirrhosis of the liver, he had literally
drunk himself to death. He was only 47. He died a lonely death. A sad ending to the sad
writer who gave so much of himself in his belief that "writing was his duty on earth."
Works Cited
Clark, Tom. Jack Kerouac: A Biography. Paragon House.
"Jack Kerouac." 3 Oct.1998 <http://www.charm.net/~brooklyn/People/JackKerouac.
html>
Kerouac, Jack. Big Sur. New York: Viking Press, 1959. --- The Dharma Bums. New York: Viking Press, 1958.
--- On the Road. New York: Viking Press, 1957.
Wolfe, Tom. The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. New York: Bantam Books, 1968.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jack London.TXT
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Jack London
Jack London fought his way up out of the factories and waterfront dives of West Oakland to become the highest paid, most popular novelist and short story writer of his day. He wrote passionately and prolifically about the great questions of life and death, the struggle to survive with dignity and integrity, and he wove these elemental ideas into stories of high adventure based on his own firsthand experiences at sea, or in Alaska, or in the fields and factories of California. As a result, his writing appealed not to the few, but to millions of people all around the world.
Along with his books and stories, however, Jack London was widely known for his personal exploits. He was a celebrity, a colorful and controversial personality who was often in the news. Generally fun-loving and playful, he could also be combative, and was quick to side with the underdog against injustice or oppression of any kind. He was a fiery and eloquent public speaker, and much sought after as a lecturer on socialism and other economic and political topics. Despite his avowed socialism, most people considered him a living symbol of rugged individualism, a man whose fabulous success was due not to special favor of any kind, but to a combination of unusual mental ability and immense vitality.
Strikingly handsome, full of laughter, restless and courageous to a fault, always eager for adventure on land or sea, he was one of the most attractive and romantic figures of his time.
Jack London ascribed his literary success largely to hard work - to "dig," as he put it. He tried never to miss his early morning 1,000-word writing stint, and between 1900 and 1916 he completed over fifty books, including both fiction and non-fiction, hundreds of short stories, and numerous articles on a wide range of topics. Several of the books and many of the short stories are classics of their kind, well thought of in critical terms and still popular around the world. Today, almost countless editions of London's writings are available and some of them have been translated into as many as seventy different languages. In addition to his daily writing stint and his commitments as a lecturer, London also carried on voluminous correspondence (he received some 10,000 letters per year), read proofs of his work as it went to press, negotiated with his various agents and publishers, and conducted other business such as overseeing construction of his custom-built sailing ship, the Snark (1906 - 1907), construction of Wolf House (1910 - 1913), and the operation of his beloved Beauty Ranch, which became a primary preoccupation after about 1911. Along with all this, he had to continually generate new ideas for books and stories and do the research so necessary to his writing.
Somehow, he managed to do all these things and still find time to go swimming, horseback riding, or sailing on San Francisco Bay. He also spent 27 months cruising the South Pacific in the Snark, put in two tours of duty as an overseas war correspondent, traveled widely for pleasure, entertained a continual stream of guests whenever he was at home in Glen Ellen, and did his fair share of barroom socializing and debating. In order to fit all this living into the narrow confines of one lifetime, he often tried to make do with no more than four or five hours of sleep at night.
London was first attracted to the Sonoma Valley by its magnificent natural landscape, a unique combination of high hills, fields and streams, and a beautiful mixed forest of oaks, madrones, California buckeyes, Douglas Fir, and redwood trees. "When I first came here, tired of cities and people, I settled down on a little farm ... 130 acres of the most beautiful, primitive land to be found in California." He didn't care that the farm was badly run-down. Instead, he reveled in its deep canyons and forests, its year-round springs and streams. "All I wanted," he said later, "was a quiet place in the country to write and loaf in and get out of Nature that something which we all need, only the most of us don't know it." Soon, however, he was busy buying farm equipment and livestock for his "mountain ranch." He also began work on a new barn and started planning a fine new house. "This is to be no summer-residence proposition," he wrote to his publisher in June 1905, "but a home all the year round. I am anchoring good and solid, and anchoring for keeps ..."
Born January 12, 1876, he was only 29, but he was already internationally famous for Call of the Wild (1903), The Sea Wolf (1904), and other literary and journalistic accomplishments. He was divorced from Bessie (Maddern), his first wife and the mother of his two daughters, Joan and Little Bess, and he had married Charmian (Kittredge).
Living and owning land near Glen Ellen was a way of escaping from Oakland - from the city way of life he called the "man-trap." But excited as he was about his plans for the ranch, London was still too restless, too eager for foreign travel and adventure, to settle down and spend all his time there. While his barn and other ranch improvements were still under construction he decided to build a ship and go sailing around the world - exploring, writing, adventuring - enjoying the "big moments of living" that he craved and that would give him still more material to write about.
The great voyage was to last seven years and take Jack and Charmian around the world. In fact it lasted 27 months and took them "only" as far as the South Pacific and Australia. Discouraged by a variety of health problems, and heartbroken about having to abandon the trip and sell the Snark, London returned to Glen Ellen and to his plans for the ranch. In 1909, '10 and '11 he bought more land, and in 1911 moved from Glen Ellen to a small ranch house in the middle of his holdings. He rode horseback throughout the countryside, exploring every canyon, glen and hill top. And he threw himself into farming - scientific agriculture - as one of the few justifiable, basic, and idealistic ways of making a living. A significant portion of his later writing - Burning Daylight (1910), Valley of the Moon (1913), Little Lady of the Big House (1916) - had to do with the simple pleasures of country life, the satisfaction of making a living directly and honestly from the land and thereby remaining close to the realities of the natural world.
Jack and Charmian London's dream house began to take definite shape early in 1911 as Albert Farr, a well-known San Francisco architect, put their ideas on paper in the form of drawings and sketches, and then supervised the early stages of construction. It was to be a grand house - one that would remain standing for a thousand years. By August 1913, London had spent approximately $80,000 (in pre-World War I dollars), and the project was nearly complete. On August 22 final cleanup got underway and plans were laid for moving the Londons' specially designed, custom-built furniture and other personal belongings into the mansion. That night - at 2 a. m. - word came that the house was burning. By the time the Londons arrived on the scene the house was ablaze in every corner, the roof had collapsed, and even a stack of lumber some distance away was burning. Nothing could be done.
London looked on philosophically, but inside he was seriously wounded, for the loss was a crushing financial blow and the wreck of a long-cherished dream. Worse yet, he also had to face the probability that the fire had been deliberately set - perhaps by someone close to him. To this day, the mystery remains unsolved, but there are strong indications that the fire started by spontaneous combustion of oily rags which had been left in the building on that hot August night. London planned to rebuild Wolf House eventually, but at the time of his death in 1916 the house remained as it stands today, the stark but eloquent vestige of a unique and fascinating but shattered dream.
The destruction of the Wolf House left London terribly depressed, but after a few days he forced himself to go back to work. Using a $2,000 advance from Cosmopolitan Magazine, he added a new study to the little wood-frame ranch house in which he had been living since 1911. Here, in the middle of his beloved ranch, he continued to turn out the articles, short stories, and novels for which there was an ever-growing international market.
From the time he went east to meet with his publishers in New York, or to San Francisco or Los Angeles on other business. He also spent a considerable amount of time living and working aboard his 30-foot yawl, the Roamer, which he loved to sail around San Francisco Bay and throughout the nearby Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. In 1914 he went to Mexico as a war correspondent covering the role of U.S. troops and Navy ships in the Villa-Carranza revolt.
In 1915 and again in 1916 Charmian persuaded him to spend several months in Hawaii, where he seemed better able to relax and more willing to take care of himself. His greatest satisfaction, however, came from his ranch activities and from his ever more ambitious plans for expanding the ranch and increasing its productivity. These plans kept him perpetually in debt and under intense pressure to keep on writing as fast as he could, even though it might mean sacrificing quality in favor of quantity.
His doctors urged him to ease up, to change his work habits and his diet, to stop all use of alcohol, and to get more exercise. But he refused to change his way of life, and plunged on with his writing and his ranch, generously supporting friends and relations through it all. If anything, the press of his financial commitments and his increasingly severe health problems only made him expand his ambitions, dream even larger dreams, and work still harder and faster.
On November 22, 1916, Jack London died of gastrointestinal uremic poisoning. He was 40 years of age and had been suffering from a variety of ailments, including a kidney condition that was extraordinarily painful at times. Nevertheless, right up to the last day of his life he was full of bold plans and boundless enthusiasm for the future.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James A Garfield 4.TXT
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	JAMES A. GARFIELD

	James A. Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, in 1831.  His 

father died in 1833, when Garfield was only two years old and so his mother 

had to carry on working the family farm by herself. With the death of his 

father, the family feel into poverty.  Even though they had very little money, 

his mother made sure that her children went to the neighborhood school to get 

a good education.  He belonged to the Desciples of Christ Church.

	While growing up, James drove canal boat teams, and earned enough 

money to further his education at college.  He attended Western Reserve 

Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio,  and was graduated from Williams College 

in 1856.  He returned to Western Eclectic Institute and became a classics 

professor.  Later, he became the president of the College.  
	
	In 1858, he was married to Lucretia Rudolph and had seven kids.

Eliza, Harry, James, Mary, Irvin, Abram, and Edward.	

	James Garfield was an advocate for free-soil principles and soon 

became a supporter of the newly organized Republican Party.  And in 1859, 

he was elected to the Ohio Legislature.  During the succession crisis, he 

advocated coercing the seceding states back into the Union.   

	During the Civil War, he helped to recruit the 42nd Ohio Volunteer 

Infantry and became the infantry's colonel.  He fought at Shiloh in April 1862, 

served as a chief of staff in the Army of the Cumberland, saw action at 

Chickamauga in September of 1863.

	When the Union victories had been few in 1862, he successfully led a 

brigade at Middle Creek, Kentucky, against Confederate troops.  And in 

1862, at the age of 31, he became brigader general, only to be made a major 

general in 1863.

	Meanwhile, in 1862, he was elected by fellow Ohioans to The United 

States House of Representatives.  He was persuaded by President Lincoln to 

resign his army job and remain in Congress.  Said Lincoln, "It is easier to find 

major generals than to obtain effective Republicans for Congress."  Garfield 

held his House seat for 18 years by winning repeated elections and became 

the leading Republican in the House.  As Chairman of the House committee 

on Appropriations, he became an expert on fiscal matters. He also advocated 

a high protective tarriff, and sought a firm policy of Reconstruction for the 

South.  In 1880, he was elected to the United States Senate.  			

	At the Republican Convention in 1880, he failed to win the Presidential 

nomination for his friend, John Sherman, but became the "dark horse" 

nominee on the 36th ballot. 	

	In November 1880, he became the 20th President, winning with a 

10,000 vote margain over the Democratic challenger, General Winfield Scott 

Hancock.  	

	As president, he strengthened Federal authority over the New York 

Customs House, the stronghold of Senator Conkling.  He named Conkling's 

arch-rival, William H. Robertson, to run the Customs House. This ruling was 

contested, but Garfield would not back down.  "This will settle the question 

whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the 

United States."  	

	Garfield's presidential career came to an abrupt end on July 2, 1881, in 

a Washington railroad station when  he was shot by Charles Guiteau, only 

four months into Garfield's presidency.  For eighty days the president lay ill 

and performed only one official act, the signing of an extradiction paper.  	

	Alexander Graham Bell tried to find the bullet in Garfield's body with a 

metal detector, but was unsuccessful at locating it, because Garfield was 

laying on a mattress with metal springs.  He was taken to New Jersey and 

seemed to be recuperating but died on September 19, 1881 from an infection 

and internal hemmorage. 		
	
	In my opinion, Garfield wasn't much of a president, solely on the fact 

that he only spent four months in office and never had a chance to do 

anything great or stupid.   

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James A Garfield.TXT
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	JAMES A. GARFIELD

	James A. Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, in 1831.  His 

father died in 1833, when Garfield was only two years old and so his mother 

had to carry on working the family farm by herself. With the death of his 

father, the family feel into poverty.  Even though they had very little money, 

his mother made sure that her children went to the neighborhood school to get 

a good education.  He belonged to the Desciples of Christ Church.

	While growing up, James drove canal boat teams, and earned enough 

money to further his education at college.  He attended Western Reserve 

Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio,  and was graduated from Williams College 

in 1856.  He returned to Western Eclectic Institute and became a classics 

professor.  Later, he became the president of the College.  
	
	In 1858, he was married to Lucretia Rudolph and had seven kids.

Eliza, Harry, James, Mary, Irvin, Abram, and Edward.	

	James Garfield was an advocate for free-soil principles and soon 

became a supporter of the newly organized Republican Party.  And in 1859, 

he was elected to the Ohio Legislature.  During the succession crisis, he 

advocated coercing the seceding states back into the Union.   

	During the Civil War, he helped to recruit the 42nd Ohio Volunteer 

Infantry and became the infantry's colonel.  He fought at Shiloh in April 1862, 

served as a chief of staff in the Army of the Cumberland, saw action at 

Chickamauga in September of 1863.

	When the Union victories had been few in 1862, he successfully led a 

brigade at Middle Creek, Kentucky, against Confederate troops.  And in 

1862, at the age of 31, he became brigader general, only to be made a major 

general in 1863.

	Meanwhile, in 1862, he was elected by fellow Ohioans to The United 

States House of Representatives.  He was persuaded by President Lincoln to 

resign his army job and remain in Congress.  Said Lincoln, "It is easier to find 

major generals than to obtain effective Republicans for Congress."  Garfield 

held his House seat for 18 years by winning repeated elections and became 

the leading Republican in the House.  As Chairman of the House committee 

on Appropriations, he became an expert on fiscal matters. He also advocated 

a high protective tarriff, and sought a firm policy of Reconstruction for the 

South.  In 1880, he was elected to the United States Senate.  			

	At the Republican Convention in 1880, he failed to win the Presidential 

nomination for his friend, John Sherman, but became the "dark horse" 

nominee on the 36th ballot. 	

	In November 1880, he became the 20th President, winning with a 

10,000 vote margain over the Democratic challenger, General Winfield Scott 

Hancock.  	

	As president, he strengthened Federal authority over the New York 

Customs House, the stronghold of Senator Conkling.  He named Conkling's 

arch-rival, William H. Robertson, to run the Customs House. This ruling was 

contested, but Garfield would not back down.  "This will settle the question 

whether the President is registering clerk of the Senate or the Executive of the 

United States."  	

	Garfield's presidential career came to an abrupt end on July 2, 1881, in 

a Washington railroad station when  he was shot by Charles Guiteau, only 

four months into Garfield's presidency.  For eighty days the president lay ill 

and performed only one official act, the signing of an extradiction paper.  	

	Alexander Graham Bell tried to find the bullet in Garfield's body with a 

metal detector, but was unsuccessful at locating it, because Garfield was 

laying on a mattress with metal springs.  He was taken to New Jersey and 

seemed to be recuperating but died on September 19, 1881 from an infection 

and internal hemmorage. 		
	
	In my opinion, Garfield wasn't much of a president, solely on the fact 

that he only spent four months in office and never had a chance to do 

anything great or stupid.   

 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Cook 4.TXT
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	Do you know who the worlds greatest explorers are?  One of them is the topic of 
this essay.  This essay is about James Cook.  The objective of this report will be to 
answer the following question: Why do we remember James Cook?
	James Cook was born on October 27, 1728 in Marton, England.  At the age of 18 
James Cook became an apprentice with a shipping company.  His first voyages he 
worked on ships that carried coal to English ports.    In 1755, during the French - Indian 
war, Cook joined the British navy.  In 1759 he was given a dangerous wartime mission.  
He was to enter French territory and survey the St. Lawrence river for the British navy.  
The charts that he made during this voyage contributed to the capture of the French city 
of Quebec later in that year.
	James Cook made three voyages to the Pacific.  His first voyage, in 1768, the 
navy appointed Cook to lead an expedition to Tahiti.  On the Endeavour they left in 
August and reached Tahiti in April of 1769.  On the island scientists watched the planet 
Venus pass between the Earth and the Sun.  This was the main goal of this voyage but 
cook had been given secret orders to find an unknown continent in the south pacific.  He 
was told to find it because geographers believed that it kept the world in balance, 
however Cook was unable to find it.  In October of 1769 Cook became the first European 
man to visit New Zealand.  In April of 1770 the Endeavor sailed to Botany Bay on the 
east coast of Australia.  Cook claimed the entire east coast of Australia for Great Britain.  
He returned to England in July of 1771.  During this voyage, from 1678 - 1771, Cook 
became the first ship captain to prevent an outbreak of scurvy.  Cook had heard that 
scurvy was caused by a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits.  To prevent an outbreak he 
served his sailor's fruit and sauerkraut.  In July of 1772 Cook set off on his second voyage 
to the pacific.  Cook had left England with the Resolution and the Adventure.  This 
expedition was Cook's second attempt to find the unknown southern continent.  During 
this voyage Cook sailed farther south than any European had ever gone.  Cook faced 
many dangers in the cold Antarctic waters.  Jagged mountains and ice as high as 18 
meters often blocked the way of the ships.  High winds that pushed the icebergs towards 
the ships increased the danger.  Cook circled Antarctica but the ice kept him from 
sighting land.  In 1773 and 1774 Cook became the first European to visit a number of 
Pacific Islands, including the Cook Islands and New Caledonia.  He arrived back in 
England in July of 17775 and was promoted to a captain.  Cook's final voyage was in 
July of 1776. Cook took two ships, the Resolution and the Discovery, to find a possible 
northern sea route between Europe and Asia.  Cook first sailed to New Zealand and some 
other Pacific Islands.  In January of 1778 James Cook became the first European to go to 
the Hawaiian Islands.  Cook named them the Sandwich Islands to tribute Britain's chief 
naval minister, the Earl of Sandwich.    Later that year Cook sailed to the northwest coast 
of North America.  He was the First European to land on Vancouver Island.  Cook then 
continued up the coast and sailed Bering Strait and then entered the Arctic Ocean.  The 
walls of ice in the Arctic Ocean blocked the expedition so Cook headed back to the 
Sandwich Islands in August.  In February of 1779 an Islander stole a boat from the 
Discovery at Kealakekua Bay.  Cook tried to investigate the theft of the boat but was 
stabbed to death in a fight with Islanders on February 14, 1779.  The expedition returned 
to England in October of 1780.
	James Cook accomplished many things in his lifetime.  He  had surveyed and 
charted thousands of kilometers of coast and solved many mysteries of the Pacific Ocean.  
He opened the northwest American coast trade and colonization.  He also discovered the 
Hawaiian Island, which he called the Sandwich Islands, and was the first European man 
to set foot on New Zealand and Vancouver Island.
	James Cook played a very important part in the formation of Canada.  The maps 
he made of the St. Lawrence river helped the British conquer the French.  If he had never 
gone on these voyages Canada would now be under French rule and we would be living, 
talking, and acting differently.  He opened the northwest American coast to trade which 
led to the colonization of North America.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Cook.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	Do you know who the worlds greatest explorers are?  One of them is the topic of 
this essay.  This essay is about James Cook.  The objective of this report will be to 
answer the following question: Why do we remember James Cook?
	James Cook was born on October 27, 1728 in Marton, England.  At the age of 18 
James Cook became an apprentice with a shipping company.  His first voyages he 
worked on ships that carried coal to English ports.    In 1755, during the French - Indian 
war, Cook joined the British navy.  In 1759 he was given a dangerous wartime mission.  
He was to enter French territory and survey the St. Lawrence river for the British navy.  
The charts that he made during this voyage contributed to the capture of the French city 
of Quebec later in that year.
	James Cook made three voyages to the Pacific.  His first voyage, in 1768, the 
navy appointed Cook to lead an expedition to Tahiti.  On the Endeavour they left in 
August and reached Tahiti in April of 1769.  On the island scientists watched the planet 
Venus pass between the Earth and the Sun.  This was the main goal of this voyage but 
cook had been given secret orders to find an unknown continent in the south pacific.  He 
was told to find it because geographers believed that it kept the world in balance, 
however Cook was unable to find it.  In October of 1769 Cook became the first European 
man to visit New Zealand.  In April of 1770 the Endeavor sailed to Botany Bay on the 
east coast of Australia.  Cook claimed the entire east coast of Australia for Great Britain.  
He returned to England in July of 1771.  During this voyage, from 1678 - 1771, Cook 
became the first ship captain to prevent an outbreak of scurvy.  Cook had heard that 
scurvy was caused by a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits.  To prevent an outbreak he 
served his sailor's fruit and sauerkraut.  In July of 1772 Cook set off on his second voyage 
to the pacific.  Cook had left England with the Resolution and the Adventure.  This 
expedition was Cook's second attempt to find the unknown southern continent.  During 
this voyage Cook sailed farther south than any European had ever gone.  Cook faced 
many dangers in the cold Antarctic waters.  Jagged mountains and ice as high as 18 
meters often blocked the way of the ships.  High winds that pushed the icebergs towards 
the ships increased the danger.  Cook circled Antarctica but the ice kept him from 
sighting land.  In 1773 and 1774 Cook became the first European to visit a number of 
Pacific Islands, including the Cook Islands and New Caledonia.  He arrived back in 
England in July of 17775 and was promoted to a captain.  Cook's final voyage was in 
July of 1776. Cook took two ships, the Resolution and the Discovery, to find a possible 
northern sea route between Europe and Asia.  Cook first sailed to New Zealand and some 
other Pacific Islands.  In January of 1778 James Cook became the first European to go to 
the Hawaiian Islands.  Cook named them the Sandwich Islands to tribute Britain's chief 
naval minister, the Earl of Sandwich.    Later that year Cook sailed to the northwest coast 
of North America.  He was the First European to land on Vancouver Island.  Cook then 
continued up the coast and sailed Bering Strait and then entered the Arctic Ocean.  The 
walls of ice in the Arctic Ocean blocked the expedition so Cook headed back to the 
Sandwich Islands in August.  In February of 1779 an Islander stole a boat from the 
Discovery at Kealakekua Bay.  Cook tried to investigate the theft of the boat but was 
stabbed to death in a fight with Islanders on February 14, 1779.  The expedition returned 
to England in October of 1780.
	James Cook accomplished many things in his lifetime.  He  had surveyed and 
charted thousands of kilometers of coast and solved many mysteries of the Pacific Ocean.  
He opened the northwest American coast trade and colonization.  He also discovered the 
Hawaiian Island, which he called the Sandwich Islands, and was the first European man 
to set foot on New Zealand and Vancouver Island.
	James Cook played a very important part in the formation of Canada.  The maps 
he made of the St. Lawrence river helped the British conquer the French.  If he had never 
gone on these voyages Canada would now be under French rule and we would be living, 
talking, and acting differently.  He opened the northwest American coast to trade which 
led to the colonization of North America.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Earl Jones A Voice in the Crowd.TXT
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James Earl Jones: 
A Voice in the Crowd




March 19, 1996

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	People all around the world know the voice of James Earl Jones.  From Star Wars fans listening to the voice of Darth Vader to news junkies who hear a voice that dramatically intones AThis is CNN@ just before all the cable network=s station breaks to children who hear the stately voice of the majestic Mufasa, the king of the jungle in Walt Disney Pictures= animated The Lion King - people know this deep harmonious voice belongs to this consummate actor of stage and screen.  

	James Earl Jones was born January 17th, 1931, in Arkabutala Township, Mississippi. His natural parents, Ruth and Robert Earl, moved away to the Mississippi Delta when he was an infant.  Raised for the rest of his young life by his maternal grandparents, James Earl developed a close relationship with the Connollys. AMaggie and John Henry were always there, day by day, and they became for me, once and for all, my mama and my papa@ (18) .

 	Less than three years later, the Connollys moved to Dublin Michigan where James Earl and his >brother= Randy grew up in a remodelled chicken barn.  His early school life had a great impact on his style of speech and diction. AOn my first day at school, I could not believe my ears,@ recalls Jones, AThey called me James Earrrrl instead of James Uhl, as it had sounded in the South@(40).  

	After the initial shock of hearing Northern dialect, Jones Aquickly absorbed this different rhythm and style@ and embarked on the first half of a long vocal journey leading to his distinctive speaking style.  Until he was 14 years old, James Earl Jones rarely spoke mostly due to shyness, preferring silence to the sound of his own voice. 

	Around the age of 10, James Earl Jones witnessed his brother, Randy, having an epileptic seizure.  His grandmother applied the only remedy she knew - a thimbleful of bluing dye - and told James Earl to run for help.  After travelling a mile through a Michigan blizzard and recalling the sight of his brother on the floor with Ablue liquid spilled out of his mouth,@ Jones= epic battle with stuttering began. At a local store, Jones panicked and couldn=t speak. After a time, he Afinally calmed down and the words came. The doctor was called.  Randy recovered. But the stuttering - that stayed.@(42)


	The same year his brother almost died, Jones was sexually assaulted by the minister of a church he attended.  The incident scarred him for life.  Jones recalls, AI was afraid and very confused. I was on my guard from then on...I had no need for words@(54).

		The Aturning point@ in Jones= ability to cope with stuttering came in Professor Donald Crouch=s English classroom in high school.  After falling in love with Longfellow=s AThe Song of Hiawatha,@James Earl was inspired to write a poem about his love for grapefruit.  He patterned his work after Longfellow=s cadence and rhyme scheme.  When Professor Crouch accused Jones of plagiarism Jones was forced to recite his work from memory in front of the class (63).  

	Considering his honour of greater value than the teasing of his classmates James Earl approached the front of the room to avoid academic disgrace:  AI was shaking as I stood up, cursing myself. I strained to get the words out, pushing from the bottom of my soul.  I opened my mouth -- and to my astonishment, the words flowed out smoothly, every one of them.  There was no stutter.  All of us were amazed, not so much by the poem as by the performance@(66).

	The voice of James Earl Jones was a new sound to himself and everyone around him.  AMy voice had changed, almost without my awareness, so in addition to the novelty of being able to speak, I could now speak in a deep, strong voice@(67).  Crouch and Jones became inseparable for the remaining three years of high school, resurrecting the powers of speech in the young lad through public speaking, debating, orating and acting.  

	The training he received from Crouch enabled Jones to win a public speaking championship and a college scholarship to the University of Michigan.  In 1947, he enrolled intending to pursue a medical degree. He worked several jobs and enrolled in US Army Reserve Officers Training Corps to support his college career.  But science took its toll on Jones, and he changed majors to the study of drama but Atechnically, because there was not an official degree in drama then at the university, (his) degree had to be in English@(75).

	James Earl Jones= first introduction to the semi-professional theatre was a casting call for a campus production of The Birds by Aristophanes.  Intending to read for one of the minor parts, Jones was surprised when he was asked to audition for, and was later cast as the lead role of Epops, the King of the Birds.  Less than a year later Jones was cast in his first professional theatre production, as Verges in Much Ado About Nothing.

	Robert Earl Jones moved away when his son, James Earl, was an infant.  James Earl was not allowed to communicate with his father, who was considered no good since he was Aoff in New York with a new wife, trying to make it as an actor, instead of doing real work@ (62).  Later his career turned sour when he found himself Aon the blacklist during the McCarthy days@(79).

	Robert Earl wanted to see his son for Aa long, long time..and was hurt by the family=s constant refusal@ to let him see his son(79).  But when James Earl was 21, they were reunited in New York for a week as father showed son the sights on and off Broadway. Jones attributes his father, Robert Earl, with Athe best acting advice..=Pay attention to the little things actors do=@(Culhane 122).

	After two years in the Army at Camp Hale near Aspen, Colorado, Jones decided to commit to acting. AThere was nothing to lose, I thought. I could use my GI Bill to go to acting school, and if it didn=t work out, I could step back into my Army career@(Jones 83).

	Jones lived by the premise AActing can never really be taught. It must be learned in a thousand ways, over and over again.  Learning to act is ongoing, a lifelong process, and the responsibility rests with the actor@(89).  Under this idea, Jones felt the only place to learn was in New York, and in 1955 he packed his bags.

	Once they were reunited in New York, Robert Earl let his son move in and they pursued separate careers. Recalling a childhood nickname, Jones assumed the stage name of Todd Jones and, at the age of 24, was accepted by the American Theatre Wing.  One year later, after an argument with his father, James Earl Jones rented his own Acold-water-flat@ and went back to his full name. After receiving his diploma at the Theatre Wing in 1957, Jones auditioned for Tad Danielewski=s acting workshop, where he was accepted and set to work on scenes from three memorable plays: Othello, Of Mice and Men, and Miss Julie. 

	In October, Jones received his first chance to be in a Broadway production as an understudy for Lloyd Richards who played the role of Perry Hall in The Egghead, starring Karl Malden and directed by Hume Croyn at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre.  The understudy=s dream did not come true then , but three months later Jones received a speaking part on Broadway, playing the valet in Dore Schary=s Sunrise at Campobello, a drama about Eleanor and Franklin D. Roosevelt, starring Ralph Bellamy (105).  

	With only three lines to deliver as Edward the valet, Jones= Aworst fear@ came true one night on stage as he stuttered delivering the line AMrs. Roosevelt, supper is served@(105).  AMary Fickett, the actress playing Mrs. Roosevelt, just stood there and (Jones) got through it...(he) recovered..and miraculously it never happened again@(106.)

	Two teachers at the American Theatre Wing noticed Jones while he was a student: director Joseph Papp and acting teacher Lee Strasberg of the Actors Studio in New York. Jones auditioned seven years in a row and was never invited to become a member of the Actors Studio. But he did manage to come up with the funds to enroll in Strasberg=s private school.  While he didn=t find Strasberg an Aeffective@ director, he did find Strasberg to be a Agreat teacher@.   Jones later learned that Strasberg, Cheryl Crawford and Elia Kazan Ashared the consensus that there were actors such as (Jones) who, by following their own particular drumbeat, had already found an effective technique. Rather than pull (Jones) back and them the Method,@ they decided to Alet (him) go (his) own path.@(107.)

	Papp gave Jones his first acting breakthrough opportunity as Micheal Williams in Shakespeare=s Henry V.   Papp was credited with injecting a Adash of social conscience by casting Williams..as a negro (ably played by James Earl Jones)@ (Gelb 23).  Papp was a visionary who enjoyed bringing his productions to a different setting.  Henry V was performed in Central Park with no admissions charge.

	Before Henry V opened, Jones was also given a job as the leading role in Lionel Abel=s play The Pretender directed off Broadway by Herbert Machiz.  Jones Afared better with the critics than the play did, but not by much.  @One critic said Jones was Afirst rate,@(Jones 113) while others gave considerably less praise saying that Jones as the character of Jesse Prince, Aplays the part of the novelist as well as anyone could.@(Atkinson 42).

	In 1961, James Earl Jones moved into high gear and had what he termed a Abreakthrough year@ in 1961 (Jones 123).  Papp again cast Jones in a production, this time as Oberon in Midsummer Night=s Dream at the New York Shakespeare Festival.  Although his performance was not critically acclaimed, Jones began to get small parts on television with roles on APlayhouse 90,@" The Brighter Day,@A The Catholic Hour,@A Camera Three,@ and the popular APhil Silvers Show@(382).

	Jones left the cast of The Blacks in the fall of 1961 to play a featured role in a new comedy by Josh Greenfield, Clandestine on the Morning Line.  The production opened in the Actors Playhouse to mixed reviews that generally agreed that Asome likable characters (were) interrupted by a story@(Gelb 30).  The show had a short run and helped Jones land a role in another experimental drama, Jack Gelber=s The Apple.

	The production opened at the Living Theatre in December 1961 and was billed as Experimental theatre with a vengeance@ (Taubman 31.) And for the next several years, Jones struggled off Broadway Abulling his way to success@ where Ain play after play Jones (was) never guilty of underplaying; he invariably (came) on strong, and often effective@ (qtd in Jones).

	Jones has a self-expressed passion for Othello. He has played Othello at seven different time in his life in the theatre beginning at the age of 25 in Michigan and ending at the age of 50 at the Winter Garden Theatre in new York in 1981(377-381).

	The year 1964 produced two major Othello=s, one in London which cast Sir Lawrence Olivier as the title role.  The second major production cast James Earl Jones as the moor and debuted in Central park with the Summer Shakespeare festival and re-opened in October at the Martinique.   Calling it Aunjustly neglected,@ Life magazine compared Jones to Olivier and called Jones Aimmensely moving,@ as a reminder of Acivil rights and race relations@ (qtd. in Jones).  
	Producer Joe Papp and director Gladys Vaughan fought over how Jones should play the tragic stranger in service to the Duke of Venice.  Jones recalls AJoe wanted me to play Othello tough, because in time of racial tension, Othello should be tough and militant@ (158).  But Vaughan fought to give the character a sensitivity and benevolence and Jones took her up on the idea. Critics loved it.  Believing Othello could fall into the trap set by Iago has never been easy, Abut Mr. Jones succeeds in giving it credibility throughout.  He is genuinely moving in his deep affection for (his) wife... His disintegration into a man in whom Iago has unloosed the furies is well prepared and pitiful to behold.  Restrained and soft in speech up to this moment, (Jones) has deep strength and force as he propelled along his wrath and grief...@(Funke 48).  For his work as Othello, Jones was honoured with the Drama Desk-Vernon Rice Award.

	When the production began to wane some 224 performances after opening night in the Martinique, director Vaughan closed Othello and formed a repertory company with the cast.  

	One of the turning points in the life of James Earl Jones came inside the gloves of the first black heavyweight boxing champion, Jack Johnson. Playwright Howard Sackler wrote about Jack Johnson=s turbulent life and career in The Great White Hope. For legal reasons Sackler named his boxer Jack Jefferson.

	Director Edwin Sherin and playwright Sackler recruited Jones for the lead, treating him as if they Ahad found 
a gold mine@(Jones 188).  Using the same trainer that brought Olivier into shape for Othello, Jones prepared for the role with grueling roadwork and intellectual exploration he later compared to basic training in the Army (189).  After six weeks of rehearsal, The Great White Hope opened on December 7 at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., for a seven week run with Ed Sherin directing.
	At the age of 37, Jones realized he was involved in a Asignificant theatre experience@ but was Acompletely unprepared for the critical praise, the later fame, and the thunderous response of (the) audience@ (192).  Comparing his performance to that Marlon Brando=s in Tennessee Williams= Streetcar Named Desire, critics acclaimed Jones an Aovernight success@(qtd in Jones).  Calling it Aimmeasurably moving,@Clive Barnes wrote in the New York Times: AWith head shaved, burly, huge, Mr. Jones stalks through the play like a black avenging angel.  Even when corrupted by misery, his presence has an almost moral force to it, and his voice rasps out an agony nearly too personally painful in its nakednessA (Barnes 58).

	In October the following year, The Great White Hope opened on Broadway at the Alvin Theatre.  Catapulted into the limelight, A..Jones was receiving a standing ovation of the kind that makes Broadway history@(Barnes 58).

	Since then Jones has gone on to become critically acclaimed film and television actor. He has appeared in over 200 films and even had his own weekly television show called, AGabriel=s Fire.@  Jones has journeyed far from the boy who never spoke a word to anyone who walked on two legs.  James Earl Jones has delighted millions of people across the country with his body and voice, but for himself, life is nothing more that AWords, Words, Words@ (Jones 190).



Works Cited

Atkinson, Brooks.@The Pretender by Lionel Abel.@ New York 	Times 	25 May 1960: 42:1.
Barnes, Clive. AWhite Hope: Tale of Modern Othello Opens in 	Capital.@ New York Times 14 Dec. 1967 58:1.
Culhane, John. AHow james Earl Jones Found His Voice.@ 	Reader=s Digest Nov, 1994: 51-53.
Funke, Lewis. ATheatre: Fun and Frolic.@New York Times 3 	Aug. 	1961: 13:1
ATheatre: Othello from the Park Festival Production is at 	the Martinique.@ New York Times 13 Oct. 1964: 48:1.
Gelb, Arthur. @A rousingly Paced >Henry V=.@ New York Times 	30 Jun. 1960: 23:1.
AClandesting on the Morning Line Opens.@ New York Times 31 	October 1961: 28:1.
Gilroy, Harry. ARain and Praise Shower on MacBeth.@ New 	York Times 29 Jun. 1966: 38:1.
Hughes, Allan. ATheatre: Boston Festifal O=Neil=s Emperor 	Jones is revived - 12 dancers act as scenery.@ New York 	Times 6 Aug. 		1964: 20:4.
ADancers Are Scenery in Emporer Jones.@ New York Times 16 	Aug 1964: II,5:1.
Jones, James Earl., and Penelope Niven. James Earl Jones: 	Voices and Silences. NY: Macmillan, 1993.
Kauffman, Stanley. ATheatre: Bohikee Creek at Stage 73.@ 	New York Times 29 Apr. 1966: 39:1.
Kerr, Walter. AYou Can=t Just Watch.@New York Times 24 Dec. 	1967: II,3:1.
Leahy, Michael. AGabriel=s Ire.@ TV Guide 27 Oct. 1990: 
	8-12.
MacKenzie, Robert. AReview: Gabriel=s Fire.@ TV Guide 8 	Dec. 1990: 48.
AThe Dynamo.@ Newsweek. 2 Dec. 1963.
Oliver, Edith. AInterlude 1897: Fences.ANew Yorker 31 May 	1993: 136.
Taubman, Howard. AJack Gelber=s The Apple.@ New York Times 	8 Dec. 1961: 44.
ATheatre: Man=s Solitude.@ New York Times 28 Nov. 1963: 	69:2.
ATheatre: A Penatrating Play.@New York Times 3 Mar. 1964:	30:2.
A>Othello= in the Park.@ New York Times 15 Jul. 1964: 29:1.
ATheatre: Brechtian Tale of Decadence.@New York Times 07 	May 1965: 33:2.
ATheatre: Coriolanus in Central Park: Gladys Vaughn Gives 	Production Vigor.@New York Times 15 Jul. 1965: 23:1.
ATheatre: Danton=s Death at Beaumont.@ New York Times 22 	Oct. 1965: 46:1. 
Woolson, Jennifer Daack. AJames Earl Jones: A Voice of 	Hope.@ Vim & Vigor Fall 1995: 14-18.
??



 

 


Prepared for
Dr. Gene Muto

by
Mike Sleeper 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Earl Jones.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
James Earl Jones: A Voice in the Crowd


March 19, 1996

	People all around the world know the voice of James Earl Jones.  From
Star Wars fans listening to the voice of Darth Vader to news junkies who hear a
voice that dramatically intones AThis is CNN@ just before all the cable network=
s station breaks to children who hear the stately voice of the majestic Mufasa,
the king of the jungle in Walt Disney Pictures= animated The Lion King - people
know this deep harmonious voice belongs to this consummate actor of stage and
screen.

	James Earl Jones was born January 17th, 1931, in Arkabutala Township,
Mississippi. His natural parents, Ruth and Robert Earl, moved away to the
Mississippi Delta when he was an infant.  Raised for the rest of his young life
by his maternal grandparents, James Earl developed a close relationship with the
Connollys. AMaggie and John Henry were always there, day by day, and they became
for me, once and for all, my mama and my papa@ (18) .

 	Less than three years later, the Connollys moved to Dublin Michigan
where James Earl and his >brother= Randy grew up in a remodelled chicken barn.
His early school life had a great impact on his style of speech and diction. AOn
my first day at school, I could not believe my ears,@ recalls Jones, AThey
called me James Earrrrl instead of James Uhl, as it had sounded in the
South@(40).

	After the initial shock of hearing Northern dialect, Jones Aquickly
absorbed this different rhythm and style@ and embarked on the first half of a
long vocal journey leading to his distinctive speaking style.  Until he was 14
years old, James Earl Jones rarely spoke mostly due to shyness, preferring
silence to the sound of his own voice.

	Around the age of 10, James Earl Jones witnessed his brother, Randy,
having an epileptic seizure.  His grandmother applied the only remedy she knew -
a thimbleful of bluing dye - and told James Earl to run for help.  After
travelling a mile through a Michigan blizzard and recalling the sight of his
brother on the floor with Ablue liquid spilled out of his mouth,@ Jones= epic
battle with stuttering began. At a local store, Jones panicked and couldn=t
speak. After a time, he Afinally calmed down and the words came. The doctor was
called.  Randy recovered. But the stuttering - that stayed.@(42)

	The same year his brother almost died, Jones was sexually assaulted by
the minister of a church he attended.  The incident scarred him for life.  Jones
recalls, AI was afraid and very confused. I was on my guard from then on...I had
no need for words@(54).

		The Aturning point@ in Jones= ability to cope with stuttering
came in Professor Donald Crouch=s English classroom in high school.  After
falling in love with Longfellow=s AThe Song of Hiawatha,@James Earl was inspired
to write a poem about his love for grapefruit.  He patterned his work after
Longfellow=s cadence and rhyme scheme.  When Professor Crouch accused Jones of
plagiarism Jones was forced to recite his work from memory in front of the class
(63).

	Considering his honour of greater value than the teasing of his
classmates James Earl approached the front of the room to avoid academic
disgrace:  AI was shaking as I stood up, cursing myself. I strained to get the
words out, pushing from the bottom of my soul.  I opened my mouth -- and to my
astonishment, the words flowed out smoothly, every one of them.  There was no
stutter.  All of us were amazed, not so much by the poem as by the
performance@(66).

	The voice of James Earl Jones was a new sound to himself and everyone
around him.  AMy voice had changed, almost without my awareness, so in addition
to the novelty of being able to speak, I could now speak in a deep, strong
voice@(67).  Crouch and Jones became inseparable for the remaining three years
of high school, resurrecting the powers of speech in the young lad through
public speaking, debating, orating and acting.

	The training he received from Crouch enabled Jones to win a public
speaking championship and a college scholarship to the University of Michigan.
In 1947, he enrolled intending to pursue a medical degree. He worked several
jobs and enrolled in US Army Reserve Officers Training Corps to support his
college career.  But science took its toll on Jones, and he changed majors to
the study of drama but Atechnically, because there was not an official degree in
drama then at the university, (his) degree had to be in English@(75).

	James Earl Jones= first introduction to the semi-professional theatre
was a casting call for a campus production of The Birds by Aristophanes.
Intending to read for one of the minor parts, Jones was surprised when he was
asked to audition for, and was later cast as the lead role of Epops, the King of
the Birds.  Less than a year later Jones was cast in his first professional
theatre production, as Verges in Much Ado About Nothing.

	Robert Earl Jones moved away when his son, James Earl, was an infant.
James Earl was not allowed to communicate with his father, who was considered no
good since he was Aoff in New York with a new wife, trying to make it as an
actor, instead of doing real work@ (62).  Later his career turned sour when he
found himself Aon the blacklist during the McCarthy days@(79).

	Robert Earl wanted to see his son for Aa long, long time..and was hurt
by the family=s constant refusal@ to let him see his son(79).  But when James
Earl was 21, they were reunited in New York for a week as father showed son the
sights on and off Broadway. Jones attributes his father, Robert Earl, with Athe
best acting advice..=Pay attention to the little things actors do=@(Culhane 122).


	After two years in the Army at Camp Hale near Aspen, Colorado, Jones
decided to commit to acting. AThere was nothing to lose, I thought. I could use
my GI Bill to go to acting school, and if it didn=t work out, I could step back
into my Army career@(Jones 83).

	Jones lived by the premise AActing can never really be taught. It must
be learned in a thousand ways, over and over again.  Learning to act is ongoing,
a lifelong process, and the responsibility rests with the actor@(89).  Under
this idea, Jones felt the only place to learn was in New York, and in 1955 he
packed his bags.

	Once they were reunited in New York, Robert Earl let his son move in and
they pursued separate careers. Recalling a childhood nickname, Jones assumed the
stage name of Todd Jones and, at the age of 24, was accepted by the American
Theatre Wing.  One year later, after an argument with his father, James Earl
Jones rented his own Acold-water-flat@ and went back to his full name. After
receiving his diploma at the Theatre Wing in 1957, Jones auditioned for Tad
Danielewski=s acting workshop, where he was accepted and set to work on scenes
from three memorable plays: Othello, Of Mice and Men, and Miss Julie.

	In October, Jones received his first chance to be in a Broadway
production as an understudy for Lloyd Richards who played the role of Perry Hall
in The Egghead, starring Karl Malden and directed by Hume Croyn at the Ethel
Barrymore Theatre.  The understudy=s dream did not come true then , but three
months later Jones received a speaking part on Broadway, playing the valet in
Dore Schary=s Sunrise at Campobello, a drama about Eleanor and Franklin D.
Roosevelt, starring Ralph Bellamy (105).

	With only three lines to deliver as Edward the valet, Jones= Aworst
fear@ came true one night on stage as he stuttered delivering the line AMrs.
Roosevelt, supper is served@(105).  AMary Fickett, the actress playing Mrs.
Roosevelt, just stood there and (Jones) got through it...(he) recovered..and
miraculously it never happened again@(106.)

	Two teachers at the American Theatre Wing noticed Jones while he was a
student: director Joseph Papp and acting teacher Lee Strasberg of the Actors
Studio in New York. Jones auditioned seven years in a row and was never invited
to become a member of the Actors Studio. But he did manage to come up with the
funds to enroll in Strasberg=s private school.  While he didn=t find Strasberg
an Aeffective@ director, he did find Strasberg to be a Agreat teacher@.   Jones
later learned that Strasberg, Cheryl Crawford and Elia Kazan Ashared the
consensus that there were actors such as (Jones) who, by following their own
particular drumbeat, had already found an effective technique. Rather than pull
(Jones) back and them the Method,@ they decided to Alet (him) go (his) own
path.@(107.)

	Papp gave Jones his first acting breakthrough opportunity as Micheal
Williams in Shakespeare=s Henry V.   Papp was credited with injecting a Adash of
social conscience by casting Williams..as a negro (ably played by James Earl
Jones)@ (Gelb 23).  Papp was a visionary who enjoyed bringing his productions to
a different setting.  Henry V was performed in Central Park with no admissions
charge.

	Before Henry V opened, Jones was also given a job as the leading role in
Lionel Abel=s play The Pretender directed off Broadway by Herbert Machiz.  Jones
Afared better with the critics than the play did, but not by much.  @One critic
said Jones was Afirst rate,@(Jones 113) while others gave considerably less
praise saying that Jones as the character of Jesse Prince, Aplays the part of
the novelist as well as anyone could.@(Atkinson 42).

	In 1961, James Earl Jones moved into high gear and had what he termed a
Abreakthrough year@ in 1961 (Jones 123).  Papp again cast Jones in a production,
this time as Oberon in Midsummer Night=s Dream at the New York Shakespeare
Festival.  Although his performance was not critically acclaimed, Jones began to
get small parts on television with roles on APlayhouse 90,@" The Brighter Day,@A
The Catholic Hour,@A Camera Three,@ and the popular APhil Silvers Show@(382).

	Jones left the cast of The Blacks in the fall of 1961 to play a featured
role in a new comedy by Josh Greenfield, Clandestine on the Morning Line.  The
production opened in the Actors Playhouse to mixed reviews that generally agreed
that Asome likable characters (were) interrupted by a story@(Gelb 30).  The show
had a short run and helped Jones land a role in another experimental drama, Jack
Gelber=s The Apple.

	The production opened at the Living Theatre in December 1961 and was
billed as Experimental theatre with a vengeance@ (Taubman 31.) And for the next
several years, Jones struggled off Broadway Abulling his way to success@ where
Ain play after play Jones (was) never guilty of underplaying; he invariably
(came) on strong, and often effective@ (qtd in Jones).

	Jones has a self-expressed passion for Othello. He has played Othello at
seven different time in his life in the theatre beginning at the age of 25 in
Michigan and ending at the age of 50 at the Winter Garden Theatre in new York in
1981(377-381).

	The year 1964 produced two major Othello=s, one in London which cast Sir
Lawrence Olivier as the title role.  The second major production cast James Earl
Jones as the moor and debuted in Central park with the Summer Shakespeare
festival and re-opened in October at the Martinique.   Calling it Aunjustly
neglected,@ Life magazine compared Jones to Olivier and called Jones Aimmensely
moving,@ as a reminder of Acivil rights and race relations@ (qtd. in Jones).
	Producer Joe Papp and director Gladys Vaughan fought over how Jones
should play the tragic stranger in service to the Duke of Venice.  Jones recalls
AJoe wanted me to play Othello tough, because in time of racial tension, Othello
should be tough and militant@ (158).  But Vaughan fought to give the character a
sensitivity and benevolence and Jones took her up on the idea. Critics loved it.
Believing Othello could fall into the trap set by Iago has never been easy, Abut
Mr. Jones succeeds in giving it credibility throughout.  He is genuinely moving
in his deep affection for (his) wife... His disintegration into a man in whom
Iago has unloosed the furies is well prepared and pitiful to behold.  Restrained
and soft in speech up to this moment, (Jones) has deep strength and force as he
propelled along his wrath and grief...@(Funke 48).  For his work as Othello,
Jones was honoured with the Drama Desk-Vernon Rice Award.

	When the production began to wane some 224 performances after opening
night in the Martinique, director Vaughan closed Othello and formed a repertory
company with the cast.

	One of the turning points in the life of James Earl Jones came inside
the gloves of the first black heavyweight boxing champion, Jack Johnson.
Playwright Howard Sackler wrote about Jack Johnson=s turbulent life and career
in The Great White Hope. For legal reasons Sackler named his boxer Jack
Jefferson.

	Director Edwin Sherin and playwright Sackler recruited Jones for the
lead, treating him as if they Ahad found a gold mine@(Jones 188).  Using the
same trainer that brought Olivier into shape for Othello, Jones prepared for the
role with grueling roadwork and intellectual exploration he later compared to
basic training in the Army (189).  After six weeks of rehearsal, The Great White
Hope opened on December 7 at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., for a seven
week run with Ed Sherin directing.
	At the age of 37, Jones realized he was involved in a Asignificant
theatre experience@ but was Acompletely unprepared for the critical praise, the
later fame, and the thunderous response of (the) audience@ (192).  Comparing his
performance to that Marlon Brando=s in Tennessee Williams= Streetcar Named
Desire, critics acclaimed Jones an Aovernight success@(qtd in Jones).  Calling
it Aimmeasurably moving,@Clive Barnes wrote in the New York Times: AWith head
shaved, burly, huge, Mr. Jones stalks through the play like a black avenging
angel.  Even when corrupted by misery, his presence has an almost moral force to
it, and his voice rasps out an agony nearly too personally painful in its
nakednessA (Barnes 58).

	In October the following year, The Great White Hope opened on Broadway
at the Alvin Theatre.  Catapulted into the limelight, A..Jones was receiving a
standing ovation of the kind that makes Broadway history@(Barnes 58).

	Since then Jones has gone on to become critically acclaimed film and
television actor. He has appeared in over 200 films and even had his own weekly
television show called, AGabriel=s Fire.@  Jones has journeyed far from the boy
who never spoke a word to anyone who walked on two legs.  James Earl Jones has
delighted millions of people across the country with his body and voice, but for
himself, life is nothing more that AWords, Words, Words@ (Jones 190).



Works Cited

Atkinson, Brooks.@The Pretender by Lionel Abel.@ New York   Times 25 May
     1960: 42:1.

Barnes, Clive. White Hope: Tale of Modern Othello Opens in Capital.@ New
     York Times 14 Dec. 1967 58:1.

Culhane, John. How james Earl Jones Found His Voice.@ Reader=s Digest
     Nov, 1994: 51-53.

Funke, Lewis. Theatre: Fun and Frolic.@New York Times 3 Aug. 1961: 13:1

Theatre: Othello from the Park Festival Production is at the Martinique.@
     New York Times 13 Oct. 1964: 48:1.

Gelb, Arthur. @A rousingly Paced >Henry V=.@ New York Times 30 Jun. 1960:
     23:1. A Clandesting on the Morning Line Opens.@ New York Times 31
     October 1961: 28:1.

Gilroy, Harry. Rain and Praise Shower on MacBeth.@ New York Times 29
     Jun. 1966: 38:1.

Hughes, Allan. Theatre: Boston Festifal O=Neil=s Emperor Jones is revived
     - 12 dancers act as scenery.@

New York  Times 6 Aug.   1964: 20:4. Dancers Are Scenery in Emporer Jones.@
     New York Times 16   Aug 1964: II,5:1.

Jones, James Earl., and Penelope Niven. James Earl Jones: Voices and
     Silences. NY: Macmillan, 1993.

Kauffman, Stanley. Theatre: Bohikee Creek at Stage 73.@  New York Times
     29 Apr. 1966: 39:1.

Kerr, Walter. You Can=t Just Watch.@New York Times 24 Dec. 1967: II,3:1.

Leahy, Michael. Gabriel's Ire.@ TV Guide 27 Oct. 1990: 8-12.

MacKenzie, Robert. Review: Gabriel=s Fire.@ TV Guide 8 Dec. 1990: 48.
     The Dynamo.@ Newsweek. 2 Dec. 1963.

Oliver, Edith. Interlude 1897: Fences.ANew Yorker 31 May   1993: 136.

Taubman, Howard. Jack Gelber's The Apple.@ New York Times 8 Dec. 1961: 44.

Theatre: Man=s Solitude.@ New York Times 28 Nov. 1963: 69:2.
Theatre: A Penatrating Play.@New York Times 3 Mar. 1964:  30:2.
Othello= in the Park.@ New York Times 15 Jul. 1964: 29:1.
Theatre: Brechtian Tale of Decadence.@New York Times 07 May 1965: 33:2.
Theatre: Coriolanus in Central Park: Gladys Vaughn Gives Production Vigor.@
     New York Times 15 Jul. 1965: 23:1.
Theatre: Danton=s Death at Beaumont.@ New York Times 22 Oct. 1965: 46:1.

Woolson, Jennifer Daack. James Earl Jones: A Voice of Hope.@ Vim & Vigor
     Fall 1995: 14-18. ??







Prepared for Dr. Gene Muto

by Mike Sleeper




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Joyce 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
English III								Kim Nash
Essay									May 28, 1996

	James Joyce, an Irish novelist and poet, grew up near Dublin.  James Joyce is one of the most influential novelists of the 20th century.  In each of his  prose works he used symbols to experience what he called  an "epiphany", the revelation of certain revealing qualities about himself. His early writings reveal individual moods and characters and the plight of Ireland and the Irish artist in the 1900's.  Later works, reveal a man in all his complexity as an artist and in family aspects.  Joyce is known for his style of  writing called "stream of consciousness".  Using this technique, he ignored ordinary sentence structure and attempted to reproduce the rambling's of the human mind.  Many of his works were influenced  by his life in Ireland as an artist.  He was influenced by three main factors in his life, his childhood and parents, his homeland of Dublin, Ireland, and the Roman Catholic Church.   These three aspects show up in all his works subtly, but specifically in, The Dead, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, and Araby.
	James Joyce, was born February 2, 1882 in Dublin, Ireland.  He was the first of fifteen kids born to Mary Jane Murray, and John Stanslaus Joyce.  He was christened James Augustine Aloysius Joyce.  His mother was a mild woman who had intelligent opinions but didn't express them.  His father was a violent, quick tempered man who was a  medical student and politician.  He was educated in Dublin at Jesuit school's his whole life.  In 1888, he went to Clongeswood College, but his father lost his job and James had to withdraw.  He graduated in October of 1902, from Royal University.  He was fascinated by the sounds of words and by the rhythms of speech since he first started school.  He was trained by the Jesuits who at one time hoped he would join their order; but Joyce became estranged from the Jesuits and defected from the Catholic Church after graduating college.  Joyce made a huge effort to free himself from all aspects of the past such as, family, religion, and country.  He left Ireland in 1902 after graduating college.  He spent the rest of his life in either Trieste, Zurich, or Paris.  During this time he was very  poor.  He spent much of his working career as a  language instructor.  He was said to have known 17 languages.  He also spent time as a bank clerk, while trying to find time to write.  He started to have eye problems in 1907, and by the end of his life he was almost blind.  After Ulysses in 1922, he was left a lot of money from an Englishwoman, and then spent his time working on his writing full time.  This book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in 1916, was an autobiographical novel about his youth and his home life. The main character's name in this is Stephen Dedalus.  It shows a clear cut , advocary of an artists right to defy inhibiting forces like, family, church and nation.  When Stephen, was in the university he talks about hi dislike for his classmates who just bend their heads and write in their notebooks, "the points they were bidden to note, nominal definitions, essential definitions and examples or dates of birth or death, chief works, a favorable and unfavorable criticism side by side," Joyce's views of Irish education weren't very good.  Stephen in this book scorns his family, and his fathers attributes.  He thinks that he has failed in his effort to unite his will and the will of God, to love God the way he feels is expected.  He feels this because he will not serve God.  He wants to live his life his way.  He talks about how he knew he couldn't be accepted, "it wounded him to think that he would never be but a shy guest at the feast of the world's culture and that the monkish learning, in terms of which he was striving to forge out an esthetic philosophy, was held no higher by the age he lived than the subtle and curious jargons of heraldry and falconry."  He feels that he has been taught nothing, he must seek out and learn on his own.   Joyce feels very dedicated to himself as a literary artist and dedication to God and family  is next to  nothing.  He says this through Stephen, "Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race."   He has a dedication that lets his writing take over and he  waits to see what his soul will create.  
	Joyce's feelings toward Ireland are very strong.  He voluntarily exiled himself  from Ireland and forced himself to forget about it all together.  He had a very small knowledge of life in Dublin, but what he did have he used to his full extent.  He was not effected  by the intense Irish  nationalism that he felt most Irish people had.    In his novel, The Dead, he uses the character Gabriel to get his feelings on this across.  He says this, "to live successfully in a land where the unhappy past is always felt and the presence of shades and spirits is compelling and obtrusive one must vigorously affirm the life of fact and enlightened action."  Joyce feels that Ireland is filled with past events that now haunt its future and nothing good can happen while there are still bad feelings.  He also says " I'm sick of my country, I'm sick of it."  Joyce is sick of his country and has intense feelings of hatred for it.  He expresses these feelings for Ireland the most in The Dead.   The Dead may have been Joyce's picture of himself if he had not left Ireland when he did.  Joyce left Ireland after college, he says through Gabriel, "the time had come for him to set out on his journey westward.  Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland.  It was falling on every part of the dark central plain, on the treeless hills, falling softly upon the Bog of Allen and, farther westward, softly falling into the dark mutinous Shannon waves.  It was falling, too, upon every part of the lonely churchyard on the hill where Michael Furey lay buried."  Through Joyce's description of the landscape of Ireland he  shows how he feels that Ireland is an evil place.  The snow is almost the purity of Ireland falling onto the landscape.  He goes on to talk about how it melted into these places and washed away into the evil atmosphere.   Joyce intended to demonstrate the characteristics of Irish life  and to hope that Gabriel would escape his own ego and that life in Ireland would start anew.  Joyce states in his critical writings that "the economic conditions that prevail in my own country do not permit the development of individuality."  He felt very constricted as an artist in Ireland.  He also states that, "the soul of the country is weakened by centuries of useless struggle and broken treaties, and individual initiative is paralysed by the influence and admonitions of the church, while its body is manacled by the police, the tax office, and the garrison.  No one who has any self respect stays in Ireland, but fleas afar as though from a country that has undergone the visitation from an angry Jove."  Ireland to him is the place where censorship and pain over old struggles that should be forgotten prevail over new ideas.  He believes that his artistic abilities are being choked and that the bureaucracy of  life in Ireland is too great for him for him to overcome.  
	At one time Joyce thought he wanted to be a Monk for the Catholic Church.  After he estranged himself from the church, he tried to get as far away from it as he possibly could.  Joyce saw the church as a prison.  He writes in Araby about young boys in a Catholic school.  He says this, "North Richmond street, being blind was a quiet street except at the hour the Christians Brothers School set the boys free."  Joyce himself spent much of his youth in a Catholic School, in which he felt later as an adult that it had been almost a prison for his mind, telling him how to think and act.    He often writes about how he would like to see the strict church open up it's mind to new ideas.  He says this in Araby also, " In time, perhaps there will be a gradual reawakening of the Irish conscience, and perhaps four or five centuries after the Diet of Worms, we will see an Irish Monk throw away his frock, run off with some nun, and proclaim in a loud voice the end of coherent absurdity that was Catholicism and the beginnings of the incoherent absurdity that is Protestantism."  Joyce felt that the restraints placed on thinking was absurd and that people should think on their own, without the church telling you how to think.  
	James Joyce's was interested in discovering the truth in his writings and revealing it.  He was a good observer of reality, which he loved, and he always wanted to get at the truth behind the appearance.  Joyce voluntarily exiled himself from Ireland, but still Ireland was never far from his mind, and his writing.  He also exiled himself from the church yet wrote about it and it's constraints often.  He left his childhood behind and chose to write his childhood autobiography under a different name.  He observed other people's reality and yet choose to ignore his own.  He left Ireland, the church, and his childhood, psychically, but he never left them in his own unconscious.  He choose to write about his life and feelings in other peoples words and in other peoples mouths.  Still wishing to exile himself from his life, he almost felt as if by leaving all these places on the outside he would leave all his feelings behind also.  He wrote about the topics he choose to distance himself from, as if to get an unbiased look at them, and to write about the real truth. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Joyce.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
English III								Kim Nash
Essay									May 28, 1996

	James Joyce, an Irish novelist and poet, grew up near Dublin.  James Joyce is one of the most influential novelists of the 20th century.  In each of his  prose works he used symbols to experience what he called  an "epiphany", the revelation of certain revealing qualities about himself. His early writings reveal individual moods and characters and the plight of Ireland and the Irish artist in the 1900's.  Later works, reveal a man in all his complexity as an artist and in family aspects.  Joyce is known for his style of  writing called "stream of consciousness".  Using this technique, he ignored ordinary sentence structure and attempted to reproduce the rambling's of the human mind.  Many of his works were influenced  by his life in Ireland as an artist.  He was influenced by three main factors in his life, his childhood and parents, his homeland of Dublin, Ireland, and the Roman Catholic Church.   These three aspects show up in all his works subtly, but specifically in, The Dead, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, and Araby.
	James Joyce, was born February 2, 1882 in Dublin, Ireland.  He was the first of fifteen kids born to Mary Jane Murray, and John Stanslaus Joyce.  He was christened James Augustine Aloysius Joyce.  His mother was a mild woman who had intelligent opinions but didn't express them.  His father was a violent, quick tempered man who was a  medical student and politician.  He was educated in Dublin at Jesuit school's his whole life.  In 1888, he went to Clongeswood College, but his father lost his job and James had to withdraw.  He graduated in October of 1902, from Royal University.  He was fascinated by the sounds of words and by the rhythms of speech since he first started school.  He was trained by the Jesuits who at one time hoped he would join their order; but Joyce became estranged from the Jesuits and defected from the Catholic Church after graduating college.  Joyce made a huge effort to free himself from all aspects of the past such as, family, religion, and country.  He left Ireland in 1902 after graduating college.  He spent the rest of his life in either Trieste, Zurich, or Paris.  During this time he was very  poor.  He spent much of his working career as a  language instructor.  He was said to have known 17 languages.  He also spent time as a bank clerk, while trying to find time to write.  He started to have eye problems in 1907, and by the end of his life he was almost blind.  After Ulysses in 1922, he was left a lot of money from an Englishwoman, and then spent his time working on his writing full time.  This book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in 1916, was an autobiographical novel about his youth and his home life. The main character's name in this is Stephen Dedalus.  It shows a clear cut , advocary of an artists right to defy inhibiting forces like, family, church and nation.  When Stephen, was in the university he talks about hi dislike for his classmates who just bend their heads and write in their notebooks, "the points they were bidden to note, nominal definitions, essential definitions and examples or dates of birth or death, chief works, a favorable and unfavorable criticism side by side," Joyce's views of Irish education weren't very good.  Stephen in this book scorns his family, and his fathers attributes.  He thinks that he has failed in his effort to unite his will and the will of God, to love God the way he feels is expected.  He feels this because he will not serve God.  He wants to live his life his way.  He talks about how he knew he couldn't be accepted, "it wounded him to think that he would never be but a shy guest at the feast of the world's culture and that the monkish learning, in terms of which he was striving to forge out an esthetic philosophy, was held no higher by the age he lived than the subtle and curious jargons of heraldry and falconry."  He feels that he has been taught nothing, he must seek out and learn on his own.   Joyce feels very dedicated to himself as a literary artist and dedication to God and family  is next to  nothing.  He says this through Stephen, "Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race."   He has a dedication that lets his writing take over and he  waits to see what his soul will create.  
	Joyce's feelings toward Ireland are very strong.  He voluntarily exiled himself  from Ireland and forced himself to forget about it all together.  He had a very small knowledge of life in Dublin, but what he did have he used to his full extent.  He was not effected  by the intense Irish  nationalism that he felt most Irish people had.    In his novel, The Dead, he uses the character Gabriel to get his feelings on this across.  He says this, "to live successfully in a land where the unhappy past is always felt and the presence of shades and spirits is compelling and obtrusive one must vigorously affirm the life of fact and enlightened action."  Joyce feels that Ireland is filled with past events that now haunt its future and nothing good can happen while there are still bad feelings.  He also says " I'm sick of my country, I'm sick of it."  Joyce is sick of his country and has intense feelings of hatred for it.  He expresses these feelings for Ireland the most in The Dead.   The Dead may have been Joyce's picture of himself if he had not left Ireland when he did.  Joyce left Ireland after college, he says through Gabriel, "the time had come for him to set out on his journey westward.  Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland.  It was falling on every part of the dark central plain, on the treeless hills, falling softly upon the Bog of Allen and, farther westward, softly falling into the dark mutinous Shannon waves.  It was falling, too, upon every part of the lonely churchyard on the hill where Michael Furey lay buried."  Through Joyce's description of the landscape of Ireland he  shows how he feels that Ireland is an evil place.  The snow is almost the purity of Ireland falling onto the landscape.  He goes on to talk about how it melted into these places and washed away into the evil atmosphere.   Joyce intended to demonstrate the characteristics of Irish life  and to hope that Gabriel would escape his own ego and that life in Ireland would start anew.  Joyce states in his critical writings that "the economic conditions that prevail in my own country do not permit the development of individuality."  He felt very constricted as an artist in Ireland.  He also states that, "the soul of the country is weakened by centuries of useless struggle and broken treaties, and individual initiative is paralysed by the influence and admonitions of the church, while its body is manacled by the police, the tax office, and the garrison.  No one who has any self respect stays in Ireland, but fleas afar as though from a country that has undergone the visitation from an angry Jove."  Ireland to him is the place where censorship and pain over old struggles that should be forgotten prevail over new ideas.  He believes that his artistic abilities are being choked and that the bureaucracy of  life in Ireland is too great for him for him to overcome.  
	At one time Joyce thought he wanted to be a Monk for the Catholic Church.  After he estranged himself from the church, he tried to get as far away from it as he possibly could.  Joyce saw the church as a prison.  He writes in Araby about young boys in a Catholic school.  He says this, "North Richmond street, being blind was a quiet street except at the hour the Christians Brothers School set the boys free."  Joyce himself spent much of his youth in a Catholic School, in which he felt later as an adult that it had been almost a prison for his mind, telling him how to think and act.    He often writes about how he would like to see the strict church open up it's mind to new ideas.  He says this in Araby also, " In time, perhaps there will be a gradual reawakening of the Irish conscience, and perhaps four or five centuries after the Diet of Worms, we will see an Irish Monk throw away his frock, run off with some nun, and proclaim in a loud voice the end of coherent absurdity that was Catholicism and the beginnings of the incoherent absurdity that is Protestantism."  Joyce felt that the restraints placed on thinking was absurd and that people should think on their own, without the church telling you how to think.  
	James Joyce's was interested in discovering the truth in his writings and revealing it.  He was a good observer of reality, which he loved, and he always wanted to get at the truth behind the appearance.  Joyce voluntarily exiled himself from Ireland, but still Ireland was never far from his mind, and his writing.  He also exiled himself from the church yet wrote about it and it's constraints often.  He left his childhood behind and chose to write his childhood autobiography under a different name.  He observed other people's reality and yet choose to ignore his own.  He left Ireland, the church, and his childhood, psychically, but he never left them in his own unconscious.  He choose to write about his life and feelings in other peoples words and in other peoples mouths.  Still wishing to exile himself from his life, he almost felt as if by leaving all these places on the outside he would leave all his feelings behind also.  He wrote about the topics he choose to distance himself from, as if to get an unbiased look at them, and to write about the real truth. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\James Watt.TXT
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James Watt
James Watt was born February 19, 1736 and died on
August 19, 1889. As a child he was often sick. This
kept James out of school. His mother had to teach
him how to read and write. James suffered from
severe headaches, so many people thought he was
retarded. Little did they know that this child that most
people didn't consider normal would lead America to
one of the most important stages The Industrial
Revolution. It all started when he traveled to England
to become a mechanic. Then he decided to come back
to Scotland. This is where he met Joseph Black.
Black though him some thing that he found
interesting about steam. This got Watt started in
thinking about how to make Newcomms steam engine
better. So in 1764 he got his first real challenge. He
got one of Newcomms machines that could not be
repaired. He repaired that machine without any
problem. Watt had one problem, he had no idea why
someone would be satisfied with a machine like this. 
James decided to make a practical steam engine, this
resulted in cheaper transportation. This was possible
because in 1869 Watt came up with the condenser (a
chamber for condensing the steam) witch he got
patented.
During all this commotion Watt decided to get
married to his cousin Margaret Miller, who died nine
years after there marriage. Although they still had six
children together. Watt then decide to marry his
second wife Ann MacGreagor, which they went on to
have two children.
James was able to keep wealthy by teaming up with
huge manufactures. They wanted James's engine to
do thing like pump water out of coal mines and putting
them in locomotives to transport goods. The final part
of the steam engine was a invented in 1790. It was a
gauge that make the steam much safer. It read the
amount of steam pressure produced in side the tank.
This prevented it from blowing up. From here on in he
just sat back and sucked in all his money from his
world recognized invention. In 1800 he decide to go
into retirement.
After his death Watt was recognized as "Father of
the Steam Engine." The SI unit of Horse-power, the
Watt, was also named in memory of him. All these
thing that made the Industrial Revolution possible
reflected back on this man James Watt.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jaqcueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy Onasis.TXT
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Jaqcueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy Onasis
Jaqcueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy Onasis
Jackie Kennedy was the wife of John F. Kennedy, 35th president of the United States. Jackie Kennedy was known for her sense of style and elegance. Her second husband , Aristotle Onasis, was one of the wealthiest men in the world.
Jackie was of a wealthy and socially prominent family. She studied at Vassar College and George Washington University. She graduated in 1951. For two years she worked as a photographer and a columnist for the Washington Times Herald, until her marriage in September 1953 to senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts. After a miscarriage and a stillbirth, she gave birth to daughter Caroline in 1957, and she was pregnant with John F. Kennedy Jr. when her husband was elected president in 1960. Her second son Patrick was born in 1963 and lived only 36 hours.
On senator Kennedy's election as president, Jackie became the focus of national and even international popular interest. As the sophisticated First Lady, she helped set the tone for the Kennedy Administration. She particularly interested herself in the White House itself and secured a number of important antique pieces for its part of a plan to restore several of its public rooms to period authenticity. She set up a fine arts commission for the White House and hired a curator. In February 1962 she conducted a widely praised televised tour of the White House. She was also responsible for setting fashion styles, wearing Oleg Cassini creations and the pillbox hat that became her trademark. On trips all over the world she was warmly received and did much informally to maintain good relations with various nations. The assassination of President Kennedy as they rode together in a Dallas, Texas motorcade in November 1963 thrust her even more into the national consciousness.
After the immediate period of ceremony and mourning, Jackie withdrew slowly into the world of international society, becoming a Frequent subject of society gossip and the victim of publicity seekers and paparazzi. She was involved romantically with various eligible men, but her marriage in 1968 to Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onasis was a shock to many people and critics. She lived the secluded life of the extremely wealthy before and for a time after Onasis's death in 1975. From 1975 to 1977 she was a consulting editor at Viking Press. She moved to Doubleday in 1978 as an associate editor, later becoming a senior editor. On her death in 1994 she was buried, at her own request, in Arlington cemetery beside Jon F. Kennedy.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jerry Seinfeld.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Sometimes a persons achievements can have an impact on an entire segment of an industry.  In the book Jerry  Seinfeld by Josh Levine this theory stands true. Jerry Seinfeld's brilliant comedy has had a tremendous impact on this segment of the entertainment industry.  His clean comedy and detailed tactics have set a precedent  for  comedians to come.  
	Jerry Seinfeld was voted the America's Best Male Comedian Club Performer in 1988 by a pole of night club regulars, even thought by then he had already moved up to the large concert halls and amphitheaters for most of his performances.  Jerry used a form of comedy that no one had ever seen before.  He was titled the clean comedian because he didn't to use profanity to make people laugh.  Jerry said in one of his interviews, "My jokes are about clean subjects, and they're very thought out.  Most comedians who use a lot of profanity- they're using it for fast punchlines... I can put a joke together well enough that I don't need dirty words."
	Jerry has a role model for kids and comedians to follow.   He started a new genre in comedy. Here's an example of Jerry's humor "Dogs are broke all their lives.  You know why they have no money?  No pockets.  They see change on the street -there's nothing they can do about it".  "You go to the store to buy Grape Nuts.  No grapes, no nuts.  What's the story there.".  "If he's the best man why is the bride marrying the groom?"   Jerry has not only contributed to his fellow comedians and the comedians to comes.  He has made a difference in many peoples lives.   For example, on Thursday night almost every one I know snuggles up in front of there television to watch Seinfeld, a sitcom staring Jerry Seinfeld.  The next day you can hear them using dialogue from the show and laughing amongst themselves.  It is as it his dialogue and situations he creates are being reenacted by everyone I know
 Jerry Seinfelds contribution is a great one.  He has set an example that, for a joke to be funny it doesn't have to be dirty. Seinfeld brings to people a source of relief and happiness at the end of the day .  If his jokes can make someone's day a better one, or maybe just make a person smile, then his mission is complete.  Jerry Seinfeld gives people the gift of happiness, and as far as I'm concerned that's one of the best gifts in the world


 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jerry Seinfield.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Jerry Seinfield


     Sometimes a persons achievements can have an impact on an entire segment of
an industry.  In the book Jerry  Seinfeld by Josh Levine this theory stands true.
Jerry Seinfeld's brilliant comedy has had a tremendous impact on this segment of
the entertainment industry.  His clean comedy and detailed tactics have set a
precedent  for  comedians to come.
     Jerry Seinfeld was voted the America's Best Male Comedian Club Performer
in 1988 by a pole of night club regulars, even thought by then he had already
moved up to the large concert halls and amphitheaters for most of his
performances.  Jerry used a form of comedy that no one had ever seen before.  He
was titled the clean comedian because he didn't to use profanity to make people
laugh.  Jerry said in one of his interviews, "My jokes are about clean subjects,
and they're very thought out.  Most comedians who use a lot of profanity- they'
re using it for fast punchlines... I can put a joke together well enough that I
don't need dirty words."
	Jerry has a role model for kids and comedians to follow.   He started a
new genre in comedy. Here's an example of Jerry's humor "Dogs are broke all
their lives.  You know why they have no money?  No pockets.  They see change on
the street -there's nothing they can do about it".  "You go to the store to buy
Grape Nuts.  No grapes, no nuts.  What's the story there.".  "If he's the best
man why is the bride marrying the groom?"   Jerry has not only contributed to
his fellow comedians and the comedians to comes.  He has made a difference in
many peoples lives.   For example, on Thursday night almost every one I know
snuggles up in front of there television to watch Seinfeld, a sitcom staring
Jerry Seinfeld.  The next day you can hear them using dialogue from the show and
laughing amongst themselves.  It is as it his dialogue and situations he creates
are being reenacted by everyone I know
 Jerry Seinfelds contribution is a great one.  He has set an example that, for a
joke to be funny it doesn't have to be dirty. Seinfeld brings to people a source
of relief and happiness at the end of the day .  If his jokes can make someone's
day a better one, or maybe just make a person smile, then his mission is
complete.  Jerry Seinfeld gives people the gift of happiness, and as far as I'm
concerned that's one of the best gifts in the world



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jesse Jackson a Brief Biography.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Jesse Jackson: a Brief Biography

Jesse Jackson was born on March eleventh, 1965 in Greensville, South Carolina. He has since run for president in two elections, one in 1984, and one in 1988. In the 1984 elections, he received  over three million popular votes, and registered over one million new voters. In 1988 he received over seven million votes, and registered over two million new voters.He never got one electoral vote. 
He sees himself as the leader of African-Americans, women, unionists, the homeless, the unemployed, and the underemployed. He is offended that Bill Clinton has a large amount of minority supporters.
He has been known to get overly excited and emotional when speaking, and sometimes offends people. In one speech he said that the Christian Coalition is made up of  ³Nazis, slave owners, and segregationists.² Another  time he publicly remarked, ³In Germany, they call what's going on Œfascism¹. In South Africa they call it Œracism¹. Here in America we call it conservatism.² He even once called New York City, ³Hyme-town.² Hearing that remark coming from a civil rights leader shocked everybody, and cost him millions of votes.
Another scandal came along when he led over five hundered Stanford University students singing, ³Hey hey, ho ho. Western civ has got to go!²
Jesse Jackson boycotted the Academy Awards last year, because only on African-American was nominated. However no less of an authority than Denzel Washington, says that Jesse Jackson overreacted. 
³I didn¹t really think that there were any Oscar worthy African-American performances,² said    the actor in a recent interview. 
Jesse Jackson was standing next to Martin Luther King, when he was assassinated. Let¹s just hope that Jesse Jackson doesn't meet the same fate. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jesse Jackson.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Jesse Jackson: a Brief Biography


Jesse Jackson was born on March eleventh, 1965 in Greensville, South Carolina.
He has since run for president in two elections, one in 1984, and one in 1988.
In the 1984 elections, he received  over three million popular votes, and
registered over one million new voters. In 1988 he received over seven million
votes, and registered over two million new voters.He never got one electoral
vote. He sees himself as the leader of African-Americans, women, unionists, the
homeless, the unemployed, and the underemployed. He is offended that Bill
Clinton has a large amount of minority supporters. He has been known to get
overly excited and emotional when speaking, and sometimes offends people. In one
speech he said that the Christian Coalition is made up of  "Nazis, slave owners,
and segregationists." Another  time he publicly remarked, "In Germany, they call
what's going on "fascism". In South Africa they call it "racism". Here in
America we call it conservatism." He even once called New York City, "Hyme-town."
Hearing that remark coming from a civil rights leader shocked everybody, and
cost him millions of votes. Another scandal came along when he led over five
hundered Stanford University students singing, "Hey hey, ho ho. Western civ has
got to go!" Jesse Jackson boycotted the Academy Awards last year, because only
on African-American was nominated. However no less of an authority than Denzel
Washington, says that Jesse Jackson overreacted. "I didn't really think that
there were any Oscar worthy African-American performances," said    the actor in
a recent interview. Jesse Jackson was standing next to Martin Luther King, when
he was assassinated. Let's just hope that Jesse Jackson doesn't meet the same
fate.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jewel.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Jewel: Pieces Of A Shattered Dream
My opinion of the book mentioned above is that it is extremely well written and inhibits several unique characteristics. The typical biography or autobiography is written in a sober manner, such that the reader is completely bored by the events of the life of the subject. The author Kristen Kemp, wrote this book so that the audience is excited and anxious to discover what happens in the next chapter in the life of the specified individual. An example of the authors exciting style of writing is evident in this quote referring to Jewel's acceptance to Interlochen Arts Academy in Michigan; "Just like that, Jewel set out for, possible, her most life changing journey of all." That statement could have been written so that it simply stated that Jewel was going to attend that academy, however, due to Kristen Kemp's writing style, the statement kept me excited to read another chapter. I think that Jewel's life was full of outstanding events that were interesting to read about. I'm glad that I chose this book as compared to other biographies based upon a less eventful life. There were extreme high points in her life, "It was like overnight that Jewel discovered happiness while riding around in a VW van." These times incorporated happiness into the reading, while the low ones "Despite her efforts to make herself feel better, she couldn't escape some of her problems" established sympathy. A variety of mixed emotions are the key ingredient in making a making a reader become involved in the story line. Jewel Kilcher was born on May 23, 1974, and grew up in Homer, Alaska. She lived with her parents and two brothers in a house on an extremely large plot of land. Their house had no TV or running water. Having no running water meant no shower and no indoor plumbing, just an outhouse in the yard. Growing up, Jewel helped take care of the horses that her family raised. She also hayed and worked in the family's garden with her father. Both, her father and mother, were extremely musically inclined and performed all over Alaska. When Jewel was six, she was singing and traveling with them. She acquired an amazing ability to yodel at this age, and soon this became a regular accompaniment with her parents. A few years later, Jewel's parents divorced. She still traveled with her father every once in a while for seven more years. They sang in bars and restaurants, or wherever they could get a gig. Jewel still kept ties open with her mother also. Her mother taught her to write poetry. Jewel found this to be an effective way of releasing her anger towards her parents' divorce.
Jewel then, after earning some money, headed to Interlochen Arts Academy in Michigan for her junior and senior years of high school. She won a singing scholarship to go there, but it didn't pay for all of the tuition. Most of the other money was raised at a solo concert she put on, and by donations from people that lived in Homer, Alaska. After finishing school, Jewel moved to San Diego where her mother now lived. She didn't want to go to college, and she wasn't happy just surfing or traveling around, so she took several jobs to make a little extra money. She didn't like them though, so she decided to live in her van and strive for her goal of a singing career. Pretty soon, she landed a regular Thursday-night gig at the Innerchange Coffeehouse in Pacific Beach. It was there that she became well known and liked. Word of her singing ability spread to other big cities, and in March, Jewel signed a deal with Atlantic Records. During the last half of 1994, she did small tours to a few other cities, in hopes of spreading her popularity. In February of 1995, her first CD was composed. It was thought to be a very popular style of music, however it did not bring in a lot of profit, Despite this appearing to be a failure, Atlantic Records kept trying. The first CD, "Who Will Save Your Soul," was released again and in late 1996, it was then that Jewel begin receiving an increasingly higher profit. She even appeared on some of the nations most known talk shows such as, Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Tonight show with Jay Leno. Jewel's CD, "Who Will Save Your Soul" was an extremely large building block for her career in music. Her popularity began to grow and 1997, she received two Grammy Award nominations. They were for Best New Artist and Best Female Pop Vocal. This was the point in which she finally acknowledged that she had made it. She had achieved her dream of a singing career, but like most things in life, the fame and merriment that she had found would soon prove to vanish as quickly as it arrived.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\JFK His Life and Legacy.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
JFK: His Life and Legacy


        On November 22, 1963, while being driven through the streets
of Dallas, Texas, in his open car, President John F. Kennedy was
shot dead, apparently by the lone gunman, Lee Harvey Oswald. The
world had not only lost a common man, but a great leader of men.
From his heroic actions in World War II to his presidency, making
the decisions to avert possible nuclear conflict with world
superpowers, greatness can be seen. Kennedy also found the time
to author several best-selling novels from his experiences . His
symbolic figure represented all the charm, vigor and optimism of
youth as he led a nation into a new era of prosperity.

        From his birth into the powerful and influential Kennedy
clan, much was to be expected of him. Kennedy was born on May
29,1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. His father, Joe, Sr., was a
successful businessman with many political connections. Appointed
by President Roosevelt, Joe, Sr., was given the chair of the
Securities and Exchange Commission and later the prestigious
position of United States ambassador to Great Britain(Anderson
98). His mother, Rose, was a loving housewife and took young John
on frequent trips around historic Boston learning about American
revolutionary history. Both parents impressed on their children
that their country had been good to the Kennedys. Whatever
benefits the family received from the country they were told,
must be returned by performing some service for the
country(Anderson 12). The Kennedy clan included Joe, Jr., Bobby,
Ted and their sisters, Eunice, Jean, Patricia, Rosemary, and
Kathleen. Joe, Jr., was a significant figure in young John's life
as he was the figure for most of John's admiration. His older
brother was much bigger and stronger than John and took it upon
himself to be John's coach and protector. John's childhood was
full of sports, fun and activity. This all ended when John grew
old enough to leave for school.

        At the age of thirteen, John left home to attend an away
school for the first time. Canterbury School, a boarding school in
New Milford, Connecticut and Choate Preparatory in Wallingford,
Connecticut completed his elementary education("JFK" 98). John
graduated in 1934 and was promised a trip to London as a
graduation gift. Soon after, John became ill with jaundice and
would have to  go to the hospital. He spent the rest of the
summer trying to recover. He was not entirely well when he started
Princeton, several weeks later in the fall of 1935. Around
Christmas the jaundice returned and John had to drop out of
school. Before the next school year began, he told his father he
wanted to go to Harvard("JFK" 98). On campus, young people took
interest in politics, social changes, and events in Europe. The
United States was pulling out of the Great Depression. Hitler's
Nazi Germany followed aggressive territorial expansion in Europe.
It was at this time that John first became aware of the vast
social and economic differences in the United States. In June
1940, John graduated cum laude(with praise or distinction) from
Harvard. His thesis earned a magna cum laude(great praise)( "JFK"
98). After graduation, John began to send his paper to publishers,
and it was accepted on his second try. Wilfrid Funk published it
under the title Why England Slept. It became a bestseller. John, at
twenty-five, became a literary sensation.

        In the spring of 1941, both John and Joe, Jr., decided to
enroll in the armed services. Joe was accepted as a naval air
cadet but John was turned down by both the army and navy because
of his back trouble and history of illness("JFK" 98). After months
of training and conditioning, John reapplied and on September 19,
John was accepted into the navy as a desk clerk in Washington. He
was disgusted and applied for a transfer. In June 1941,  Kennedy
was sent to Naval Officers Training School at Northwestern
University in Evanston, Illinois and then for additional training
at the Motor Torpedo Boat Center at Melville, Rhode Island.

        In late April 1943, Lieutenant John F. Kennedy was put in
command of a PT 109, a fast, light, attack craft in the Solomon
Islands in the South Pacific. Kennedy saw action in the form of
night patrols and participated in enemy bombings. On August 1,
1943, during a routine night patrol, a Japanese destroyer collided
in the darkness with Kennedy's craft and the PT 109 was sunk.
Through superhuman effort, the injured Kennedy heroically swam
back and forth rescuing his wounded crew. Two were killed in the
crash. The injury had once again aggravated his back. Still,
Kennedy pushed on swimming from island to island in the South
Pacific hoping for a patrol to come by. The lieutenant had no idea
he had been in the water for eight hours. Finally, an island was
spotted that could provided cover from Japanese planes. With no
edible plants or water, Kennedy realized that he and the crew must
move on.

        The next day, he once again attempted to search for
rescue. After treading water for hours, the lieutenant was forced
to admit no patrol boats were coming. He turned back for the island but was
swept away by a powerful current. Kennedy collapsed on an
island and slept. He recovered enough energy to return to the
island and gathered the crew to move to another island in search
of food. JFK was now desperate enough  to seek help from
natives on a Japanese controlled island. After making contact
with the natives, Kennedy persuaded the natives to deliver a
message written on the back of a coconut shell to allied forces.
The coconut fell into the hands of allied scouts and a patrol was
sent. The coconut would appear again on the desk of an American
President(Anderson 35).

        The crew of the PT 109 were given a hero's welcome when they
returned to base, but Kennedy would have none of it. He refused
home leave and was given another boat. In constant pain from the
back injury, JFK soon contracted malaria, became very ill, and lost
twenty-five pounds. He was forced to give up command and was sent
home to Chelsea Naval Hospital near Hyannis Port. The lieutenant
received the Purple Heart, the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, and a
citation from Admiral W. F. Halsey. John's back failed to recover
was an operation was performed on his spine in the summer of 1944.

        During recovery, Kennedy received word that his brother Joe,
Jr. had been killed in action. Joe had been eligible for home
leave, but had volunteered for a special bombing mission. The bombs had
detonated early and Joe and his copilot were caught in the
explosion. Kennedy put his feelings onto paper and a second book
was published for the family and close friends. He called it As We
Remember Joe.

        The family- particularly JFK's father- had assumed that
Joe, Jr. would carry on the family tradition and go into
politics. Both of his grandfathers had been active in
politics(Anderson 41). Now , suddenly, JFK was the oldest
Kennedy of his generation. Kennedy's first chance in politics
came when Congressman James Curley from the 11th District of
Massachusetts decided to retire in 1946(Gadney 42). JFK won
his first Congressional seat by a margin of more than two to
one.    At the age if twenty-nine, JFK was placed on the front page
of the New York Times and in Time Magazine. He was often mistaken in

Congress as a Senate page or an elevator operator.

        It was during this time period in which Kennedy met and fell
in love with Jacqueline Bouvier. "Jackie",as she was known, came
from a wealthy Catholic background as prestigious as the Kennedys.
She attended Vassar College and the Sorbonne in Paris, France. She
spoke French, Italian, and Spanish fluently. They were wed on
September 12,1953, at St. Mary's Catholic Church in Newport, Rhode
Island. All seemed well, yet after three two-year terms as a
Congressman, Kennedy became frustrated with House rules and customs and
decided to run for Senate.

        In 1952, Kennedy ran for Senate against Republican Senator
Henry Cabot Lodge. Fifteen years older than Kennedy, Lodge was
the incumbent of two terms in the Senate. JFK prevailed in the
victory but was soon stricken with Addison's disease during his
first year in the Senate and had to operate on a fifty-fifty
chance for survival procedure(Gadney 52). While recovering,
Kennedy wrote Profiles in Courage, a bestseller on examples of
moral courage in the lives of eight senators who risked their
careers for a great cause or a belief. Kennedy returned to Senate
and participated in the powerful Senate Foreign Relations
Committee. He was also chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on
Labor. JFK believed strongly in education, equal job opportunity,
and the civil rights movement. His biggest success came in the form of
his Labor Reform Bill which passed by a margin of 90 to 1 in
Senate debate. Kennedy's first child, Caroline, was born during
this time.

        Due to his enormous success in Congress, the Democratic
party nominated him for the presidential ticket in 1960.
Lyndon Johnson was chosen as the running mate with Kennedy to
secure and build upon the democratic bases in the southern states
while the Kennedys sought out the younger voters, the factory
workers, and the liberals(Gadney 61).

        During the Kennedy Administration, a great deal of events
were going on.Jackie had given birth to JFK, Jr., while all over
the south, the civil rights movement was going in full force with
incidents breaking out. Specific attention gathered around a black
air force veteran, James Meredith, applied for admission to the
University of Mississippi. In Cuba both the Bay of Pigs occurred,
in which U.S. supported rebels revolted in a poorly laid out plan
of events that fell out beneath them, and the Cuban Missile
Crisis in which the Soviet Republic were building missile silos
in Cuba, 100 miles away from Florida. The Space Race was in full
force with both Russia and the U.S. in competition to reach the
moon. U.S. involvement in Vietnam was in the latter stages with
plans to withdraw after the 1964 election.

        On a trip to Dallas to stir up support for the reelection,
the President's auto were coming down elm street when three shots
rang out. The first projectile entered at the base of Kennedy's
neck and exited through the back of his head. The second bullet
hit Texas Governor John Connally. Seconds later there was another
shot and the back of the president's head was torn away. The
assassin- Lee Harvey Oswald with a mail-order rifle fired from
the Texas School Book Depository(Warren 5). Oswald had recently
applied for a passport to Communist Russia which led to a series
of private meetings between Oswald and the Russian
Government(Warren 614). Oswald protested his innocence.

        President Johnson set up what quickly became known as the
Warren Commission headed by Chief Justice Warren to find the
motive behind the assassination, The Commission finds the lone,
depressed, mentally unstable, anti-social nut kills an American
president("Theories" 1). Other theories have evolved over time
such as the Grassy Knoll theory. Witnesses say that a man in
black was present and fired simultaneously with Oswald and
doubled the actual shots fired("Theories" 1) Another theory is that
the fired CIA director Allen Dulles used his considerable
connections and plotted revenge("Theories 2").

        On Nov. 24, 1963 as Oswald was being escorted from the city
jail, Jack Ruby shot Oswald with a single shot from a Colt .38
revolver(Warren 350). Ruby was arrested and stood trial in Dallas.
He was found guilty and was sentenced to hang. He died in jail of
cancer, on January 3,1967.

        Kennedy was the first President to be born in the twentieth
century and was very much a man of his time. He was restless,
seeking, with a thirst of knowledge, and he had a feeling of deep
commitment, not only to the people of the United States, but to
the peoples of the world. Many of the causes he fought for exist
today because of what he did for the rights of minorities, the
poor, the very old and the very young. He never took anything for
granted and worked for everything he owned. Perhaps Kennedy summed
up his life best in his own inaugural speech: "Ask not what your
country can do for you, but ask what you can do for your country."



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\JFK his life.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


                       JFK: His Life and Legacy

        On November 22, 1963, while being driven through the streets 

of Dallas, Texas, in his open car, President John F. Kennedy was 

shot dead, apparently by the lone gunman, Lee Harvey Oswald. The 

world had not only lost a common man, but a great leader of men. 

>From his heroic actions in World War II to his presidency, making 

the decisions to avert possible nuclear conflict with world 

superpowers, greatness can be seen. Kennedy also found the time 

to author several best-selling novels from his experiences . His 

symbolic figure represented all the charm, vigor and optimism of 

youth as he led a nation into a new era of prosperity.

        From his birth into the powerful and influential Kennedy 

clan, much was to be expected of him. Kennedy was born on May 

29,1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. His father, Joe, Sr., was a 

successful businessman with many political connections. Appointed 

by President Roosevelt, Joe, Sr., was given the chair of the 

Securities and Exchange Commission and later the prestigious 

position of United States ambassador to Great Britain(Anderson 

98). His mother, Rose, was a loving housewife and took young John 

on frequent trips around historic Boston learning about American 


                                                           So 2

revolutionary history. Both parents impressed on their children 

that their country had been good to the Kennedys. Whatever 

benefits the family received from the country they were told, 

must be returned by performing some service for the 

country(Anderson 12). The Kennedy clan included Joe, Jr., Bobby, 

Ted and their sisters, Eunice, Jean, Patricia, Rosemary, and 

Kathleen. Joe, Jr., was a significant figure in young John's life 

as he was the figure for most of John's admiration. His older 

brother was much bigger and stronger than John and took it upon 

himself to be John's coach and protector. John's childhood was 

full of sports, fun and activity. This all ended when John grew 

old enough to leave for school.

        At the age of thirteen, John left home to attend an away 

school for the first time. Canterbury School, a boarding school in 

New Milford, Connecticut and Choate Preparatory in Wallingford, 

Connecticut completed his elementary education("JFK" 98). John 

graduated in 1934 and was promised a trip to London as a 

graduation gift. Soon after, John became ill with jaundice and 

would have to  go to the hospital. He spent the rest of the 

summer trying to recover. He was not entirely well when he started 

Princeton, several weeks later in the fall of 1935. Around 

Christmas the jaundice returned and John had to drop out of 

school. Before the next school year began, he told his father he 

wanted to go to Harvard("JFK" 98). On campus, young people took 

interest in politics, social changes, and events in Europe. The 

United States was pulling out of the Great Depression. Hitler's 

                                                            So 3

Nazi Germany followed aggressive territorial expansion in Europe. 

It was at this time that John first became aware of the vast 

social and economic differences in the United States. In June 

1940, John graduated cum laude(with praise or distinction) from 

Harvard. His thesis earned a magna cum laude(great praise)( "JFK" 

98). After graduation, John began to send his paper to publishers, 

and it was accepted on his second try. Wilfrid Funk published it 

under the title Why England Slept. It became a bestseller. John, at 
twenty-five, became a literary sensation.  

        In the spring of 1941, both John and Joe, Jr., decided to 

enroll in the armed services. Joe was accepted as a naval air 

cadet but John was turned down by both the army and navy because 

of his back trouble and history of illness("JFK" 98). After months 

of training and conditioning, John reapplied and on September 19, 

John was accepted into the navy as a desk clerk in Washington. He 

was disgusted and applied for a transfer. In June 1941,  Kennedy 

was sent to Naval Officers Training School at Northwestern 

University in Evanston, Illinois and then for additional training 

at the Motor Torpedo Boat Center at Melville, Rhode Island. 

        In late April 1943, Lieutenant John F. Kennedy was put in 

command of a PT 109, a fast, light, attack craft in the Solomon 

Islands in the South Pacific. Kennedy saw action in the form of 

night patrols and participated in enemy bombings. On August 1, 

1943, during a routine night patrol, a Japanese destroyer collided 

in the darkness with Kennedy's craft and the PT 109 was sunk. 
                                                  
Through superhuman effort, the injured Kennedy heroically swam 


                                                            So 4

back and forth rescuing his wounded crew. Two were killed in the 

crash. The injury had once again aggravated his back. Still, 

Kennedy pushed on swimming from island to island in the South 

Pacific hoping for a patrol to come by. The lieutenant had no idea 

he had been in the water for eight hours. Finally, an island was 

spotted that could provided cover from Japanese planes. With no 

edible plants or water, Kennedy realized that he and the crew must 

move on. 

        The next day, he once again attempted to search for 

rescue. After  treading water for hours, the lieutenant was forced 

to admit no patrol boats were coming. He turned back for the island 
but was swept away by a powerful current. Kennedy collapsed on an 

island and slept. He recovered enough energy to return to the 

island and gathered the crew to move to another island in search 

of food. JFK was now desperate enough  to seek help from 

natives on a Japanese controlled island. After making contact 

with the natives, Kennedy persuaded the natives to deliver a 

message written on the back of a coconut shell to allied forces. 

The coconut fell into the hands of allied scouts and a patrol was 

sent. The coconut would appear again on the desk of an American 

President(Anderson 35). 
        
        The crew of the PT 109 were given a hero's welcome when they 

returned to base, but Kennedy would have none of it. He refused 

home leave and was given another boat. In constant pain from the 

back injury, JFK soon contracted malaria, became very ill, and lost 
twenty-five pounds. He was forced to give up command and was sent 


                                                             So 5

home to Chelsea Naval Hospital near Hyannis Port. The lieutenant 

received the Purple Heart, the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, and a 

citation from Admiral W. F. Halsey. John's back failed to recover 

was an operation was performed on his spine in the summer of 1944. 

        During recovery, Kennedy received word that his brother Joe, 

Jr. had been killed in action. Joe had been eligible for home 

leave, but had volunteered for a special bombing mission. The bombs 
had detonated early and Joe and his copilot were caught in the 

explosion. Kennedy put his feelings onto paper and a second book 

was published for the family and close friends. He called it As We 

Remember Joe. 

        The family- particularly JFK's father- had assumed that 

Joe, Jr. would carry on the family tradition and go into 

politics. Both of his grandfathers had been active in 

politics(Anderson 41). Now , suddenly, JFK was the oldest 

Kennedy of his generation. Kennedy's first chance in politics 

came when Congressman James Curley from the 11th District of 

Massachusetts decided to retire in 1946(Gadney 42). JFK won 

his first Congressional seat by a margin of more than two to 

one.    At the age if twenty-nine, JFK was placed on the front page of 
the New York Times and in Time Magazine. He was often mistaken in 

Congress as a Senate page or an elevator operator. 

        It was during this time period in which Kennedy met and fell 

in love with Jacqueline Bouvier. "Jackie",as she was known, came 

from a wealthy Catholic background as prestigious as the Kennedys. 

She attended Vassar College and the Sorbonne in Paris, France. She 


                                                              So 6

spoke French, Italian, and Spanish fluently. They were wed on 

September 12,1953, at St. Mary's Catholic Church in Newport, Rhode 

Island. All seemed well, yet after three two-year terms as a 

Congressman, Kennedy became frustrated with House rules and customs 
and decided to run for Senate.

        In 1952, Kennedy ran for Senate against Republican Senator 

Henry Cabot Lodge. Fifteen years older than Kennedy, Lodge was 

the incumbent of two terms in the Senate. JFK prevailed in the 

victory but was soon stricken with Addison's disease during his 

first year in the Senate and had to operate on a fifty-fifty 

chance for survival procedure(Gadney 52). While recovering, 

Kennedy wrote Profiles in Courage, a bestseller on examples of 

moral courage in the lives of eight senators who risked their 

careers for a great cause or a belief. Kennedy returned to Senate 

and participated in the powerful Senate Foreign Relations 

Committee. He was also chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on 

Labor. JFK believed strongly in education, equal job opportunity, 

and the civil rights movement. His biggest success came in the form 
of his Labor Reform Bill which passed by a margin of 90 to 1 in 

Senate debate. Kennedy's first child, Caroline, was born during 

this time.

        Due to his enormous success in Congress, the Democratic 

party nominated him for the presidential ticket in 1960.

Lyndon Johnson was chosen as the running mate with Kennedy to

secure and build upon the democratic bases in the southern states 

while the Kennedys sought out the younger voters, the factory 


                                                             So 7

workers, and the liberals(Gadney 61).
                                                             
        During the Kennedy Administration, a great deal of events 

were going on.Jackie had given birth to JFK, Jr., while all over 

the south, the civil rights movement was going in full force with 

incidents breaking out. Specific attention gathered around a black 

air force veteran, James Meredith, applied for admission to the 

University of Mississippi. In Cuba both the Bay of Pigs occurred, 

in which U.S. supported rebels revolted in a poorly laid out plan 

of events that fell out beneath them, and the Cuban Missile 

Crisis in which the Soviet Republic were building missile silos 

in Cuba, 100 miles away from Florida. The Space Race was in full 

force with both Russia and the U.S. in competition to reach the 

moon. U.S. involvement in Vietnam was in the latter stages with 

plans to withdraw after the 1964 election.

        On a trip to Dallas to stir up support for the reelection, 

the President's auto were coming down elm street when three shots 

rang out. The first projectile entered at the base of Kennedy's 

neck and exited through the back of his head. The second bullet 

hit Texas Governor John Connally. Seconds later there was another 

shot and the back of the president's head was torn away. The 

assassin- Lee Harvey Oswald with a mail-order rifle fired from 

the Texas School Book Depository(Warren 5). Oswald had recently 

applied for a passport to Communist Russia which led to a series 

of private meetings between Oswald and the Russian 

Government(Warren 614). Oswald protested his innocence.

        President Johnson set up what quickly became known as the 


                                                              So 8

Warren Commission headed by Chief Justice Warren to find the 

motive behind the assassination, The Commission finds the lone, 

depressed, mentally unstable, anti-social nut kills an American 

president("Theories" 1). Other theories have evolved over time 

such as the Grassy Knoll theory. Witnesses say that a man in 

black was present and fired simultaneously with Oswald and 

doubled the actual shots fired("Theories" 1) Another theory is that 
the fired CIA director Allen Dulles used his considerable 

connections and plotted revenge("Theories 2"). 
        
        On Nov. 24, 1963 as Oswald was being escorted from the city 

jail, Jack Ruby shot Oswald with a single shot from a Colt .38 

revolver(Warren 350). Ruby was arrested and stood trial in Dallas. 

He was found guilty and was sentenced to hang. He died in jail of 

cancer, on January 3,1967.

        Kennedy was the first President to be born in the twentieth 

century and was very much a man of his time. He was restless, 

seeking, with a thirst of knowledge, and he had a feeling of deep 

commitment, not only to the people of the United States, but to 

the peoples of the world. Many of the causes he fought for exist 

today because of what he did for the rights of minorities, the 

poor, the very old and the very young. He never took anything for 

granted and worked for everything he owned. Perhaps Kennedy summed 

up his life best in his own inaugural speech: "Ask not what your 

country can do for you, but ask what you can do for your country."
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jim Bridger 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
                                                       Jim Bridger
A trail guide, a fur tracker and hunter and a fur trader.  Jim Bridger may have been one of the best outdoorsmen of all times.  James Bridger was born on March 17, 1804.  In 1812 Jim's parents moved to the vicinity of St. Louis.  He was orphaned at age 12 and became a blacksmiths apprentice.  In 1822, attracted by an ad in the Missouri Republican, 18 year old Jim, joined Gen. William H. Ashley's fur tracking expedition to the head waters of Missouri.  In 1824 while searching for fur in the Rockey Mountains, Jim,  allegedly became the first person to see the Great Salt Lake.  Later on, he and a friend were one of the first white men to see the place which became Yellow Stone Park.  During the next 20 years Jim Trapped in the west as a partner in fur companies.  In 1843 when fur sales declined he set up a fort in southwest Wyoming as a way station to supply immigrants on the Oregon trail.  In the next 40 years he married 3 times to American Indian women, none of whom  survived with him.  Bridger's vast knowledge of many trails gave him a job as a scout and he helped the army  when fighting the Indians. Bridger strongly opposed the Mormons and guided United State troops into Utah during a conflict that has been called the Utah war or Mormon war.  In 1865 he guided the powder river expedition.  And also became the first person to measure the bozeman trail (600 miles) from fort laramie, Wyoming to Virginia City, Montana.  James Bridger was just about the most famous explorer of the American West.  In honor of his travels, The Bridger Mountains, Bridger pass and Bridger National Forest are among the places named for him.  And on July 17, 1881 James Bridgers life came to an end, just near Kansas City.  












 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jim Bridger.TXT
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                                                       Jim Bridger
A trail guide, a fur tracker and hunter and a fur trader.  Jim Bridger may have been one of the best outdoorsmen of all times.  James Bridger was born on March 17, 1804.  In 1812 Jim's parents moved to the vicinity of St. Louis.  He was orphaned at age 12 and became a blacksmiths apprentice.  In 1822, attracted by an ad in the Missouri Republican, 18 year old Jim, joined Gen. William H. Ashley's fur tracking expedition to the head waters of Missouri.  In 1824 while searching for fur in the Rockey Mountains, Jim,  allegedly became the first person to see the Great Salt Lake.  Later on, he and a friend were one of the first white men to see the place which became Yellow Stone Park.  During the next 20 years Jim Trapped in the west as a partner in fur companies.  In 1843 when fur sales declined he set up a fort in southwest Wyoming as a way station to supply immigrants on the Oregon trail.  In the next 40 years he married 3 times to American Indian women, none of whom  survived with him.  Bridger's vast knowledge of many trails gave him a job as a scout and he helped the army  when fighting the Indians. Bridger strongly opposed the Mormons and guided United State troops into Utah during a conflict that has been called the Utah war or Mormon war.  In 1865 he guided the powder river expedition.  And also became the first person to measure the bozeman trail (600 miles) from fort laramie, Wyoming to Virginia City, Montana.  James Bridger was just about the most famous explorer of the American West.  In honor of his travels, The Bridger Mountains, Bridger pass and Bridger National Forest are among the places named for him.  And on July 17, 1881 James Bridgers life came to an end, just near Kansas City.  












 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jim Morrison And Order & Chaos.TXT
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Jim Morrison's life is full of twists and turns. Yet, despite this he still managed to keep control of himself to create well-organized works of music as well as his poems. His social life started out to be the safe variable and when he was on stage he let loose giving crazy shows for the audience. As his life went on his two lives began to blend into one big blunder where you could only see tiny specs of so-called order. As well as Jim's life , the time he lived in behaved the same way. Order in the country was there, but its people and its government showed moments of chaos and even rejection of the government itself. Major things were happening and people were reacting in sometimes extreme ways. The sixties were jam packed with events showing disorder. In this way we can relate it to one who lived the time. Jim Morrison's life was full of diversity, order and chaos, just like the times he lived in, the sixties. Jim's life began as a story of order and chaos. His father was a career militarist, which brought the order of the military. This job brought a lot of moving and relocation which through Jim's childhood out of sync. Jim started his life in Clearwater, Florida. Then he moved to Washington D.C., and then on to Albuquerque, New Mexico. Jim's family kept moving and moving Jim never had time to make any true friends in any one place (Jones 31). To deal with this Jim acted like; one could say the class clown, so he would be liked. This backfired and kids learned to watch themselves around him. With no true friends Jim found that he had no problem manipulating the ones around him. He was his own individual; he just looked out for himself. Morrison received high marks throughout school even though he didn't put too much effort into the books and spent a lot of time drunk (34). His parents then enrolled him in St. Petersburg Junior College in Florida, but Jim transferred to Florida State University only to drop out and move to UCLA to study film. At the end of the year Jim turned in his film, but he received bad reactions to it and he dropped out of school (Manzarek 60). This made Jim a lot more eligible to be drafted so he moved to Venice just south of Santa Monica. This is when he began to use alcohol and drugs to expand his mind past the point the books had. After this summer '65 filled with drugs and alcohol he began to think he could become a rock singer (Jones 38). A little later he met Ray Manzarek and decided to form a band. In 1965 Jim met eighteen year old Pamela Courson. This redhead gave Jim what he called his "Cosmic Mate" (37). This provided Jim a normal relationship where he read his poems and she benefited him in the category of clothing apparel. Yet, Jim enjoyed the life of Los Angeles where freaks, washouts, and the rich lived side by side. Nobody in L.A. would make his ambitions shallow either, Jim chose to be on the crazier side of the city so he could mask himself as he always did and because of the scene there nobody cared. Jim's life though a little wild still kept the calm variable of his band. They made many songs and passed them around to different record companies until Columbia gave them a small deal. They went around L.A. doing birthdays, weddings, and etc... Manzerek was the prominent singer at this time because Morrison was still to shy at the time to use his own voice. The band was looking for a more stable way of playing so they sought a residency at a club. They were rejected around town because they had no bass guitar player, but then Manzerek discovered a way of getting around this by adopting a keyboard that imitated the sound the bass guitar (Jones 41). Then as the Doors concerts numbered on Jim Morrison became more and more confident with his presence on stage, which resulted in the often singing of Morrison. The band started to attract small crowds for their performances who would show up over and over again just to see The Doors play. Along with this Jim became very comfortable on stage. Soon he became so comfortable that he began showing up drunken, high, or both. At the club the Whiskey-A-Go-Go a rep from Elektra records saw them (Manzerek 182). The company gave the Doors control of their output so the band quickly signed. This was definitely a good thing because the Doors had just been fired because Jim just decided to yell "*%$! You" in concert and the management quickly fired them (Jones 43). The cause of this is the fact that the band had to fill the time slots by adlibbing songs and Jim's relationship with LSD, a close one. A big part of order and preciseness in Jim's life is his songs. They were written concise and compact. They are filled with all the knowledge he acquired while reading at the library. They also contained his fears and obsessions. The songs are creative from Jim's own mind and helped out by his mind on drugs such as LSD, peyote, amyl nitrate, grass, and alcohol (43). Jim's life was heading down while the group remained at their respectable level. He had no where to live, while the others maintained their life and just used drugs. They didn't let it control and fuel them like Jim did. Jim now started to become a darker figure talking about death as a friend taking him away from his pain (44). This was the character Jim had ultimately wanted to be. He let his stage personality take over his whole life. Though Jim's appearance made him look like a druggy from a distance he still used his mind and body to show his control. Steve Harris, the Vice President of Elektra said of him, "He had a way of moving, a way of looking at you, and a way of projecting himself: he was gorgeous magnetic. He knew he had the goods, and he knew how to use them" (Jones 48). Steve went on to say how when Jim met a journalist or record company representative he would try to "conquer" the wife, he says Jim usually did (48). Jim did everything to keep what he now had with his image and everything. An example is when before his first concert in New York his mother called and Jim talked to for a short period of time before he went off in a tantrum. His family members tried to reach him, but Jim would refuse to talk then go off in another tantrum followed by getting drunk. Jim also wanted to build on this image with a death hoax. The one fault in Jim's image was people knew he wasn't the kind of guy you would want to be around. He used his manipulative mind to use you if you came close. Jim would test his friends, lovers, etc...over and over till their relationship would break. As the Doors became bigger Jim became more and more unpredictable. He was the first to crowd surf, but the worst things of all were his crude acts on stage and once even getting caught in a public shower room with a woman. The incident with the girl was in New Haven, CT where he met a girl back stage and took her to the shower-rooms and began having sex. A policeman caught them and told them to break up, but Jim protested and the cop reacted by spraying them both in the face with tear gas (Jones 128). The second embarrassing moment for the band was when Jim ran up on stage when Jimi Hendrix was up there and clutched Jimi's legs as to perform oral sex. The next crude act is a time when Jim actually took his partially erect penis and performed or started to perform masturbation. A security guard then pushed him offstage (Manzerek 338). Along with these sexual acts Jim liked to pick fights and he would get his drunk body beaten, but then get right back up and take the beating again. Jim also liked manipulating crowds into frenzies and causing riots. Again the band was unaware of his plan. Jim's life as you can see was one of confusion, disorder, yet he was able to keep some, admittedly not much, but some stability in it. His death in Paris mirrored his life. It was filled with uncertainty. It was most likely caused by an overdose of heroin or a heart attack. No one knows for sure knows what happened to him because after he died Pamela and the doctor were the only two to see his body. There was no autopsy done before Jim was buried. The sixties started off shaky. First the United States had to deal with the building of the Berlin wall. Next the government had to deal with the threat of nuclear war from Russia. Yet with stern discipline the United States won the cold war victory at Cuba. By this time Kennedy had sent troops to Vietnam unsuspecting what was to come next. Kennedy did not do well with the Congress of the time, but all was well with the White House because he was so popular (Kronenwetter 16). Then with sudden tragedy Kennedy was shot and killed. Then even the man who shot him was shot. Johnson sent took over and then sent about 190,000 troops over to Vietnam as well as 20,000 he sent to the Dominican Republic to keep democracy and order in place (21). One huge part of American history is the Vietnam War. Chaos broke out in the country. The United States advisors said it would be a quick, easy victory , but as time and the war went on the United States didn't make a lot of headway. Many bold students came out to protest the war. For this was the first war the American people had seen on film so many were appalled by the sights and the killing. The Tet Offensive put another spike in the United States' side. Then when all couldn't be seen as getting worse after Martin Luther King JR's death Robert F. Kennedy just after winning was shot to death. Even the Democratic Nominating Convention in Chicago, 1968 couldn't escape violence (Emmens 29). Then Nixon came to office and promised to try to get our men out. The war became even more unpopular after the My Lai Massacre. At four hundred and forty-one colleges and universities students protested and the National Guard was even called to Kent State. Finally on January 27, 1973 the war ended with the United States with 57,000 fewer men than before (20). Another great fight in the sixties was the fight for equality. Sit-in movements were very popular. Freedom rides were organized so blacks could ride the bus too. The still rode on even after in South Carolina a bus was beaten and then sent up in flames (51). Robert F. Kennedy went to the measure of sending federal Marshals to control the mobs. Integration of schools was also pursued and James H. Meredith became the first black man at the University of Mississippi with the help of the military. The blacks also scored major victories with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Yet there were still a hand full of blacks that sought to riot and resorted to violence instead. Some of the people were into to the hippie type thing of drugs, poems, and doing nothing else. But most people worked and now with the television becoming more widespread events such as sports could be reported and there would be less need to go watch the game in person. The people of the sixties saw a great diverse decade right in the comfort of there own living room. The age of the sixties was the perfect time of Jim Morrison to live in. James life was full of chaos, was in a time of chaos. Each also had their own type of order. Jim kept his order within his head. As mentioned before, when Jim was tanked he could still use his creative mind to manipulate others. While the order in the sixties is displayed in the way most of the people held together in the times told about. The biggest part of both the sixties and Jim Morrison was the amount of chaos each had in their situations. Jim couldn't control himself or he would just go out on the limb on purpose for a reaction. His drugs ruled his life and he could never really think without these influences. He was totally unpredictable. He showed up at recordings drunk, high, etc... and sometimes he would be so blitzed he couldn't do the recording or he just wouldn't show up at all leaving the rest of the band to record to themselves. People and situations of the sixties made this era full of chaos. The assassinations of the Kennedy's and of Martin Luther King Jr. surrounded the decade. The war, being the least successful in United States history is a surprise because advisors predicted an easy victory one of which the military leaders couldn't pull off. The people of the time rioted, fought and terrorized each other to get their point across while others used the more orderly way of sit-ins and so on (these would sometimes result in violence, too). Morrison identified himself with something called the "Apollinian-Dionysion" split (Manzerek 119). Order and chaos respectively. Morrison always identified with Dionysius and so does the sixties. Works Cited Emmens, Carol A. An Album of the Sixties. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981. Jones, Dylan. Jim Morrison: Dark Star. New York: Viking Studio Books, 1990. Kronenwetter, Michael. America in the 1960's. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1998. Manzarek, Ray. Light My Fire: My Life With the Doors. New York: G.P. Putnam's Son, 1998.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jim Morrison From Boy to Legend.TXT
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Jim Morrison; From Boy to Legend "hope is just a word when you think in Table Cloths Laughter will not end her funny feeling or assuage our strange desire Children will be born" Jim Morrison Jim Morrison is often thought of as a drunk musician. He is also portrayed to many as an addict and another 'doped up' rock star. These negative opinions project a large shadow on the many positive aspects of this great poet. Jim's music was influenced heavily by many famous authors. You must cast aside your ignorance and look behind the loud electric haze of the sixties music. You must wipe your eyes and look through the psychedelic world of LSD. Standing behind these minor flaws, you will see a young and very intellectual poet named Jim Morrison. Jim Morrison's distraught childhood was a contributing factor to Jim's fortune and his fate. As a young child, Jim experienced the many pains of living in a military family. Having to move every so often, Jim and his brother, and sister never spent more than a couple of years at a particular school. Jim attended eight different schools, grammar and high, throughout his schooling career. This amount of traveling made it hard for a young child to make many friends. In high school, Jim had an especially hard time. The only real friend he made was a tall but overweight classmate with a sleepy voice named Fud Ford. Although there seems to be many negative aspects of Jim's child hood, many positive did arise. The traveling done by the Morrison family brought Jim through may different experiences and situations. For instance, while driving on a highway from Santa Fe with his family, he said he experienced the most important moment of his life. The Morrisons came upon an overturned truck of dying Pueblo Indians. This moment influenced Jim and later became the basis of many of his songs, poetry, stories, and thoughts. Jim Morrison's estranged childhood was the root underneath his bizarre personality. The negative effects of his upbringing helped to mold Morrison into the person he would later become. Jim Morrison's strange sense of humor and sickness were just fractions of his very intellectual mind. Jim and his family moved to Alemeda, California. This is where he would start first year and a half of his high school journey. Morrison's creativeness and infatuation with Mad Magazines led to the horrification of many. When he would arrive late to class, he would tell elaborate stories to the teachers about being kidnapped by gypsies. Jim's subtle and bizarre personality was now starting to form. His wild imagination began to produce hundreds of sexually explicit ideas in the form of pictures and make believe radio commercials. The deranged pictures that Jim created, were ones with quite an abnormality. For instance, the picture Jerry Hopkins describes, a man with a Coca-Cola bottle for a penis, a mean looking can opener for testicles, one hand held out and dripping with slime, more of that slim dripping from his anus. All of Jim and Fud's focuses again were sexual, but they were imbued with sophistication and subtle humor unusual for someone only fourteen. No doubt, Jim's sexually demented mind was now partially formed. The once young and innocent Jim Morrison was now older and more harmful. Late in his sophomore year, Jim moved to Alexandria, Virginia. Here he met Tandy, his first girlfriend. Jim now ill-mannered, constantly horrified others, especially Tandy. He would make public scenes by kissing her feet or asking her to do ridiculous acts out loud. Tandy though, was not the only one subjected to Jim's "Tests", his teachers suffered as well. Jim was now looked upon as the ring leader by his peers. Everybody wanted to be like Jim, they all competed for his attention. Right down to his expressions, his peers mimicked all of his actions. But Jim never led them like they wanted to be led. Morrison once again started taking death defying risks that he would also subject his brother to. He forced Andy to walk along an edge that hovered fifty feet above the ground. All of the risks that he subjected others to were ones that he was never afraid to complete. When graduation came around, Jim decided not to attend. Later on his parents succeeded in enrolling Jim at St. Petersburg Junior College in Florida. The instability and rootlessness of Jim Morrison's child hood, helped build a character that later became the emptiness of this great poet. It was also in high school that the intellectual side of Jim's unique mind started to emerge. The same year that he moved to Alameda, Jim stumbled across a new novel by Jack Kerouac. On the Road held Jim captive for hours upon hours. He also started to copy down paragraphs he liked into a spiral notebook that he would carry around with him from that day on. The more Jim read, the more he started to drift away into the infinite world of poetry. He also read Lawrence Ferlinghetti, along with other favorites Kenneth Rexroth and Allen Ginsberg. Young Morrison was greatly fascinated by Dean Moriarty. Jim began to copy Moriarty word for word, right down to his "hee- hee-hee-hee" laugh. Throughout the rest of his years at GWHS, Jim maintained a consistent 88.32 grade average with only minimal effort, twice being named to the honor roll. His IQ was 149. In the college boards, he scored above average. Statistics tell so little about him. The books Jim read reveal more. Jim was greatly inspired by the writings of great philosophers and poets. He devoured Friedrich Nietzsche, the poetic German philosopher whose views on aesthetics, morality, and the Apollonian-Dionysian duality would appear again and again in Jim's conversation, poetry, songs, and life. He read Plutarch's, Lives of the Noble Greeks, becoming enamored with Alexander the Great, admiring his intellectual and physical accomplishments. Jim adopted some of the look of Alexander: The way he tilted his head a little on one side towards his left shoulder. He read the great French symbolist poet Arthur Rimbaud, whose style would later influence the form of Jim's short prose poems. He read everything Kerouac, Ginsberg, Ferlinghetti, Kenneth Patchen, Michael McClure, Gregory Corso, and all the other beat writers published. Balzac, Cocteau, and Moliere were also familiars, along with most of the French existentialist philosophers. No doubt, Jim was becoming a writer. He had begun to keep journals, spiral notebooks that he would fill with his daily observations and thoughts. Jim's studies, brought him across many of the dilemmas of these great writers. Through the alcoholism of Dylan Thomas, the homosexuality of Ginsberg, and the madness and addiction of so many more. Jim saw their pages become a mirror in which he saw his own reflection. The notion of poetry had now taken hold on the still young Jim Morrison. The controversial lyrics and actions of the newly forming Doors, were created by Jim's now corrupted mind. Now at the age of twenty, Jim was writing regularly. He has just quit film school at UCLA, and moved to the Venice Beach area. Through his alcoholic and psychedelic hazed mind ran the songs and lyrics of an unknown concert. As one song finished, the next one started. These songs became the Doors. "Break on through," was his way of expressing the opening of the doors. His songs and poems were the historical collection of writings from great philosophers and poets alike. His notebooks and intellect are now the basis of the Doors and the fortelling of his death. All of the past are now part of the present and the songs all come from the same root. Jim's adoption of Aldous Huxley's, Doors of Perception, was now his number one motto. The drugs taken were only to help open these many doors in his mind. Although his mind seemed lost in the infinite drug world of the unknown, Jim Morrison was the "American Poet." His crave for knowledge was driven by his wondrous mind and only used drugs, not as an exit , but rather as an entrance. The world of Jim Morrison is not well known by many. Most see an alcoholic, others see an addict, and yet more see a deranged waste of a person. But for those who take the time to care, those who take the time to learn and understand will find out that behind the "American Poet," was a young genius. "This is the end, beautiful friend, This is the end, my only friend, the end, of our elaborate plans, the end, no safety or surprise, I'll never look into your eyes again... Jim Morrison
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Joan of Arc 4.TXT
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	JOAN OF ARC


	A French saint and a heroine in the Hundred Years' war was Joan of Arc.  This farm girl helped save the French from English command and was often called the Maid Orleans and the Maid of France.  Her inspiration led the French to many victories. 
	Joan Of Arc (In French Jeanne d'Arc) was born around 1412, in the village of Domremy, France.  She was a peasant girl who, like many girls of that time, could not read or write.  Her father, Jacques, was a wealthy tenant farmer and her mother, Isabelle Romee, taught her how to sow, spin, and cook which she was proud of.  She also spent much of her time praying to and serving God.  She lived like most children did at that time, until when she was about thirteen.  According to Wagenknecht: "The Vision first came when she was first thirteen...." 1   The vision was Saint Michael who said she should be a good girl and go to church. When more and more Visions had come it started coming clearer to her and when she saw Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret her duty was clear, she was the chosen one to crown Charles the VII.                                                              
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	Since France had been fighting with England in what was called the Hundred Years' War, much of Northern France was captured by the English, including Reims where the coronation for kings had been held for over centuries before him.  Since Reims was captured, Charles the VII, who had not yet been crowned; was still called the Dauphin.  When Joan had these visions of Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, she told her family and friends.  When she told her father, he would not let her go.  After when these Visions told her that England and Burgundy, England's ally, were going to capture Orleans, one of France's last strong forces, she knew she had to react.  She needed to go to the governor of Vaucouleurs, an agent of the Dauphin, and convince him to give her an army to escort her to the Dauphin. 
	She first needed an escort to come with her to see the governor so she asked her cousin, Durand Laxart.  He, at first, was skeptical about it, but then he soon 
came to Joan's side.  When she told the governor, Robert de Baudricourt, he said she was a fool and she should go home.  But after some time of waiting, Baudri-
court let her go, under his protection, to the Dauphin with male clothing,  a sword, 
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a safe conduct pass, and a small escort.  They departed February 23.  They safely traveled at night on byroads for eleven days from Vacouleurs to Chinon.  They slept in the open air and disguised Joan, so the English would not notice her when she attended Mass in the towns they went through.  
	After some time arriving in Chinon, she was escorted to where the Dauphin was.  The Dauphin was among his courtiers and she carefully picked him out, while he was among his courtiers.  She went there. 

Jean Benedetti described it:

	Joan made her entrance and according to Jean Cartier, Charles VII's official historian, curtsied as though she had been doing it her whole life.  She was a striking woman who dressed, and in many ways behaved, like a man and yet had feminine qualities of compassion and tenderness.  Everyone who met was impressed the force of  her personality.  She had 'charisma'.  Moreover she provided a 
minor wonder by recognizing the king who was hiding among his courtiers, trying to look inconspicuous, and doubtless succeeding.  When she addressed him he de
denied that he was the king, pointing to one of his courtiers with the words, 'You are mistaken,  there is the king.'  But Joan persisted, calling him 'Gentle Dauphin'. 2      

Joan and the Dauphin spent some time together talking together and she told him 
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that God has sent her there to tell him that God has said that he will be anointed 
and crowned king in Reims.  
	The decision was to be postponed for a few months.  There was a commission to inspect Joan's history; to make sure that she was really sent by God and not the devil.  And Joan herself was questioned and tested at the University of Poitiers and she also had to have a verification by matron to prove that she was a virgin.  After three weeks the court claimed that she was acceptable.  Even though there were myths said about the situation, they wanted her story to be true.  If it was not true, than who would save them?   As Pierre Goubert stated, "She won the confidence  and respect of rough soldiers and chiefs, who knew the legend that a maiden would save the kingdom that had been lost by a woman- Isabeau.  To these people, what we regard as extraordinary, the marvelous or divine appeared normal." 3   
	The appointed rendezvous for the troops was Blois.  Joan made sure that all the men in the army obeyed the Ten Commandments and kicked out all the loose 
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women.  They had to confess their sins to a priest and receive Eucharist.  Wagennecht pointed out that "And LaHire himself, that good-hearted roughneck, whose every word was an oath, was forbidden to swear except by his baton!" 4  Even though the army was living by religious rule, they did have fun.  The Dauphin furnished her with armor, attendants, and horses before they left.  Compton's Living Encyclopedia states that, "A special banner was made for Joan to carry in battle.  On one side were the words 'Jesus Maria' and a figure of God, seated on clouds holding a glove.  The other side had a figure of the Virgin and a shield, with two angels supporting the arms of France" 5
	When Joan and her army arrived in Orleans on April 29th, she was not in command but her being there fired the army with confidence.  Joan did not find the plans on how they were going to enter the enclosed city of Orleans acceptable so they used the plans she made up.  Joan had helped save the enclosed town of Orleans from the English.  The Voices still guided Joan and they told her very precise information on what to do but she often lost her sanity in battle.  But for the fact 
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that these Voices guided her, and how she often got pulled away from certain death 
or pulled away from being captured made the English think that they were dealing with the supernatural.  As Jean Benedetti said:
	
	Certainly the sight of a woman dressed in white armour, carrying a white banner and leading troops into battle, must have been impressive, whatever abuse they might throw at her.  Besides her frequent trips to the fortifications, her summons to the English to surrender must have taken an magic aura, as though she had been trying to put a spell on them, or conjure them to surrender. 6
  
 	On May 4th, Joan took command with the attack at the Bastille of Saint Loup, and they conquered it easily because the English had not enough time to get equipped; this attack cleared the eastside of Orleans. They planned an attack to take the fortress of Les Tourelles, the key point in the disposition of the English.  If they could take back Les Tourelles, the French could control the river again.  In doing this, Joan was injured by an arrow that made a deep wound in her shoulder.  They treated it with a dressing of lard and olive oil and Joan went back into battle.  On an attack at Dunois, they had started attacking in the morning and by sunset they had made no progress and  were about to retire when something miraculous 
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happened.  Joan had went into a vineyard and prayed, then the fort opened and the 
army entered and they captured the fort.
	On May 8th, 1429, the English left their fortress and the siege of Orleans was over.  That night victory was celebrated, the army went from church to church and was cheered by the town.  But still the Dauphin had not been crowned yet. Joan was excluded from the meetings but she always ended up figuring what was happening, and there was a delay. Joan wanted him to be crowned right away and not after Paris was liberated, which was what Charles wanted.  So Charles agreed to go to Reims for the coronation but during the planning time, he would campaign in Loire valley which was consolidated.  
	On July 16, the army, Joan, and Charles entered Reims.  And on July 17, 1429, the Dauphin was crowned king of France, with Joan stood by by the king 
holding her banner.  This was her golden hour; she achieved her miraculous task her Visions set her out to do, and she was recognized for it.
	They French decided to attack Paris, but the king's procrastination warded 
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Joan and her army from accorded attack.  But Compiegne, Senilus, and Beauvais 
were all captured.  On August 28, an armistice was signed between France and Burgundy, which Joan did not favor.  On September 8th, Joan attacked the Porte Saint Honore, Paris and failed.  Here Joan, once again, was wounded, but this time in her thigh.  Joan was taken away from Paris and Charles VII disbanded his army, from autumn of 1429 until the end of the following May.  She participated in taking Saint Pierre le Moutier in autumn.  And on May 23, 1430 Joan went out to Compiegne, which was then sieged by the Duke of Burgundy.  When she entered the Burgundian lines, she was taken away from her soldiers and was caught.  
	While being a prisoner at Beaurevoir, she tried to escape twice.   Once she locked her jailer in but they found her out and sent her back.  The second time she wanted to go back to Compiegne, and since she was scared she would fall into the 
English's hands, she jumped sixty feet from her tower at Beaurevoir, without listening to her Voices.  A leap from that height would have ended any other human life but she survived with no broken bones and only minor injuries.  When found she 
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was taken to Crotoy on the Somme, and there she was sold to the English to be 
tried as a witch under an ecclesiastical court. 	
	She was handed over to Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, on January 3rd, 1431.  The sittings had begun on February 21 and continued over a period of months.  She was held in chains, harassed by countless questions, and threatened with torture over this period of months; Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret still gave her advice through all this.  On May 24, 1431, Joan was taken to the cemetery where she she was to been burned at the stake unless she recanted, which she did.  This is not really to clear to historians why she did that, but many believe that she did not understand what the recant meant.  Wagenknecht stated that "Her own view, after she was herself again, or perhaps one should say her report and interpretation of the view of her Voices in that matter, was that she had imperiled her 
soul to save her life: 'It was the fear of the fire which made me say what I did." 7  After her recanting she was sentenced from death to life of imprisonment. Of her being treated so softly, the English were furious.  Joan had thought she was going 
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to be sent free but instead Cauchon sentenced her to perpetual imprisonment 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Joan of Arc.TXT
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	JOAN OF ARC


	A French saint and a heroine in the Hundred Years' war was Joan of Arc.  This farm girl helped save the French from English command and was often called the Maid Orleans and the Maid of France.  Her inspiration led the French to many victories. 
	Joan Of Arc (In French Jeanne d'Arc) was born around 1412, in the village of Domremy, France.  She was a peasant girl who, like many girls of that time, could not read or write.  Her father, Jacques, was a wealthy tenant farmer and her mother, Isabelle Romee, taught her how to sow, spin, and cook which she was proud of.  She also spent much of her time praying to and serving God.  She lived like most children did at that time, until when she was about thirteen.  According to Wagenknecht: "The Vision first came when she was first thirteen...." 1   The vision was Saint Michael who said she should be a good girl and go to church. When more and more Visions had come it started coming clearer to her and when she saw Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret her duty was clear, she was the chosen one to crown Charles the VII.                                                              
2
	Since France had been fighting with England in what was called the Hundred Years' War, much of Northern France was captured by the English, including Reims where the coronation for kings had been held for over centuries before him.  Since Reims was captured, Charles the VII, who had not yet been crowned; was still called the Dauphin.  When Joan had these visions of Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, she told her family and friends.  When she told her father, he would not let her go.  After when these Visions told her that England and Burgundy, England's ally, were going to capture Orleans, one of France's last strong forces, she knew she had to react.  She needed to go to the governor of Vaucouleurs, an agent of the Dauphin, and convince him to give her an army to escort her to the Dauphin. 
	She first needed an escort to come with her to see the governor so she asked her cousin, Durand Laxart.  He, at first, was skeptical about it, but then he soon 
came to Joan's side.  When she told the governor, Robert de Baudricourt, he said she was a fool and she should go home.  But after some time of waiting, Baudri-
court let her go, under his protection, to the Dauphin with male clothing,  a sword, 
3
a safe conduct pass, and a small escort.  They departed February 23.  They safely traveled at night on byroads for eleven days from Vacouleurs to Chinon.  They slept in the open air and disguised Joan, so the English would not notice her when she attended Mass in the towns they went through.  
	After some time arriving in Chinon, she was escorted to where the Dauphin was.  The Dauphin was among his courtiers and she carefully picked him out, while he was among his courtiers.  She went there. 

Jean Benedetti described it:

	Joan made her entrance and according to Jean Cartier, Charles VII's official historian, curtsied as though she had been doing it her whole life.  She was a striking woman who dressed, and in many ways behaved, like a man and yet had feminine qualities of compassion and tenderness.  Everyone who met was impressed the force of  her personality.  She had 'charisma'.  Moreover she provided a 
minor wonder by recognizing the king who was hiding among his courtiers, trying to look inconspicuous, and doubtless succeeding.  When she addressed him he de
denied that he was the king, pointing to one of his courtiers with the words, 'You are mistaken,  there is the king.'  But Joan persisted, calling him 'Gentle Dauphin'. 2      

Joan and the Dauphin spent some time together talking together and she told him 
4
that God has sent her there to tell him that God has said that he will be anointed 
and crowned king in Reims.  
	The decision was to be postponed for a few months.  There was a commission to inspect Joan's history; to make sure that she was really sent by God and not the devil.  And Joan herself was questioned and tested at the University of Poitiers and she also had to have a verification by matron to prove that she was a virgin.  After three weeks the court claimed that she was acceptable.  Even though there were myths said about the situation, they wanted her story to be true.  If it was not true, than who would save them?   As Pierre Goubert stated, "She won the confidence  and respect of rough soldiers and chiefs, who knew the legend that a maiden would save the kingdom that had been lost by a woman- Isabeau.  To these people, what we regard as extraordinary, the marvelous or divine appeared normal." 3   
	The appointed rendezvous for the troops was Blois.  Joan made sure that all the men in the army obeyed the Ten Commandments and kicked out all the loose 
5
women.  They had to confess their sins to a priest and receive Eucharist.  Wagennecht pointed out that "And LaHire himself, that good-hearted roughneck, whose every word was an oath, was forbidden to swear except by his baton!" 4  Even though the army was living by religious rule, they did have fun.  The Dauphin furnished her with armor, attendants, and horses before they left.  Compton's Living Encyclopedia states that, "A special banner was made for Joan to carry in battle.  On one side were the words 'Jesus Maria' and a figure of God, seated on clouds holding a glove.  The other side had a figure of the Virgin and a shield, with two angels supporting the arms of France" 5
	When Joan and her army arrived in Orleans on April 29th, she was not in command but her being there fired the army with confidence.  Joan did not find the plans on how they were going to enter the enclosed city of Orleans acceptable so they used the plans she made up.  Joan had helped save the enclosed town of Orleans from the English.  The Voices still guided Joan and they told her very precise information on what to do but she often lost her sanity in battle.  But for the fact 
6
that these Voices guided her, and how she often got pulled away from certain death 
or pulled away from being captured made the English think that they were dealing with the supernatural.  As Jean Benedetti said:
	
	Certainly the sight of a woman dressed in white armour, carrying a white banner and leading troops into battle, must have been impressive, whatever abuse they might throw at her.  Besides her frequent trips to the fortifications, her summons to the English to surrender must have taken an magic aura, as though she had been trying to put a spell on them, or conjure them to surrender. 6
  
 	On May 4th, Joan took command with the attack at the Bastille of Saint Loup, and they conquered it easily because the English had not enough time to get equipped; this attack cleared the eastside of Orleans. They planned an attack to take the fortress of Les Tourelles, the key point in the disposition of the English.  If they could take back Les Tourelles, the French could control the river again.  In doing this, Joan was injured by an arrow that made a deep wound in her shoulder.  They treated it with a dressing of lard and olive oil and Joan went back into battle.  On an attack at Dunois, they had started attacking in the morning and by sunset they had made no progress and  were about to retire when something miraculous 
7
happened.  Joan had went into a vineyard and prayed, then the fort opened and the 
army entered and they captured the fort.
	On May 8th, 1429, the English left their fortress and the siege of Orleans was over.  That night victory was celebrated, the army went from church to church and was cheered by the town.  But still the Dauphin had not been crowned yet. Joan was excluded from the meetings but she always ended up figuring what was happening, and there was a delay. Joan wanted him to be crowned right away and not after Paris was liberated, which was what Charles wanted.  So Charles agreed to go to Reims for the coronation but during the planning time, he would campaign in Loire valley which was consolidated.  
	On July 16, the army, Joan, and Charles entered Reims.  And on July 17, 1429, the Dauphin was crowned king of France, with Joan stood by by the king 
holding her banner.  This was her golden hour; she achieved her miraculous task her Visions set her out to do, and she was recognized for it.
	They French decided to attack Paris, but the king's procrastination warded 
8
Joan and her army from accorded attack.  But Compiegne, Senilus, and Beauvais 
were all captured.  On August 28, an armistice was signed between France and Burgundy, which Joan did not favor.  On September 8th, Joan attacked the Porte Saint Honore, Paris and failed.  Here Joan, once again, was wounded, but this time in her thigh.  Joan was taken away from Paris and Charles VII disbanded his army, from autumn of 1429 until the end of the following May.  She participated in taking Saint Pierre le Moutier in autumn.  And on May 23, 1430 Joan went out to Compiegne, which was then sieged by the Duke of Burgundy.  When she entered the Burgundian lines, she was taken away from her soldiers and was caught.  
	While being a prisoner at Beaurevoir, she tried to escape twice.   Once she locked her jailer in but they found her out and sent her back.  The second time she wanted to go back to Compiegne, and since she was scared she would fall into the 
English's hands, she jumped sixty feet from her tower at Beaurevoir, without listening to her Voices.  A leap from that height would have ended any other human life but she survived with no broken bones and only minor injuries.  When found she 
9
was taken to Crotoy on the Somme, and there she was sold to the English to be 
tried as a witch under an ecclesiastical court. 	
	She was handed over to Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, on January 3rd, 1431.  The sittings had begun on February 21 and continued over a period of months.  She was held in chains, harassed by countless questions, and threatened with torture over this period of months; Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret still gave her advice through all this.  On May 24, 1431, Joan was taken to the cemetery where she she was to been burned at the stake unless she recanted, which she did.  This is not really to clear to historians why she did that, but many believe that she did not understand what the recant meant.  Wagenknecht stated that "Her own view, after she was herself again, or perhaps one should say her report and interpretation of the view of her Voices in that matter, was that she had imperiled her 
soul to save her life: 'It was the fear of the fire which made me say what I did." 7  After her recanting she was sentenced from death to life of imprisonment. Of her being treated so softly, the English were furious.  Joan had thought she was going 
10
to be sent free but instead Cauchon sentenced her to perpetual imprisonment 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Johann Sebastian Bach.TXT
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741
Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the greatest composers in Western musical history. More than 1,000 of his compositions survive. Some examples are the Art of Fugue, Brandenburg Concerti, the Goldberg Variations for Harpsichord, the Mass in B- Minor, the motets, the Easter and Christmas oratorios, Toccata in F Major, French Suite No 5, Fugue in G Major, Fugue in G Minor ("The Great"), St. Matthew Passion, and Jesu Der Du Meine Seele. He came from a family of musicians. There were over 53 musicians in his family over a period of 300 years. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany on March 21, 1685. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a talented violinist, and taught his son the basic skills for string playing; another relation, the organist at Eisenach's most important church, instructed the young boy on the organ. In 1695 his parents died and he was only 10 years old. He went to go stay with his older brother, Johann Christoph, who was a professional organist at Ohrdruf. Johann Christoph was a professional organist, and continued his younger brother's education on that instrument, as well as on the harpsichord. After several years in this arrangement, Johann Sebastian won a scholarship to study in Luneberg, Northern Germany, and so left his brother's tutelage. A master of several instruments while still in his teens, Johann Sebastian first found employment at the age of 18 as a "lackey and violinist" in a court orchestra in Weimar; soon after, he took the job of organist at a church in Arnstadt. Here, as in later posts, his perfectionist tendencies and high expectations of other musicians - for example, the church choir - rubbed his colleagues the wrong way, and he was embroiled in a number of hot disputes during his short tenure. In 1707, at the age of 22, Bach became fed up with the lousy musical standards of Arnstadt (and the working conditions) and moved on to another organist job, this time at the St. Blasius Church in Muhlhausen. The same year, he married his cousin Maria Barbara Bach. Again caught up in a running conflict between factions of his church, Bach fled to Weimar after one year in Muhlhausen. In Weimar, he assumed the post of organist and concertmaster in the ducal chapel. He remained in Weimar for nine years, and there he composed his first wave of major works, including organ showpieces and cantatas. By this stage in his life, Bach had developed a reputation as a brilliant, if somewhat inflexible, musical talent. His proficiency on the organ was unequaled in Europe - in fact, he toured regularly as a solo virtuoso - and his growing mastery of compositional forms, like the fugue and the canon, was already attracting interest from the musical establishment - which, in his day, was the Lutheran church. But, like many individuals of uncommon talent, he was never very good at playing the political game, and therefore suffered periodic setbacks in his career. He was passed over for a major position - which was Kapellmeister (Chorus Master) of Weimar - in 1716; partly in reaction to this snub, he left Weimar the following year to take a job as court conductor in Anhalt-Cothen. There, he slowed his output of church cantatas, and instead concentrated on instrumental music - the Cothen period produced, among other masterpieces, the Brandenburg Concerti. While at Cothen, Bach's wife, Maria Barbara, died. Bach remarried soon after - to Anna Magdalena - and forged ahead with his work. He also forged ahead in the child-rearing department, producing 13 children with his new wife - six of whom survived childhood - to add to the four children he had raised with Maria Barbara. Several of these children would become fine composers in their own right - particularly three sons: Wilhelm Friedmann, Carl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian. After conducting and composing for the court orchestra at Cothen for seven years, Bach was offered the highly prestigious post of cantor (music director) of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig - after it had been turned down by two other composers. The job was a demanding one; he had to compose cantatas for the St. Thomas and St. Nicholas churches, conduct the choirs, oversee the musical activities of numerous municipal churches, and teach Latin in the St. Thomas choir school. Accordingly, he had to get along with the Leipzig church authorities, which proved rocky going. But he persisted, polishing the musical component of church services in Leipzig and continuing to write music of various kinds with a level of craft and emotional profundity that was his alone. Bach remained at his post in Leipzig until his death in 1750. He was creatively active until the very end, even after cataract problems virtually blinded him in 1740. His last musical composition, a chorale prelude entitled "Before They Throne, My God, I Stand", was dictated to his son-in-law only days before his death.
















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	John Adams, who became the second president of the United States, has been accused by some historians of being the closest thing America ever had to a dictator or monarch (Onuf, 1993). Such strong accusations should be examined in the context of the era in which Mr. Adams lived and served. A closer examination of the historical events occurring during his vice presidency and his term as president, strongly suggests that Adams was not, in fact, a dictator. Indeed, except for his lack of charisma and political charm, Adams had a very successful political career before joining the new national government. He was, moreover, highly sought after as a public servant during the early formation of the new federal power (Ferling, 1992).
	Adams was a well educated, seasoned patriot, and experienced diplomat. He was the runner-up in the election in which George Washington was selected the first United States President. According to the electoral-college system of that time, the second candidate with the most electoral votes became the Vice President (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). As president, Washington appointed, among others, two influential political leaders to his original cabinet; Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson, a veteran politician became the Secretary of State and Hamiliton, a young, outspoken New Yorker lawyer, became the Secretary of the Treasury (Ferling, 1992). Jefferson, like Adams, had also signed the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, however, was the only cabinet member relatively unknown to Adams (Ferling, 1992). It was Hamilton, nonetheless, who excelled during this new administration by initiating numerous, innovative, and often controversial programs, many of which were quite successful. Adams and Hamil
ton were both Federalists. Unlike Hamiliton, Adams was more moderate (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). During this first administration, Adams and Hamilton quarreled (Washington Retires, 1995), and Adams contemptuously began referring to Hamilton as "his puppyhood" (DeCarolis, 1995). This created a rift in the administration, for Washington generally favored Hamiliton (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975), and disregarded Adams (Ferling, 1992). Hamilton also went to great lengths to drive Jefferson out of the cabinet (Allison, 1966). Jefferson did finally, indeed, resign from the cabinet. The Federalists "party," of which Hamiliton was the leader (DeCarolis, 1995) was greatly divided and even violent, at times, under his leadership (Allison, 1966). This is significant in assessing Hamilton's and others' arguments of Adams being a dictator after his presidential victory in 1796 A.D.
	There are several traits that were conspicuous about John Adams. First, he was known as an honest man of integrity (Ferling, 1992; Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). He was also often described as "stubborn," quick-tempered, and even cantankerous at times (Liesenfelt, 1995; Smelser & Gundersen, 1975; Wood, 1992). He was, however, quite intelligent and apparently had a secure self-esteem, being quite willing the challenge tradition (Wood, 1992). Adams was an intensely self-introspective man, though confident (Calhoon, 1976).
	By 1795, conflict was raging with France. Washington made it clear that he was not returning to office. This, for the first time, provided the impulse for the two differing political philosophies to align into separate parties, even though the Federalists never considered themselves to be a party (Wood, 1992). Hamilton tried to by-pass Adams by nominating Carolinian Thomas Pickney (Ferling, 1992). He had instigated a similar conspiracy to keep Adams from defeating Washington in the second national election, as Adams had discovered (DeCarolis, 1995). In spite of the divided Federalists, Adams defeated Thomas Jefferson by three electoral votes. He became the second president and Jefferson, having the second largest number of votes, became vice-president. This event, too, is significant because for the first time in office here were two men of totally different philosophies of government, attempting to run the country together. Adams' presidency was stressful from the moment of his inauguration. In his address, 
he sought to make it clear that he was not a monarchist (Allison, 1966). 
	France had decreed to seize American ships. The country was divided over whether to be pro-British (as was Hamilton) or pro-France (as was Jefferson). Hamiliton eventually resigned the position of inspector general, but continued to send Adams unsolicited recommendations regarding foreign policy issues (DeCarolis, 1995). Adams resented Hamilton's meddling in his executive prerogatives. He eventually expelled two other Hamiltonian cabinet members. The height of Adam's presidency and popularity came primarily from the victories the navy had over French vessels, and the exposure of the scandal called the XYZ Affair, in which Adams was applauded for revealing the dishonesty and corruption of the French officials, and French insistence on demanding bribes.
	This period, however, was very unstable and uncertain, both at home and abroad. Hamilton made bitter attacks on Adams' policies (Elser, 1993). The fiscal situation was desolate. The national debt and the threat of what appeared to be inescapable war caused great stress, opposition, and even occasional violence (Onuf, 1993). Matters only became worse. The Federalist Congress created a provisional army which, though needed, added to the financial strain.  Congress then passed three major oppressive measures all within a two-week period: the Alien Act, the Naturalization Act, and the Sedition Acts, all of which caused Adam's popularity to decrease and his political direction to be questioned (Ferling, 1992). The army, needed because of the French conflict, was very expensive to maintain. The Alien Act permitted the president to deport those who are considered a threat to the government. Many immigrants did return to Europe because of fear. The Naturalization Act placed new stipulations on becoming a citizen and 
required fourteen years of residency. The last, and most offensive act, the Sedition Act, was purely a censorship tactic, which did result in several anti-federalists (Republicans) being indicted for printing criticisms against the government (Ferling, 1992). Adams never recommended any such measures, but he did sign the bill (Allison, 1966). This law prohibited attacks on the government,  oral or written, and upon arrest the defendant had to prove his innocence (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). Due to these congressional measures, citizens, including Jefferson, began to fear that the provisional army would not just fight France, but also use their military strength to attack protesting Americans, hence beginning a civil war. That Sedition Act had no immediate impact may be evidence that the Federalists were acting out of paranoia in their immediate frenzy to stop domestic opposition (Ferling, 1992).
	These events, along with the establishing of political parties, as well as John Adam's non-charismatic political style, increased tensions that lead some to accuse the second president of being a dictator. Adams was proactive, but he was not a dictator. According to Ferling, "President Adams sought to control events rather than to be controlled" (1992). At the approach of the 1800 election, Jefferson and Burr entered the presidential race against Adams. This eventually resulted in a tie between Jefferson and Burr, upon which the Congress chose Jefferson. Consequently, the election was not a landslide, nor did Adams do poorly. He received 65 of the electoral votes, or 24 percent. The significance of this election is not necessarily that Adams lost, but that the votes were divided almost equally among the candidates, with no one gaining a decisive victory. This first suggests that the people were quite disunited, or undecided, about which political direction the country should go. Second, Adams received almost 
as many votes as his opponents, suggest that he may not have made such a poor political performance, as has been suggested. 
	In this writer's opinion, the Federalistic Congress probably did over-react, as well as obscure their democratic aims. It was, however, these described events, and the fact of Adams' lack of political charisma, that proved unproductive in building support and popularity in the latter part of his term. It should also be pointed out that though the Sedition Act was anti-democratic in practice, Thomas Jefferson, who defeated Adams, used it against the Federalists in 1803 (People v. Croswell) and indicted a publisher (DeCarolis, 1995). Jefferson was not accused of being a dictator for such non-democratic actions. Adams was neither dictatorial in his conduct, or imperial in his policies. He appeared to have had the interest of the common people at heart. The conflict with France, the high taxes needed to keep the army and navy operating, and the poor legislative faux pas Congress made during period time, all cast a negative reflection on President Adams. This provided his opponents, like Hamilton, Burr, and even J
efferson, with political leverage to use against him, just as politicians and political parties do in our own modern era. If Adams were a dictator, then one must ask would the citizens elect his son to be the future president, twenty-four years later? Or, how his grandson, Charles Francis Adams, became America's minister to London. Apparently the citizenry remembered President Adams in a positive, democratic way, and not as a dictator.



References


Allison, J. M. (1966). Adams and Jefferson: The story of a friendship. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 

Calhoon, R. M. (1976). John Adams and the psychology of power. Review of American History, December 1976, 520-525.

DeCarolis, L. M. (1995). The precipice of power: The quasi war with Adams, 1789-1800. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~welling/usa/hamilton/hamil36.htm.

Esler, L. A.. (1993). Presidents of our United States. Chicago: Rand McNally.  

Ferling, J. E. (1992). John Adams: A Life. Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press.

Liesenfelt, J. (1995). John Adams (1735-1826): Childhood. A biography of John Adams. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~welling/usa/adams/ad_ch1.html

Onuf, P. S. (1993). Thomas Jefferson: Federalist. Essays in History, 35, n.p. [On-line], Available: http://www.lib.virginia.edu/journals/EH/EH35/onuf1.html#26

Smelser, M. & J. R. Gundersen. (1978). American history at a glance. (4th ed.). New York: Barnes and Noble Books. 

Washington Retires. (1995). [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~weling/usa/ch3_p8.html

Wood, G. S. (1992). The radicalism of the American revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 



















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Adams.TXT
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	John Adams, who became the second president of the United States, has been accused by some historians of being the closest thing America ever had to a dictator or monarch (Onuf, 1993). Such strong accusations should be examined in the context of the era in which Mr. Adams lived and served. A closer examination of the historical events occurring during his vice presidency and his term as president, strongly suggests that Adams was not, in fact, a dictator. Indeed, except for his lack of charisma and political charm, Adams had a very successful political career before joining the new national government. He was, moreover, highly sought after as a public servant during the early formation of the new federal power (Ferling, 1992).
	Adams was a well educated, seasoned patriot, and experienced diplomat. He was the runner-up in the election in which George Washington was selected the first United States President. According to the electoral-college system of that time, the second candidate with the most electoral votes became the Vice President (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). As president, Washington appointed, among others, two influential political leaders to his original cabinet; Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson, a veteran politician became the Secretary of State and Hamiliton, a young, outspoken New Yorker lawyer, became the Secretary of the Treasury (Ferling, 1992). Jefferson, like Adams, had also signed the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, however, was the only cabinet member relatively unknown to Adams (Ferling, 1992). It was Hamilton, nonetheless, who excelled during this new administration by initiating numerous, innovative, and often controversial programs, many of which were quite successful. Adams and Hamil
ton were both Federalists. Unlike Hamiliton, Adams was more moderate (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). During this first administration, Adams and Hamilton quarreled (Washington Retires, 1995), and Adams contemptuously began referring to Hamilton as "his puppyhood" (DeCarolis, 1995). This created a rift in the administration, for Washington generally favored Hamiliton (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975), and disregarded Adams (Ferling, 1992). Hamilton also went to great lengths to drive Jefferson out of the cabinet (Allison, 1966). Jefferson did finally, indeed, resign from the cabinet. The Federalists "party," of which Hamiliton was the leader (DeCarolis, 1995) was greatly divided and even violent, at times, under his leadership (Allison, 1966). This is significant in assessing Hamilton's and others' arguments of Adams being a dictator after his presidential victory in 1796 A.D.
	There are several traits that were conspicuous about John Adams. First, he was known as an honest man of integrity (Ferling, 1992; Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). He was also often described as "stubborn," quick-tempered, and even cantankerous at times (Liesenfelt, 1995; Smelser & Gundersen, 1975; Wood, 1992). He was, however, quite intelligent and apparently had a secure self-esteem, being quite willing the challenge tradition (Wood, 1992). Adams was an intensely self-introspective man, though confident (Calhoon, 1976).
	By 1795, conflict was raging with France. Washington made it clear that he was not returning to office. This, for the first time, provided the impulse for the two differing political philosophies to align into separate parties, even though the Federalists never considered themselves to be a party (Wood, 1992). Hamilton tried to by-pass Adams by nominating Carolinian Thomas Pickney (Ferling, 1992). He had instigated a similar conspiracy to keep Adams from defeating Washington in the second national election, as Adams had discovered (DeCarolis, 1995). In spite of the divided Federalists, Adams defeated Thomas Jefferson by three electoral votes. He became the second president and Jefferson, having the second largest number of votes, became vice-president. This event, too, is significant because for the first time in office here were two men of totally different philosophies of government, attempting to run the country together. Adams' presidency was stressful from the moment of his inauguration. In his address, 
he sought to make it clear that he was not a monarchist (Allison, 1966). 
	France had decreed to seize American ships. The country was divided over whether to be pro-British (as was Hamilton) or pro-France (as was Jefferson). Hamiliton eventually resigned the position of inspector general, but continued to send Adams unsolicited recommendations regarding foreign policy issues (DeCarolis, 1995). Adams resented Hamilton's meddling in his executive prerogatives. He eventually expelled two other Hamiltonian cabinet members. The height of Adam's presidency and popularity came primarily from the victories the navy had over French vessels, and the exposure of the scandal called the XYZ Affair, in which Adams was applauded for revealing the dishonesty and corruption of the French officials, and French insistence on demanding bribes.
	This period, however, was very unstable and uncertain, both at home and abroad. Hamilton made bitter attacks on Adams' policies (Elser, 1993). The fiscal situation was desolate. The national debt and the threat of what appeared to be inescapable war caused great stress, opposition, and even occasional violence (Onuf, 1993). Matters only became worse. The Federalist Congress created a provisional army which, though needed, added to the financial strain.  Congress then passed three major oppressive measures all within a two-week period: the Alien Act, the Naturalization Act, and the Sedition Acts, all of which caused Adam's popularity to decrease and his political direction to be questioned (Ferling, 1992). The army, needed because of the French conflict, was very expensive to maintain. The Alien Act permitted the president to deport those who are considered a threat to the government. Many immigrants did return to Europe because of fear. The Naturalization Act placed new stipulations on becoming a citizen and 
required fourteen years of residency. The last, and most offensive act, the Sedition Act, was purely a censorship tactic, which did result in several anti-federalists (Republicans) being indicted for printing criticisms against the government (Ferling, 1992). Adams never recommended any such measures, but he did sign the bill (Allison, 1966). This law prohibited attacks on the government,  oral or written, and upon arrest the defendant had to prove his innocence (Smelser & Gundersen, 1975). Due to these congressional measures, citizens, including Jefferson, began to fear that the provisional army would not just fight France, but also use their military strength to attack protesting Americans, hence beginning a civil war. That Sedition Act had no immediate impact may be evidence that the Federalists were acting out of paranoia in their immediate frenzy to stop domestic opposition (Ferling, 1992).
	These events, along with the establishing of political parties, as well as John Adam's non-charismatic political style, increased tensions that lead some to accuse the second president of being a dictator. Adams was proactive, but he was not a dictator. According to Ferling, "President Adams sought to control events rather than to be controlled" (1992). At the approach of the 1800 election, Jefferson and Burr entered the presidential race against Adams. This eventually resulted in a tie between Jefferson and Burr, upon which the Congress chose Jefferson. Consequently, the election was not a landslide, nor did Adams do poorly. He received 65 of the electoral votes, or 24 percent. The significance of this election is not necessarily that Adams lost, but that the votes were divided almost equally among the candidates, with no one gaining a decisive victory. This first suggests that the people were quite disunited, or undecided, about which political direction the country should go. Second, Adams received almost 
as many votes as his opponents, suggest that he may not have made such a poor political performance, as has been suggested. 
	In this writer's opinion, the Federalistic Congress probably did over-react, as well as obscure their democratic aims. It was, however, these described events, and the fact of Adams' lack of political charisma, that proved unproductive in building support and popularity in the latter part of his term. It should also be pointed out that though the Sedition Act was anti-democratic in practice, Thomas Jefferson, who defeated Adams, used it against the Federalists in 1803 (People v. Croswell) and indicted a publisher (DeCarolis, 1995). Jefferson was not accused of being a dictator for such non-democratic actions. Adams was neither dictatorial in his conduct, or imperial in his policies. He appeared to have had the interest of the common people at heart. The conflict with France, the high taxes needed to keep the army and navy operating, and the poor legislative faux pas Congress made during period time, all cast a negative reflection on President Adams. This provided his opponents, like Hamilton, Burr, and even J
efferson, with political leverage to use against him, just as politicians and political parties do in our own modern era. If Adams were a dictator, then one must ask would the citizens elect his son to be the future president, twenty-four years later? Or, how his grandson, Charles Francis Adams, became America's minister to London. Apparently the citizenry remembered President Adams in a positive, democratic way, and not as a dictator.



References


Allison, J. M. (1966). Adams and Jefferson: The story of a friendship. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 

Calhoon, R. M. (1976). John Adams and the psychology of power. Review of American History, December 1976, 520-525.

DeCarolis, L. M. (1995). The precipice of power: The quasi war with Adams, 1789-1800. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~welling/usa/hamilton/hamil36.htm.

Esler, L. A.. (1993). Presidents of our United States. Chicago: Rand McNally.  

Ferling, J. E. (1992). John Adams: A Life. Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press.

Liesenfelt, J. (1995). John Adams (1735-1826): Childhood. A biography of John Adams. [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~welling/usa/adams/ad_ch1.html

Onuf, P. S. (1993). Thomas Jefferson: Federalist. Essays in History, 35, n.p. [On-line], Available: http://www.lib.virginia.edu/journals/EH/EH35/onuf1.html#26

Smelser, M. & J. R. Gundersen. (1978). American history at a glance. (4th ed.). New York: Barnes and Noble Books. 

Washington Retires. (1995). [On-line], Available: http://grid.let.rug.nl/~weling/usa/ch3_p8.html

Wood, G. S. (1992). The radicalism of the American revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 



















































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John F. Kennedy 
John F. Kennedy graduated from Harvard in 1940, and soon after he entered the Navy. In 1943, when his PT boat was rammed and sunk by a Japanese destroyer, Kennedy, despite serious injuries, led the survivors through perilous waters to safety.
Back from the war, he became a Democratic Congressman from the Boston area, advancing in 1953 to the Senate. He married Jacqueline Bouvier on September 12, 1953. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation, he wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history.
In 1956 Kennedy almost gained the Democratic nomination for Vice President, and four years later was a first-ballot nominee for President. Millions watched his television debates with the Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon. Winning by a narrow margin in the popular vote, Kennedy became the first Roman Catholic President.
His Inaugural Address offered the memorable injunction: "Ask not what your country can do for you-- ask what you can do for your country." As President, he set out to redeem his campaign pledge to get America moving again. His economic programs launched the country on its longest sustained expansion since World War II; before his death, he laid plans for a massive assault on persisting pockets of privation and poverty.
Responding to ever more urgent demands, he took vigorous action in the cause of equal rights, calling for new civil rights legislation. His vision of America extended to the quality of the national culture and the central role of the arts in a vital society.
He wished America to resume its old mission as the first nation dedicated to the revolution of human rights. With the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps, he brought American idealism to the aid of developing nations. But the hard reality of the Communist challenge remained.
Shortly after his inauguration, Kennedy permitted a band of Cuban exiles, already armed and trained, to invade their homeland. The attempt to overthrow the regime of Fidel Castro was a failure. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union renewed its campaign against West Berlin. Kennedy replied by reinforcing the Berlin garrison and increasing the Nation's military strength, including new efforts in outer space. Confronted by this reaction, Moscow, after the erection of the Berlin Wall, relaxed its pressure in central Europe.
Instead, the Russians now sought to install nuclear missiles in Cuba. When this was discovered by air reconnaissance in October 1962, Kennedy imposed a quarantine on all offensive weapons bound for Cuba. While the world trembled on the brink of nuclear war, the Russians backed down and agreed to take the missiles away. The American response to the Cuban crisis evidently persuaded Moscow of the futility of nuclear blackmail.
Kennedy now contended that both sides had a vital interest in stopping the spread of nuclear weapons and slowing the arms race. This led to the test ban treaty of 1963. The months after the Cuban crisis showed significant progress toward his goal of "a world of law and free choice, banishing the world of war and coercion." His administration saw the beginning of new hope for both the equal rights of Americans and the peace of the world.
 
















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John F. Kennedy


Blaize Hite
Mr. Nelson
Modern American Studies, Period 1
5 Novermber 1996


	John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in the Boston suburb of
Brookline.  Kennedy was the son of Joseph P. Kennedy a formerambassador to Great
Britain.  Kennedy was much like his father, possesing a delightful sense of
humor, a strong family loyalty, a concern for the state of the nation, endless
vitality and a constant air of confidence no matter how dire the situation
(Kennedy, Sorensen, Harper & Row, New York 1965, Page 18). Growing up in a
priviliged household and graduating with honors from Harvard.  He served as an
assistant to his father (1938), naval officer (1941-1945), journalist (1941 and
1945) and Congressman (1947-1953), he had traveled to every major continent and
talked with the presidents and prime ministers, of some thirty-seven countries.
In 1952 he was elected to the United States Senate and in 1953 he married
Jaqueline Bouvier.  However one year later a spinal operation brought him to the
edge of death's door, causing him to deeply reflect on his character (Sorensen
28).  After his dangerous operation he researched and wrote a book, about
democracy.  The next year narrowly missing the Vice Presidential nomination of
his party, Kennedy emerged as a national figure in large demand.

     "John Kennedy was not one of the Senate's great leaders" (Sorensen 43).
Very few laws of great  importance bear his name.  Even after his initial "
traditionally' inactive freshman year in the Senate, his chances for major
contributions to the Senate excluding his stances on fair labor reform and
against rackets, were constantly diminished of his Presidential campaign.  His
voting record reflects his open minded views, and strengthed beliefs.    He was
well liked and respected by many Senators.  Kennedy was regarded for his
eagerness and cool logic in debate situations  His only real "enemy" was Senator
Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin (Sorensen 45).McCarthy's rough and wide-ranging
hunts for Red, "pinks" and headlines had stomped on the freedoms of people who
had not committed a crime, and Kennedy was too rational and reasonable a man to
remain indiferent to the extremism known as Mcarthyism.  Kennedy often was a
thorn in McCarthy's side obstructing many of McCarthy's personal choices for
various offices and by serving on certain committies of which McCarthy was
chairman, such as the Government Operations Committee (Sorensen 46).

     Kennedy's political philosophy revoloved around the idea that one could
not allow the  pressures of party responisbility to cloud ones personal
responsibility. Meaning after all was said and done that the decision falls upon
yourself to make the choice regardless of what your party platform was.  Of
course the platfrom had significant merit, nevertheless it still came down to
the individual.  "Democrats, he said, generally had more heart, more foresight
and more energy.  They were not satisfied with things as they were and believed
they could make them better"  (Sorensen 71).

     "John F. Kennedy wanted someday to be President of the United States"
(Sorensen 95).  Not becuase he was dissatisfied with his life as a Senator nor
because he possessed some grand scheme for the future of America.  He merely
felt that it was the center of action of the American System.  "at least you
have an opportunity to do something about all the probelms which. . . I would be
concerned about [anyway] as a father or as a citizen. . . and if what you do is
useful and succesful, then . . . that is a great satisfaction" (Sorensen 95).
Before the election of 1960 Kennedy used the result of his newfound celebrity
status to do a bit of travelling across the country.  Convering more than thirty
thousand miles in twenty-four states, he made over 150 speeches and appearances
in the course of six weeks.  He spoke to various conventions, varying from civic
to labor, farmer to youth.  However his senatorial duties enabled him to accept
less than 4 percent of the hundreds of invitations that poured into his office,
mainly consisting of important Democratic canidates or fund-raising dinner
chairmen.  As the years progressed the fact materialized that his hard work had
finally begun to pay off.  His audiences had became larger and even more
enthusiastic.  Therefore at 12:30 P.M., on Saturday, January 2, Senator John
Fitzgerald Kennedy walked into a crowded press conference and read a one-page
declaration of his candidacy for the Presidency (Sorensen 122).  	

     "I am announcing today my candidacy for the Presidency of the United
States. . . . In the past forty months, I have toured every state in the Union
and I have talked to Democrats in all walks of life.  My candidacy is therefore
based on the conviction that I can win both the nomination and the election"
(Sorensen 122).

     Kennedy's campaign opened on a low note, polls showed that Nixon was far
better known than Kennedy on the basis of his national office and four
nationwide campaigns; that Nixon was looked upon as more experienced; and that
Kennedy was known primarily as a wealthy, inexperienced, youthful Catholic.  The
Democrats were in a state of division, while Nixon had successfully rallied the
Republicans.  Kennedy took the this time to organized himself and manifest
support for his campaign run, through a steady onlslaught of speeches, and
meetings Kennedy seemed almost to thrive (Sorensen 178).  Focusingnot on
singular issues but instead Kennedy expressed his discontent with America's
current situation, he insisted that we could do better.

	Kennedy indeed won the election by a very narrow margin, so narrow that
the victory could almost be attributed to any list of decisive factors.  However
there are seven that prominantly stick out.  The Television Debates.  At this
point in American history this was the most televised campaign ever and Kennedy'
s vitality and knowledge appealed to millions of voters who probably would have
simply acknowledged him as too inexperienced and young.  One survey showed that
four million voters made up their minds simply by the debates, giving Kennedy a
three-to-one margin (Sorensen 213). Campaign Tactics.  Kennedy's vigorous,
intensified campaign style was aggressive from the start instilling a feeling of
unreached potential.  His tactics enabled him to swing many undecided voters and
probably even more if time had permitted (Sorensen 214).  Party Identification.
Kennedy appealed frequently and aggressively to party unity, loyalty, and
history.  His party was the majority party in terms of Senators, Congressmen,
governors, and mayors, this allowed for heavy organization and heavy
registration of voters. Nearly seven million more people that the amount that
voted four years earlier.  Black Relations. Kennedy's concerned call to the wife
of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was hailed throughout the black community, which
thenproceeded to vote overwhelmingly for Kennedy.

	Do to length constraints the paper will jump ahead to focus on one
example of the President's  response to a domestic issue and the President's
view on foreign policy.

     "The Fight For Equal Rights" (Sorensen 470).  In 1953 John Kennedy was
adamantly in favor of civil rights legislation as a political neccessity and
simply recognized that this legislation was morally correct.  However in 1963
Kennedy was deeply committed to human rights.  His convictions on this subject
were not converted, but instead reached by his characteristic gradualness, logic,
and cool mentality.  He immediately began to implement programs that would
incorporate a stronger black prescence in the legislative and judical branches
of government.  However an element that was seriously lacking were civil rights
measures.  No amount of Presidential pressure could put through the Eighty-
seventh Congress a meaningful legislative package on civil rights (Sorensen 476).
 Kennedy responded to his situation at a press conference by saying, "when I
feel that there is a necessity for Congressional action, with a chance of
getting that Congressional action, then I will recommend it" (Sorensen 476).
Nevertheless Kennedy pushed and pushed first through legislation aimed at
massive registration to massive desegregation.  Executive orders barred
segregation or descrimination in the armed forces Reserves, in the training of
civil defense workers, in the off-base treatment of military personnel, in
Federally aided libraries and in the summer college training institutes of the
National Science Foundation and National Defense Education Act.

     "The Olive Branch" (Sorensen 509).  John Kennedy's approach to foreign affairs
was very different from his approach to domestic problems, this was because
foreign affairs had always appealed to him far more than domestic.  They took up
a great deal more of his time and energy as President.  They severely tested his
abilities of execution and judgement, and his ability to react to consistent
unforeseeable events.  The following two quotes are one of  many that sum up his
opinion on foreign policy, "Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never
fear to negotiate" and "We must face up to the chance of war, if we are to
maintain the peace. . . . Diplomacy and defense are not substitutes for one
another. . . . A willingness to resist force, unaccompained by a willing to talk,
could prevoke belligerence--while a willingness to talk, unaccompanied by a
willingness to resist force, could invite disaster. . . .  While we shall
negotiate  freely, we shall not  negotiate freedom. . . .  In short, we are
neither "warmongers" nor "appeasers," neither "hard" nor "soft." We are
Americans" (Sorensen 511)

	The President faced many crisises whether domestic or foreign.  He was
forced to deal with the escalating Cold War, the Cuban Missle Crisis, Civil
Rights, Recession and Inflation.  With each issue he faced he responded with
dilligence, careful thought and decisive action.  Throught every scenario he
faced from election to the Senate to the Presidential campaign he was able to
expand his ideas and maintain a healthy open attitude.  That was the shock of
November, 1963.  Jack Kennedy was living at his peak. Almost everything seemed
to be moving in his direction.  He was healthy, respected, and looking forward
to the comepletion of his first term and start of his second term.  To suddenly
be "cut off"  is not simply a loss, but a loss of what could have been.  In less
than three years he presided over a new era in American race relations, a new
era in our a Latin-American relations, a new era in fiscal and economic policy
and a new era in the exploration of space.  His Presidency helped launch the
longest and strongest period of economic expansion for that period of time, and
new and enlarged roles for the Federal Government in higher education, mental
affliction, civil rights, and the conservation of human and natural resources.
If I was to rate the president I would conclude that since he was the first
Executive power to back the civil rights movement and such that he was indeed a
great president.  A man far greater than the legend he left us who truly
believed that one man could make a difference.  I feel that what makes him such
a great president is what he stood for, hope in an era of doubt, public service
ahead of private interests, for reconciliation between black and white, labor
and management.  His sole defense for such a rating are his actions and his
beliefs.  I have to admit that before this report I really knew nothing of J. F.
K.  Of course I knew of his assassination but of his legislative and executive
work I knew absolutely nothing except for the work he did for civil rights which
my father informed me of at an early age.  However now I feel a great deal more
informed and I found his life rather interesting.  If he had not of died he
would be around 86 this year and most likely still very active in the Senate or
some form of political office. Interesting to note the effect his wisdom and
advice could have affected the way the United States is now today.


Bibliography

Theodore C. Sorensen.  Kennedy.  New York:  Harper & Row, 1965.  783 pp.



 
















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John F. Kennedy


     John Fitzgerald was born in Brookline, Massachusetts on May 29,
1917.  He graduated from Harvard University in 1940.  Which led to some of his
earlier political successes. Some came from when he ran for the United States
House of Representatives in 1946, and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1952.
In 1953 he married Jacqueline Bouvier.  During recuperation from spinal surgery,
Kennedy completed Profiles in Courage (1956), for which he won a Pulitzer Prize
in 1957. Kennedy attempted to win the Vice-president presidential nomination and
failed; Kennedy began to plan for the presidential election in 1960.  He won the
nomination on the first ballot.  He campaigned with Senator Lyndon B. Johnson
his running mate, against Vice President Richard M. Nixon, the Republican
nominee. The issues of defense and economic standards were raised in four
televised debates.  Kennedy won the election with 113,000 votes out of 680,000
cast.  Kennedy's wit and charm earned him considerable popularity at home and
abroad.  "Every president must endure a gap between what he would like and what
is possible" he once said. In the fall of 1963 Kennedy began to plan his
strategy for re-election.

     On November 22, at 12:30 p.m., while riding in an open limousine
through Dallas, Texas, Kennedy was shot in the head and neck by a gunmen.
Kennedy was rushed to the Parkland Memorial Hospital, were efforts to save
him failed.  Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded in September 1964 the
assassin was Lee Harvey Oswald. The state funeral of President John Fitzgerald
Kennedy was watched on television by millions around the world.  He was the
youngest president ever elected and the first Roman Catholic.  John F. Kennedy
was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.




 
















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 John Fitzgerald Kennedy  (JFK) 
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th president of the United States of America.
He grew up in a family of political leaders and then became one himself. During his
lifetime he had many accomplishments, both personal and political; he had a beautiful wife,
and a wonderful family, he wrote award winning novels, started the Peace Corps, and he
broke the barrier between us and the Soviet Union, among many others which will be
discussed later. Nearing the end of his term of president, Kennedy was visiting Dallas,
Texas to campaign for the next election. During a campaigning motorcade, his open
convertible limousine was approaching a field known as Dealey Plaza when shots rang
out. The shots were thought to have come from the seven-story Texas School Book
Depository. The shots were fatal for President John Kennedy. John Kennedy was a very
influential leader of the 1960's and will remain a hero forever.
John Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street, Brookline, Massachusetts on May 27,
1917. He was born to Joseph and Rose Kennedy. John was the second oldest in his
family of nine children. He was named after his grandfather, John Fitzgerald. His
grandfather was elected mayor of Boston in 1905. His father, Joseph Patrick was a
wealthy business man, and an advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and also the US
Ambassador to Great Britain from 1938 to 1940. As you can see he was destined to be a
successful leader. As a young boy JFK was called "Jack" by his family. He and his family
moved to New York when John was 10 years old. They spent summer months in
Hyannis, Cape Cod. His family often traveled to other states and countries. He attended
an elite prep school, Choate High School in Connecticut, he graduated in 1935. he then
went on to Harvard College and graduated from there in 1940. In 1941 he joined the
Navy, he became commander of a PT (patrol torpedo), assigned to the battle in the Pacific
against the Japanese. During one night, Kennedy's boat was rammed by a large enemy
boat, two of the thirteen crew men were killed, and the rest, led by Lt. Kennedy swam to a
nearby deserted island off of the Solomon Islands. They managed to survive, mostly by
eating coconuts until they were rescued a week later. Kennedy engraved a message in a
coconut shell and it was found by Naval Officers. After W.W.II was over, he had to
decide what to do with his life, he possibly wanted to be a teacher or writer, but he decide
to run for a political office. In 1946 he was elected to the US Congress, representing a
large area in Boston. Becoming a congress man at the age of 29. He was a Democrat, he
served three terms, or six years in the House of Representatives. In 1952 he was elected
to the US Senate. Kennedy barley missed being picked for the Democratic part's
candidate for Vice President in 1956. He started a long campaign to become president in
1960. At a convention on July 13, 1960, Democratic chose Kennedy ad their Presidential
candidate. Kennedy asked Lyndon B. Johnson, a senator from Texas to run with him as
his vice President. Kennedy and Nixon had the first televised presidential debate, in
which Kennedy proved himself to be a smooth, calm person in heated up times, and Nixon
didn't. In general election on November 8, 1959, Kennedy defeated Vice President
Richard M. Nixon in a very close race. There was a record breaking 69 million voters
that year, Kennedy won by 113,000 votes. Kennedy was the youngest man ever elected to
President, at 43 years old, he was also the first Catholic president. JFK was sworn in as
President on January 20, 1960. During his Inaugural Address he spoke about the need for
all Americans to be active citizens, this is where his famous quote, " Ask not what your
country can do for you, but what you can do for your country", came from. John
Fitzgerald Kennedy had many personal achievements throughout his life time. One of his
firsts was a book he wrote during his college years at Harvard University. His book, Why
England Slept, was on the Best Sellers list, it was about some of the decisions that led to
W.W.II and about how Britain lack preparedness for the war. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier,
another one of his great accomplishments. Jacqueline was one of the most admired and
looked upon First Ladies in our history, she was young, beautiful and loved by everyone.
He was married to her on September 12, 1953. Four years after their marriage, in 1957,
their first child was born, it was a girl, they named her Caroline. In 1959, two years later,
their second child was born, John Jr., named after his father. He was called, "John John"
by his father. He had a beautiful family by the end of the 1950's. In 1954 he had a serious
operation on his back, after years of problems. While he was recovering, he wrote another
book, this one about senators who had risked everything for what they had believed. The
book, called Profiles in Courage, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1957.
He was an American hero for his political achievements. In his first year of office,
congress passed a law increasing minimum wage, the first change to the law since it
became a law. Congress also passed a bill granting federal aid to the economically
depressed areas. He helped create the Peace Corps. The Peace Corps are American
volunteers who go to other countries requesting assistance. Americans serve as, teachers,
and help in farming, health care, and construction. In May 1961, after Alan Shepard was
the first American astronaut to go into space, Kennedy asked congress to spend more
money on space exploration, with the intention of landing a man on the moon before the
end of the decade. In one bill, congress dedicated One billion dollars to finance the
sending or a man to the moon. Kennedy also asked congress to pass a Civil Rights bill
that would guarantee blacks the rights to vote, to attend public schools, to have equal job
opportunities, and equal access to public accommodations. In 1961, from the previous
Administration, he inherited a secret plan to over throw Fidel Castro of Cuba. Kennedy
approved an invasion, known as the Bay of Pigs. The invasion took place in April by
refugees, the attempt failed and resulted in the capture of US refugees and personal
embarrassment for President Kennedy. In 1962 he helped rescue the prisoners from the
Bay of Pigs, 1113 prisoners were released in exchange for food and medical supplies
valued at 53 million dollars. The Cuban Missile Crisis was perhaps the worlds closest
approach to a Nuclear War. Ever since W.W.II there had been a lot of anger and
suspicion between the US and the Soviet Union. This "Cold War" was a struggle between
the Soviet Union's communist system of government and Americas democratic system.
Because there was no trust between two countries, they both spent large sum's of money
building nuclear weapons to use if a war did start. We placed some of our missiles in
Turkey, which was in range of the USSR. In the Fall of 1962, we heard rumors that the
USSR had placed in Cuba, which was in range of south eastern United States. Kennedy
arranged for spy planes to fly over Cuba. The planes spotted a missile. Kennedy
demanded that the Soviet Union dismantle and remove the missiles or he was going to
create a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent the arrival of anymore weapons. On
October 28, the USSR agreed to remove the missiles, if we removed ours from Turkey.
In August 1963, The United States and The Soviet Union signed a treaty that outlawed
nuclear bomb tests in air, underwater, or in space. Kennedy did a lot for African
Americans in the 1960's. In September 1962, the nation forced the threat of violence in
the State of Mississippi. James Meredith, an African American and Air Force veteran,
applied and was admitted to the University of Mississippi. However, when he arrived on
campus, university officials would not let him go to class because he was black. Both
John and Robert (his brother) Kennedy had long talks over the telephone with the
governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett. However they failed to convince him to allow
James Meredith to attend classes. In order to enforce the Constitution and to protect
Meredith, Kennedy ordered the National Guard and federal marshals to the University.
After a riot in which two people died and dozens were injured, Meredith registered for
classes and segregation ended at the University of Mississippi. A similar incident
happened almost a year later in Alabama. African American students were not allowed to
attend the University of Alabama, once again, President Kennedy had to send in soldiers to
protect the students. He decided to speak on national television about civil rights. He said
Americans had a legal and moral responsibility to provide equal access to education and
guarantee voting rights for all citizens. He helped to end segregation in the south. John
Kennedy accomplished so much in his three years as president of the Untied States of
America.
It was a sunny November day in 1963, a plane called Air Force one landed at Love
Field in Dallas. The crowds were friendly as the presidential motorcade wound through
the streets. Since the day was so nice, the Kennedy's, the governor of Texas and his wife,
rode in an open convertible limousine. The limousine approached a diamond-shaped
grassy field, called Dealey Plaza. Standing seven-stories above them was the Texas
School Book Depository building. The governor's wife turned and smiled at the
president. "Well, Mr. President", she said, " you can't say that Dallas doesn't love you!"
John Kennedy never answered. A crack of a rifle cut him down, and the world has never
been the same since. Kennedy's body lurched. Governor john Connally slumped forward.
A guard assigned to protect the president leaped onto the back of the limousine. He
grabbed Mrs. Kennedy who had climbed onto the back of the car in terror. He saw blood
soaking the car seats and pounded on the trunk. The limousine sped toward Parkland
Memorial Hospital. The announcement of Kennedy's death came at 2:00 P.M. eastern
time on Friday, November 22, 1963. People who lived through this day can remember
precisely where they were and what they were doing when they heard the stunning news.
Minutes after the shooting, police searched the building surrounding Dealey Plaza. One
officer came upon a man who was drinking a Coke in the second-floor employees'
lunchroom at the Texas School Book Depository, the man was twenty-four-year-old Lee
Harvey Oswald. He would remain a dark and mysterious figure in history. Evidence in the
Texas School Book Depository put a suspicion on Oswald, which made him a wanted
suspect. Dallas patrolman J.D. Tippit spotted Oswald hurrying down a sidewalk and
ordered him to halt. Oswald drew his pistol and shot three times killing Officer Tippit
instantly. Thirty-five minutes later, Oswald was seized inside a movie theater. Oswald was
to be routinely transferred to another jail facility on Sunday, November 24. As he was
being escorted by two detectives holding each arm, a man jumped out of the crowd and
shouted, "You killed the president, you rat!" Then shoved a pistol into Oswalds' stomach,
fired, and killed him.
There are many theories on what happened to President John Kennedy on
November 22, 1963. This is probably one of the most mysterious assassinations, in US
history. He was one of four other assassinations, Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, and
William McKinley. The Single Bullet theory was a theory drafted by the Warren
Commission, it was a theory used to explain the conclusions that they had come to during
their investigation. The single bullet theory can be accepted, although there are many other
theories that can equally just as well explain Kennedy's assassination. With the aid of
modern technology photographs, films, and sound recordings from the time have been
examined. The findings of the examination show that the controversial incident regarding
Governor Connally and President Kennedy could have been possible. If Connally had
turned ever so slightly to his right which he is said to have recalled to doing so in hospital.
Photographic evidence also supports this. Due to the fact that Kennedy and Connally were
of a similar size the single bullet theory that says Connally and Kennedy were hit by the
same bullet could be true. There are of course facts that warp the single bullet theory such
as the fact that the bullet that was found on a hospital stretcher was in perfect condition.
Yet doctors have proven that the bullet had in fact gone through two major bones and
torn out a great deal of muscle. Tests carried out on the bullet prove also that a bullet
when fired through a sheep's spinal chord which is the same thickness as a human's, it
becomes out of shape and shows signs of severe impact. So the single bullet theory could
be disproved in this way. However chemical tests carried out on the bullet found on the
stretcher in Parkfield Hospital, proves that it did in fact come from the same cartridge
shells found hidden in the Texas School Book Depository Building. his is the main
question which is one everyone's lips, and there are several points which are worth
considering when deciding whether or not there was a second gunman. Photographic
evidence also points towards a second gunman as a picture taken at the time, after
enhancement shows a figure hiding in the grassy knoll, not far from were the assassination
took place. Witnesses have also testified that they saw a man hiding in the bushes,
cigarette stubs have also been found as well as footprints. Others say that they saw gun
smoke, however this is unlikely due to the fact that modern rifles don't produce smoke
visible to the human eye. In fact the only smoke that would have been visible by the human
eye is when you are positioned less than a foot or so away from it. Secret service agents
were reported to be at the scene when the shots went off. However the positions of all the
secret service agents show that there was no - one in the immediate area. A Dallas
policeman ran towards the area when the shots went off, however he was stopped by a
group of gentlemen posing as secret service agents. In a statement later he admits that he
should have asked the gentlemen for identification as they didn't look like secret service
agents. Could these men have been comrades to a man standing in the grassy knoll.
Dealey Plaza was unfortunately an echo valley, so the sound of gun shots would seem to
come from different places. A recording made at Dallas Police headquarters, after analysis
shows that the shots could have came from a variety of different places, but the recording
seems to point towards the theory of three shots being fired. To shoot from the grassy
knoll, would of had to be a tracking shot, the gunman would have to have been moving his
rifle left to right matching the motion of the car. Gun experts have said that it would have
been a difficult shots from the Texas School Book Depository building, however the shot
would have been a much easier one than from the grassy knoll.
This obviously shows that there must have been some sort of a sound resembling a gun
shot from the grassy knoll as there was people diving for cover on the floor, obviously
scared of being hit. Also a Dallas police officer thought that there was a shot from the
grassy knoll and indeed ran over, but only to be turned away by 'fake' secret service
agents. The major fact that alarms Americans is that the Warren Commission who
investigated the assassination is that they were very single minded and seemed to have no
other theories about the assassination. The commission were also criticized because they
couldn't really prove it was Oswald or get a confession out of him. The Warren
commission believe that the assassination was carried out by a lone gunman, namely Lee
Harvey Oswald. However another investigation into the assassination by the House Select
Committee was carried out a number of years later because there was still public disbelief
that Oswald was a lone gunman. The committee called witnesses to hear their version of
the events, and in the end ruled that there could have been another assassin, possibly
situated in the grassy knoll. Some points to raise into this matter are that the secret service
agents were never found, even after a substantial investigation, could it have been a cover
up? Another point to raise is over the witnesses, several witnesses died under mysterious
circumstances before they could give their version of events. The largest point to raise is
Oswalds' claim that he was a patsy ( he was framed ). Could crucial eye - witnesses have
been assassinated to stop them from speaking out, could one of them held a vital clue to
solve the mystery.
In conclusion to John Fitzgerald Kennedy, as a person, as a leader, as the President
of the United States of America, and most of all as our friend, was very influential to all of
us. He was born into a family of leaders and politicians, it was his destine that he would
be a political leader, and he was but not just the United States also for the whole world.
He created a wonderful family, which also became leaders of today's world. He made
many improvements during his three years in office to our nation. He improved health
care, poverty, civil rights and relations with other countries. He was a president that really
cared about his country, and the world and did as much as he could to make it as perfect
as possible. I think that he is the last president that we have had that has really tried to
improve our country instead of just try to keep it form getting worse. He dealt with not
just the big issues that existed but also with the smaller issues. I believe that he is a True
American Hero and should be held in the highest of light for his leadership, personality,
and accomplishments. I don't not agree with the "Single Bullet" theory. Gun experts even
said that it would have been a very difficult shot to make from the Texas School Book
Depository. It is almost impossible for it to have only been one bullet. It is said that the
shots came from behind and above the limousine, which would have made a bullet whole
in Kennedy that went down, then above that entry wound there was said to have been and
exit wound, then below that whole it is said that it entered senator Connally in a
downward direction. This means that this one, single bullet left seven injuries, the first
downward, the second upwards, the third downwards and the rest downwards. How can
this be? I don't think that it is possible. there had to have been more than one bullet
causing these injuries. I think that there was another person shooting and they were all
involved in a conspiracy. How do you explain the sounds people heard, the smoke, the
fake secret service agents, the mysterious bullet that showed up on the hospital bed? It
can't be explained if Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. I think that Jack Ruby shot him
because he was part of the conspiracy and got scared and thought that he was going to
"rat" on them. The only way all of this can be explained is if there are multiple people
involved in. I'm not sure why there was a conspiracy against him but I think that it might
have something to do with his civil rights movements or his thoughts of pulling out from
Vietnam. I think that the assassination of John Fitzgerald Kennedy is one of the most
tragic events that has happened in our history, partially because of who he was and also
because we still do not know to this day what really happened.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
References
-The Official Warren Commission Report, Doubleday and Company, Inc.,
Garden, N.Y. 1964
- The Assassination of John F. Kennedy, R Conrad Stein, Children's Press
Chicago, 1992
- The United States History: In the course of human events, West Publishing Company
1997 pages 868-976
- Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia, Volume 14; pages, 355-356
Robert S. Phillips
- www.serve.com/shadows/mystery.htm
- www.cs.umb.edu/jfklibrary/
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Gotti A Leadership Development Paper.TXT
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2303
If ever there was an incubator for crime it was the Italian Harlem tenements of the South Bronx. In one of those crowded dirty apartments, a young John Gotti seeked an impoverished existence with his parents and eleven sisters and brothers. His father rarely worked and then, only at menial jobs, risking the money that the family did have on gambling. Eventually the family moved to central Brooklyn, which was known as East New York. In East New York, for a poor boy like John Gotti with nothing in the way of prospects, the Cosa Nostra represented something to which he could realistic aspire to gain the power and respect he craved. He started as many young boys did, running errands for the gangsters, molding himself into a young bully with a future. His first major incident with the police occurred when he tried to steal a cement mixer and it fell on his feet, an injury that affected his gait for the rest of his life. He quit school at sixteen and rose to leadership in a local street gang of thieves called the Fulton-Rockaway Boys, named after two streets in their neighborhood. At an early age he exerted his bad temper, dominance and readiness to engage in fistfights. These were just the right characteristics to develop his potential as a Mafia boss. In the mid-1960's, Gotti's boss Carmine Fatico moved his headquarters out to Ozone Park near JFK Airport. Gotti, his brothers, Angelo and Willie Boy became relatively successful hijackers. That is, until they got caught in 1968 and landed in prison. In 1972, when Gotti got out of prison and went back to Ozone Park, the headquarters had been imaginatively renamed the Bergin Hunt and Fish Club. Two important things happened in his life to significantly lift his status in the Cosa Nostra. The first was that his boss Carmine Fatico faced a loansharking indictment, so Gotti became Fatico's man on the street to keep him informed about what was happening at a grass-roots level. The second was that Gotti met Neil Dellacroce, an important under boss to Carl Gambino. Neil accomplished Carlo's violent dirty work from a headquarters in Little Italy's Mulberry Street called the Ravenite Social Club. Neil, who was disappointed that his only son Armond became a drug addict, saw in Gotti a young protégé who was a younger version of his own violent, macho self. Like Gotti, he had a weakness for gambling and one such episode got him in trouble with the IRS. Neil ended up in jail for at least a year. With both Fatico and Dellacroce in the slammer, John Gotti was handed a lot of new responsibilities. For one thing, he gained incredible visibility by reporting directly to Carlo Gambino while Fatico was in jail. Before that opportunity, Carlo did not particularly value Gotti's crowd in Ozone Park. To the sophisticated Carlo, they were just a bunch of hotheaded thugs. This was a chance for Gotti to show himself in a different light. Gotti brought home to the Ozone Park crowd Carlo's prohibition on drug dealing. But the warnings fell on deaf ears. Many of the men very close to Gotti were dealing and using heroin and cocaine. But Gotti kept the faith by warning them: "If you're dealin,' you're f..kin' playin' with fire, and if you get caught, you're f..kin' dead." Through Neil Dellacroce, Gotti and his Ozone Park boys had a chance to vastly improve their status under Carlo. Carlo had lost a nephew in 1973 to a kidnapper who collected the $100K ransom and then murdered the boy. Gotti was given the opportunity to get revenge for Carlo. The kidnapper was a man named James McBratney. Gotti, Angelo Ruggiero and another one of the Bergin soldiers dressed up as cops and shot McBratney in a pub in front of several witnesses. Angelo was arrested first and later, the police also arrested Gotti for the murder. Fortunately for Gotti, Carlo gave the McBratney case to his talented lawyer Roy Cohn who was able to get the charge reduced to manslaughter. While Gotti was in jail in 1976, Carlo Gambino had a heart attack and was dying. Carlo made a decision that was to create problems for the crime family for almost a decade-he named his brother-in-law Paul Castellano as his successor. Castellano was not respected and admired like Carlo. Perhaps his insecurity caused him to keep Neil as his under boss in charge of all of the more violent activities, such as hijacking. While Paul would focus the family efforts on the more sophisticated criminal activities like union rackets and bid-rigging in construction projects. This decision created two separate branches of the Gambino family: Paul's branch and Neil's branch. The schism did nothing to strengthen the family and ultimately brought about the assassination of Paul in 1985, when after Neil's death, Paul sought to demote Gotti and his men and promote his own favorites. The assassination of Paul Castellano was a brilliant coup on the part of Gotti, not just in the way the ambush was executed, but also in the preparation of the Gambino family and other crime families for the event itself. When John Gotti made his decision that he was going to eliminate Paul, he determined who he would recruit to join him in the conspiracy that was ultimately called the Fist. Gotti had to be very careful, because if in trying to recruit other key members of the Gambino family, word got back to Paul, Gotti himself would be sanctioned and executed. First Sammy was approached, not by Gotti directly, but by Angelo. Sammy realized that Castellano would never survive an all out war with the Bergin crew. Sammy, in spite of his "by the-rules" approach to most things, understood that Paul was not leading the family in the right direction. By Gotti's invitation to Sammy to join up with him, Gotti was signaling that he wanted to unify the family again and heal the schism that had broken the family into two camps. Sammy was behind the idea of new leadership of a unified family. Sammy told Angelo that he would see how DeCicco and Robert DiBernardo would react to such a proposal before he made a firm commitment. After DeCicco agreed, the three key players were committed: Gotti, Gravano and DeCicco. DiBernardo, a very rich and influential man with strong Teamster connections, signed on shortly afterwards. Now Gotti needed someone of the older generation, a traditional capo in the family. Joseph Armone fit the bill. By getting Armone to join the Fist, they reduced the possibility of a civil war within the family. Gotti and his co-conspirators knew that they had to lay the groundwork for their plan well beyond the Gambino family. In Jerry Capeci and Gene Mustain's book Gotti: Rise and Fall the strategy is described: Members of the Fist contacted influential men in three other Cosa Nostra families -Luchese, Colombo, and Bonanno -- and asked for support if "something happened" to Paul. They approached men they regarded as the next generation of leaders, because most of the current leaders had fallen victim to the RICO (racketeering law) sword and were awaiting trial and facing life in prison without parole. For obvious reasons, Paul's friend Chin Gigante was not contacted. On the day of Paul Castellano's assassination, DeCicco carried on some important political preparations. He went to the Sparks restaurant to make sure that the other capos there did not think that their lives were endangered and to do his best to prevent them from taking any retaliatory action against whoever they thought was responsible. A couple of days after Paul's death, elderly consigliere Joe Gallo called a meeting of all the Gambino family capos at a restaurant owned by Gravano. Gallo had already warned Gotti that his contacts with the younger leadership of the other families didn't count. Only the Cosa Nostra Commission could have a leader removed. Consequently, Gotti and the Fist must never admit what they did, regardless of what conclusions were reached by other Gambino family members or other crime family members. Capeci and Mustain captured the spirit of the dialogue: "It's terrible, what's happened," Gallo began. "But we don't know who killed Paul, we're investigatin'. Nobody feels worse for Paul's and Tommy's families than me. But we're a family too and we have to stay strong. So that's why we called you here." None of the captains believed him, of course. But the armed sentries and seating arrangements made reassurance more important than truth. Nobody had any questions about the murders; Gallo, speaking for Gotti, gave them the only answers they wanted. The other Cosa Nostra families were given the same message and did not threaten any trouble. The sole exception was Chin Gigante, the boss of the Genovese family who reminded the Gambino capos that eventually someone would have to pay for breaking the Commission rules. When the Gambino capos met again before the end of the year, John Gotti was formally elected boss of the family. Fist co-conspirator Frank DeCicco made his nomination. As a student of Machiavelli, Gotti had a good sense of whom in his organization to put into positions of power. DeCicco became his under boss and he made Angelo head of the Bergin crew. Sammy officially took over all of Toddo's operations. Sammy was a very powerful man, but he preferred to remain a shadowy background figure, while Gotti and DeCicco visibly ran the show. Joseph Armone, the elderly capo who had become a member of the Fist, was given new sources of income. And consigliere Joe Gallo remained in his position under Gotti as he had under Paul Castellano. Most importantly, Gotti understood the value of public relations. Unlike his predecessor and some of the other family bosses, Gotti realized that favorable publicity would enhance his standing with other Cosa Nostra families, with the members of his own family, and, very importantly, with potential jurors and witnesses. By charming the media, he was able to create a public image of himself as a legendary, almost heroic rogue. Yes, he was a gangster. That could not be denied. But to the public he was a popular and likable guy -- the way Al Capone was revered on the streets of Chicago in 1930. Gotti was very media astute, a fact which confounded his enemies in law enforcement. The original Mafia was an institution built out of respect and honor in Sicily the early 1700's. This secret society was at the time mostly intended to unify the natives against their enemies. Its intention was to create a sense of family based on ancestry and Sicilian heritage. The leaders of today are changing the face of the Mafia. Gotti himself is not Sicilian, but rather Neapolitan. It has been called The Outfit, The Arm, The Clique, The Tradition, The Syndicate, The Honored Society, The Office, and The Combination, but to its members it is La Cosa Nostra (this thing of ours). The face of the Mafia has changed from the faceless, mysterious, and impenetrable power that it was fifty years ago. Fifty years ago, no member of La Cosa Nostra would have considered breaking omerta, the code of silence which, in many ways, is responsible for the power of the Mafia. To do this was to be labeled a "rat" (called that because a rat will do anything to survive) and be marked for certain death. Today, things are different. It has been blamed on drugs, and it has been blamed on youth. One thing is certain: powerful members of the Mafia have broken omerta, and the entire organization has paid the price. In 1988, Angelo Lonardo, former acting boss of the Cleveland Family, testified before the Senate Committee on Government Affairs. The issue of the changing of the Mafia was addressed. Senator Roth stated: "...we are facing a new generation of the LCN [La Cosa Nostra]... They lack respect for tradition and for the family, they have succumbed to the influence of drugs, both as traffickers and as users. As a result, they have become more greedy, selfish, more violent. Many have chosen to forsake omerta, the traditional vow of silence and turn in other family members to save their own skins." Mr.Lombardo himself stated that there were no men of honor anymore. He states: "It has changed since I first joined in the 1940's, especially in the last few years with the growth of narcotics. Greed is causing younger members to go into narcotics without the knowledge of the families. These younger members lack the discipline and respect that made "This Thing" as strong as it once was."
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Kennedy.TXT
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JOHN F. KENNEDY 
John Fitzgerald was born in Brookline, Massachusetts on May
29, 1917.  He graduated from Harvard University in 1940.  Which
led to some of his earlier political successes. Some came from when
he ran for the United States House of Representatives in 1946, and
was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1952.  In 1953 he married
Jacqueline Bouvier.  During recuperation from spinal surgery,
Kennedy completed Profiles in Courage (1956), for which he won a
Pulitzer Prize in 1957.
Kennedy attempted to win the Vice-president presidential
nomination and failed; Kennedy began to plan for the presidential
election in 1960.  He won the nomination on the first ballot.  He
campaigned with Senator Lyndon B. Johnson his running mate,
against Vice President Richard M. Nixon, the Republican nominee. 
The issues of defense and economic standards were raised in four
televised debates.  Kennedy won the election with 113,000 votes out
of 680,000 cast.  Kennedy's wit and charm earned him considerable
popularity at home and abroad.  "Every president must endure a
gap between what he would like and what is possible" he once said.  
In the fall of 1963 Kennedy began to plan his strategy for
re-election.  On November 22, at 12:30 p.m., while riding in an open
limousine through Dallas, Texas, Kennedy was shot in the head and
neck by a gunmen.  Kennedy was rushed to the Parkland Memorial
Hospital, were efforts to save him failed.  Chief Justice Earl
Warren concluded in September 1964 the assassin was Lee Harvey
Oswald.
The state funeral of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy was
watched on television by millions around the world.  He was the
youngest president ever elected and the first Roman Catholic.  John
F. Kennedy was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.  Kennedy  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Lennon 4.TXT
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JOHN LENNON

BY: ASHLEA LINDSEY


	John Lennon was a great song writer and musician.  He played the rhythm guitar, the piano, and sang.  He was in the most popular group in the history of rock music.  In 1959, John founded this group, called The Beatles.
	The original Beatles were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Pete Best.
	Brian Epstein became the manager of the Beatles in 1961.  Epstein made many changes in the group.  John rebelled and did not want to "package" and "clean up" the group in order to please fans.  These changes were made anyway despite John's protests.
	The Beatles had signed a contract with EMI records and were beginning to record with them.  On August 16, 1962, Pete Best, the drummer was suddenly fired from the group.  Ringo Starr was inducted into the Beatles two days after Best was fired.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney shared the credit of songs written by either one of them.  The credit simply read Lennon-McCartney.  The two as song writers were a perfect mix.  John had a quick artistic sense and he was easily excited by new challenges, he projected a sarcastic and rebellious tough-guy personality, who was actually a vulnerable romantic.  While Paul projected the sweet image and who was underneath an injured, controlling, perfectionist.
	By 1964, The Beatles arrived at JFK Airport.  They were greeted with mass hysteria.  Two days later, more than 73 million people watched them perform live on the Ed Sullivan Show.  Four weeks later, The Beatles held the top five music singles in America at the same time.
	John was influenced by many things in 1965-1966 such as psychedelia, marijuana, and Bob Dylan.  Many felt that these years were the best song writing years of John Lennon's life.
	1966---The Beatles had been touring for over four years, and they, especially John were tired of it.  John wanted to spend more time with his wife, Cynthia, and his song, Julian.  At one time, they had to do 32 concerts in 19 days.  On their next album, Beatles For Sale, the material reflected how unhappy John and Paul were with life on the road.  Songs like "I'm a Loser" and "No Reply" spoke of depression and the frenzy of life in the spotlight.  John once said, "It's like we're four freaks being wheeled out to be seen, shake our hair about, and get back into our cage afterwards."
	The Beatles felt that they needed to work only in the studio now.  So, on August 29, 1966, The Beatles performed their last live performance ever at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California.
	Almost a year later, Brian Epstein, the Beatles Manager was found dead in his apartment of a suicidal overdose.  This caused many problems for the group.  John later admitted that "The Beatles were finished when Eppy died.  I knew, deep inside me, that that was it, without him, we'd had it."
	John met a Japanese artist name Yoko Ono in 1967.  In just a few weeks, the two were inseparable.  This new relationship destroyed John's marriage with Cynthia and eventually destroyed his relationship with Paul McCartney, and the other Beatles.  After John's divorce from Cynthia, John Winston Lennon changed his name to John Ono Lennon in honor of Yoko Ono.  He insisted on using "JOHNANDYOKO" as his official signature and identity.  John and Yoko were married in the year of 1969.
	John released his first solo single in 1969, "Give Peace a Chance."  He did not credit this song to Lennon-McCartney, but to The "Plastic Ono Band." 
	On April 10, 1970, Paul McCartney resigned from the Beatles.  The group dissolved officially in 1971.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney became rivals after the Beatles broke up.  They were at constant competition with records.  John released his "Signature" solo album: Imagine in 1971.  One song on the record, entitled "How do you Sleep?" includes the lines:
		The only thing you done was Yesterday
		And since you've gone you're just 
			Another Day
		How do you sleep?
	These lines were directed to Paul McCartney.
	John Lennon recorded seven albums during 1970-1975 which included Imagine--1971 and Rock and Roll--1975.
	John semi-retired from music in 1975-1980.  He was raising his son, Sean, with wife, Yoko Ono.
	In 1980, John and Yoko released Double Fantasy.  By November, their album was climbing to the top of the charts.
	On December 8, 1980, John Lennon and Yoko Ono left their Dakota apartment to go to the recording studio.  A young man named Mark David Chapman approached John, wanting to get his picture taken with im.  The two were photographed together.  At 10:49 p.m. that night, John and Yoko were returning from the studio when Chapman stepped out of the shadows and gunned down John Ono Lennon at the age of 40.
	The world mourns the loss of John Lennon.
	 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Lennon.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
JOHN LENNON

BY: ASHLEA LINDSEY


	John Lennon was a great song writer and musician.  He played the rhythm guitar, the piano, and sang.  He was in the most popular group in the history of rock music.  In 1959, John founded this group, called The Beatles.
	The original Beatles were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Pete Best.
	Brian Epstein became the manager of the Beatles in 1961.  Epstein made many changes in the group.  John rebelled and did not want to "package" and "clean up" the group in order to please fans.  These changes were made anyway despite John's protests.
	The Beatles had signed a contract with EMI records and were beginning to record with them.  On August 16, 1962, Pete Best, the drummer was suddenly fired from the group.  Ringo Starr was inducted into the Beatles two days after Best was fired.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney shared the credit of songs written by either one of them.  The credit simply read Lennon-McCartney.  The two as song writers were a perfect mix.  John had a quick artistic sense and he was easily excited by new challenges, he projected a sarcastic and rebellious tough-guy personality, who was actually a vulnerable romantic.  While Paul projected the sweet image and who was underneath an injured, controlling, perfectionist.
	By 1964, The Beatles arrived at JFK Airport.  They were greeted with mass hysteria.  Two days later, more than 73 million people watched them perform live on the Ed Sullivan Show.  Four weeks later, The Beatles held the top five music singles in America at the same time.
	John was influenced by many things in 1965-1966 such as psychedelia, marijuana, and Bob Dylan.  Many felt that these years were the best song writing years of John Lennon's life.
	1966---The Beatles had been touring for over four years, and they, especially John were tired of it.  John wanted to spend more time with his wife, Cynthia, and his song, Julian.  At one time, they had to do 32 concerts in 19 days.  On their next album, Beatles For Sale, the material reflected how unhappy John and Paul were with life on the road.  Songs like "I'm a Loser" and "No Reply" spoke of depression and the frenzy of life in the spotlight.  John once said, "It's like we're four freaks being wheeled out to be seen, shake our hair about, and get back into our cage afterwards."
	The Beatles felt that they needed to work only in the studio now.  So, on August 29, 1966, The Beatles performed their last live performance ever at Candlestick Park in San Francisco, California.
	Almost a year later, Brian Epstein, the Beatles Manager was found dead in his apartment of a suicidal overdose.  This caused many problems for the group.  John later admitted that "The Beatles were finished when Eppy died.  I knew, deep inside me, that that was it, without him, we'd had it."
	John met a Japanese artist name Yoko Ono in 1967.  In just a few weeks, the two were inseparable.  This new relationship destroyed John's marriage with Cynthia and eventually destroyed his relationship with Paul McCartney, and the other Beatles.  After John's divorce from Cynthia, John Winston Lennon changed his name to John Ono Lennon in honor of Yoko Ono.  He insisted on using "JOHNANDYOKO" as his official signature and identity.  John and Yoko were married in the year of 1969.
	John released his first solo single in 1969, "Give Peace a Chance."  He did not credit this song to Lennon-McCartney, but to The "Plastic Ono Band." 
	On April 10, 1970, Paul McCartney resigned from the Beatles.  The group dissolved officially in 1971.
	John Lennon and Paul McCartney became rivals after the Beatles broke up.  They were at constant competition with records.  John released his "Signature" solo album: Imagine in 1971.  One song on the record, entitled "How do you Sleep?" includes the lines:
		The only thing you done was Yesterday
		And since you've gone you're just 
			Another Day
		How do you sleep?
	These lines were directed to Paul McCartney.
	John Lennon recorded seven albums during 1970-1975 which included Imagine--1971 and Rock and Roll--1975.
	John semi-retired from music in 1975-1980.  He was raising his son, Sean, with wife, Yoko Ono.
	In 1980, John and Yoko released Double Fantasy.  By November, their album was climbing to the top of the charts.
	On December 8, 1980, John Lennon and Yoko Ono left their Dakota apartment to go to the recording studio.  A young man named Mark David Chapman approached John, wanting to get his picture taken with im.  The two were photographed together.  At 10:49 p.m. that night, John and Yoko were returning from the studio when Chapman stepped out of the shadows and gunned down John Ono Lennon at the age of 40.
	The world mourns the loss of John Lennon.
	 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Marshall The Great Chief Justice.TXT
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John Marshall: The Great Chief Justice

	John Marshall was born in Fauquier County, Virginia on September 4, 1755.  He was the first son of Thomas Marshall and Mary Randolph Keith.  His role in American history is undoubtedly a very important one.   As a boy, Marshall was educated by his father.  He learned to read and write, along with some lessons in history and poetry.  At the age of fourteen, he was sent away to school, and a year later he returned home to be tutored by a Scottish pastor who lived with the Marshall family.  
	As a young college student, John Marshall was particularly impressed by the lectures of  professor George Wythe.  Wythe was a lawyer, judge, and a signer of the constitution.  Other students of professor Wythe were Thomas Jefferson, John Breckinridge, and Henry Clay.  
	Marshall became a lawyer at the age of twenty five.  As Brian McGinty says about Marshall in the article, "His first cases were not important, but he handled them well and made a favorable impression on his neighbors; so favorable that they sent him to Richmond in 1782 as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates."  He became a prominent lawyer and was on his way to a successful future.  
	Mr. Marshall worked under the administration of John Adams starting in 1798.  He was offered the position of attorney general under George Washington's administration, but declined because he wanted to stay with his family and practice law in his home town of Richmond, Virginia.  He was one of three delegates sent to France by John Adams in 1798.  His reasoning for taking the job in France was partly because it was only a temporary mission and also because he wanted to be of service to his country, aiding in peaceful relations with France.  When he found out that France expected to be paid, he was outraged and believed they were soliciting bribery.  Although the mission to France was a failure, he returned to the US a hero.
	Marshall was appointed to the position of secretary of state by John Adams in 1800.  He was put in charge of foreign affairs and was often left in charge of the government when Adams was gone.   Then, later that year, he was appointed to be chief justice of the US by Adams before Thomas Jefferson took over the presidency.
	Thomas Jefferson soon took office and John Marshall was now chief justice.  Although the two were distant cousins, they held very different positions and belonged to opposing political parties.  Jefferson believed that the constitution should be interpreted strictly to keep the government's power relatively low.  In the article, Mr. McGinty sums up Marshall's views of what government should be: "Marshall believed in a strong central government, in the Constitution as the key to the laws of the land, and in courts as the supreme custodians of those laws-views that would influence his shaping of the Supreme Court."  Marshall believed that the Constitution should not be interpreted as strict, allowing the government to become more powerful.  
	Possibly the most important case of its time was Marbury vs. Madison in 1803.  In this case, John Marshall's ruling set an extremely important precident.  His ruling declared that a law was unconstitutional, therefore setting a precident giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.  Because of this ruling alone, John Marshall is a very prominent figure in American history and American law, but his acheivements do not end at that.  During John Marshall's life, and particularly during his reign as chief justice, the power of the judicial branch became equally powerful to the other branches of the US government.   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Marshall.TXT
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John Marshall: The Great Chief Justice


	John Marshall was born in Fauquier County, Virginia on September 4, 1755.
 He was the first son of Thomas Marshall and Mary Randolph Keith.  His role in
American history is undoubtedly a very important one.   As a boy, Marshall was
educated by his father.  He learned to read and write, along with some lessons
in history and poetry.  At the age of fourteen, he was sent away to school, and
a year later he returned home to be tutored by a Scottish pastor who lived with
the Marshall family.
	As a young college student, John Marshall was particularly impressed by
the lectures of  professor George Wythe.  Wythe was a lawyer, judge, and a
signer of the constitution.  Other students of professor Wythe were Thomas
Jefferson, John Breckinridge, and Henry Clay.
	Marshall became a lawyer at the age of twenty five.  As Brian McGinty
says about Marshall in the article, "His first cases were not important, but he
handled them well and made a favorable impression on his neighbors; so favorable
that they sent him to Richmond in 1782 as a member of the Virginia House of
Delegates."  He became a prominent lawyer and was on his way to a successful
future.
	Mr. Marshall worked under the administration of John Adams starting in
1798.  He was offered the position of attorney general under George Washington's
administration, but declined because he wanted to stay with his family and
practice law in his home town of Richmond, Virginia.  He was one of three
delegates sent to France by John Adams in 1798.  His reasoning for taking the
job in France was partly because it was only a temporary mission and also
because he wanted to be of service to his country, aiding in peaceful relations
with France.  When he found out that France expected to be paid, he was outraged
and believed they were soliciting bribery.  Although the mission to France was a
failure, he returned to the US a hero.
	Marshall was appointed to the position of secretary of state by John
Adams in 1800.  He was put in charge of foreign affairs and was often left in
charge of the government when Adams was gone.   Then, later that year, he was
appointed to be chief justice of the US by Adams before Thomas Jefferson took
over the presidency.
	Thomas Jefferson soon took office and John Marshall was now chief
justice.  Although the two were distant cousins, they held very different
positions and belonged to opposing political parties.  Jefferson believed that
the constitution should be interpreted strictly to keep the government's power
relatively low.  In the article, Mr. McGinty sums up Marshall's views of what
government should be: "Marshall believed in a strong central government, in the
Constitution as the key to the laws of the land, and in courts as the supreme
custodians of those laws-views that would influence his shaping of the Supreme
Court."  Marshall believed that the Constitution should not be interpreted as
strict, allowing the government to become more powerful.
	Possibly the most important case of its time was Marbury vs. Madison in
1803.  In this case, John Marshall's ruling set an extremely important precident.
 His ruling declared that a law was unconstitutional, therefore setting a
precident giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
Because of this ruling alone, John Marshall is a very prominent figure in
American history and American law, but his acheivements do not end at that.
During John Marshall's life, and particularly during his reign as chief justice,
the power of the judicial branch became equally powerful to the other branches
of the US government.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Mui1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
John Muir: His Achievements/Journeys


	John Muir worked at a factory in Canada.  He invented time and money
saving machines for the factories.  But one day an accident changed his whole
outlook on life.  As he was tightening a machine belt with a file, the file flew
out and pierced his right eye.  His left eye grew dim to the reaction.
	John's friends and neighbors tried to help him and brought doctors.
Some friends read to him.  Children brought him flowers and listened to his
stories.  He finally began to regain his sight.  His employer, grateful for the
work that he had done for his company, offered John a job as foreman and a
future partnership.  But John gave up the chance to be a wealthy business man
because he wanted to use his precious sight to enjoy the creations of nature.
	On September 1, 1867, John stepped off a train in Louisville, Kentucky.
The next day he set out on foot to walk from Louisville to Florida, a distance
of 1,000 miles.  In Florida, he planned to catch a boat for South America
because he was eager to observe the plants of southern lands.  This was known as
the thousand-mile walk.  During his journey, he would stop to collect plant
samples and write about his observations in his journal.
	John was weak from the trip and thought that he would need much more
energy to travel to South America.  He decided to visit Yosemite Valley, where
he would regain his strength.  He took up the job as a herder there and began to
explore the area.  Then he got a job as guide to the Yosemite.  Muir quickly
became an expert on Yosemite.  John believed that glaciers had helped in the
formation of the valley.  People began to pay attention to his ideas.  Some
agreed and some didn't.  John spent years studying glaciers and tracking
glaciers in the Sierra Nevada.
	In 1874, Jeanne Carr introduced John Muir to Louie Wanda because she
wanted John to leave his lonely life.  John first tramped the wilderness of
California, Nevada, Utah, the Pacific Northwest, and Alaska.  Then he decided
that he should settle down and went to visit Louie Wanda in the Alhambra Valley.
They got married and had two daughters, Annie and Helen Wanda.
	John worked on Louie's farm for many years, but started to miss the
wilderness.  Louie Wanda saw what was happening to John and decided to let him
travel to Alaska.  He visited the Alaskan tribes and Glacier Bay.  In the next
ten years of visit to Alaska, Muir would track glaciers and observe them.
	John Muir will spend the rest of his life writing books about nature and
speak out for nature.  He will suffer the lost of his wife and abate his grief
by observing a pertrified forest.  John Muir really was a man of the mountains.
	I believe that John Muir was a very hard working and determined man.
The fact that he overcomes the struggles of his life to accomplish all that he
did makes him an even more remarkable man.  I think that it is great that there
is a man that would speak out for such a wonderful thing like nature in a time
where people didn't care.  He has accomplished so much in his life that I am
surprised that he is not as well-known.  He should be written about and taught
about more.  John Muir can inspire a person to care more for nature and become
more considerate and passionate to it.

CHILDHOOD
	John Muir was born in Dunbar, Scotland, on April 21, 1838.  He had two
older sisters named Margaret and Sarah and two younger brothers named David and
Daniel, Jr. and twin sisters named Mary and Annie.  They were all born in Dunbar
except a younger sister, Joanna, that was born after they moved to the United
States.  John's father was Daniel Muir and John's mother was Ann Gilrye Muir.
	Daniel was a man of strong feelings.  His religious beliefs made him put
aside fun and music thinking that they were the devil's workshop.  He believed
that mealtime was a sacrament and that idle talk and laughing had no place at
the table.  John was forced to memorize a passage from the bible every day.  He
would be beaten if he did not recite them correctly.
	 John's mother was a gentle and kind woman.  She had been brought up to
appreciate poetry and art.  Her parents had forbidden her to marry Daniel
because they considered him to be too strict and too passionate in his religious
views.  But Ann was strong-willed and she loved Daniel.
	The life of the Muir's in Scotland would soon change.  Daniel Muir had
become unhappy with the Presbyterian church of his wife's family so he joined
the Disciples of Christ.  A few of his fellow Disciples had begun to form
religious communities in North America.  There they had found rich farmland and
a chance for success.  On February 18, 1849, Daniel rushed back home and told
them that they would be on their way to America in the morning.  The boys were
crazed with excitement, but Grandfather Gilrye told them that they would find a
lot of hard work there.
	After a journey of a few months, the Muir family settled in Marquette
County, Wisconsin.  Daniel Muir worked the children hard.  He had become a
preacher and a strict parent who believed that when he whipped his children, he
was beating the devil out of their souls.  While the children planted, hoed,
raked, and harvested, Daniel spent less time on the farm work and more time
studying his bible.  When Daniel was away, John and the rest of the family would
joke and sing.  The girls could take out their embroidery, which their father
considered frivolous, and John could recite a poem or dance a highland jig.
	Since John was the oldest son, he had the hardest work on the farm.
John had to split rails for fences, pry up rocks, and haul wood.  When John just
turned twelve, his father sent him out to plow the first fields.  The ground had
never been broken, so John had to dig out roots and guide the plow as the oxen
pulled it.
	After eight years, the Muir's farm became drained of nutrients.  They
then moved to a place they called Hickory Hill.  John had to labor in the fields
again.  He had to clear the new land for the crops again.  It was very hard work
for a boy and affected John's health.  John learned endurance and developed
strength in the ten plus years of farm work.  During that time, he also learned
to respect and love the creatures of the woods and farm.
 ATTENDING SCHOOL
John and his brothers and sisters did not go to school during their years of
farm work.  But John borrowed books from neighbors who kept a small library.
His father saw no reason to read anything else besides the Bible and other
religious text.  So he would not allow John to stay up to read after the others
had gone to bed.  He did allow John to get up early in the morning to read.
	It was too cold to sit still and read in the winter so John began
working in the cellar on ideas for labor-saving machines.  His first invention
was a model of a sawmill.  Soon he also invented many other things like the
waterwheel, thermometer, clocks, a device for lighting fire, and a machine that
would wake you up.  A neighbor encouraged John to take his inventions to Madison
where he could exhibit them at the state's agricultural fair.  His inventions
were a hit at the fair and were written about in the local newspapers.  His
family back at home was very happy and proud of him, but his dad warned him to
avoid the "sin of vanity".
	At the fair, John Muir met Jeanne Carr, a woman that would change his
life.  Mrs. Carr was impressed with John.  Her husband, Dr. Ezra Carr, was a
professor of natural science at the university.  John would later enroll into
college and become a very good friend of the Carrs'.  John did not immediately
enroll at the university because he had concerns about money.  Instead, he
helped build iceboats, addressed advertising circulars, and drove a coach for an
insurance agent.  One day he learned that he had enough money to enroll into
college, but he would have a very tight buget.  He spent little on clothes and
food.
	The next year at the university, John acquired a teaching job in a one-
room school.  It was hard to keep up with the teachings and his studies, but the
money helped him considerably.   John took chemistry and geology with Dr. Carr
and Latin and Greek classes with Dr. James Davie Butler.  Both men opened new
worlds for John.
	During John's college years, the United States was suffering through the
Civil War.  Many university students joined the army, but John saw the wounded
from the war and disliked it.  He decided to go botanizing in Canada to dodge
the draft.  His brother Daniel, Jr. had already gone to Canada, and John planned
to meet him near Niagara Falls in September.



BIBLIOGRAPHY


	1) JOHN MUIR SAVING THE WILDERNESS; Corinne J. Naden and Rose 	
				 Blue;The Millbrook Press; 1992

	2)  JOHN MUIR SON OF THE WILDERNESS; Linnie Wolfe; The Ryerson Press;
		1945



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Muir 2.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

HIS ACHIEVEMENTS/JOURNEYS
	John Muir worked at a factory in Canada.  He invented time and money saving machines for the factories.  But one day an accident changed his whole outlook on life.  As he was tightening a machine belt with a file, the file flew out and pierced his right eye.  His left eye grew dim to the reaction.  
	John's friends and neighbors tried to help him and brought doctors.  Some friends read to him.  Children brought him flowers and listened to his stories.  He finally began to regain his sight.  His employer, grateful for the work that he had done for his company, offered John a job as foreman and a future partnership.  But John gave up the chance to be a wealthy business man because he wanted to use his precious sight to enjoy the creations of nature.
	On September 1, 1867, John stepped off a train in Louisville, Kentucky.  The next day he set out on foot to walk from Louisville to Florida, a distance of 1,000 miles.  In Florida, he planned to catch a boat for South America because he was eager to observe the plants of southern lands.  This was known as the thousand-mile walk.  During his journey, he would stop to collect plant samples and write about his observations in his journal.  
	John was weak from the trip and thought that he would need much more energy to travel to South America.  He decided to visit Yosemite Valley, where he would regain his strength.  He took up the job as a herder there and began to explore the area.  Then he got a job as guide to the Yosemite.  Muir quickly became an expert on Yosemite.  John believed that glaciers had helped in the formation of the valley.  People began to pay attention to his ideas.  Some agreed and some didn't.  John spent years studying glaciers and tracking glaciers in the Sierra Nevada.  
	In 1874, Jeanne Carr introduced John Muir to Louie Wanda because she wanted John to leave his lonely life.  John first tramped the wilderness of California, Nevada, Utah, the Pacific Northwest, and Alaska.  Then he decided that he should settle down and went to visit Louie Wanda in the Alhambra Valley.  They got married and had two daughters, Annie and Helen Wanda.  
	John worked on Louie's farm for many years, but started to miss the wilderness.  Louie Wanda saw what was happening to John and decided to let him travel to Alaska.  He visited the Alaskan tribes and Glacier Bay.  In the next ten years of visit to Alaska, Muir would track glaciers and observe them.
	John Muir will spend the rest of his life writing books about nature and speak out for nature.  He will suffer the lost of his wife and abate his grief by observing a pertrified forest.  John Muir really was a man of the mountains.
	I believe that John Muir was a very hard working and determined man.  The fact that he overcomes the struggles of his life to accomplish all that he did makes him an even more remarkable man.  I think that it is great that there is a man that would speak out for such a wonderful thing like nature in a time where people didn't care.  He has accomplished so much in his life that I am surprised that he is not as well-known.  He should be written about and taught about more.  John Muir can inspire a person to care more for nature and become more considerate and passionate to it.

CHILDHOOD
	John Muir was born in Dunbar, Scotland, on April 21, 1838.  He had two older sisters named Margaret and Sarah and two younger brothers named David and Daniel, Jr. and twin sisters named Mary and Annie.  They were all born in Dunbar except a younger sister, Joanna, that was born after they moved to the United States.  John's father was Daniel Muir and John's mother was Ann Gilrye Muir.  
	Daniel was a man of strong feelings.  His religious beliefs made him put aside fun and music thinking that they were the devil's workshop.  He believed that mealtime was a sacrament and that idle talk and laughing had no place at the table.  John was forced to memorize a passage from the bible every day.  He would be beaten if he did not recite them correctly.
	 John's mother was a gentle and kind woman.  She had been brought up to appreciate poetry and art.  Her parents had forbidden her to marry Daniel because they considered him to be too strict and too passionate in his religious views.  But Ann was strong-willed and she loved Daniel.
	The life of the Muir's in Scotland would soon change.  Daniel Muir had become unhappy with the Presbyterian church of his wife's family so he joined the Disciples of Christ.  A few of his fellow Disciples had begun to form religious communities in North America.  There they had found rich farmland and a chance for success.  On February 18, 1849, Daniel rushed back home and told them that they would be on their way to America in the morning.  The boys were crazed with excitement, but Grandfather Gilrye told them that they would find a lot of hard work there.
	After a journey of a few months, the Muir family settled in Marquette County, Wisconsin.  Daniel Muir worked the children hard.  He had become a preacher and a strict parent who believed that when he whipped his children, he was beating the devil out of their souls.  While the children planted, hoed, raked, and harvested, Daniel spent less time on the farm work and more time studying his bible.  When Daniel was away, John and the rest of the family would joke and sing.  The girls could take out their embroidery, which their father considered frivolous, and John could recite a poem or dance a highland jig.  
	Since John was the oldest son, he had the hardest work on the farm.  John had to split rails for fences, pry up rocks, and haul wood.  When John just turned twelve, his father sent him out to plow the first fields.  The ground had never been broken, so John had to dig out roots and guide the plow as the oxen pulled it.  
	After eight years, the Muir's farm became drained of nutrients.  They then moved to a place they called Hickory Hill.  John had to labor in the fields again.  He had to clear the new land for the crops again.  It was very hard work for a boy and affected John's health.  John learned endurance and developed strength in the ten plus years of farm work.  During that time, he also learned to respect and love the creatures of the woods and farm.

ATTENDING SCHOOL 	John and his brothers and sisters did not go to school during their years of farm work.  But John borrowed books from neighbors who kept a small library.  His father saw no reason to read anything else besides the Bible and other religious text.  So he would not allow John to stay up to read after the others had gone to bed.  He did allow John to get up early in the morning to read.  
	It was too cold to sit still and read in the winter so John began working in the cellar on ideas for labor-saving machines.  His first invention was a model of a sawmill.  Soon he also invented many other things like the waterwheel, thermometer, clocks, a device for lighting fire, and a machine that would wake you up.  A neighbor encouraged John to take his inventions to Madison where he could exhibit them at the state's agricultural fair.  His inventions were a hit at the fair and were written about in the local newspapers.  His family back at home was very happy and proud of him, but his dad warned him to avoid the "sin of vanity".
	At the fair, John Muir met Jeanne Carr, a woman that would change his life.  Mrs. Carr was impressed with John.  Her husband, Dr. Ezra Carr, was a professor of natural science at the university.  John would later enroll into college and become a very good friend of the Carrs'.  John did not immediately enroll at the university because he had concerns about money.  Instead, he helped build iceboats, addressed advertising circulars, and drove a coach for an insurance agent.  One day he learned that he had enough money to enroll into college, but he would have a very tight buget.  He spent little on clothes and food.
	The next year at the university, John acquired a teaching job in a one-room school.  It was hard to keep up with the teachings and his studies, but the money helped him considerably.   John took chemistry and geology with Dr. Carr and Latin and Greek classes with Dr. James Davie Butler.  Both men opened new worlds for John.  
	During John's college years, the United States was suffering through the Civil War.  Many university students joined the army, but John saw the wounded from the war and disliked it.  He decided to go botanizing in Canada to dodge the draft.  His brother Daniel, Jr. had already gone to Canada, and John planned to meet him near Niagara Falls in September.




BIBLIOGRAPHY

	
	1) JOHN MUIR SAVING THE WILDERNESS; Corinne J. Naden and Rose 						 Blue;The Millbrook Press; 1992

	2)  JOHN MUIR SON OF THE WILDERNESS; Linnie Wolfe; The Ryerson Press; 		1945 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Muir 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Biography Report
1.  John Muir by Ginger Wadsworth
2.  The book is written about John Muir
3.  The story takes place at Yosemite National Park from 1838-1914
4.  John Muir was a botanist, geologist, and writer.
5.  He had overcome earthquakes, glaciers, and he climbs mountains.
6.  John Muir had impressed by overcoming all the dangers like animals.  He was an expert on wilderness.  He knows survival skills to stay alive.  He studies nature and he writes about nature.  He made a national park system as well as the Sierra Club.  He knew that the Native Americans called the place "Pohono," or spirit of the puffing wind.  At first he called it a "dainty little fall...only about fifteen or twenty feet high."  John laughed after discovering that Bridalveil Fall drops 620 feet.  He writes all kinds of quotes about nature, for example:
"I am captive, I am bound.  Love of pure unblemished Nature seems to overmaster and blur out of sight all other objects and considerations."
John works in his "scribble den."  John had two brothers and five sisters and their names are: Margaret, Sarah, David, Dan, Mary, Annie, and Joanna.  For several years, he had toyed with writing up his findings for publication.  Jeanne Carr was the one that encouraged him.  She even suggested titles and copied his notes.  John decided to send an article to the New York Tribune.  To his surprise, the newspaper published "Yosemite Glaciers" on December 5, 1871, and paid him $200, that was a lot of money back then.  On New Year's Day in 1872, the same newspaper printed "Yosemite in Winter."  John thought that he might be able to earn his living by writing, what he called "pen work."  He stayed in his cabin for the winter and wrote it.
He went through a couple of earthquakes.  He joined his valley neighbors and suggested they smile a little and clap their hands.  He said that Mother Earth is only trotting them on Earth's knee to amuse them and make them good!  Everyone thought John was a little crazy when he said that.  He also farmed a lot.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Muir.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Biography Report
1.  John Muir by Ginger Wadsworth
2.  The book is written about John Muir
3.  The story takes place at Yosemite National Park from 1838-1914
4.  John Muir was a botanist, geologist, and writer.
5.  He had overcome earthquakes, glaciers, and he climbs mountains.
6.  John Muir had impressed by overcoming all the dangers like animals.  He was an expert on wilderness.  He knows survival skills to stay alive.  He studies nature and he writes about nature.  He made a national park system as well as the Sierra Club.  He knew that the Native Americans called the place "Pohono," or spirit of the puffing wind.  At first he called it a "dainty little fall...only about fifteen or twenty feet high."  John laughed after discovering that Bridalveil Fall drops 620 feet.  He writes all kinds of quotes about nature, for example:
"I am captive, I am bound.  Love of pure unblemished Nature seems to overmaster and blur out of sight all other objects and considerations."
John works in his "scribble den."  John had two brothers and five sisters and their names are: Margaret, Sarah, David, Dan, Mary, Annie, and Joanna.  For several years, he had toyed with writing up his findings for publication.  Jeanne Carr was the one that encouraged him.  She even suggested titles and copied his notes.  John decided to send an article to the New York Tribune.  To his surprise, the newspaper published "Yosemite Glaciers" on December 5, 1871, and paid him $200, that was a lot of money back then.  On New Year's Day in 1872, the same newspaper printed "Yosemite in Winter."  John thought that he might be able to earn his living by writing, what he called "pen work."  He stayed in his cabin for the winter and wrote it.
He went through a couple of earthquakes.  He joined his valley neighbors and suggested they smile a little and clap their hands.  He said that Mother Earth is only trotting them on Earth's knee to amuse them and make them good!  Everyone thought John was a little crazy when he said that.  He also farmed a lot.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Napier 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	John Napier was a Scottish Mathematician who was born in Merchiston Castle in 

Edinburgh in the year 1550.  He briefly attended St. Andrew's University, but for some 

unknown reason, left without obtaining a degree, which didn't seem to have any relevance 

to him.  He returned home in 1571 as a scholar competent in Greek. He was a ardent

Presbyterian who wrote A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of Saint John, the 

first Scottish interpretation of the bible, in 1593 to demonstrate that the Catholic Church 

was the beast.  He was interested in mathematics at an early age and set forth the concept 

of logarithms and published the first table of them. While doing this, he also systematized 

trigonometry and was important in the acceptance of systematic use of decimal notation.  

He also invented many mechanical devices used for math, such as "Napier's Bones", which 

were devices used to aid multiplication.  His father, Sir Archibald Napier, was a wealthy 

Gentry and government official who left his estate to his son.  John Napier then lived out 

his life until 1617, when he died at the age of sixty-seven. 
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Napier.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	John Napier was a Scottish Mathematician who was born in Merchiston Castle in 

Edinburgh in the year 1550.  He briefly attended St. Andrew's University, but for some 

unknown reason, left without obtaining a degree, which didn't seem to have any relevance 

to him.  He returned home in 1571 as a scholar competent in Greek. He was a ardent

Presbyterian who wrote A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of Saint John, the 

first Scottish interpretation of the bible, in 1593 to demonstrate that the Catholic Church 

was the beast.  He was interested in mathematics at an early age and set forth the concept 

of logarithms and published the first table of them. While doing this, he also systematized 

trigonometry and was important in the acceptance of systematic use of decimal notation.  

He also invented many mechanical devices used for math, such as "Napier's Bones", which 

were devices used to aid multiplication.  His father, Sir Archibald Napier, was a wealthy 

Gentry and government official who left his estate to his son.  John Napier then lived out 

his life until 1617, when he died at the age of sixty-seven. 
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Steinbeck A commmon Mans Man.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


John Steinbeck
A Common Man's Man


     "I never wrote two books alike", once said John Steinbeck (Shaw, 10).  That may be true, but I think that he wrote many of his novels and short stories based on many of the same views. He often focused on social problems, like the "haves" verses  the "have nots", and made the reader want to encourage the underdog. Steinbeck's back ground and concern for the common man made him one of the best writers for human rights.
     John Steinbeck was born in Salians, California and spent most of his life there or around Salians, because of that he often modeled his stories and the characters around the land he loved and the experiences he encountered.  He lived in Salians until 1919, when he left for Stanford University, he only enrolled in the courses that pleased him - literature, creative writing and majoring in Marine Biology.  He left in 1925, without a degree.  Even though he didn't graduate his books showed the results of his five years spent there. His books display a considerable reading of the Greek and Roman historians, and the medieval and Renaissance fabalists and the biological sciences (Shaw 11). He then moved to New York and tried his hand as a construction worker and as a reporter for the American.  (Covici , xxxv). Steinbeck then moved back to California and lived with his wife at Pacific Grove. In 1934, he wrote for the San Franciso News,  he was assigned to write several articles about the 3,000 migrants flooded in at Kings County. The plight of the migrant workers motivated him to help and document their struggle. The money he earned from the newspaper allowed him to travel to their home and see why their reason for leaving and traveled to California with them, sharing in with their hardships (Steinbeck, 127). Because John Steinbeck was able to travel with the 
Okies, he was able to accurately portray  them and their struggles.
     Each book that he wrote had settings in the places where he has either lived or wanted to live. He presented the land as it was. The characters in his stories experienced floods, drought, and other natural disasters, while in the Salians Valley (Shaw, 5).
     What Steinbeck wrote was very factual and in depth. He exhibited his awareness of man and his surroundings, in his early books, before people ate, a pig had to be slaughtered, and often that and before they ate, it had to be cooked. Also when a car broke down, the characters had to find parts, and fixed it themselves (Shaw, 13).  
     Many people consider that John Steinbeck novels are records of social history. His books are the history of plain people and society as a whole, many of his books focused on the Great Depression, Social Prejudice, religion, the whore house, and the automobile (Rundell, 4).  He may be considered as a Sentimentalist, because of his concerns for the common man, human values, for warmth and love and understanding. The social relevance of his writhings reveals him as a reformer (Covici, xxii). In his novel The Pastures of Heaven, Steinbeck brings up the issues of Japanese Americans fitting into social groups, and in East of Eden,  he examines the problems of intelligent and educated Chinese-Americans in the California setting. John Steinbeck only once seriously considers the problems of Negroes in Society. Crooks, the stable boy in Of Mice and Men, was an outcast  and never destine to fit into the generally white society  of ranching.
     Not only did Steinbeck recognize the -problems of minorities and racial prejudice, he also mentioned class prejudice.  The difference between the "haves" verses the 'have nots" was 
brought up in the novel, The Grapes of Wrath,  usually the people who had any financial  
stability hated the Okies, who had none. Owners hated the Okies because they were soft and the Okies were strong, also the store keepers hated them because the Okies had no money to spend in their stores (Bowden, 12).
     The  Grapes of Wrath presents these issues in the form of an epic and sums up the despair of the early 1930's. The Joads experience: love, brotherhood, integrity, class fear, power, violence, and suspension,  the same as every other migrant. Their conflict was a national epic, instead of a personal one ( George et al. 1013). The parable of the tortoise crossing the road represents the people of the 1930's, he is beaten by the sun, knocked around, and struggles, but probably reaches his destination.  In his other stories, he also uses characters and symbols to represent the migrants of the 1930's, and often makes his symbolism obvious.  The story of the gophers in Cannery Row represents that you can't have your cake and eat it too.  When I read Cannery Row  the chapter about the gopher came totally out of the blue, I did not think it belonged  there, and made no sense, but after doing research about Steinbeck stories, The gopher parable did have its significance, not only in the story but as society as a whole (Bowden, 195). In The Red Pony  the contrasting mountain ranges that Jody constantly question through out the book, symbolize hope and fear, youth and age, knowledge and savage mystery (Shaw, 13). The creation, birth and death of the second pony, is one of Steinbeck's more obvious symbolism.  Some interpret this as a young mans coming to maturity by experiencing the mysteries of procreation, birth, and death, but it does not go that deep because through out the story Steinbeck continually refers to Jody as "little 
racial prejudice, he also mentioned class prejudice.  The difference between the "haves" verses the 'have nots" was 
boy Jody", maybe implying that Jody never did  really mature. The story was abrubtly ended like many of John Steinbeck's stories.  
The Red Pony  ends in no particular place and also in Grapes of Wrath  the story of the Joads ends when their plight is at its lowest.Steinbeck leads the reader through the lives of his characters 
      In conclusion, John Steinbeck with his concern for man and his environment, and his broad background   has made him a respected author, and human rights activist.  His books are as relevant to us today as they were sixty years ago, and are also important as documentation of social history.



Bibliography

Benet's Readers, Encyclopedia of American Literature.  1991 ed.
Bowden, Edwin T.  The Dungeon of the Heart.   New York, NY: The Mcmillan Company,     
     1961.
Covici, Pacal Jr. The Portable Steinbeck.  New York, NY: The Viking Press, 1963.
McWillams, Carey,  "California Pastoral", Antioch Review,  March, 1942: 103-21.
Rundell, Walter Jr. Steinbeck's Image of the West,  4-17  
Shaw, Peter.  "Steinbeck: The Shape of a Career",  Saturday Review,  8 February,  
     1969: 10-14.
Steinbeck, John. "A Primer on the Thirties". Esquire   October 1973: 127-131, 364, 366.
Walcutt Charles C. "Later Trends in Form: Steinbeck, Hemingway, Dos Passos", American   
      Literary Naturalism: A Divided Stream.   University of Minnesota, 1956: 258- 59. 268-69.











 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\John Steinbeck.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
John Steinbeck: A Common Man's Man


     "I never wrote two books alike", once said John Steinbeck (Shaw, 10).  That
may be true, but I think that he wrote many of his novels and short stories
based on many of the same views. He often focused on social problems, like the "
haves" verses  the "have nots", and made the reader want to encourage the
underdog. Steinbeck's back ground and concern for the common man made him one of
the best writers for human rights.
     John Steinbeck was born in Salians, California and spent most of his life
there or around Salians, because of that he often modeled his stories and the
characters around the land he loved and the experiences he encountered.  He
lived in Salians until 1919, when he left for Stanford University, he only
enrolled in the courses that pleased him - literature, creative writing and
majoring in Marine Biology.  He left in 1925, without a degree.  Even though he
didn't graduate his books showed the results of his five years spent there. His
books display a considerable reading of the Greek and Roman historians, and the
medieval and Renaissance fabalists and the biological sciences (Shaw 11). He
then moved to New York and tried his hand as a construction worker and as a
reporter for the American.  (Covici , xxxv). Steinbeck then moved back to
California and lived with his wife at Pacific Grove. In 1934, he wrote for the
San Franciso News,  he was assigned to write several articles about the 3,000
migrants flooded in at Kings County. The plight of the migrant workers motivated
him to help and document their struggle. The money he earned from the newspaper
allowed him to travel to their home and see why their reason for leaving and
traveled to California with them, sharing in with their hardships (Steinbeck,
127). Because John Steinbeck was able to travel with the Okies, he was able to
accurately portray  them and their struggles.
     Each book that he wrote had settings in the places where he has either
lived or wanted to live. He presented the land as it was. The characters in his
stories experienced floods, drought, and other natural disasters, while in the
Salians Valley (Shaw, 5).
     What Steinbeck wrote was very factual and in depth. He exhibited his
awareness of man and his surroundings, in his early books, before people ate, a
pig had to be slaughtered, and often that and before they ate, it had to be
cooked. Also when a car broke down, the characters had to find parts, and fixed
it themselves (Shaw, 13).
     Many people consider that John Steinbeck novels are records of social
history. His books are the history of plain people and society as a whole, many
of his books focused on the Great Depression, Social Prejudice, religion, the
whore house, and the automobile (Rundell, 4).  He may be considered as a
Sentimentalist, because of his concerns for the common man, human values, for
warmth and love and understanding. The social relevance of his writhings reveals
him as a reformer (Covici, xxii). In his novel The Pastures of Heaven, Steinbeck
brings up the issues of Japanese Americans fitting into social groups, and in
East of Eden,  he examines the problems of intelligent and educated Chinese-
Americans in the California setting. John Steinbeck only once seriously
considers the problems of Negroes in Society. Crooks, the stable boy in Of Mice
and Men, was an outcast  and never destine to fit into the generally white
society  of ranching.
     Not only did Steinbeck recognize the -problems of minorities and racial
prejudice, he also mentioned class prejudice.  The difference between the "haves"
verses the 'have nots" was brought up in the novel, The Grapes of Wrath,
usually the people who had any financial stability hated the Okies, who had none.
Owners hated the Okies because they were soft and the Okies were strong, also
the store keepers hated them because the Okies had no money to spend in their
stores (Bowden, 12).
     The  Grapes of Wrath presents these issues in the form of an epic and sums
up the despair of the early 1930's. The Joads experience: love, brotherhood,
integrity, class fear, power, violence, and suspension,  the same as every other
migrant. Their conflict was a national epic, instead of a personal one ( George
et al. 1013). The parable of the tortoise crossing the road represents the
people of the 1930's, he is beaten by the sun, knocked around, and struggles,
but probably reaches his destination.  In his other stories, he also uses
characters and symbols to represent the migrants of the 1930's, and often makes
his symbolism obvious.  The story of the gophers in Cannery Row represents that
you can't have your cake and eat it too.  When I read Cannery Row  the chapter
about the gopher came totally out of the blue, I did not think it belonged
there, and made no sense, but after doing research about Steinbeck stories, The
gopher parable did have its significance, not only in the story but as society
as a whole (Bowden, 195). In The Red Pony  the contrasting mountain ranges that
Jody constantly question through out the book, symbolize hope and fear, youth
and age, knowledge and savage mystery (Shaw, 13). The creation, birth and death
of the second pony, is one of Steinbeck's more obvious symbolism.  Some
interpret this as a young mans coming to maturity by experiencing the mysteries
of procreation, birth, and death, but it does not go that deep because through
out the story Steinbeck continually refers to Jody as "little racial prejudice,
he also mentioned class prejudice.  The difference between the "haves" verses
the 'have nots" was boy Jody", maybe implying that Jody never did  really mature.
The story was abrubtly ended like many of John Steinbeck's stories. The Red Pony
ends in no particular place and also in Grapes of Wrath  the story of the Joads
ends when their plight is at its lowest.Steinbeck leads the reader through the
lives of his characters
      In conclusion, John Steinbeck with his concern for man and his environment,
and his broad background   has made him a respected author, and human rights
activist.  His books are as relevant to us today as they were sixty years ago,
and are also important as documentation of social history.



Bibliography

Benet's Readers, Encyclopedia of American Literature.  1991 ed. Bowden, Edwin T.
The Dungeon of the Heart.   New York, NY: The Mcmillan Company,
     1961. Covici, Pacal Jr. The Portable Steinbeck.  New York, NY: The Viking
Press, 1963. McWillams, Carey,  "California Pastoral", Antioch Review,  March,
1942: 103-21. Rundell, Walter Jr. Steinbeck's Image of the West,  4-17 Shaw,
Peter.  "Steinbeck: The Shape of a Career",  Saturday Review,  8 February,
     1969: 10-14. Steinbeck, John. "A Primer on the Thirties". Esquire   October
1973: 127-131, 364, 366. Walcutt Charles C. "Later Trends in Form: Steinbeck,
Hemingway, Dos Passos", American
      Literary Naturalism: A Divided Stream.   University of Minnesota, 1956:
258- 59. 268-69.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jonas Salk 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
From the beginning of mankind, man has looked for cures of illness.  Jonas Salk found a
cure for one of the worst illnesses in the history of man, polio.  Jonas Salk's polio vaccine
was a great discovery of his time, and it is still being used today to eradicate polio
worldwide.  Dr. Salk is also known for other medical discoveries.  He was a quiet man
who lived a rough childhood.  He was not looking for fame, instead, it found him.  During
the time before the vaccine, many people, mostly parents with young children, were very
scared.  Dr. Salk's vaccine was a great relief to everyone.  Yet, today polio is still affecting
people, even after receiving the vaccine.  Just as polio is still around today, so is the flu
virus.  Dr. Salk did invent a flu vaccine to help in keeping the flu virus at a low.  At this
time, Jonas Salk is working on a vaccine for the most feared disease of today, AIDS.  
	Jonas Edward Salk was born to Polish-Jewish immigrants, Daniel B. and Dora
Salk, on October 28, 1914.  Dr.  Salk was born in upper Manhattan, but then moved to
the Bronx where he went to school.  "His first spoken words were, 'Dirt, dirt,' instead of
the conventional, uninspired 'No, no' or 'Momma.'  He was a responsive child."  Dr. Salk
was "raised on the verge of  poverty."  Although his family was poor, he did do
exceptionally well in all the levels of education.  He graduated from Townsend Harris
High School in 1929 and then went on to the College of the City of New York where he
received his B.S. in 1934.  He finally earned his M.D. degree in June of 1939 from the
New York University College of Medicine.  Jonas Salk was "a somewhat withdrawn and
indistinct figure" but was always reading whatever he could lay his hands on.  Dr. Salk
went on to intern for two years at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York.  He then moved on
to the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor as a research professor in the Department of
Epidemology.  It was here that he found a vaccine for influenza, commonly called the flu,
while he worked with Dr. Thomas Francis Jr.  In 1947, when the University of Pittsburgh
expanded, he went to work there with a part in his contract that said he could go back to
Ann Arbor if things didn't work out, no questions asked.  At this school he became what
he is known as today, a bacteriologist.  It was here that he developed the polio
vaccination.  Dr. Salk then left his field of endeavor because of all the fame and ridicule
from his colleagues.  In 1963, Jonas Salk set up the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in
La Jolla, California.  This facility was made possible through funds from the March of
Dimes.  At this time, he is eighty years old and working on a cure for AIDS.  
	"Poliomyelitis, commonly known as polio, is an acute viral infection."  Polio is the
"inflammation of the gray anterior matter of the spinal cord."  The inflammation would
destroy the nerve cells.  As a result of the lost nerve cells, the muscles that those nerve
cells controlled would no longer be functional. 
	Polio has long been a disease in this world.  Mummies with one leg shorter than
the other, and a memorial that shows a priest with one leg withered are two examples of
ancient artifacts possibly proving the polio virus's existence as far back as 1500 B.C.  The
first written record of an outbreak of polio is in 1835.  It occurred in Workshop, England
with the record stating, "Four remarkable cases of suddenly induced paralysis, occurring in
children..."  Nevertheless, it was not until 1916 that the United States became well aware
of the polio dilemma.  In that year, there were 27,363 cases of polio with 7,179 resulting
in death.  Unfortunately, the problem didn't go away; in New York City there were 9,023
cases with 2,448 deaths.  "The epidemics peaked in the United States from 1942 to
1943,...In 1950, there were more than 33,000 United States cases."  The state of Florida
was one of the many states that was hit hard with polio.  The director of the Florida
Department of Public Health, Dr. Wilson Sowder, said, "I have not seen a communicable
disease that has disrupted a community...as this has."  The disease "was communicable as
an intestinal virus that would spread from the stomach to the nervous system."  It was
"transmitted in fecal matter or in secretions of the nose and throat, the virus enters its
victim by way of the mouth..."  It was not only the fact that it was so easy to get that
made it terrifying, but it was the effects the disease had on its victim.  There would be
those that somehow recovered completely, yet that was not the usual.  Some would die,
others would not be able to use their legs or both their legs and arms.  Even more
staggering, there were those that could only move an arm, or just their fingers and eyes. 
"Some would remain in an iron lung--a great, 1,800-pound casketlike contraption...The
iron lung hissed and sighed rhythmically, performing artificial respiration by way of air
pressure", said Charles L. Mee.  During the summers in Florida, kids would not be
allowed to go to the movies or to the pools because of the parents fear of them
contracting the virus.  Due to the consequences, polio "aroused as much alarm in that era
as does AIDS today."  
	Finally, on April 12, 1955 it was announced that Dr. Jonas Salk, using a technique
reported by Dr. John F. Enders in 1949,  had discovered a cure that could be depended
upon to immunize humans from polio.  "Overnight, Jonas E. Salk was a hero," said
Kathleen Arsenault, a librarian at the University of South Florida at Bayboro.1  Everyone
was so relieved that a vaccine had been found that they "observed moments of silence,
rang bells, honked horns, blew factory whistles, fired salutes, kept their traffic lights red in
brief periods of tribute, took the rest of the day off, closed their schools or convoked
fervid assemblies therein, drank toasts, hugged children, attended church, smiled at
strangers, forgave enemies."  It "consummated the most extraordinary undertaking in the
history of science."  Although Dr. Salk tried to take no credit for what he and his fellow
workers had accomplished, the public ignored his words and gave all the credit to him. 
Jonas Salk "awakened that morning as a moderately prominent research professor on the
faculty of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.  He ended the day as the most
beloved medical scientist on earth."  Dr. Salk did not patent his vaccine, therefore, he did
not receive any royalties for it, though he could have been a millionaire.  As it was though,
he received many tokens of gratitude.  
	
	"The ardent people named schools, streets, hospitals, and new-born infants after
	him.  They sent him checks, cash, money orders, stamps, scrolls, certificates,
	pressed flowers, snapshots, candy, baked goods, religious medals, rabbits' feet and
	other talismans, and uncounted thousands of letters and telegrams, both individual
	and round-robin, describing their heartfelt gratitude and admiration.  They offered
	him free automobiles, agricultural equipment, clothing, vacations, lucrative jobs
	in government and industry, and several hundred opportunities to get rich quick. 
	Their legislatures and parliaments passed resolutions, and their heads of state
	issued proclamations.  Their universities tendered honorary degrees.  He was
	nominated for the Nobel prize, which he did not get, and a Congressional medal,
	which he got, and membership in the National Academy of Sciences, which
	turned him down.  He was mentioned for several dozen lesser awards of national
	or local or purely promotional character, most of which he turned down."  
	Dr. Salk is thought of most for his polio vaccine, yet he is the scientist who
invented the flu shot.  The flu virus is an illness that affects the digestive track, most often
the stomach walls.  He and Dr. Francis developed the vaccine in 1976 at the University of
Michigan in Ann Arbor.  That vaccine helps many people today to get through the flu
season without any or little suffering.
	The United States has been free of polio since September of 1991.  The United
Nations agency stated that this was true in all of the Western Hemisphere:  the United
States, Canada, the Caribbean, and Latin America.  Even though the Western Hemisphere
is polio free, the rest of the world is very far from it.  There are still approximately
120,000 cases a year.  That number is decreasing:  in 1992 there where a reported 15,911
cases in a total of 58 countries, whereas in 1993 there where only 7,898 cases reported in
a total of 46 countries.  That is a 50 percent decrease in only one year.  There was also
141 countries that reported no cases of polio in all of 1993.  One organization affiliated
with polio elimination is The Rotary Foundation.  This group has developed a program
called PolioPlus.  This program's goal is to eradicate polio worldwide by the year 2005. 
This goal will prove to be a very expensive endeavor; over 10 years it could cost up to as
much as 1.4 billion dollars.   One event that has helped make the United States polio free
is that children must have received the polio vaccination before they can enter the public
school system.  Everyone is working together, though, to try and eradicate polio
worldwide.  Japan and the United States have agreed to a joint health program for children
to do away with polio by the year 2000.  Although the whole world seems to be on its
way to being polio free, the polio survivors are still suffering.  "Nearly a third of the 1.6
million polio survivors have begun to develop puzzling ailments, such as fatigue, muscle
weakness and atrophy, and in some cases difficulty breathing."  This "ailment" is known as
post-polio syndrome.  The theory behind this problem is "the initial viral attack kills a
number of motor neurons and weakens some of the surviving nerve cells.  As the
post-polio patient ages, these damaged neurons increasingly lose their connections to
muscles, which stop responding."  Other symptoms that accompany post-polio syndrome
are as follows:  chronic muscle pain, sensitivity to cold weather, and sleeping problems. 
Of all the polio survivors, ninety percent of them are predicted to contract post-polio
syndrome.  It has been found that from the time of the original disease to the time of the
contraction of post-polio syndrome is about thirty years.  Herman Oliger had to quit work
because of post-polio syndrome.  "Any strenuous activity would have to be followed with
more than eight hours of sleep and in some cases, two days of rest."  As a result of this
debilitating illness, some people must go back to the use of leg braces or wheelchairs or
even the iron lung.  The only organization that has been formed to help this type of people
is the Arkansas League of Polio Survivors located in Little Rock.  This organization was
founded by Margie R. Loschke who is a post-polio sufferer herself.  It is a non-profit
establishment,  there are no dues, and they give moral support to those who are suffering. 
Post-polio syndrome is an inept thing to happen, yet there are no doctors that are capable
of helping these people.  "Polio hasn't been taught in medical school since the vaccine
came out, so there's not but a very few doctors (and) therapists who know anything about
polio and the polio muscles," said Margie Loschke.  As a result of the polio survivors,
physical therapy was born.  "And now they've pushed them away and forgotten all about
them."  If there were to be an accident involving a post-polio syndrome person "there'd be
nobody in that hospital, no medical personnel...that would know how to handle a
post-polio body without injuring it," said Loschke.
	Not only are there people being affected by polio in one way or the other, there are
still people being affected by the flu.  Jonas Salk also invented a flu vaccine, however, it is
more on a temporary scale.  Another reason the flu is still around is that there are many
different strains of the flu, and doctors have a hard time predicting the ones that will be
infecting people in the up and coming flu seasons.  
	Lastly, Jonas Salk is now working on a vaccine for the polio of today, AIDS.    
He is working on a vaccine made of killed viruses, but so far he has not acquired any
substantial results.  In the summer of 1994, the United States did conduct a large-scale
test of Dr. Salk's proposed AIDS vaccine.  This vaccine has shown the "growth of the
human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, slowed substantially in infected volunteers given
three injections of the vaccine."   However, Dr. David Ho of the Aaron Diamond AIDS
Research Center said, "There's absolutely no evidence that the vaccine did any good."  Dr.
Ho is not alone in his thoughts, many experts on the Food and Drug Administration panel
feel the same.  This panel also said that this has "lowered the standards" and has caused
more confusion on how to treat AIDS patients.  It is ironic, in a way, that Dr. Salk is
working on a vaccine for AIDS.  Some scientists truly believe that "the AIDS epidemic
was sparked 30 years ago by a polio vaccine, which was accidentally contaminated with a
monkey virus."   Through all the criticism though, Dr. Salk said, " My job, at the moment,
is to help people see what I see.  If it's of value, fine.  And if it's not of value, then at least
I've done what I can do."
	Jonas Edward Salk may be the most well known scientist because of his polio
vaccine.  Although he was poor growing up, he did well in school.  This standard was
continued into his employment as a bacteriologist.  During his stay at Pittsburgh
University, the world was suffering immensely from the polio disease.  Dr. Salk was
named a hero when he found the vaccine for it.  He also helped in the suffering from the
flu viruses.  Dr. Salk has attributed to the polio free Western Hemisphere of today, yet
another problem has arisen in the post-polio syndrome ailment.  Now, Jonas Salk is
working on a vaccine for the dreaded disease at this time, the AIDS virus.  It might be
possible for one man to save two generations of people in one lifetime.  As Dr. Salk says,
"I have this way of being right." 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Jonas Salk.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
From the beginning of mankind, man has looked for cures of illness.  Jonas Salk found a
cure for one of the worst illnesses in the history of man, polio.  Jonas Salk's polio vaccine
was a great discovery of his time, and it is still being used today to eradicate polio
worldwide.  Dr. Salk is also known for other medical discoveries.  He was a quiet man
who lived a rough childhood.  He was not looking for fame, instead, it found him.  During
the time before the vaccine, many people, mostly parents with young children, were very
scared.  Dr. Salk's vaccine was a great relief to everyone.  Yet, today polio is still affecting
people, even after receiving the vaccine.  Just as polio is still around today, so is the flu
virus.  Dr. Salk did invent a flu vaccine to help in keeping the flu virus at a low.  At this
time, Jonas Salk is working on a vaccine for the most feared disease of today, AIDS.  
	Jonas Edward Salk was born to Polish-Jewish immigrants, Daniel B. and Dora
Salk, on October 28, 1914.  Dr.  Salk was born in upper Manhattan, but then moved to
the Bronx where he went to school.  "His first spoken words were, 'Dirt, dirt,' instead of
the conventional, uninspired 'No, no' or 'Momma.'  He was a responsive child."  Dr. Salk
was "raised on the verge of  poverty."  Although his family was poor, he did do
exceptionally well in all the levels of education.  He graduated from Townsend Harris
High School in 1929 and then went on to the College of the City of New York where he
received his B.S. in 1934.  He finally earned his M.D. degree in June of 1939 from the
New York University College of Medicine.  Jonas Salk was "a somewhat withdrawn and
indistinct figure" but was always reading whatever he could lay his hands on.  Dr. Salk
went on to intern for two years at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York.  He then moved on
to the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor as a research professor in the Department of
Epidemology.  It was here that he found a vaccine for influenza, commonly called the flu,
while he worked with Dr. Thomas Francis Jr.  In 1947, when the University of Pittsburgh
expanded, he went to work there with a part in his contract that said he could go back to
Ann Arbor if things didn't work out, no questions asked.  At this school he became what
he is known as today, a bacteriologist.  It was here that he developed the polio
vaccination.  Dr. Salk then left his field of endeavor because of all the fame and ridicule
from his colleagues.  In 1963, Jonas Salk set up the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in
La Jolla, California.  This facility was made possible through funds from the March of
Dimes.  At this time, he is eighty years old and working on a cure for AIDS.  
	"Poliomyelitis, commonly known as polio, is an acute viral infection."  Polio is the
"inflammation of the gray anterior matter of the spinal cord."  The inflammation would
destroy the nerve cells.  As a result of the lost nerve cells, the muscles that those nerve
cells controlled would no longer be functional. 
	Polio has long been a disease in this world.  Mummies with one leg shorter than
the other, and a memorial that shows a priest with one leg withered are two examples of
ancient artifacts possibly proving the polio virus's existence as far back as 1500 B.C.  The
first written record of an outbreak of polio is in 1835.  It occurred in Workshop, England
with the record stating, "Four remarkable cases of suddenly induced paralysis, occurring in
children..."  Nevertheless, it was not until 1916 that the United States became well aware
of the polio dilemma.  In that year, there were 27,363 cases of polio with 7,179 resulting
in death.  Unfortunately, the problem didn't go away; in New York City there were 9,023
cases with 2,448 deaths.  "The epidemics peaked in the United States from 1942 to
1943,...In 1950, there were more than 33,000 United States cases."  The state of Florida
was one of the many states that was hit hard with polio.  The director of the Florida
Department of Public Health, Dr. Wilson Sowder, said, "I have not seen a communicable
disease that has disrupted a community...as this has."  The disease "was communicable as
an intestinal virus that would spread from the stomach to the nervous system."  It was
"transmitted in fecal matter or in secretions of the nose and throat, the virus enters its
victim by way of the mouth..."  It was not only the fact that it was so easy to get that
made it terrifying, but it was the effects the disease had on its victim.  There would be
those that somehow recovered completely, yet that was not the usual.  Some would die,
others would not be able to use their legs or both their legs and arms.  Even more
staggering, there were those that could only move an arm, or just their fingers and eyes. 
"Some would remain in an iron lung--a great, 1,800-pound casketlike contraption...The
iron lung hissed and sighed rhythmically, performing artificial respiration by way of air
pressure", said Charles L. Mee.  During the summers in Florida, kids would not be
allowed to go to the movies or to the pools because of the parents fear of them
contracting the virus.  Due to the consequences, polio "aroused as much alarm in that era
as does AIDS today."  
	Finally, on April 12, 1955 it was announced that Dr. Jonas Salk, using a technique
reported by Dr. John F. Enders in 1949,  had discovered a cure that could be depended
upon to immunize humans from polio.  "Overnight, Jonas E. Salk was a hero," said
Kathleen Arsenault, a librarian at the University of South Florida at Bayboro.1  Everyone
was so relieved that a vaccine had been found that they "observed moments of silence,
rang bells, honked horns, blew factory whistles, fired salutes, kept their traffic lights red in
brief periods of tribute, took the rest of the day off, closed their schools or convoked
fervid assemblies therein, drank toasts, hugged children, attended church, smiled at
strangers, forgave enemies."  It "consummated the most extraordinary undertaking in the
history of science."  Although Dr. Salk tried to take no credit for what he and his fellow
workers had accomplished, the public ignored his words and gave all the credit to him. 
Jonas Salk "awakened that morning as a moderately prominent research professor on the
faculty of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.  He ended the day as the most
beloved medical scientist on earth."  Dr. Salk did not patent his vaccine, therefore, he did
not receive any royalties for it, though he could have been a millionaire.  As it was though,
he received many tokens of gratitude.  
	
	"The ardent people named schools, streets, hospitals, and new-born infants after
	him.  They sent him checks, cash, money orders, stamps, scrolls, certificates,
	pressed flowers, snapshots, candy, baked goods, religious medals, rabbits' feet and
	other talismans, and uncounted thousands of letters and telegrams, both individual
	and round-robin, describing their heartfelt gratitude and admiration.  They offered
	him free automobiles, agricultural equipment, clothing, vacations, lucrative jobs
	in government and industry, and several hundred opportunities to get rich quick. 
	Their legislatures and parliaments passed resolutions, and their heads of state
	issued proclamations.  Their universities tendered honorary degrees.  He was
	nominated for the Nobel prize, which he did not get, and a Congressional medal,
	which he got, and membership in the National Academy of Sciences, which
	turned him down.  He was mentioned for several dozen lesser awards of national
	or local or purely promotional character, most of which he turned down."  
	Dr. Salk is thought of most for his polio vaccine, yet he is the scientist who
invented the flu shot.  The flu virus is an illness that affects the digestive track, most often
the stomach walls.  He and Dr. Francis developed the vaccine in 1976 at the University of
Michigan in Ann Arbor.  That vaccine helps many people today to get through the flu
season without any or little suffering.
	The United States has been free of polio since September of 1991.  The United
Nations agency stated that this was true in all of the Western Hemisphere:  the United
States, Canada, the Caribbean, and Latin America.  Even though the Western Hemisphere
is polio free, the rest of the world is very far from it.  There are still approximately
120,000 cases a year.  That number is decreasing:  in 1992 there where a reported 15,911
cases in a total of 58 countries, whereas in 1993 there where only 7,898 cases reported in
a total of 46 countries.  That is a 50 percent decrease in only one year.  There was also
141 countries that reported no cases of polio in all of 1993.  One organization affiliated
with polio elimination is The Rotary Foundation.  This group has developed a program
called PolioPlus.  This program's goal is to eradicate polio worldwide by the year 2005. 
This goal will prove to be a very expensive endeavor; over 10 years it could cost up to as
much as 1.4 billion dollars.   One event that has helped make the United States polio free
is that children must have received the polio vaccination before they can enter the public
school system.  Everyone is working together, though, to try and eradicate polio
worldwide.  Japan and the United States have agreed to a joint health program for children
to do away with polio by the year 2000.  Although the whole world seems to be on its
way to being polio free, the polio survivors are still suffering.  "Nearly a third of the 1.6
million polio survivors have begun to develop puzzling ailments, such as fatigue, muscle
weakness and atrophy, and in some cases difficulty breathing."  This "ailment" is known as
post-polio syndrome.  The theory behind this problem is "the initial viral attack kills a
number of motor neurons and weakens some of the surviving nerve cells.  As the
post-polio patient ages, these damaged neurons increasingly lose their connections to
muscles, which stop responding."  Other symptoms that accompany post-polio syndrome
are as follows:  chronic muscle pain, sensitivity to cold weather, and sleeping problems. 
Of all the polio survivors, ninety percent of them are predicted to contract post-polio
syndrome.  It has been found that from the time of the original disease to the time of the
contraction of post-polio syndrome is about thirty years.  Herman Oliger had to quit work
because of post-polio syndrome.  "Any strenuous activity would have to be followed with
more than eight hours of sleep and in some cases, two days of rest."  As a result of this
debilitating illness, some people must go back to the use of leg braces or wheelchairs or
even the iron lung.  The only organization that has been formed to help this type of people
is the Arkansas League of Polio Survivors located in Little Rock.  This organization was
founded by Margie R. Loschke who is a post-polio sufferer herself.  It is a non-profit
establishment,  there are no dues, and they give moral support to those who are suffering. 
Post-polio syndrome is an inept thing to happen, yet there are no doctors that are capable
of helping these people.  "Polio hasn't been taught in medical school since the vaccine
came out, so there's not but a very few doctors (and) therapists who know anything about
polio and the polio muscles," said Margie Loschke.  As a result of the polio survivors,
physical therapy was born.  "And now they've pushed them away and forgotten all about
them."  If there were to be an accident involving a post-polio syndrome person "there'd be
nobody in that hospital, no medical personnel...that would know how to handle a
post-polio body without injuring it," said Loschke.
	Not only are there people being affected by polio in one way or the other, there are
still people being affected by the flu.  Jonas Salk also invented a flu vaccine, however, it is
more on a temporary scale.  Another reason the flu is still around is that there are many
different strains of the flu, and doctors have a hard time predicting the ones that will be
infecting people in the up and coming flu seasons.  
	Lastly, Jonas Salk is now working on a vaccine for the polio of today, AIDS.    
He is working on a vaccine made of killed viruses, but so far he has not acquired any
substantial results.  In the summer of 1994, the United States did conduct a large-scale
test of Dr. Salk's proposed AIDS vaccine.  This vaccine has shown the "growth of the
human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, slowed substantially in infected volunteers given
three injections of the vaccine."   However, Dr. David Ho of the Aaron Diamond AIDS
Research Center said, "There's absolutely no evidence that the vaccine did any good."  Dr.
Ho is not alone in his thoughts, many experts on the Food and Drug Administration panel
feel the same.  This panel also said that this has "lowered the standards" and has caused
more confusion on how to treat AIDS patients.  It is ironic, in a way, that Dr. Salk is
working on a vaccine for AIDS.  Some scientists truly believe that "the AIDS epidemic
was sparked 30 years ago by a polio vaccine, which was accidentally contaminated with a
monkey virus."   Through all the criticism though, Dr. Salk said, " My job, at the moment,
is to help people see what I see.  If it's of value, fine.  And if it's not of value, then at least
I've done what I can do."
	Jonas Edward Salk may be the most well known scientist because of his polio
vaccine.  Although he was poor growing up, he did well in school.  This standard was
continued into his employment as a bacteriologist.  During his stay at Pittsburgh
University, the world was suffering immensely from the polio disease.  Dr. Salk was
named a hero when he found the vaccine for it.  He also helped in the suffering from the
flu viruses.  Dr. Salk has attributed to the polio free Western Hemisphere of today, yet
another problem has arisen in the post-polio syndrome ailment.  Now, Jonas Salk is
working on a vaccine for the dreaded disease at this time, the AIDS virus.  It might be
possible for one man to save two generations of people in one lifetime.  As Dr. Salk says,
"I have this way of being right." 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\kalapalo indians.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


The Kalapalo Indians of Central Brazil are one of a few surviving indigenous cultures that is uniquely protected by a national reserve in lowland South America. Through no effort of there own, they have been isolated artificially from Brazilian social and economic influences that reach almost every other Indian tribe in Brazil. This unusual situation has made it possible for the Kalapalo's culture to be undisturbed by the outside world and the surrounding tribes. Much of Kalapalo life is run through a central concept or an ideal of behavior, called ifutisu. This is an infinite ideological concept that is represented in many ways in social life and ideal organization among the Kalapalo. 

The area in which the Kalapalo live is in the northeastern Mato Grosso state called Upper Xingu Basin. There are four unintelligible languages by groups in this region. This makes the Upper Xingu Basin linguistically diverse, but with many of the groups still sharing the same social and ideological features. It is very difficult to trace back the origins of Kalapalo life because of the integration of the many different and culturally diverse groups in the Upper Xingu Basin. So, many of systems of kinship classification, marriage practices, ceremonial organizations, status allocation, and religious beliefs are consistent with cultural rules and social practices and not with the original system. Many of the modern local groups can only reconstruct their own history which is in limited detail, these systems can't be isolated completely from the existing society.

The two most important social units in Upper Xingu society are the village and the household groups. Both the village and household can be considered corporate in that both control rights to territorial resources, acts as a unit when performing certain economic and ceremonial activities. Members of a household group are obligated to pass out food which they collect amongst themselves. Even when one cannot supply food a Kalapalo is assured of a share because everyone is treated with the same kind of respect. Despite this corporate organization, membership in villages and households is constantly changing, and there is much movement of people between group to group. 

The Kalapalo society is a system wherein social units, such as the village groups and households exist only because of the individual who decides to live in these systems and choose to cooperate with one another. This is very different from other non-western societies whereas the individual acquire the responsibility to join in social units, by birth or other means of relationship to and with each other regardless of the identity of the individual themselves. The Kalapalo social organization is characterized by a flexible group membership and significant differences in the classification of individuals with certain groups. The choices for the Kalapalo to join groups is based on the personal relationship between one another instead of certain clan membership, religious beliefs, or ancestry.

The Kalapalo have an attitude towards cleanliness which encompasses all aspects of life such as; food, houses, belongings, and physical appearance. During the time of the year when manioc is being ready to be planted or when it is harvesting time, it is not uncommon to find them bathing three or four times a daily. The Kalapalo's  attitude towards cleanliness approaches the excessive side.   

The Kalapalo believe in generosity and peaceful behavior toward every one they encounter. They reject all acts of aggression and violent expression and find it inappropriate for human beings. Instead the Kalapalo embrace an ideal of non-violence which includes suppression of anger and a passive tolerance of behavior. In Kalapalo society people are incorporated into a cycle of reciprocity and generosity  . The idea of sharing takes place only along the lines of prior relations; such as kinship, friendship, or membership of the same household. 

The residence of the Upper Xingu Basin are settled agriculturists, fisherman and hunting. The Upper Xingu Basin is characterized by it's two seasons: The dry season which falls on the months of May and September, where intensive subsistence activity begins. New gardens are prepared and manioc is harvested. Also fishing is done at this time for the rivers are low and the water is clear. The rainy season occurs during the months of October through early April, where a decrease subsistence activities begins. The rainy season welcomes the ripening of new various species of wild fruits. During this time river are flooded and the Kalapalo must depend on little game hunted, stored food and insects collected. Kalapalo technology is very primitive. With the restricted absence of metal and stone tools. The Kalapalo make the best of bone, tooth, and wooden implements or tools. Manioc is a rooted crop which is the major subsistence item for the Kalapalo.

Kinship relationship are deemed to be the most important of social ties by the Kalapalo. Kinship for a Kalapalo is an all-pervasive bond which extends into almost every part of their life, such as religion, economic, political and familiar relationship are all deeply influenced by kinship. The Kalapalo trace relationships through either parents regardless of sex. Second, a kindred is usually defined ego-centered: persons classed in such a unit are considered related to a specific individual. This is what the Kalapalo call  otomo concept which is similar to the anthropologist's concept of kindred. The Kalapalo distinguished material and paternal filiation by making use of different symbols. These symbols define the sexual relation between parents as different from other kinds of sexual relations. The parents of a child doesn't have to be married to be declared it's mother and father. What is importance is knowing who the parents are, since it is very important to establish the child's otomo relationships.

Kalapalo marriage takes one of two forms. The first is an arranged marriage, which involves a girl being engaged before puberty and to a older man. This type of marriage is marked by the giving of bridewealth, which is the payment to the girl's parents and their siblings by the parents of the husband to be. The second form of marriage involves people who are lovers and takes place after the death or divorce of a spouse. The Kalapalo seek to establish the first of the two marriages, which is the arranged marriage on the basis of past relationships of kinship or affinity. The reason why arranged marriages are important is because the create alliances between persons who have prior kinship connections.  Also many of the men and women take on different types of marriage such as polyandry and polygymy.

Although the Kalapalo do not have or define position of leadership, there are certain individuals whose actions have designated them into leadership roles.  Kalapalo leaders are people who constantly expand and reinforce social ties. By doing this it demonstrates their ability to influence a large group of individuals and thus gains a certain amount of respect and prestige. The Kalapalo have a number of special statuses, each with certain duties and obligations to perform services, with this comes payment or rewards for duties or services done. Some of these special statuses are anetaw village mediators between households and village groups. Oto sponsors of ceremonies, ifi are ceremonial specialist, who preform the ceremonies and then teaches others about the ceremony. Fuati are curers and diviners, persons with unusual skills in healing others. The Kalapalo do not speak of these status roles in terms of leadership but believe that a leader is a person who has achieved many great statuses and who thus stand apart from the rest of the community.
The Structure of Kinship in a Tribal Society

This research will focus on the topic of the structure of kinship in a tribal society, particularly on the kinship connection which structures many areas of social tribal life. From political alliances formed between tribes, to access of certain resources, to a status role in tribal groups, and even as important as  life and death. The references include....

Keesing, Roger M.
           1975                                   Kin Groups and Social Structures.      Holt,            
                                                      Rinehart, & Winston: New York.

	This book examines the decent groups, the nature of alliance system and the internal complexity and diversity of actual societies. Through kinship and kin groups and there social structures. This source  has been helpful in my research because explains the formal principles of kin group organization, it also shows the kin groups in evolutionary and ecological perspective.  The book also explains the difference between kin groups and social structures and at the same time explains how kin groups play roles in certain social structures and vies versa . 

Goody, Jack
       1971                             Kinship. Cox & Wyman Ltd.: Great Britain.
                                            [Langara GN 480 G6]

	This book examines the complex kin networks of many tribal societies and shows the vital role in safeguarding social and cultural stability. It also examines the traditional kinship system, kin groups and marriage alliance. This 
source has been helpful to my research  because it has explains certain structure roles and how they affect certain societies. It is also helpful because it explores the  formations of alliances through marriage. Finally this book show the collection of kin groups and the relationship to social and cultural stability.
  
Levi-Strauss, Claude
            1969                       The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Becon Press.:
                                           Boston. [Langara GN 480 .L413]

	This book examines the principle of kinship, nature of exogamy. The theory of kinship which includes Malinowski's theory and it's contradiction. Historical analysis, social structures, incest and the connection to marriage.  This source has been helpful to my research because it has shown the elementary structures and theories of kinship. It has also given many kin terms and there explanations. Finally it tries to explain the significance of social structures and there relationship between kin groups.

Schusky, Ernest L.
           1965                       Manual for Kinship Analysis. Holt, Rinehart &
                                          Winston.: New York. [Langara GN 480 S35]

	This book examines the beliefs and ideal behavior of a people and their actual behaviors by understanding kinship practices.  It also examines the theory of kinship and the development of functional anthropology. This book also includes the theories and perspectives of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. This book has been helpful in my research because it has broken down the kinship system and other kinship classifications. It analyze  the kinship structure and the kin groups through simple explanatory graphs.  
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Karl Mar1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Karl Marx
The late 1800's was a time period where new ideas, theories, and philosophies ran through the minds of many young people. Amongst them was a man be the name of Karl Marx who stood out in the crowd. Known as a man of great integrity and intelligence, Marx was thought to be one of the greatest thinkers of all time. "Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx: 2nd Edition" by Robert C. Tucker is a book about Marx and his philosophies. Robert C. Tucker in this book ventures out to critique and give an interpretation of Marx's philosophical thoughts. Marx's was the man who was responsible for the well known and highly acclaimed philosophy of Marxism also known as Communism.
Karl Marx was born in the German Rhineland to a well-cultured family, one that was not revolutionary. As a young man he received a classical education. Marx entered the University of Berlin where he read law, majoring in history as well as philosophy. His years at the university was the time period that was a turning point in Marx's life. From his early school days, philosophy had been a subject that sparked interest in Karl Marx. He was greatly concerned with humans' freedom and reviving the ancient concept of communism. The University of Berlin was where Marx had first become acquainted with the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Hegel's ideas known, as Hegelianism was the concept where the main focus was a self- alienated man. Man should worship himself as a Superior Being. What attracted Marx to Hegel was his "surmounting of the characteristic difficulty of idealism." However, when Marx was later introduced to the philosophies of Feuerbach, his thoughts completely changed. According to Feuerbach,"man has so far in history lived primarily a life of religion, and that the essences of religion is man's estrangement from himself," At the same time of Marx becoming acquainted with these thoughts, he was jumping from one place to another causing his family to live in wretched poverty. Later on, using both the concepts of Hegelianism and of Feuerbach, Marx arrived at the formulation of his own philosophical anthropology. He first states that the primary determinant of history is economics where the history of society is viewed as the history of class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariats. The bourgeoisie are successful by extracting money from the proletariats for profit. Marx's theory predicts that the contradictions and weaknesses will cause economic crisis and deepening poverty of the working class. However, Marx's Communist Manifesto will eliminate all the problems that are the cause of the downfall of social classes. This in turn eliminates the need for a revolution. The idea of his philosophy comes directly from his life. The elimination of social classes is derived from his experience of poverty. The elimination of a revolution comes from the was he was raised, His family was on that did not belief in revolutions.
In the" Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx: 2nd Edition' by Robert C. Tucker, Tucker originates Marxism to the earlier German philosophers, Georg Wilhelm, Friedrich Hegel and Luswig Feuerbach. The prime focus of Hegelianism was man. Where" Man shall worship himself as the Supreme Being" Tucker explains Hegel created these terms to find peace with himself by conceiving himself as the particular man known as God. Feuerbach's focus was religion and how it is the determinant of history. Feuerbach's ideas originate from Hegel's but add the concept of religion. Tucker also introduces his view on how there may be two types of Marxism, original Marxism and mature Marxism. The main difference between the two is that a self-alienated man is the central subject of original Marxism, but it is seen that the self-alienated man is absent from the mature Marxism. Original Marxism's persuasive idea is the idea of self, which seemed to originate from the philosophy of Hegelianism. Whereas the idea of self seems to disappear from mature Marxism and the central is society.
Karl Marx became interested in philosophy from an early age. Because of his high interest in philosophy, Marx read extensively in anthropology and economics, arriving at his own formulation of "philosophical anthropology." Also according to Tucker, Marx's studies did not come from direct study in society. He had no knowledge or workers or conditions. In fact, he developed his theories after his introduction to Hegel and Feuerbach. Both theories of both German philosophers contributes and served as the building blocks to the birth of Marxism. Although, Marx's philosophy was similar to those of Hegel and Feuerbach, he was still thought to be a radical who went against the political ideas of his time. His beliefs caused him to get in trouble with superior beings as well as being banished from Paris a number of times. His persistency was that which made him stronger and more interesting to others.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Karl Marx 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Karl Marx



 



Karl Marx was a German scholar who lived in the nineteenth century. He



spent most of his life studying, thinking and writing about history and



economics. A many years of study, much of it spent in England, he believed



that he understood more deeply than anyone who had ever lived before him



why there is injustice i world.



 



He said that all injustice and inequality is a result of one



underlying conflict in society. He called it a 'class struggle', that is,



a conflict bet the class of people who can afford to own money- producing



businesses, whom he called 'capitalists' or 'the bourgeosie', and the



class of people who do not surplus money to buy businesses and who are



therefore forced to work for wage whom he called 'workers'.



 



Marx said that, because it was always in the economic interest of



capita to take advantage of or 'exploit' workers, nothing could persuade



capitalists change their ways. In other words, peaceful progess toward



equality and social justice was impossible. The only way to establish



justice, he said, was for t workers to overthrow the capitalists by means



of violent revolution. He urged workers around the world to revolt against



their rulers. "Workers of the world unite!" he wrote. "You have nothing to



lose but your chains."



 



Another thing Marx taught was that organized religion, the churches,



help capitalists to keep the workers quiet and obedient. Religion,



according to Mar 'the opiate of the masses'. The church tells working



people to forget about the injustice they meet in their lives and to think



instead of how wonderful it will in the after- life when they go to heaven.



 



Marx, with his colleague, Engels, spread his ideas in two famous



books, Capital' and 'The Communist Manifesto'.



 



In the early years of the twentieth century, Russia was ready for the



ide Marx. The Russian people were extremely discontented with their ruler,



Tsar Nicholas II, who had little interest in governing and was neglecting



the count badly. Making conditions even more miserable for the people were



the hardships the First World War and a particularly cold winter.



 



By 1917, the Russian people were desperate enough to accept a



revolution. fact, they got two for the price of one, the first in March



when the Tsar was deposed and a provisional government was set up. Then in



November a political called the Bolsheviks led a further rebellion which



ousted the provisional government. The leaders of the Bolsheviks, Lenin and



Trotsky, began to build a Russia, one built on the ideas of Marx, where



everyone was equal, where all property was owned by 'the people' rather



than by capitalists and where the two were in control of the government.



 



Not long afterward, Communist Russia was attacked by Britain, America



and France, who wanted to get rid of the communist government. They were



afraid the workers in their own countries might be inspired to imitate the



example of Rus Trotsky, a highly intelligent and energetic communist



leader, led the defence Russia with great success.



 



After Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle began between Trotsky



and a leader within the Communist Party named Stalin. While Trotsky was a



brilliant intellectual and an idealist, Stalin was a simpler, quieter sort



of person, who based his power not so much on plans and ideas as on



alliances with other member of the Communist Party. While Trotsky believed



in Russia's trying to assist two all over the world to rise up in communist



revolutions against their bosses, S wanted Russia to take care of its own



business.



 



The rivalry between the two leaders went on for several years.



Eventually 1929 Stalin gained the upper hand and drove Trotsky from Russia.



Stalin later up a scheme to industrialize the backward country which he



called the Five-Yea Plan. It included a number of Trotsky's ideas which



Stalin had previously oppo



 



As Russia developed under Stalin, members of the Communist Party took



for themselves many privileges. All the original communist ideals of Marx



received service, but it became clearer and clearer that members of the



Communist Party becoming a ruling class that was not equal to non-members.



 



Most important of all to Stalin was ensuring that he remained in



power. H often used the most brutal tactics. Chief among his creations were



two highly effective political weapons - an efficient propaganda machine



which more and m promoted the idea of Stalin as a great, nearly god-like



leader, and a secret p force which kept the country quiet through the use



of terror. At one point during his rule, he organized 'Show Trials' in



which many of the people he did not lie strangely 'confessed' to very



serious crimes and were executed or sent to harsh prison camps.



 



Eventually Stalin began trading with non-communist countries of



western Europe, although he continued to be hostile to Germany. Then, in a



shocking ab face in 1939, he suddenly signed a non-aggression pact with



Hitler. Not long afterward, though, Hitler broke this agreement and



attacked Russia. In 1941 St was forced to enter World War II and make an



alliance with Britain and America



 



=============================================================



 



This takes us up to the time of the writing of Animal Farm - 1944. As



you see, nearly every event in the novel can be traced directly to an event



in Rus during the period from 1900- 1943. An interesting project is to list



the events the novel and match them up with the real events which Orwell



intended to sati In fact, the story has many, many similarities to the real



historical events, of them very detailed. For example, the digging up of



Major's skull, and the h destroying their own eggs, both refer to specific



events that took place during rule of Stalin. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Karl Marx.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Karl Marx



 



Karl Marx was a German scholar who lived in the nineteenth century. He



spent most of his life studying, thinking and writing about history and



economics. A many years of study, much of it spent in England, he believed



that he understood more deeply than anyone who had ever lived before him



why there is injustice i world.



 



He said that all injustice and inequality is a result of one



underlying conflict in society. He called it a 'class struggle', that is,



a conflict bet the class of people who can afford to own money- producing



businesses, whom he called 'capitalists' or 'the bourgeosie', and the



class of people who do not surplus money to buy businesses and who are



therefore forced to work for wage whom he called 'workers'.



 



Marx said that, because it was always in the economic interest of



capita to take advantage of or 'exploit' workers, nothing could persuade



capitalists change their ways. In other words, peaceful progess toward



equality and social justice was impossible. The only way to establish



justice, he said, was for t workers to overthrow the capitalists by means



of violent revolution. He urged workers around the world to revolt against



their rulers. "Workers of the world unite!" he wrote. "You have nothing to



lose but your chains."



 



Another thing Marx taught was that organized religion, the churches,



help capitalists to keep the workers quiet and obedient. Religion,



according to Mar 'the opiate of the masses'. The church tells working



people to forget about the injustice they meet in their lives and to think



instead of how wonderful it will in the after- life when they go to heaven.



 



Marx, with his colleague, Engels, spread his ideas in two famous



books, Capital' and 'The Communist Manifesto'.



 



In the early years of the twentieth century, Russia was ready for the



ide Marx. The Russian people were extremely discontented with their ruler,



Tsar Nicholas II, who had little interest in governing and was neglecting



the count badly. Making conditions even more miserable for the people were



the hardships the First World War and a particularly cold winter.



 



By 1917, the Russian people were desperate enough to accept a



revolution. fact, they got two for the price of one, the first in March



when the Tsar was deposed and a provisional government was set up. Then in



November a political called the Bolsheviks led a further rebellion which



ousted the provisional government. The leaders of the Bolsheviks, Lenin and



Trotsky, began to build a Russia, one built on the ideas of Marx, where



everyone was equal, where all property was owned by 'the people' rather



than by capitalists and where the two were in control of the government.



 



Not long afterward, Communist Russia was attacked by Britain, America



and France, who wanted to get rid of the communist government. They were



afraid the workers in their own countries might be inspired to imitate the



example of Rus Trotsky, a highly intelligent and energetic communist



leader, led the defence Russia with great success.



 



After Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle began between Trotsky



and a leader within the Communist Party named Stalin. While Trotsky was a



brilliant intellectual and an idealist, Stalin was a simpler, quieter sort



of person, who based his power not so much on plans and ideas as on



alliances with other member of the Communist Party. While Trotsky believed



in Russia's trying to assist two all over the world to rise up in communist



revolutions against their bosses, S wanted Russia to take care of its own



business.



 



The rivalry between the two leaders went on for several years.



Eventually 1929 Stalin gained the upper hand and drove Trotsky from Russia.



Stalin later up a scheme to industrialize the backward country which he



called the Five-Yea Plan. It included a number of Trotsky's ideas which



Stalin had previously oppo



 



As Russia developed under Stalin, members of the Communist Party took



for themselves many privileges. All the original communist ideals of Marx



received service, but it became clearer and clearer that members of the



Communist Party becoming a ruling class that was not equal to non-members.



 



Most important of all to Stalin was ensuring that he remained in



power. H often used the most brutal tactics. Chief among his creations were



two highly effective political weapons - an efficient propaganda machine



which more and m promoted the idea of Stalin as a great, nearly god-like



leader, and a secret p force which kept the country quiet through the use



of terror. At one point during his rule, he organized 'Show Trials' in



which many of the people he did not lie strangely 'confessed' to very



serious crimes and were executed or sent to harsh prison camps.



 



Eventually Stalin began trading with non-communist countries of



western Europe, although he continued to be hostile to Germany. Then, in a



shocking ab face in 1939, he suddenly signed a non-aggression pact with



Hitler. Not long afterward, though, Hitler broke this agreement and



attacked Russia. In 1941 St was forced to enter World War II and make an



alliance with Britain and America



 



=============================================================



 



This takes us up to the time of the writing of Animal Farm - 1944. As



you see, nearly every event in the novel can be traced directly to an event



in Rus during the period from 1900- 1943. An interesting project is to list



the events the novel and match them up with the real events which Orwell



intended to sati In fact, the story has many, many similarities to the real



historical events, of them very detailed. For example, the digging up of



Major's skull, and the h destroying their own eggs, both refer to specific



events that took place during rule of Stalin. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kate Chopin.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Kate Chopin
Kate Chopin was an American author who
lived during the nineteenth century, but because of The
Awakening, a novel which was considered scandalous at
the time, she has just recently been "...accepted into the
canon of major American writers"(Trosky 105). Through
Kate Chopin's main character of The Awakening, Edna
Pontellier, she is able to portray her feelings and desires
that were otherwise suppressed by the ideals of American
society at that time. Kate Chopin was born on February 8,
1851 in St. Louis, Missouri. She was brought up in a family
that was a member of the prominent French- Creole
community. During her childhood she possessed a love for
reading. Her favorite types of literature were fairy tales,
poetry and novels. She secluded herself for almost two
years, away from her family and school in her attic,
spending the majority of her time reading (Trosky 102).
After her schooling, Chopin spent her days as a belle in St.
Louis' high society. She was greatly admired for both her
beauty and wit. She continued her readings, becoming
more interested in contemporary works. In 1869, she
traveled to New Orleans where she met Oscar Chopin,
whom she married. Though married, Chopin remained
fairly independent, practicing habits such as smoking and
walking alone in the city, two things unheard of from
women at that time.(Trosky 102) In 1883, Oscar Chopin
died of swamp fever. By 1884, Kate moved with her six
children back to St. Louis. Around this time, Chopin began
her writing career, writing in periodicals and publishing
collections of short stories. She received good reviews and
continued to write at an impressive rate. Her acclaim was
short lived though, following the publication of The
Awakening. "This work, which would eventually be
recognized as her masterpiece and a seminal work in
American feminist fiction, first proved her most notorious
publication and her literary undoing."(Trosky 103) At the
time, Chopin's novel was considered scandalous and
immoral, for it dealt largely with a women's sexuality. At
the time The Awakening was written, a novel would be
judged on it's moral message as much as its artistic merits.
After the negative response of critics, Chopin published a
few more works, but nothing was well received. She
received little recognition, which when given, described her
as an author of southern local color stories(Trosky 103).
Local color writing was a movement which tried to capture
the feeling of a particular region through descriptions of
local speech and manners("The Age of Realism").
Eventually all of her publications went out of print. Around
the same time Chopin's health was declining, and on
August 22, 1904, she died of a brain hemorrhage.(Trosky
103) Kate Chopin lived in and wrote during a period in
American literature which was known as the Age of
Realism. The Age of Realism occurred between the years
of 1871 and 1913. "Realism was in part a revolt against
romanticism and its idealized portrayal of life." ("The Age of
Realism") Authors of realism wanted to show life as it really
was. It encouraged writers to write about the problems and
conditions around them, often using the dialects and
language of ordinary people.("The Age of") Chopin was
often compared to other realist writers of her time, such as
George Washington Cable, who wrote similar to Chopin.
The works of both Cable and Chopin were seen "...almost
entirely as an emancipation of Southern local
color"(Springer 200). Cable, like Chopin was an author
who wrote the Creoles. Both he and Chopin published a
great deal of their work in magazines("The Age of
Realism"). The Age of Realism is evident in Chopin's
works, which usually deal with those Americans of French
decent living in Louisiana or in St. Louis.(Springer 201)
She wrote about the real world, that of which she knew
from her experiences growing up. Chopin's major themes
revolved around: a woman's role in society, marriage, and
a woman's sexual nature and growing independence.(Davis
52) These topics were almost unheard of, for they were
considered very wrong, "...[violating] several nineteenth
century principles of womanly literature decorum."(Davis
60) As stated earlier, Chopin wanted to be independent,
something unexceptable for women at that time. Her desire
for independence was portrayed in The Awakening, by the
novel's main character Edna Pontellier. The Awakening
takes place at Grand Isle, not far from New Orleans. Edna
Pontellier is a woman who becomes very unhappy with her
life. She finds herself in a marriage that is not out of love,
but something expected of her. She has two children,
whom she loves, but at the same time feels burdened by.
As time goes on she grows more and more unhappy. Soon
Edna begins to fall in love with another man, Robert
Lebrun. Robert, becoming frightened by his feelings for
Edna, leaves to live in Mexico, trying to forget Edna. While
Robert is gone, Edna becomes more and more
independent. She refuses to do anything, even activities that
she used to do without objection, such as sleeping in the
same bed as her husband. She also neglects her children,
and her duties as a wife and woman of the community.
Robert eventually returns from Mexico, unable to stay
away any longer, but his return is short lived. Robert leaves
once again, realizing that what they are doing could never
work because Edna is married with kids. Edna unable to
bear the pain any longer, returns to Grand Isle, where she
and Robert first fell in love with one another. Edna
undresses herself and swims out as far as she can and
drowns herself, leaving behind her husband and children.
All of Chopin's major themes are present in The
Awakening. Edna's marriage to Leonce is a major factor of
the story, because her marriage keeps her from being able
to following her true feelings for Robert, the man she was
really in love with. Edna's role in society is also questioned.
The women of her time and class were expected to be very
domestic, taking care of the children and socializing with
the other women of the community meeting weekly. Edna
breaks the tradition, by going out on Tuesdays, the day
when all the women come to visit her, to walk around the
city alone. Edna also takes up art, doing sketches and
drawings, not a very popular activity for women. The
biggest shocker in the book, which may be why it received
such bad criticism, is the fact that despite Edna's marriage
she fantasizes about being with another man, and then acts
on it. Edna's actions illustrate a woman's sexual nature as
well as her independence. Many of Edna's actions reflect
the feelings of Kate Chopin. When Chopin writes that Edna
walks alone in the city, it can be said that Edna's actions
are influenced by Chopin, who is also walked alone in the
city and acted very independently. Although Chopin's real
life did not go as far as Edna's, it can almost be assumed
that Kate Chopin lived the way she really wanted to
through Edna. Kate Chopin was not a very successful
writer during her lifetime, receiving no awards or special
recognition. Kate Chopin wrote ahead of her time. Her
contemporary writing style, although it can be appreciated
now, ruined her writing career, depriving her of the
recognition that she deserved during her lifetime. Works
Cited Davis, Sara deSaussure. Concise Dictionary of
American Literary Biography. Detroit: Gale Research Inc.,
1988. Springer, Marlene. American Writers. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1979. "The Age of Realism."
World Book Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. World Book Inc.
1997. Trosky, Susan M. Contemporary Authors. Vol.
122. Kansas City, Missouri: Gale Research Company,
1988.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kim Campbell.TXT
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Kim Campbell
Kim Campbell, Canada's first female Prime Minister, rose quickly in her political standings reaching, what she would find to be the height of her career only seven years after entering politics. It appeared like the loss of the 1993 election and the all around destruction of the Progressive Conservative party was completely Kim Campbell's fault however actually was a joint effort by Brian Mulroney and Kim Campbell. Kim Campbell rose so quickly in her political status that she did not have the experience that most of the others MPs had at her level. The Tories were finishing their second term in power and the people of Canada were displeased with Brain Mulroney by the time of his resignation. Kim Campbell was voted in as Prime Minister by her party and was not elected by the people of Canada. During the 1993 election Kim Campbell had an American company make a commercial that mocked Liberal party leader Jean Chrétien's physical disability. Kim Campbell's first entered politics in 1986. She first won a provincial seat in Vancouver and in 1988 she won her bid for the House of Commons. She had many good ideas, one of them being the USA-Canada Free Trade Agreement. This part of her campaign was recognized by Brian Mulroney who was the current Prime Minister. In 1989 Mulroney appointed Kim Campbell to the position of Minister of State for Indian and Northern Affairs. Later, in 1990 she was appointed Minister of Justice and a year later became the Minister of Defence. Just two years after becoming Minister of Defence and 7 years after entering politics, she ran for leader of the Progressive Conservative party and became Brian Mulroney's successor. Kim Campbell inexperience in the world of politics gave her a huge disadvantage when things started to go wrong. Brain Mulroney and the Tories had been in power for two terms, a total of 9 years.
The Canadians had become tired of Brian Mulroney and his Progressive Conservative government, so when it was announced that he would resign most Canadians were happy to see him go. However his resignation did mean the end of the Progressive Conservatives power in Canada. Canadians unhappy with what the Progressive Conservatives had done chose to elect an other party. When Brain Mulroney resigned there was, in place of a federal election, a leadership convention. The Tories just had to elect a new leader who would then become the Prime Minister. This meant that Kim Campbell was not the choice of Canada but instead the choice of the Progressive Conservative party. So when it came time, 3 months later, for an election Canada not only went with a different leader but an entirely different party. The Liberal party was elected to power and leaving the Progressive Conservative party was left with only two seats. Canadians were not pleased with the Tories no matter who their leader was, this dissatisfaction caused the worst loss in Canadian history. It was in the 1993 federal election that Kim Campbell found she was behind in the poles and made a decision that destroyed her party. She chose to have an American Company make a commercial that made fun of Liberal party leader Jean Chrétien's physical disability, Bell's palsy. This disease paralyzes on side of the face, where the muscles on the right side of his mouth were paralized The Canadian people responded to this commercial by giving him sympathy and Kim Campbell and the Tories suffered because of it. "Campbell's problematic performance in the campaign,...and her inability to distance herself from the extremely unpopular Brian Mulroney propelled the party from defeat to disaster."1 The problem started before she took on the leadership, Brian Molruney's nine years in power was too much for Canadians so that when Brian Molruney resigned it would have been difficult to make the PC party more popular. Kim Campbell's inexperience in politics was the reason she made the commercial about Jean Chrétien and lost her the 1993 election. After the works of Mulroney and Campbell were finished there was not much left of the Progressive Consecrative Party of Canada. "It was wiped out completely, even in its traditional stronghold of Alberta."2 So when the facts are taken into account it is obvious that Kim Campbell was aided in the destruction of the PC party by Brian Mulroney and was not alone in the effort. 1 - The Canadian Encyclopedia Plus Copyright (c) 1996 by McClelland & Stewart Inc.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kimberly Mikelle Morgan biography.TXT
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Biography






                                                        





f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\King Henry VIII 4.TXT
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King Henry VIII



 



Henry VIII (born 1491, ruled 1509-1547). The second son of Henry VII



and Elizabeth of York was one of England's strongest and least popular



monarchs. He was born at Greenwich on June 28, 1491. The first English



ruler to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, he was a



gifted scholar, linguist, composer, and musician. As a youth he was gay and



handsome, skilled in all manner of athletic games, but in later life he



became coarse and fat. When his elder brother, Arthur, died (1502), he



became heir apparent. He succeeded his father on the throne in 1509, and



soon thereafter he married Arthur's young widow, Catherine of Aragon.



During the first 20 years of his reign he left the shaping of policies



largely in the hands of his great counselor, Cardinal Wolsey (See Wolsey,



Cardinal). By 1527 Henry had made up his mind to get rid of his wife. The



only one of Catherine's six children who survived infancy was a sickly



girl, the Princess Mary, and it was doubtful whether a woman could succeed



to the English throne. Then too, Henry had fallen in love with a lady of



the court, Anne Boleyn.



 



When the pope (Clement VII) would not annul his marriage, Henry turned



against Wolsey, deprived him of his office of chancellor, and had him



arrested on a charge of treason. He then obtained a divorce through Thomas



Cranmer, whom he had made archbishop of Canterbury, and it was soon



announced that he had married Anne Boleyn.



 



The pope was thus defied. All ties that bound the English church to



Rome were broken. Appeals to the pope's court were forbidden, all payments



to Rome were stopped, and the pope's authority in England was abolished. In



1534 the Act of Supremacy declared Henry himself to be Supreme Head of the



Church of England, and anyone who denied this title was guilty of an act of



treason. Some changes were also made in the church services, the Bible was



translated into English, and printed copies were placed in the churches.



The monasteries throughout England were dissolved and their vast lands and



goods turned over to the king, who in turn granted those estates to



noblemen who would support his policies. In the northern part of the



kingdom the people rose in rebellion in behalf of the monks, but the



Pilgrimage of Grace, as it was called, was put down.



 



Although Henry reformed the government of the church, he refused to



allow any changes to be made in its doctrines. Before his divorce he had



opposed the teachings of Martin Luther in a book that had gained for him



from the pope the title Defender of the Faith--a title the monarch of



England still bears. After the separation from Rome he persecuted with



equal severity the Catholics who adhered to the government of Rome and the



Protestants who rejected its doctrines.



 



Henry was married six times. Anne Boleyn bore the king one child, who



became Elizabeth I. Henry soon tired of Anne and had her put to death. A



few days later he married a third wife, Jane Seymour. She died in a little



more than a year, after having given birth to the future Edward VI.



 



A marriage was then contracted with a German princess, Anne of Cleves,



whom the king had been led to believe to be very beautiful. When he saw her



he discovered that he had been tricked, and he promptly divorced this wife



and beheaded Thomas Cromwell, the minister who had arranged the marriage.



Henry's fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was sent to the block for misconduct.



In 1543 he married his sixth wife, the tactful and pious Catherine Parr.



Catherine, who survived Henry, lived to marry her fourth husband.



 



During Henry's reign the union of England and Wales was completed



(1536). Ireland was made a kingdom (1541), and Henry became king of



Ireland. His wars with Scotland and France remained indecisive in spite of



some shallow victories. Although he himself opposed the Reformation, his



creation of a national church marked the real beginning of the English



Reformation. He died on Jan. 28, 1547, and was buried in St. George's



Chapel in Windsor Castle. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\King Henry VIII.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


King Henry VIII



 



Henry VIII (born 1491, ruled 1509-1547). The second son of Henry VII



and Elizabeth of York was one of England's strongest and least popular



monarchs. He was born at Greenwich on June 28, 1491. The first English



ruler to be educated under the influence of the Renaissance, he was a



gifted scholar, linguist, composer, and musician. As a youth he was gay and



handsome, skilled in all manner of athletic games, but in later life he



became coarse and fat. When his elder brother, Arthur, died (1502), he



became heir apparent. He succeeded his father on the throne in 1509, and



soon thereafter he married Arthur's young widow, Catherine of Aragon.



During the first 20 years of his reign he left the shaping of policies



largely in the hands of his great counselor, Cardinal Wolsey (See Wolsey,



Cardinal). By 1527 Henry had made up his mind to get rid of his wife. The



only one of Catherine's six children who survived infancy was a sickly



girl, the Princess Mary, and it was doubtful whether a woman could succeed



to the English throne. Then too, Henry had fallen in love with a lady of



the court, Anne Boleyn.



 



When the pope (Clement VII) would not annul his marriage, Henry turned



against Wolsey, deprived him of his office of chancellor, and had him



arrested on a charge of treason. He then obtained a divorce through Thomas



Cranmer, whom he had made archbishop of Canterbury, and it was soon



announced that he had married Anne Boleyn.



 



The pope was thus defied. All ties that bound the English church to



Rome were broken. Appeals to the pope's court were forbidden, all payments



to Rome were stopped, and the pope's authority in England was abolished. In



1534 the Act of Supremacy declared Henry himself to be Supreme Head of the



Church of England, and anyone who denied this title was guilty of an act of



treason. Some changes were also made in the church services, the Bible was



translated into English, and printed copies were placed in the churches.



The monasteries throughout England were dissolved and their vast lands and



goods turned over to the king, who in turn granted those estates to



noblemen who would support his policies. In the northern part of the



kingdom the people rose in rebellion in behalf of the monks, but the



Pilgrimage of Grace, as it was called, was put down.



 



Although Henry reformed the government of the church, he refused to



allow any changes to be made in its doctrines. Before his divorce he had



opposed the teachings of Martin Luther in a book that had gained for him



from the pope the title Defender of the Faith--a title the monarch of



England still bears. After the separation from Rome he persecuted with



equal severity the Catholics who adhered to the government of Rome and the



Protestants who rejected its doctrines.



 



Henry was married six times. Anne Boleyn bore the king one child, who



became Elizabeth I. Henry soon tired of Anne and had her put to death. A



few days later he married a third wife, Jane Seymour. She died in a little



more than a year, after having given birth to the future Edward VI.



 



A marriage was then contracted with a German princess, Anne of Cleves,



whom the king had been led to believe to be very beautiful. When he saw her



he discovered that he had been tricked, and he promptly divorced this wife



and beheaded Thomas Cromwell, the minister who had arranged the marriage.



Henry's fifth wife, Catherine Howard, was sent to the block for misconduct.



In 1543 he married his sixth wife, the tactful and pious Catherine Parr.



Catherine, who survived Henry, lived to marry her fourth husband.



 



During Henry's reign the union of England and Wales was completed



(1536). Ireland was made a kingdom (1541), and Henry became king of



Ireland. His wars with Scotland and France remained indecisive in spite of



some shallow victories. Although he himself opposed the Reformation, his



creation of a national church marked the real beginning of the English



Reformation. He died on Jan. 28, 1547, and was buried in St. George's



Chapel in Windsor Castle. 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Knute Rockne 4.TXT
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Knute Rockne - Coach and Legend of Notre Dame 
  



        Knute Kenneth Rockne was born on March 4, 1888 in Voss, Norway. He first moved to Chicago at the age of 5. Nobody liked him there, and he was in many fights. Before football or even baseball, Knute discovered skiing.  He loved it, and went skiing every chance he got during the winter. Knute was a natural athlete, and excelled in all of the sports he tried. He excelled in track, making a name for himself later on. 



        Although he was always one of the shortest guys around, Knute was one of the toughest. The only protective gear he ever wore was adhesive tape that he stuck to his ears to prevent them from being torn off. Knute often said "Show me a good and gracious loser and I'll show you a failure." 



        Knute discovered the great game of football at the age of 7. He played in games against other teams his age. The team he played on was called the Tricky Tigers. All of the teams were "sandlot" teams. Knute could not get enough of the sport. He praticed every chance he got. In fact, the other boys thought him crazy for practicing so much. This obsession almost got him an education. Knute never made the starting team until he was a senior, so he played on the scrubs team. 



        At the same time, Knute tried playing many other sports. His school attendance slipped and his grades became mediocre. Persistence paid off, and after 3 years on the scrubs, Knute finally made it to the starting football team. After this successful senior football season, it was time for him to leave high school. It was a wonder that he got into Notre Dame with his high school record. 



        At the age of 22, Rockne decided that he wanted to fulfill a dream. That dream was to become a pharmacist and to eventually own his own drug store. Two of Knute's friends gained acceptance to a small college in South Bend, Indiana called Notre Dame.  Knute decided to try to get into this same school, although his high school grades were dismal. He was accepted, but his parents were not fond of the idea of him going to a Catholic school, as they themselves were practicing Lutherans. However, they did not forbid him to go. Interestingly, Notre Dame was not Rockney's first college choice. For years he had saved and planned to go to the University of Illinois. Knute had not even planned on playing football in college. That decision would have resulted in a very different future for Knute. Basically, Knute's decision to go to Notre Dame was an economic one; it was much cheaper than U.I. 



        While working during college to earn his way, Knute got a course in memory training, which would later become a valuable asset in his coaching career.                                                  A picture at this time revealed a cocky young man whose sparse hair made him appear more like a young professor than a college freshman. Knute made friends with the future quarter back Gus Dorais. They would be roommates through all 4 years of college, and took vacations together during school breaks. 



        Rockne didn't make the varsity squad until his third year. There were many theories about why this was. Some said he was too short and caused too many turnovers as a freshman. Whatever the reason, Knute palyed on the scrubs for two years. A new coach entered the picture by his junior year and gave Knute a chance at the end position. Everyone knows what he did from there. (If you don't already, you will!) In his  career at Notre Dame, Knute averaged a 92 grade point average. In his senior year of college, he was still determined to become a pharmacist. He had no intention of becoming a coach! 



        Rockne did not invent the forward pass - he revolutionized it! During a summer break form school, Gus and Knute decided to fool around with The forward pass. Knute got an idea telling Gus "What if you hold the football closer to this end?" Gus tried it and was astonished by the outcome. He could actually control the speed and accuracy of the ball! After that, Gus discovered something he wanted Knute to do. Instead of letting the ball come to him and hit him in the chest, he instructed Knute to catch it with his hands in full stride. Gus then proceeded to deliver the ball to Knute in this fashion, and the idea worked. Sure enough, Knute caught the ball without missing a step. Knute Rockne had perfected the art of relaxing your hands to catch the ball. He also invented pass patterns. Notre Dame brought this new arsenal to their playbook   in the biggest game of the year against Army. Army was heavily favored in this game. The "fighting Irish" came out with their usual ground attack for 7 plays, with Rockne out with a leg injury. Rockne came out to the huddle and told Gus it was time. Rockne went in, hitting the OB and ran a beautiful pattern. Gus delivered the ball right on target and Rockne scored on a 25 yard toss. Everyone was awed by this sequence of events. Notre Dame went into halftime leading 14-13. They came out in the 2nd half and boom, boom, one pass after another they marched down the field like a steam roller. Seven completions went to Knute. The Irish trounced Army with a 35-13 victory, in what would become known as the game that revolutionized football. In his autobiography, Rockne said that this victory inspired the development of Notre Dame spirit. 



        After the game, Gus and Knute held clinics to teach the forward pass, and many came to learn a spectacular art form. Football was no longer a sport of physical being, but more of a science which anyone could master. After the victory against Army, Knute decided to stay at N.D. and become a teacher. This was because he loved all the people so much. He would not stay long though, for he still grasps on dream of becoming a pharmacist. In Rockne's deal he would be teaching chemistry and take the job of assistant coach of the football team. His salary was $2,400 per year. 



        From the first practice Rockne displayed a skill as a strategist. He found many new ways to run plays and confuse the opposition. When Harper(the head coach) retired, Rockne took the prestigious job of head coach of ND. His salary was increased to $5,000 a year. It was at this time that he loosened his grip on becoming a pharmacist and decided to devote his life to football. 



        From day one Rockne's goal was to establish ND as a national sports power. Rockne once said about coaching, "We can all be geniuses, because one definition of genius is the infinite capacity for taking pains. Perfection in petty detail is most essential". 



        George Gipp was a freshman thinking of dropping out of school. Rockne foud him drop-kicking 52 yard field goals on the campus's practice grounds. Knute invited him to tryout for the team. In his first season the Gipper' kicked a 62 yard field goal, scored three game clinching touchdowns, and had a total of 480 yards in one game versus Army. He was considered to be the best player that Rockne had ever recruited. Gipp was a notorious fellow for gambling and cutting class. Still, the team team and Knute immortilized him. Gipp died of complications from pneumonia during the 1920 season. In his final game, althuogh very ill, he remarkably threw two touchdowns versus NW. 



        "Eight years later, as the Irish battled a seemingly invincible Army team, Rockne shook his team with quiet locker room speech that was immortalized by sport writer Grantland Rice. "I've got to go, Rock," said Rockne, Imitating the dying man's gestures. "It's alright. I'm not afraid. Sometimes, Rock, when things are wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there with all they've got and win one just for the Gipper. I don't know where I'll be then, Rock, but I'll know about it. And I'll be happy." 



        The Irish ran out of the room and played hardnosed football. The final score was 12-6 in Notre Dame's favor, and the New York daily News ran perhaps its most famous headline: Gipp's Ghost Beat Army." 



        He never used the same speech twice on his lads. He had a showman's instinct for when to say what to get his troops fired up. His motto was "Practice, Practice, Practice! Practice makes perfect and perfect practice makes a winning team." 



        One of his most innovative ideas was the Notre Dame Shift'. This was when the entire backfield would move all to oneside of the ball before the ball was snapped. This really screwed up the defenders and it worked a lot for ND. 



        "Knute was the most innovative and charismic coaches of his era." 



        The Cleavland Press called him "the Buffalo Bill of his generation." In his last game as coach he defied his doctors  orders and went to the field. The players looked on in horror when the man they thought might die in front of them told them to win or watch him die. Rockne ended his career with the greatest all time % of .881: 105 wins,12 losses, 5 ties, 6 national championships and 5 undefeated seasons. Rokne tragically died in a plane crash a the age of 43. Studebaker named a car after him and the U.S. government named a ship after him. Will Rogers put it best when he said, " It takes a big calamity to shock a country all at once, but Knute, you did it. You died one of our national heroes. Notre Dame was your address, but every gridiron in america was your home."(needs to be proofread) 
  
  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Knute Rockne Coach and Legend of Notre Dame.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Knute Rockne - Coach and Legend of Notre Dame


      Knute Kenneth Rockne was born on March 4, 1888 in Voss, Norway. He first
moved to Chicago at the age of 5. Nobody liked him there, and he was in many
fights. Before football or even baseball, Knute discovered skiing.  He loved it,
and went skiing every chance he got during the winter. Knute was a natural
athlete, and excelled in all of the sports he tried. He excelled in track,
making a name for himself later on.

      Although he was always one of the shortest guys around, Knute was one of
the toughest. The only protective gear he ever wore was adhesive tape that he
stuck to his ears to prevent them from being torn off. Knute often said "Show me
a good and gracious loser and I'll show you a failure."

      Knute discovered the great game of football at the age of 7. He played
in games against other teams his age. The team he played on was called the
Tricky Tigers. All of the teams were "sandlot" teams. Knute could not get enough
of the sport. He praticed every chance he got. In fact, the other boys thought
him crazy for practicing so much. This obsession almost got him an education.
Knute never made the starting team until he was a senior, so he played on the
scrubs team.

      At the same time, Knute tried playing many other sports. His school
attendance slipped and his grades became mediocre. Persistence paid off, and
after 3 years on the scrubs, Knute finally made it to the starting football team.
After this successful senior football season, it was time for him to leave high
school. It was a wonder that he got into Notre Dame with his high school record.

      At the age of 22, Rockne decided that he wanted to fulfill a dream. That
dream was to become a pharmacist and to eventually own his own drug store. Two
of Knute's friends gained acceptance to a small college in South Bend, Indiana
called Notre Dame.  Knute decided to try to get into this same school, although
his high school grades were dismal. He was accepted, but his parents were not
fond of the idea of him going to a Catholic school, as they themselves were
practicing Lutherans. However, they did not forbid him to go. Interestingly,
Notre Dame was not Rockney's first college choice. For years he had saved and
planned to go to the University of Illinois. Knute had not even planned on
playing football in college. That decision would have resulted in a very
different future for Knute. Basically, Knute's decision to go to Notre Dame was
an economic one; it was much cheaper than U.I.

      While working during college to earn his way, Knute got a course in
memory training, which would later become a valuable asset in his coaching
career.  A picture at this time revealed a cocky young man whose sparse hair
made him appear more like a young professor than a college freshman. Knute
made friends with the future quarter back Gus Dorais. They would be
roommates through all 4 years of college, and took vacations together during
school breaks.

      Rockne didn't make the varsity squad until his third year. There were
many theories about why this was. Some said he was too short and caused too many
turnovers as a freshman. Whatever the reason, Knute palyed on the scrubs for two
years. A new coach entered the picture by his junior year and gave Knute a
chance at the end position. Everyone knows what he did from there. (If you don't
already, you will!) In his  career at Notre Dame, Knute averaged a 92 grade
point average. In his senior year of college, he was still determined to become
a pharmacist. He had no intention of becoming a coach!

       Rockne did not invent the forward pass - he revolutionized it! During a
summer break form school, Gus and Knute decided to fool around with The forward
pass. Knute got an idea telling Gus "What if you hold the football closer to
this end?" Gus tried it and was astonished by the outcome. He could actually
control the speed and accuracy of the ball! After that, Gus discovered something
he wanted Knute to do. Instead of letting the ball come to him and hit him in
the chest, he instructed Knute to catch it with his hands in full stride. Gus
then proceeded to deliver the ball to Knute in this fashion, and the idea worked.
Sure enough, Knute caught the ball without missing a step. Knute Rockne had
perfected the art of relaxing your hands to catch the ball. He also invented
pass patterns. Notre Dame brought this new arsenal to their playbook   in the
biggest game of the year against Army. Army was heavily favored in this game.
The "fighting Irish" came out with their usual ground attack for 7 plays, with
Rockne out with a leg injury. Rockne came out to the huddle and told Gus it was
time. Rockne went in, hitting the OB and ran a beautiful pattern. Gus delivered
the ball right on target and Rockne scored on a 25 yard toss. Everyone was awed
by this sequence of events. Notre Dame went into halftime leading 14-13. They
came out in the 2nd half and boom, boom, one pass after another they marched
down the field like a steam roller. Seven completions went to Knute. The Irish
trounced Army with a 35-13 victory, in what would become known as the game that
revolutionized football. In his autobiography, Rockne said that this victory
inspired the development of Notre Dame spirit.

      After the game, Gus and Knute held clinics to teach the forward pass,
and many came to learn a spectacular art form. Football was no longer a sport of
physical being, but more of a science which anyone could master. After the
victory against Army, Knute decided to stay at N.D. and become a teacher. This
was because he loved all the people so much. He would not stay long though, for
he still grasps on dream of becoming a pharmacist. In Rockne's deal he would be
teaching chemistry and take the job of assistant coach of the football team. His
salary was $2,400 per year.

      From the first practice Rockne displayed a skill as a strategist. He
found many new ways to run plays and confuse the opposition. When Harper(the
head coach) retired, Rockne took the prestigious job of head coach of ND. His
salary was increased to $5,000 a year. It was at this time that he loosened his
grip on becoming a pharmacist and decided to devote his life to football.

       From day one Rockne's goal was to establish ND as a national sports
power. Rockne once said about coaching, "We can all be geniuses, because one
definition of genius is the infinite capacity for taking pains. Perfection in
petty detail is most essential".

       George Gipp was a freshman thinking of dropping out of school. Rockne
foud him drop-kicking 52 yard field goals on the campus's practice grounds.
Knute invited him to tryout for the team. In his first season the Gipper' kicked
a 62 yard field goal, scored three game clinching touchdowns, and had a total of
480 yards in one game versus Army. He was considered to be the best player that
Rockne had ever recruited. Gipp was a notorious fellow for gambling and cutting
class. Still, the team team and Knute immortilized him. Gipp died of
complications from pneumonia during the 1920 season. In his final game, althuogh
very ill, he remarkably threw two touchdowns versus NW.

      "Eight years later, as the Irish battled a seemingly invincible Army
team, Rockne shook his team with quiet locker room speech that was immortalized
by sport writer Grantland Rice. "I've got to go, Rock," said Rockne, Imitating
the dying man's gestures. "It's alright. I'm not afraid. Sometimes, Rock, when
things are wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there
with all they've got and win one just for the Gipper. I don't know where I'll be
then, Rock, but I'll know about it. And I'll be happy."

       The Irish ran out of the room and played hardnosed football. The final
score was 12-6 in Notre Dame's favor, and the New York daily News ran perhaps
its most famous headline: Gipp's Ghost Beat Army."

      He never used the same speech twice on his lads. He had a showman's
instinct for when to say what to get his troops fired up. His motto was
"Practice, Practice, Practice! Practice makes perfect and perfect practice makes
a winning team."

       One of his most innovative ideas was the Notre Dame Shift'. This was
when the entire backfield would move all to oneside of the ball before the ball
was snapped. This really screwed up the defenders and it worked a lot for ND.

      "Knute was the most innovative and charismic coaches of his era."

      The Cleavland Press called him "the Buffalo Bill of his generation." In
his last game as coach he defied his doctors  orders and went to the field. The
players looked on in horror when the man they thought might die in front of them
told them to win or watch him die. Rockne ended his career with the greatest all
time % of .881: 105 wins,12 losses, 5 ties, 6 national championships and 5
undefeated seasons. Rokne tragically died in a plane crash a the age of 43.
Studebaker named a car after him and the U.S. government named a ship after him.
Will Rogers put it best when he said, " It takes a big calamity to shock a
country all at once, but Knute, you did it. You died one of our national heroes.
Notre Dame was your address, but every gridiron in america was your home."(needs
to be proofread)




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Knute Rockne.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


Knute Rockne - Coach and Legend of Notre Dame 
  



        Knute Kenneth Rockne was born on March 4, 1888 in Voss, Norway. He first moved to Chicago at the age of 5. Nobody liked him there, and he was in many fights. Before football or even baseball, Knute discovered skiing.  He loved it, and went skiing every chance he got during the winter. Knute was a natural athlete, and excelled in all of the sports he tried. He excelled in track, making a name for himself later on. 



        Although he was always one of the shortest guys around, Knute was one of the toughest. The only protective gear he ever wore was adhesive tape that he stuck to his ears to prevent them from being torn off. Knute often said "Show me a good and gracious loser and I'll show you a failure." 



        Knute discovered the great game of football at the age of 7. He played in games against other teams his age. The team he played on was called the Tricky Tigers. All of the teams were "sandlot" teams. Knute could not get enough of the sport. He praticed every chance he got. In fact, the other boys thought him crazy for practicing so much. This obsession almost got him an education. Knute never made the starting team until he was a senior, so he played on the scrubs team. 



        At the same time, Knute tried playing many other sports. His school attendance slipped and his grades became mediocre. Persistence paid off, and after 3 years on the scrubs, Knute finally made it to the starting football team. After this successful senior football season, it was time for him to leave high school. It was a wonder that he got into Notre Dame with his high school record. 



        At the age of 22, Rockne decided that he wanted to fulfill a dream. That dream was to become a pharmacist and to eventually own his own drug store. Two of Knute's friends gained acceptance to a small college in South Bend, Indiana called Notre Dame.  Knute decided to try to get into this same school, although his high school grades were dismal. He was accepted, but his parents were not fond of the idea of him going to a Catholic school, as they themselves were practicing Lutherans. However, they did not forbid him to go. Interestingly, Notre Dame was not Rockney's first college choice. For years he had saved and planned to go to the University of Illinois. Knute had not even planned on playing football in college. That decision would have resulted in a very different future for Knute. Basically, Knute's decision to go to Notre Dame was an economic one; it was much cheaper than U.I. 



        While working during college to earn his way, Knute got a course in memory training, which would later become a valuable asset in his coaching career.                                                  A picture at this time revealed a cocky young man whose sparse hair made him appear more like a young professor than a college freshman. Knute made friends with the future quarter back Gus Dorais. They would be roommates through all 4 years of college, and took vacations together during school breaks. 



        Rockne didn't make the varsity squad until his third year. There were many theories about why this was. Some said he was too short and caused too many turnovers as a freshman. Whatever the reason, Knute palyed on the scrubs for two years. A new coach entered the picture by his junior year and gave Knute a chance at the end position. Everyone knows what he did from there. (If you don't already, you will!) In his  career at Notre Dame, Knute averaged a 92 grade point average. In his senior year of college, he was still determined to become a pharmacist. He had no intention of becoming a coach! 



        Rockne did not invent the forward pass - he revolutionized it! During a summer break form school, Gus and Knute decided to fool around with The forward pass. Knute got an idea telling Gus "What if you hold the football closer to this end?" Gus tried it and was astonished by the outcome. He could actually control the speed and accuracy of the ball! After that, Gus discovered something he wanted Knute to do. Instead of letting the ball come to him and hit him in the chest, he instructed Knute to catch it with his hands in full stride. Gus then proceeded to deliver the ball to Knute in this fashion, and the idea worked. Sure enough, Knute caught the ball without missing a step. Knute Rockne had perfected the art of relaxing your hands to catch the ball. He also invented pass patterns. Notre Dame brought this new arsenal to their playbook   in the biggest game of the year against Army. Army was heavily favored in this game. The "fighting Irish" came out with their usual ground attack for 7 plays, with Rockne out with a leg injury. Rockne came out to the huddle and told Gus it was time. Rockne went in, hitting the OB and ran a beautiful pattern. Gus delivered the ball right on target and Rockne scored on a 25 yard toss. Everyone was awed by this sequence of events. Notre Dame went into halftime leading 14-13. They came out in the 2nd half and boom, boom, one pass after another they marched down the field like a steam roller. Seven completions went to Knute. The Irish trounced Army with a 35-13 victory, in what would become known as the game that revolutionized football. In his autobiography, Rockne said that this victory inspired the development of Notre Dame spirit. 



        After the game, Gus and Knute held clinics to teach the forward pass, and many came to learn a spectacular art form. Football was no longer a sport of physical being, but more of a science which anyone could master. After the victory against Army, Knute decided to stay at N.D. and become a teacher. This was because he loved all the people so much. He would not stay long though, for he still grasps on dream of becoming a pharmacist. In Rockne's deal he would be teaching chemistry and take the job of assistant coach of the football team. His salary was $2,400 per year. 



        From the first practice Rockne displayed a skill as a strategist. He found many new ways to run plays and confuse the opposition. When Harper(the head coach) retired, Rockne took the prestigious job of head coach of ND. His salary was increased to $5,000 a year. It was at this time that he loosened his grip on becoming a pharmacist and decided to devote his life to football. 



        From day one Rockne's goal was to establish ND as a national sports power. Rockne once said about coaching, "We can all be geniuses, because one definition of genius is the infinite capacity for taking pains. Perfection in petty detail is most essential". 



        George Gipp was a freshman thinking of dropping out of school. Rockne foud him drop-kicking 52 yard field goals on the campus's practice grounds. Knute invited him to tryout for the team. In his first season the Gipper' kicked a 62 yard field goal, scored three game clinching touchdowns, and had a total of 480 yards in one game versus Army. He was considered to be the best player that Rockne had ever recruited. Gipp was a notorious fellow for gambling and cutting class. Still, the team team and Knute immortilized him. Gipp died of complications from pneumonia during the 1920 season. In his final game, althuogh very ill, he remarkably threw two touchdowns versus NW. 



        "Eight years later, as the Irish battled a seemingly invincible Army team, Rockne shook his team with quiet locker room speech that was immortalized by sport writer Grantland Rice. "I've got to go, Rock," said Rockne, Imitating the dying man's gestures. "It's alright. I'm not afraid. Sometimes, Rock, when things are wrong and the breaks are beating the boys, tell them to go in there with all they've got and win one just for the Gipper. I don't know where I'll be then, Rock, but I'll know about it. And I'll be happy." 



        The Irish ran out of the room and played hardnosed football. The final score was 12-6 in Notre Dame's favor, and the New York daily News ran perhaps its most famous headline: Gipp's Ghost Beat Army." 



        He never used the same speech twice on his lads. He had a showman's instinct for when to say what to get his troops fired up. His motto was "Practice, Practice, Practice! Practice makes perfect and perfect practice makes a winning team." 



        One of his most innovative ideas was the Notre Dame Shift'. This was when the entire backfield would move all to oneside of the ball before the ball was snapped. This really screwed up the defenders and it worked a lot for ND. 



        "Knute was the most innovative and charismic coaches of his era." 



        The Cleavland Press called him "the Buffalo Bill of his generation." In his last game as coach he defied his doctors  orders and went to the field. The players looked on in horror when the man they thought might die in front of them told them to win or watch him die. Rockne ended his career with the greatest all time % of .881: 105 wins,12 losses, 5 ties, 6 national championships and 5 undefeated seasons. Rokne tragically died in a plane crash a the age of 43. Studebaker named a car after him and the U.S. government named a ship after him. Will Rogers put it best when he said, " It takes a big calamity to shock a country all at once, but Knute, you did it. You died one of our national heroes. Notre Dame was your address, but every gridiron in america was your home."(needs to be proofread) 
  
  




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kurt Cobain.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Kurt Cobain


 A look Into the Life and Career of a Legend; A Proposal


	Kurt Donald Cobain was the lead singer/songwriter of the band Nirvana,
until April 5 1994 when he committed suicide. Troubled by depression,  chronic
stomach problems,  and an addiction to heroin,  his ailments in his personal
life showed through in his music.  His music evolved from the hard "punk" sound
of their first album,  to the intelligent "tell all" tales of his fourth and
final album In Utero.  Through his music he changed an era of "lost souls",  to
a generation with a vision of who they were.  The songs he wrote and played
captured the attention of the world,  but also brought him the fame and fortune
that led to his downfall.  The pain and the hate of his life filled the lines,
tough hidden under his sarcasm.  He couldn't take the voices in his head that
had plagued him all his life,  that compiled with his dislike of the fame caused
him to end his own life.  The life that gave him no joy.

     The first time I heard Nirvana they changed my life. I was sitting in
class and one of my friends tapped into the P.A. system.  He hooked it up to his
Walkman and started playing Smells Like Teen Spirit,  Nirvana's first single.  I
was sitting in class day dreaming and suddenly I was pulled out of it by this
amazing sound.  A few seconds later the principal shut off the song,  but by
that time I was hooked.  Later that day I went to the record store and bought
their second first and second album. I took them him and threw them into the CD
player and fell in love.  Finally I could identify with music,  the words that
poured from the speakers spoke my life.  Until that moment I had no direction
and felt alienated from the rest of the kids my age. But Cobain's music touched
on what I was not able realize at my age,  that being yourself is all right no
matter what the "trendy" junior high school kids thought.  Though I would not
understand the impact of his music or what his words meant to him,  and that
those songs would pull me through the hardest times in my life.

Research Question

	How did his depression influence his music,  and how did it show up in
his work?


	Outline and Source Summary

	Since the first time I heard Nirvana and their music,  it had an impact
on my life.  Though I never stopped to think about the meaning behind the actual
words that were spoken.  From the time that Nirvana started back in 1986,  they
have changed faces both on the inside and the outside.  Kurt Cobain was born in
a small town in Aberdeen,  Washington in 1967(Wilson 2).  He grew up in a broken
home and had many problems along the way,  because of his hyper-active nature
nobody in his family wanted him(Wilson 2).  He was passed around from aunts and
uncles,  to his grand parents.  He started his creative process first through
art(Wilson 2-3).  Where by later he turned down two art scholarships to art
school,  and never did finish high-school. Then when he was 15 he started
playing the guitar,  also he found the underworld of drugs(Wilson 3-4).  He
played the guitar and did drugs by himself until the age of 18,  when he joined
his first band(Wilson 15).

	I intend to show how the events of his early life influenced the course
his life took,  and how it would later be found in his music.  Also the actual
words from the songs hold a great deal of insight to his life.  Also the
progression of his first band's, to the final trio that would make history.  I
have three different kinds of research resources; a book,  video,  and the
lyrics to all of his songs.  All of these give different looks at the life of
Cobain and what exact events lead to him committing suicide.  In my opinion out
of the resources I have the lyrics of his songs paint the clearest picture;
which also are open to individual interpretation.  The words along with the
knowledge of his life,  will be the instrument on how to gauge his depression
from the basic "punk" sound of his early material,  through the "pop-rock" phase,
 to the "story telling" of his later work.  His forceful sound and his forceful
stage performances,  or only one side of him musically.  As evident in the
intense acoustic performance that he did for the MTV "unplugged" series,  he
proved to everyone that saw the show that he had such a love for what he did.
Though it was evident that he looked in pain, whether it was from his stomach
pains or his depression is unsure(Wilson 60).

     My research has been focusing on the way Cobain's life has shaped his
music from the early years up until his death.  I also want to focus on the
severity of his heroin use and depression, and prove how the increase of both of
these affected what he wrote,  and what was the source of the depression.  My
research so far has led me to believe that these two symptoms increased from his
view of the hope and sincerity during that point in life.  Because the biggest
points of drug abuse occurred after he dropped out of high school,  during the
fame of Nirvana's album Nevermind,  and after that he had tried to clean himself
up in re-hab,  to no avail(Wilson 11).  I am using all of these resources to
find out the common thread that ties together his depression,  to his sarcasm in
his writing,  and if the sarcasm was his way of making fun of himself for
feeling the way he did. I want to put all of these questions about his
depression and the hidden meaning of his lyrics together to show the how the
depression he felt made its way to his music,  and how the fame of his music
fueled his desire to end his life in April,  1994.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kurt Donald Cobain 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


	
A look Into the Life and Career of a Legend;
                        A Proposal
	 

	Kurt Donald Cobain was the lead singer/songwriter of the
band Nirvana,  until April 5 1994 when he committed suicide. 
Troubled by depression,  chronic stomach problems,  and an
addiction to heroin,  his ailments in his personal life showed
through in his music.  His music evolved from the hard "punk"
sound of their first album,  to the intelligent "tell all" tales
of his fourth and final album In Utero.  Through his music he
changed an era of "lost souls",  to a generation with a vision of
who they were.  The songs he wrote and played captured the
attention of the world,  but also brought him the fame and
fortune that led to his downfall.  The pain and the hate of his
life filled the lines,  tough hidden under his sarcasm.  He
couldn't take the voices in his head that had plagued him all his
life,  that compiled with his dislike of the fame caused him to
end his own life.  The life that gave him no joy.


	The first time I heard Nirvana they changed my life.
I was sitting in class and one of my friends tapped into the P.A.
system.  He hooked it up to his Walkman and started playing
Smells Like Teen Spirit,  Nirvana's first single.  I was sitting
in class day dreaming and suddenly I was pulled out of it by this
"amazing" sound.  A few seconds later the principal shut off the
song,  but by that time I was hooked.  Later that day I went to
the record store and bought their second first and second album.
I took them him and threw them into the CD player and fell in
love.  Finally I could identify with music,  the words that
poured from the speakers spoke my life.  Until that moment I had
no direction and felt alienated from the rest of the kids my age. 
But Cobain's music touched on what I was not able realize at my
age,  that being yourself is all right no matter what the
"trendy" junior high school kids thought.  Though I would not
understand the impact of his music or what his words meant to
him,  and that those songs would pull me through the hardest
times in my life.

Research Question

	How did his depression influence his music,  and how did it
show up in his work?






	Outline and Source Summary

	Since the first time I heard Nirvana and their music,  it
had an impact on my life.  Though I never stopped to think about
the meaning behind the actual words that were spoken.  From the
time that Nirvana started back in 1986,  they have changed faces
both on the inside and the outside.  Kurt Cobain was born in a
small town in Aberdeen,  Washington in 1967(Wilson 2).  He grew
up in a broken home and had many problems along the way,  because
of his hyper-active nature nobody in his family wanted him(Wilson
2).  He was passed around from aunts and uncles,  to his grand
parents.  He started his creative process first through
art(Wilson 2-3).  Where by later he turned down two art
scholarships to art school,  and never did finish high-school. 
Then when he was 15 he started playing the guitar,  also he found
the underworld of drugs(Wilson 3-4).  He played the guitar and
did drugs by himself until the age of 18,  when he joined his
first band(Wilson 15).  

	I intend to show how the events of his early life influenced
the course his life took,  and how it would later be found in his
music.  Also the actual words from the songs hold a great deal of
insight to his life.  Also the progression of his first band's, 
to the final trio that would make history.  I have three
different kinds of research resources; a book,  video,  and the
lyrics to all of his songs.  All of these give different looks at
the life of Cobain and what exact events lead to him committing
suicide.  In my opinion out of the resources I have the lyrics of
his songs paint the clearest picture;  which also are open to
individual interpretation.  The words along with the knowledge of
his life,  will be the instrument on how to gauge his depression
from the basic "punk" sound of his early material,  through the
"pop-rock" phase,  to the "story telling" of his later work.  His
forceful sound and his forceful stage performances,  or only one
side of him musically.  As evident in the intense acoustic
performance that he did for the MTV "unplugged" series,  he
proved to everyone that saw the show that he had such a love for
what he did.  Though it was evident that he looked in pain, 
whether it was from his stomach pains or his depression is
unsure(Wilson 60).  

	My research has been focusing on the way Cobain's life has
shaped his music from the early years up until his death.  I also
want to focus on the severity of his heroin use and depression, 
and prove how the increase of both of these affected what he
wrote,  and what was the source of the depression.  My research
so far has led me to believe that these two symptoms increased
from his view of the hope and sincerity during that point in
life.  Because the biggest points of drug abuse occurred after he
dropped out of high school,  during the fame of Nirvana's album
Nevermind,  and after that he had tried to clean himself up in
re-hab,  to no avail(Wilson 11).  I am using all of these
resources to find out the common thread that ties together his
depression,  to his sarcasm in his writing,  and if the sarcasm
was his way of making fun of himself for feeling the way he did. 
I want to put all of these questions about his depression and the
hidden meaning of his lyrics together to show the how the
depression he felt made its way to his music,  and how the fame
of his music fueled his desire to end his life in April,  1994.










 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Kurt Donald Cobain.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


	
A look Into the Life and Career of a Legend;
                        A Proposal
	 

	Kurt Donald Cobain was the lead singer/songwriter of the
band Nirvana,  until April 5 1994 when he committed suicide. 
Troubled by depression,  chronic stomach problems,  and an
addiction to heroin,  his ailments in his personal life showed
through in his music.  His music evolved from the hard "punk"
sound of their first album,  to the intelligent "tell all" tales
of his fourth and final album In Utero.  Through his music he
changed an era of "lost souls",  to a generation with a vision of
who they were.  The songs he wrote and played captured the
attention of the world,  but also brought him the fame and
fortune that led to his downfall.  The pain and the hate of his
life filled the lines,  tough hidden under his sarcasm.  He
couldn't take the voices in his head that had plagued him all his
life,  that compiled with his dislike of the fame caused him to
end his own life.  The life that gave him no joy.


	The first time I heard Nirvana they changed my life.
I was sitting in class and one of my friends tapped into the P.A.
system.  He hooked it up to his Walkman and started playing
Smells Like Teen Spirit,  Nirvana's first single.  I was sitting
in class day dreaming and suddenly I was pulled out of it by this
"amazing" sound.  A few seconds later the principal shut off the
song,  but by that time I was hooked.  Later that day I went to
the record store and bought their second first and second album.
I took them him and threw them into the CD player and fell in
love.  Finally I could identify with music,  the words that
poured from the speakers spoke my life.  Until that moment I had
no direction and felt alienated from the rest of the kids my age. 
But Cobain's music touched on what I was not able realize at my
age,  that being yourself is all right no matter what the
"trendy" junior high school kids thought.  Though I would not
understand the impact of his music or what his words meant to
him,  and that those songs would pull me through the hardest
times in my life.

Research Question

	How did his depression influence his music,  and how did it
show up in his work?






	Outline and Source Summary

	Since the first time I heard Nirvana and their music,  it
had an impact on my life.  Though I never stopped to think about
the meaning behind the actual words that were spoken.  From the
time that Nirvana started back in 1986,  they have changed faces
both on the inside and the outside.  Kurt Cobain was born in a
small town in Aberdeen,  Washington in 1967(Wilson 2).  He grew
up in a broken home and had many problems along the way,  because
of his hyper-active nature nobody in his family wanted him(Wilson
2).  He was passed around from aunts and uncles,  to his grand
parents.  He started his creative process first through
art(Wilson 2-3).  Where by later he turned down two art
scholarships to art school,  and never did finish high-school. 
Then when he was 15 he started playing the guitar,  also he found
the underworld of drugs(Wilson 3-4).  He played the guitar and
did drugs by himself until the age of 18,  when he joined his
first band(Wilson 15).  

	I intend to show how the events of his early life influenced
the course his life took,  and how it would later be found in his
music.  Also the actual words from the songs hold a great deal of
insight to his life.  Also the progression of his first band's, 
to the final trio that would make history.  I have three
different kinds of research resources; a book,  video,  and the
lyrics to all of his songs.  All of these give different looks at
the life of Cobain and what exact events lead to him committing
suicide.  In my opinion out of the resources I have the lyrics of
his songs paint the clearest picture;  which also are open to
individual interpretation.  The words along with the knowledge of
his life,  will be the instrument on how to gauge his depression
from the basic "punk" sound of his early material,  through the
"pop-rock" phase,  to the "story telling" of his later work.  His
forceful sound and his forceful stage performances,  or only one
side of him musically.  As evident in the intense acoustic
performance that he did for the MTV "unplugged" series,  he
proved to everyone that saw the show that he had such a love for
what he did.  Though it was evident that he looked in pain, 
whether it was from his stomach pains or his depression is
unsure(Wilson 60).  

	My research has been focusing on the way Cobain's life has
shaped his music from the early years up until his death.  I also
want to focus on the severity of his heroin use and depression, 
and prove how the increase of both of these affected what he
wrote,  and what was the source of the depression.  My research
so far has led me to believe that these two symptoms increased
from his view of the hope and sincerity during that point in
life.  Because the biggest points of drug abuse occurred after he
dropped out of high school,  during the fame of Nirvana's album
Nevermind,  and after that he had tried to clean himself up in
re-hab,  to no avail(Wilson 11).  I am using all of these
resources to find out the common thread that ties together his
depression,  to his sarcasm in his writing,  and if the sarcasm
was his way of making fun of himself for feeling the way he did. 
I want to put all of these questions about his depression and the
hidden meaning of his lyrics together to show the how the
depression he felt made its way to his music,  and how the fame
of his music fueled his desire to end his life in April,  1994.










 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Le Corbusier Biography Interior Designer and Architect.TXT
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This designer/architect created many pioneer buildings in France throughout the early 21st century.  A current biography for oral or writtens ubmission is what this piece contains!  Good luck


Le Corbusier Biography, Interior Designer and Architect


Le Corbusier was born in 1887 in the Swiss watchmaking town of La Chaux de Fonds. His father was a highly skilled watch enameler; his mother was a pianist and music teacher. The family was Protestant;

At the age of fifteen, Corbusier enrolled at the local trade school, L'Ecole d'Art, in order to learn the craft of watch case engraving. Corbusier's mentor at the school was Charles L'Eplattenier. L'Eplattenier's personal mission at L'Ecole was to find the most promising students alternate careers in the fine arts. He knew that eventually the craft works at La Chaux de Fonds would be replicated by machine at a cheaper price, thus destroying the local economy

L'Eplattenier saw promise in the young Corbusier. In fact, he decreed that the young man should become an architect. Corbusier was at first ambivalent, preferring a career as a painter, but later he came to embrace the architecture profession.

Other early influences were Edward Schure's Les Grand Inities and Owen Jones's Grammar of Ornament. Plato, Schure, and Jones, appear to be the most influential on Corbusier's developing worldview. From Plato, Corbusier extracted the seemingly universal ideas of Beauty, Truth, and Harmony. The forms were out there, i.e. not of this world; one only had to get beneath everyday and one's own body.


Bauhaus School in Vienna and his association with Auguste Perret, a Parisian Engineer. Under Perret's guidance, Corbusier learned the aesthetics of functionalism (the beauty of a carefully calculated structure sans ornament) and the positivism of the modern age.

Corbusier shared Perret's confidence and enthusiasm for the modern age. He envisaged a new and unique role for the artist/architect and the city planner that closely adhered to the capitalist spirit. Put simply, Corbusier's initial encounter with the large complex city of Paris convinced him of the need for modern housing and a modern city.

he created the Dom-ino housing concept, which was a rectangular structure with only four load bearing reinforced concrete members. The walls, then, could be opened up to sunlight via wrap around glass windows. The housing was purported, by Corbusier, to be a cheap, efficient way to

The plan had much in common with the Contemporary City - clearance of the historic cityscape and rebuilding utilizing modern methods of production. In the Radiant City, however, the pre-fabricated apartment houses, les unites, were at the center of "urban" life. Les unites were available to everyone (not just the elite) based upon the size and needs of each particular family. Sunlight and recirculating air were provided as part of the design. The scale of the apartment houses was fifty meters high, which would accommodate, according to Corbusier, 2,700 inhabitants with fourteen square meters of space per person. The building would be placed upon pilotus, five meters off the ground, so that more land could be given over to nature. Setback from other unites would be achieved by les redents, patterns that Corbusier created to lessen the effect of uniformity.

Corbusier spends a great deal of the Radiant City manifesto elaborating on services available to the residents. Each apartment block was equipped with a catering section in the basement, which would prepare daily meals (if wanted) for every family and would complete each families' laundry chores. The time saved would enable the individual to think, write, or utilize the play and sports grounds which covered much of the city's land. Directly on top of the apartment houses were the roof top gardens and beaches, where residents sun themselves in Anatural" surroundings - fifty meters in the air. Children were to be dropped off at les unites' day care center and raised by scientifically trained professionals. The workday, so as to avoid the crisis of overproduction, was lowered to five hours a day. Women were enjoined to stay at home and perform household chores, if necessary, for five hours daily. Transportation systems were also formulated to save the individual time. Corbusier bitterly reproaches advocates of the horizontal garden city (suburbs) for the time wasted commuting to the city. Because of its compact and separated nature, transportation in the Radiant City was to move quickly and efficiently. Corbusier called it the vertical garden city.






f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leah Kidman Biography.TXT
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Leah Kidman-Cruise

Biographical Information 

Birthdate: July 28th, 1987
Birth Place: Houston, Texas
Full Name: Leah Victoria Michele Kidman-Cruise
Screen Name: Leah Kidman-Cruise

Facts About Leah

-She is the daughter of Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise
-She has 7 movies coming out in the fall of 2004 and the 
beginning of 2005
-She has signed on for another season of "The O.C."
-Leah has her second CD, due on stand in the late fall of 2004
-Leah is a natural blonde but had to dye her hair dark for the role of Maddie on "All my Children" and Summer on "The O.C."
-Leah is going out with co-star Adam Brody and they might even move in together
-Leah is roommates with her best bud on and off screen, 
Mischa Barton


Starring Roles

"The O.C."-			Summer Roberts(2003-present)
      "All my Children-	 	Maddie Grey(2000-2003)
      "Lizzie McGuire"-	Lizzie McGuire(1997-2001)
      
      
Guest Starring Roles

		"That's So Raven"-	Nikki
		"One Tree Hill"-		Meagan
		"Smallville"-		Tracey
		




Movies 

		Outward Blonde-			Michelle  (2005)
		Texas Chainsaw Massacar-	Kim Saunders  (2005)
		A Cinderella Story-		Sam Montgomery (2004)
		Raise Your Voice-		Terri Fletcher (2004,fall)
		Heart of Summer-		Kirsten Havins (2005)
		The Perfect Man-			Heather (2004,winter)
		Legally Blonde #3-	Brittany Woods (2005,summer)
		Trouble with Love-		Hailley Cameron(2004)
		Changing Her Ways-		Coral Jones(2004)
		Kisses from Kaci-		Kaci Andrews(2004)
		Cheaper By the Dozen-		Lorraine Baker(2003)
		The Lizzie McGuire Movie-	Lizzie McGuire(2002)
		Agent Cody Banks-		Natalie Connors(2001)
		Cadet Kelly-			Kelly(2001)
		Human Nature-			Young Lila Jute(1998)
		Casper Meets Wendy-		Wendy(1997)




f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Lee Iacocca.TXT
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An Autobiography: Lee Iacocca
1. Title: Iacocca, An Autobiography.
2. Author: Lee Iacocca with William Novak.
3. This book is an Autobiography.
4. Publisher: Bantam Books (r)
5. Copyright (c) July 1986
6. Pages: 357
7. Historical Background: His name when he was born was Lido, not really Lee. He changed it when he had to go down South for a sales campaign. He thought that the Southerners would like it better if his name was Lee. It worked fairly well too. Anyway, His father was the first person to arrive in America. He arrived in 1902, at the age of 12. His father went back to his birthplace, Italy, and married Antoinette. They came back across the Atlantic. Except this time, his father, Nicola, was an American citizen. They moved to Allentown, Pennsylvania, also where Lee was born and raised. Lee (Lido, I'll use Lee from now on though.) was born on October 15, 1924. Lee's father was a sort of philosophical type of person. He always had an important lesson to tell his son. It usually was great advice that just about anyone and everyone could use. His father once said that 'When times are tough, be in the food business. No matter how tough times get, people still have to eat.' He was right. He had a hot dog food stand that stayed afloat during all of the depression. Lee was in the Allentown public schools, as a kid. He was an Italian kid in a place full of 'Pennsylvania Dutch.' So he was harassed by a lot of kids. He never let it get him down though. His father was always pushing him to be the best. His father was a hard worker and came from a foreign family. Back then, most parents that came from a foreign country always seemed to push their kids to do their best so they can have a better life style than their parents. Lee ended up going to Lehigh for college. He did very well for himself. Before he went to college though, he enlisted in the army. It was around World War II when he did so, of course. But because he had Rheumatic fever when he was a kid , he couldn't go and fight. The doctors said it was gone. The army said it could come back though. So they rejected his application. He went to Lehigh instead. Ford always took the top student out of the top fifty colleges back then, for a study at Ford. They would get to work at Ford doing just about everything you could do. Lee was one of them invited. He enrolled at Princeton after that. He graduated with a degree in engineering. Engineering turned out to be the wrong place to work at though. He wanted to be in the people part of the business.
8. Lee Iacocca is famous for a number of things. Some of his most famous are his having to play a major role in creating the immensely successful original Ford Mustang. Then from there he went on to be President of Ford in the 1970's. Henry Ford II was trying to get rid of Lee. He thought Lee was always plotting against him. So eventually, after a lot of pressure and some serious blows close to home, Henry just flat out fired Lee. Lee then accepted an offer at Chrysler to bail out the company. There were a few other people that had been fired from Ford during Henry's rampage, that were already at Chrysler. Chrysler was a disaster. Nothing was organized. Lee got it all organized and tried to save the company, but they had huge debts, and the government regulations and the oil crisis were killing not only Chrysler, but GM and Ford were getting hit hard too. Since Chrysler was the smallest, and it had the most problems, it got hit the hardest. As a last ditch effort, Lee went to the government for loans. He got them after a huge fight and some bad publicity. He turned Chrysler around, and turned it into a profitable company. It also made good quality cars too. He's credited for being the creator, and being the first person to bring the minivan to the market. It was extremely successful. Chrysler is now a huge company that is not only profitable, but it makes world class cars. But when Lee first got there, it looked impossible. He did it though.
9. When Lee was entering college, he had an interest in engineering. He wasn't quite sure of what he wanted to do. He just knew he had an interest for it. He was also a guy that liked people. When he started to do a little engineering work, he soon figured out that it wasn't right for him. He wanted to be "Where the action is." So he went into the sales department. He was happy with that, because he got to be in the people part of the business. That's when he found out what he liked to do. He accomplished that goal quite successfully. He would move up the ranks to become president of two major corporations. He always knew what the other people wanted somehow. A lot of cars that he was involved in making turned out to be some of the biggest successes in the history of automobiles.
10. The most influential in his life was probably his father. His father was never at a shortage of words of advice to give to his son, or anyone else for that matter. His father always gave him tips on success. His father was a very knowledgeable man that knew what he was saying. His father probably gave him direction like no one else. He was always there to support Lee. Another big influence in his life, was a good friend of his at Ford, Charlie Beacham. Charlie was always giving him advice when Lee worked as a salesman. They were very close friends and Charlie gave him lots of advice on the car business and other things in life, much like Lee's father. Lee pretty much carved his own way up through the ranks at Ford. He didn't follow anyone, he did it himself. He always recalls things that Charlie and his father said to him. It seems as if the advice from these two people was the most influential in his life, more than anyone, or anything, else.
11. I think the main turning point in his life, was when he decided to get out of engineering and turn to "the people part of the business." If he didn't decide to do that, he might have been stuck designing cars for the rest of his life, instead of moving up through the ranks to the top of Ford, and later Chrysler. There were other major turning points in his life too. Like when the army wouldn't let him fight in the war. Most of his friends ended up dead from fighting in Germany. He did not. He felt guilty because of it. But he decided to make the most out of his life. If he was in the army, I might not be writing this report on him. And things like the Ford Mustang or the minivan might not have been invented. A couple other major turning points in his life was his election as president of Ford, and even bigger was his firing from Ford. Then he turned to Chrysler and turned it around. He wasn't too big on some things the government did. He lacks some respect for the government. But when it came down to it, he had to get loans from them. It wasn't easy either. When he finally did, however, it was almost without precedent. Although he would argue against that. The government had bailed out a few other companies too. I don't think there was a loan quite as big as theirs though. But they repaid their debt. Not only did they repay it, but with interest and about seven years early of the deadline. Those were all major turning points in his life.
12. The time period this person has lived, is in the space and computer age. He was around when the first computers were, and was around for the much newer ones that are a whole lot better. He has also been through such major events in the history of America, such as the Great Depression. Things that not only greatly affected him but all of America too like the oil embargo. He has seen the first walk on the moon and all other space oriented things. He has also survived World War II, but without fighting in it though. The Great Depression probably taught him a lot about how to keep in business during rough times, something he would need later at Chrysler. World War II had an effect on him too. He felt really bad about not being able to fight. He was all pumped up and ready to go, most of his friends from high school went and got killed fighting for democracy. To this day, he says he still looks through his high school Senior year book in disbelief at all of the good people that died. 13. New and unusual aspects I learned about the persons life is things like how he got fired from Ford. I had only heard that he was fired. I didn't hear the whole story though. Once I heard it in his own words, I really felt a lot of dislike towards Henry Ford II. I also did not have a clue how hard he worked as a kid. I didn't know a lot of things like the people that influenced his life, like what a great father he had. I never knew how much trouble Chrysler was in when he got there too. He had one huge struggle to overcome the problems of that company. He did a great job though. He had a great many accomplishments. He was looking towards the future too. During the oil embargo and inflation and things like that, some of the stuff he had planned for Ford would have been perfect. But old Henry the deuce didn't like it, he wanted to be more traditional. That's what hurt Ford. Lee would have made Ford even more profitable than they already were if he was able to bring out the Minivan with Ford. He had started the idea for the car with a friend in 1974. The minivan would be introduced until a decade later, and it was with Chrysler. GM and Ford seeing what a success it was, were quick to copy it. None of them were as good as the Chrysler's though. The Chrysler was actually fun to drive, and was original. Chrysler also being the smallest, had the best engineering there was. They used that to their advantage. 14. I feel that I know a lot more about Lee Iacocca than I did before reading this book. I learned that it takes a lot of hard work to get very far in life. He got good grades as a kid, he always had a good schedule to keep him in line too. He always left time for family though. He ALWAYS kept his weekends open for his family no matter what. He thought that spending time with family was far more important than anything else. It's a good thing to have values like that. He's an honest hard working man that deserved all the good things he got. He didn't fold when it looked hopeless at Chrysler, he did everything he could to keep the company alive, and now it's having more success than it ever has in it's history of existence. This is a very good book, and I recommend that everyone read this one. It's got a lot of interesting stuff and advice in it. It also gives great insight into the auto manufacturing business. There are a lot of stereotype's out there that say a car company tried to kill them. But really, all of the guys that make the cars are driving them themselves. They don't purposely make bad cars, they drive them and so do their kids, and I don't think all of them are suicidal maniacs either. I think most of them are sane people. I say one thing we need less of in America is blood sucking lawyers. They're just greedy people that we could do without some of them. I learned that in order to succeed, you must not give up easily. You can't give up on your dreams until you have put your all into it.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leonardo Da Vinc1.TXT
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Leonardo Da Vinci
"Leonardo da Vinci...oh yeah, that is the guy who painted the Mona Lisa!" That was all I knew about Leonardo da Vinci before I started this report. I knew that he lived during the Renaissance and that he was a very important man, but that is about it. There is so much more about Leonardo that he is known for, other than him being the painter of the famous Mona Lisa. Leonardo was a universal genius, (as said in "What Makes a Leonardo a Leonardo?" By: Richard Mühlberger, Copyright: 1994) because he excelled in numerous areas of knowledge and contributed so much to the Renaissance. He was one of the great masters of the High Renaissance (as said in the following website: http://metalab.unc.edu/cgfa/vinci/vinci_bio.htm) who was a painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, mathematician, geologist, astronomer and scientist.
Birthplace and Childhood: Leonardo da Vinci was born at 10:30 PM on Saturday, April 15th, 1452. He was born in the small Tuscan town of Vinci, which is near Florence. Although, in another reference, it said that he was probably born in a farm house in Anchiano, which is about three miles away from Vinci. The family of Leonardo lived in this area since the 13th century.
When Leonardo was born, Ser Piero, his father, was a twenty-five year old public notary. Also, when Leonardo was born, Ser Piero married his wife. He didn't marry Catarina, his mother, because she probably the daughter of a farmer. Leonardo was christened from the parson Peiro da Bartolomeo, in the Baptismal Chapel. He was baptized to the name Lionardo, not Leonardo. The chapel is inside the church of Vinci.
According to a tax record, when Leonardo was five years old, he was living with his grandparents. Francesco, his uncle, probably taught him about nature though the wild countryside that surrounds Vinci. When Francesco died, about fifty years later, he willed his estate to Leonardo, which showed a sense of fondness to Leonardo.
Apprenticeship: Leonardo lived in Vinci until 1466. Vinci is a small town, in the foot of Monte Albano, in the Tuscany in Italy. When he was fourteen, he moved to Florence, where he bagan an apprenticeship in the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio. Verrocchio was the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. The apprenticeship program provided all artistic training. He was introduced to many things like painting alterpieces, panel pictures and the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. Leonardo served Verrocchio for about thirteen years. While in the artists workshop he went to being a journeyman and then to being master craftsman. When he became a master craftsman, he was expected to copy Verrocchio's work to perfection beacuse everything made in the shop was sold under Verrocchio's name. After seeing how Verrocchio's knowledge of several subjects helped him, Leonardo saw that mastering many skills was one of the goals of an artist. He saw that science and art were closely related to each other and became a master for both. Verrocchio and Leonardo, then collaborated on the painting "The Baptism of Christ" in about the year of 1472. The first known and dated work of Leonardo da Vinci is a pen and ink drawing of the Aronovalley. Leonardo drew it on August 5th, 1473. It shows the ingenious mind of Leonardo because he drew the landscape in a way that it look real, unlike anyone else's work produced before.
Years in Milan: Between 1482 and 1499, Leonardo was in the service of the Duke of Milan. He was described in a list of the Dukes staff as a painter and engineer of the duke. Leonardo completed six paintings during this time in the dukes service. He also advised on architecture, fortifications and military matters. Plus, he was considered as a hydraulic and mechanical engineer. During the year of 1495, Leonardo began working on one of his most famous masterpieces, the Last Supper. This painting is an illustration of Leonardo's unique style. He broke with tradition by arranging the figures of the apostles into small groups with Jesus seated in the center of the scene. Leonardo's portrayal of the Last Supper is alive with momentum and interaction between the characters. The people of his time had never seen a more vivid representation of this major even. This goes for people of our generation too.
In 1499, Leonardo left Milan and went to Venice. In Venice, he consulted on architecture from 1495 to 1499. In 1502 and 1503, Leonardo was the military engineer for Cesare Borgia. After his service to the Borgias, he returned to Florence. During the years of 1503 to 1506, Leonardo parinted classics such as the Mona Lisa. In 1506, Leonardo left to Florence and went to Milan. He then went back to Florence around 1507-08, to fight for his inheritance from his Uncle. In 1509, he returned to Milan and spent a lot of his time on scientific studies and engineering projects. In 1512, again Leonardo left Milan. From 1513 to 1516, Leonardo was in Rome under the protection of Giuliano de Medici. It was at this time that he came in contact with Michelangelo and Raphael, two to become his biggest rivals.
1516 through 1519: King Francis I, invited Leonardo to spend his last times of his life in Amborise at the court of France In the autumn of 1516, Leonardo arrived in the ambroise, with him, he brought the famous painting of the Mona Lisa.
Leonardo lived in Ambroise, in the small castle Cloux (now called Le Clos Luce), which is situated between the town and the king castle. While in France, Leonardo didn't paint, instead he made hydrological studies. In 1517, He designed a palace in Romorantin.
Leonardo's Death: Leonardo passed away on May 2nd, 1519, in Ambroise. Leonardo da Vinci died at the age of 67. He wasn't at the healthiest state, because he had a paralysis on the right side of his body since 1517, and Vasari told about an illness a few weeks before Leonardo dies. On April 23rd, 1519, Leonardo wrote his last will. St. Hubert, which is a chapel that is situated at the area of the king-castle, is the last resting place of Leonardo da Vinci. Originally, Leonardo was buried in the heart of the king-castle, in the cloister of the church, St. Florentin. But, after destruction of the church, and parts of the castle, Leonardo's mortal remains were transferred to the chapel of St. Hubert. But to this day, Leonardo da Vinci remains to be on the of the greatest people to ever have shadowed this earth. He was a great man of both the arts and sciences. He was indeed a man of "both" worlds. He was a master in both, world of art and the world of sciences. As I said earlier, Leonardo was an architect, an inventor and a scientist. That is what makes him the most likely, most famous man of the Renaissance.
Mona Lisa~Today: The portrait of the Mona Lisa is painted on a 77 x 53 cm. large popular-wood. As you know, it is the most famous work of Leonardo da Vinci. Originally, the painting was larger than it is today because two columns (one on the left and the other on the right) have been cut along the sides of the painting. This is the reason of why its not easy to see that Mona Lisa is sitting on a terrace. Many details of the painting aren't visible because they are partially damaged and some parts of the Mona Lisa were repainted. The characteristic still exists. The characteristic consists in the detailed background, which disappears in misty atmosphere (also referred to as a sfumato technique) and her smile.
Mona Lisa~History: It is supposed that Fracesco di Bartolommeo di Zanobi del Giocondo (one of the most noble citizens in France at the time) ordered, from Leonardo, a portrait of his 3rd wife, Lisa di Antonio Maria di Noldo Gherardini.Leonardo began this painting in 1503. Mona Lisa was twenty four years old. He worked on this portrait for four years. Leonardo kept the portrait and left to Florence in 1507. It is unknown why he kept it~some say it was because he never finished it and others say it was because he loved the portrait too much. In 1516, Leonardo arrived with the painting in his luggage in France. He sold the painting in France to King Francis I, who bought it for the castle in Ambroise. On August 21st, 1911, Mona Lisa was stolen from an Italian thief, who brought the painting to Italy, where it emerged two years later in Florence. After some exhibitions, the Mona Lisa went back to Paris. An acid attempt damaged the lower half of the painting in 1956. Fixing it took a lot of years. In the 60's and 70's Mona Lisa was exposed in New York, Tokyo and Moscow. Today, the painting is behind bullet proof glass, in Paris , in the Louvve and international terms are prohibiting any journey.
Inventions: When we think of Leonardo da Vinci we think of a famous painter but he was also a famous inventor. To design machines, he would make very detailed sketches of all the working parts. Leonardo had many ideas on how to improve military weaponry. The catapult was a large device designed to hurl boulders and arrows to shoot into walled cites. The multi-fire gun was designed to shoot many bullets at once. This design was an early machine gun type cannon. Leonardo used his philosophy to improve his mechanical abilities and many machines of his day.
His Notebook: The notebook of Leonardo is now known as the Codex Arundel. This notebook isn't a bound volume used by Leonardo, but it was put together after he died. It consists of loose papers of various types and sizes. The first section began in Florence on March22nd, 1508 and the remainder comes from different periods in different manuscripts. Most of these notes are the raw materials for a book that Leonardo hoped to write on the physical properties and geographical effects of water. Theyare written in Italian and in Leonardo's characteristic 'mirror-writing', left handed and moving from right to left. This manuscript was in Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel's hands, in Italy. He was the greatest English collector of art of his day. In 1681, it was presented to the Royal Society by Henry Howard (his grandson) and transferred to the British Museum in 1831.
Leonardo's Quote: "And you, O man, who all will discern in this work of mine the marvellous works of nature, if you think it would be a criminal thing to destroy it, reflect how much more criminal it is to take the life of a man; and if this is, his external form, appears to thee marvelously constructed, remember that this structure; for that, indeed, be it may, is a Devine thing. Leave it then to dwell in its work at its good pleasure, and let not your rage or malice destroy a life~for indeed, he who does not value it, does not himself deserve it."
"Iron rusts from disuse; stagnant water loses its purity and in cold weather becomes frozen; even so does inaction sap the vigour of the mind." "Man is the model of the world." "Science is the captain, practice the soldier."
"Painters who wish to represent the relief of things they paint must cover the service with a half-tint, then paint in the darkest shadows and lastly the main lights."
"He who wishes to see how the soul inhabits the body should look to see how that body uses its daily surroundings. If the dwelling is dirty and neglected, the body will be kept by its soul in the same condition, dirty and neglected." "Nothing flows faster than the years, daughters of time." "When fortune comes, seize her firmly by the forelock, for, I tell you, she is bald at the back."
"Avoid excessive study; it will give rise to a work destined to die with the workman."
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leonardo da Vinc2.TXT
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Leonardo da Vinci 
Leonardo da Vinci, perhaps the greatest man in history, invented thousands of things
including the helicopter, tank and portable bridge. Leonardo was not only an inventor
,but a sculptor, an artist and an architect. He was born 1452 in the small town of Vinci
,in Tuscany. His father was a wealthy notary and his mother a peasant woman. In the
mid 1460s the family moved to Florence here he was given the best education Florence
could offer. He advanced rapidly socially and intellectually . He was very handsome and
a fine musician. About 1482 Leonardo entered the service of the duke of Milan. Due to a recommendation
stating that he could build portable bridges and knew techniques in constructing canons,
ships and catapults as well as other weapons. He served as principle engineer in the
duke's military projects. In 1502 Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, duke of
Romagna. He served as Cesare's chief architect and engineer. Leonardo supervised work
on the fortresses of the papal territories in central Italy. In 1506 Leonardo went to Milan
again at the summons of its French governor Charles d'Amboise. For the next six years
he divided his time between Milan and Florence. He still continued his engineering
projects and worked on a figure for a monument to a commander of the French forces in
the city. Although Leonardo produced a small number of paintings he was an influent artist. The
Mona Lisa, his most famous work, is a great example of two techniques sfumato and
chiaroscuro of which he was one of the first great masters. Because none of Leonardo's
sculptural projects were brought to completion, his approach to three dimensional art can
only be judged by his drawings. As a scientist he towered over his generation. His scientific theories were based on
careful observation and precise documentation. His theories are contained in many
notebooks, most of which were written in mirror script. Leonardo's findings were not
discovered in his own lifetime. If they had been published they would have
revolutionized the science of the 6th century. Leonardo anticipated many discoveries of
modern times. For instance he learned the effect of the moon on the tides.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leonardo Da Vinc3.TXT
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Leonardo Da Vinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was born was born in the town of Vinci, Italy, in 1452 on April 15, a natural child of ser Piero. Ser Piero was a successful government official, and his mother, Caterina, a peasant girl in service with the family. Leonardo spent his early years on his family's farm. Free to explore in the fields and streams, he grew to love the outdoors and he had a keen interest in how things worked. He was always full of questions and wonderment. By 1469 Leonardo had moved with his father to Florence, where the young man was apprenticed to the painter and sculptor, Andrea del Verrocchio. He learned the techniques of drawing, painting and sculpting. In the seven years or more Leonardo spent in Verrocchio's studio he was especially inspired by his teacher's imaginative sculpture. 1472 listed Leonardo as a master of the painters' guild. A few years later he painted such a beautiful angel that Verrocchio, his master, is said to have, "given up painting for good." ("The New Book of Knowledge" page 153. L volume 11, 1967, Grolier Incorporated, New York, New York).
After this Leonardo's skill as a painter must have been known, because he painted an altarpiece, The Adoration of Kings, for the monks of Saint Donate of Scopeto in 1478. About 1482, Leonardo left Florence to enter the house of Lodovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. He performed a variety of services there. He painted court portraits, supervised pageants, designed costumes, built machines of war and even installed control heating in the palace. He also supposedly played the lyre and sang to entertain the Duke and his friends.
While in Milan, Leonardo worked on his magnificent painting, The Last Supper, in 1495. Before that, in 1492, he designed costumes (as I mentioned earlier) for the wedding of Ludovico il Moro and Beatrice d'Este. Also in that time frame there was the death of Lorenco the Magnificent and Columbus sails to the New World. He also painted in that time a portrait of Cecilia Gallerani, Ludovico's mistress, a woman of wit and beauty, who for many years shone at the Milanese Court. The severe hairstyle emphasizes the perfection of her face and striking eyes. The white ermine she holds is a symbol of purity; its name in Greek suggests her name.
One of Leonardo's greatest interests was the study of the human body. At first, like other artists of the 15th century, he studied the outward appearance of the body. Then he became fascinated with its inner structure and dissected corpses to find out how the body was put together. "Perhaps the most stunning drawings in Leonardo's notebooks are those that show his careful study of autonomy. He did not approach anatomy as a artist, he approached anatomy as a scientist." ("Leonardo Da Vinci" Diane Stanley. Pg.18., 1996, William Morrow and Company, Incorporated. New York, New York.) His studies of the heart in particular were very advanced. Leonardo looked at plants as closely as he looked at men and animals, and he made many discoveries about plant growth.
Soon after he arrived in Milan, Leonardo began to write down things that interested him. His notebooks show the great variety and originality of his scientific observations. He illustrated his theories with very beautiful and exact drawings. By studying his drawings of machines, twentieth century engineers, with modern materials, have been able to build models that worked perfectly. The notebooks are hard to read because he used mirror writing. He did not want his ideas to be stolen.
Leonardo's life in the court of Milan was suddenly interrupted in 1499 by the invasion of the French Army. Leonardo's patron, Lodovico, was taken prisoner, and Leonardo fled to Venice. He left with the mathematician, Luca Pacioli. He was a Franciscan Friar and a man of science. He knew Leonardo in Milan, and awakened his interests in mathematics. Leonardo stayed at Vaprio, in Mantua, where he makes two portraits of Isabella d'Este. In March 1500, about a year later, he went back o Florence, still an active center of art. He was given a commission to paint an altarpiece for the church of the Annynziata. When his full-scale drawing of the Virgin and child with St. Anne was placed on public view, people filed by for two days and admired it enthusiastically.
In 1502, Leonardo briefly served Prince Cesare Borgia in Rome as a military engineer and architect. This is the period of time where he studied Fortification Systems and War Machines. He designed the catapult, cannon foundry, large crossbow, and a design for a gun with an array of horizontal barrels. In 1503 he returned to Florence, where he spent a few very productive years. For example, he painted the Mona Lisa in 1503, and the Florentine Republic commissioned him to paint the Battle of Angahiari in the great hall also in the year of 1503, the Palazzo Vecchio(1503). In 1504 he begins work on the Battle of Angahiari, on this particular painting Leonardo experimented with wax paint. The work began to melt even before he finished it. Now Leonardo and Michelangelo were enemies but it is still said that, "Michelangelo wept and the city council was plunged to gloom." ("The New Book of Knowledge" page 155. L volume 11, 1967, Grolier Incorporated, New York, New York). Leonardo was disappointed, but as a scientist he knew that to achieve success a man must expect some experiments to fail. In the year of 1504 Michelangelo completed his David and Raphael moved to Florence, and was deeply influenced by Leonardo's work.
In the year of 1508, Leonardo leaves Florence and returns to Milan and devotes himself to geology and autonomy. In Rome, Michelangelo is commissioned to paint the Sistine Ceiling. In 1513 Leonardo was invited to Rome by Giuliano de'Medici, a brother of Pope Leo the fifth. There he continued his experiments and he remained there for three years, while pursues mathematical and scientific studies. Leonardo drew up the plans to drain the Pontine marshes, in the year of 1514. Also in that same year the master architect, the death of Bramante and Raphael succeeds him as architect of St, Peter''. Sometime in 1516 Leonardo left Italy to become chief painter and engineer to the King of France. King Francis the first gave Leonardo a chateau near Amboise, in the place of Cloux, where he was free to carry on his experiments. In the year of 1518 he designed the stage sets for the wedding of Lorenzo de'Medici and a niece of the French King then he takes part in celebrations for the Dauphin's baptism.
While in France, Leonardo became paralyzed. He had to stop painting, but his mind remained active. During his last years he received countless visitors, who listened with awe to the master's brilliant ideas about art and science. In the year of 1529 Charles V was elected Holy Roman Emperor. A sick man Leonardo makes his will on April twenty-third, naming his pupil, his painter friend Francesco melzi as executor. Renaissance men set impossibly high goals for themselves. Leonardo Da Vinci, the man who came closest to reaching all of those goals, died in his French chateau on May second, 1519.
Perhaps no one in history achieved so much in so many different fields as Leonardo Da Vinci. An outstanding painter, sculptor, and architect, he also designed the diving bell and tank, and though they could not be built with the materials of the time - flying machines like the helicopter. He made important discoveries about the structure of the human body.
I admire Leonardo in many ways and I am glad I chose him as my research project I have learned many things.
 
 
 
 
 
Bibliography
1.Bramly, Serge. "Discovering the life of Leonardo Da Vinci."
New York, New York:
Harper Collins Publishers, 1991
2.Stanley, Diane. "Leonardo Da Vinci."
New York, New York:
William Morrow and Company Inc., 1996
3.Bacci, Mina. "Leonardo."
Milan, Italy"
Fabbri Editori, 1978
4.Wasserman, Jack. "Leonardo Da vinci."
New York, New York:
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1984
5.Fleming, William. "Arts & Ideas."
Third Edition, pgs245-246, 260-262,287, 157-258.
New York, New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.1993
6.Hartt, Frederick. "Art."
Fourth Edition, pgs 618, 688-670, 714, 749, 903, 918
New York, New York:
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1993
7.Honour, Hugh,. Fleming, John., "The Visual Arts: A History"
Third edition, pgs 402, 404, 413-419, 441
New York, New York:
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1982
8."The New Book of Knowledge" encyclopia.
L volume 11
New York, New York:
Grolier In corportated. 1967
9.Romei, Francesca. "Leonardo Da Vinci."
New York, New York:
Peter Bedrick Books.1994
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leonardo da Vinci.TXT
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Leonardo da Vinci


	Leonardo da Vinci was born on the fifteenth of April, 1452, near the
town of Vinci, not far from Florence.  He was the son of a Florentine notary,
Piero da Vinci, and a young woman named Caterina.  Leonardo spent most of his
life in Florence and Milan.
	In 1469 he was apprenticed to Andrea Verrocchio, a leading Renaissance
master. Leonardo acquired a variety of skills while he remained at the workshop
until 1476.  He left Florence for Milan in about 1482 to work for Duke Lodovico
Sforza.  He stayed in Milan for nearly eighteen years.  During his time there he
applied his knowledge of mechanics to his obligations as a civil and military
engineer.  He also took up study in anatomy, biology, mathematics, and physics.
During that time he completed his single most important painting, The Last
Supper.
	Leonardo returned to Florence in 1500.  Three years later, Leonardo
began several important artistic projects, including the Battle of Anghiari
mural for the council chamber of the Town Hall, the portrait of Mona Lisa, and
the lost Leda and the Swan.  At the same time his interests in anatomy led him
to perform dissections, and he organized a study of the flight of birds.
	Leonardo left Italy forever, in 1516 to become architectural advisor to
King Francis I of France, who admired him greatly.  Leonardo died at the age of
67 on May 2, 1519, at Cloux, near Amboise, France.
	Leonardo da Vinci was a true Renaissance man.  He was a scholar,
scientist, artist, and inventor.  Some of his work includes, The Adoration of
the Magi, Madonna of the Rocks, The Last Supper, and the Mona Lisa.  Some of
Leonardo's sketches resemble future inventions, such as a sketch of a windmill
design and a helicopter with two revolving propellers.  He was a man ahead of
his time.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Leonardo DVinci.TXT
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Leonardo da Vinci

	Leonardo da Vinci was born on the fifteenth of April, 1452, near the town of
Vinci, not far from Florence.  He was the son of a Florentine notary, Piero da Vinci, and a
young woman named Caterina.  Leonardo spent most of his life in Florence and Milan.
	In 1469 he was apprenticed to Andrea Verrocchio, a leading Renaissance master. 
Leonardo acquired a variety of skills while he remained at the workshop until 1476.  He
left Florence for Milan in about 1482 to work for Duke Lodovico Sforza.  He stayed in
Milan for nearly eighteen years.  During his time there he applied his knowledge of
mechanics to his obligations as a civil and military engineer.  He also took up study in
anatomy, biology, mathematics, and physics.  During that time he completed his single
most important painting, The Last Supper.  
	Leonardo returned to Florence in 1500.  Three years later, Leonardo began several
important artistic projects, including the Battle of Anghiari mural for the council
chamber of the Town Hall, the portrait of Mona Lisa, and the lost Leda and the Swan.  At
the same time his interests in anatomy led him to perform dissections, and he organized a
study of the flight of birds.
	Leonardo left Italy forever, in 1516 to become architectural advisor to King
Francis I of France, who admired him greatly.  Leonardo died at the age of 67 on May 2,
1519, at Cloux, near Amboise, France.
	Leonardo da Vinci was a true Renaissance man.  He was a scholar, scientist,
artist, and inventor.  Some of his work includes, The Adoration of the Magi, Madonna of
the Rocks, The Last Supper, and the Mona Lisa.  Some of Leonardo's sketches resemble
future inventions, such as a sketch of a windmill design and a helicopter with two
revolving propellers.  He was a man ahead of his time.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Life of Andrew Jackson.TXT
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Book Summary/Contents
	Andrew Jackson, in the author's words, was "mild, polite, polished, benevolent, and democratic."  It would not be in anyone's favor to question the validity of the his words, but to understand them with unrestrained faith in those words will help to insure complete insight into the book.  Moreover, this book stresses the immortal fact that Jackson's private life had as much irony and agony as his political/outside life did.  With those factors understood, Jackson's life and the times he lived in, will become clear to all.
	The important point to understand about most things in this world is the nature of their origins, Andrew Jackson is no different. Born with no idea as to what his father looks like, Andrew Jackson Jr., third son from Elizabeth and Andrew Jackson Sr., will be raised at the home of Elizabeth's sister and brother-in-law, the Crawfords in the state of South Carolina. Andrew Jackson Sr. descended from a long line Ulster families that were thrown out of Ireland, seeking refuge in the United States, made their home in South Carolina.  Jackson Sr., dying suddenly before his son's birth, left Andrew to grow up without a male parental figure.  
Living in the Crawfords gave young Andrew little rewards; he was given very little schooling of  basic reading, writing, and figuring.  So, how, in fact, does a man that receives less education than the average American at that time, not to mention the likes of John Adams or Thomas Jefferson, be, in the many historians minds, greater than Adams or Jefferson?  The long answer to that question will start when "Andy" as the young, and slim Jackson is called, attains to the age of 13. 
 The year was 1780, British troops had taken South Carolina, Andy's oldest brother had joined the American regiment fighting in their home town, but died due to heat exhaustion in battle.  At the sight of his deceased brother Hugh, Jackson joins the army as a mounted messenger.  After the fighting halted, both Andrew Jackson and his brother Robert (who had also joined the American army by now) went back home to the Crawfords.  Even though official battles had been temporarily stopped, the "civil war" raged on as Patriots fought Tories in the towns of South Carolina, catching young Andrew Jackson in the midst of the fight.  In one bloody encounter, Jackson and his brother were taken prisoner by British dragoons.  A British officer ordered Andrew to clean his boots. The boy refused, claiming his right as a prisoner of war not to be treated like a servant.  The furious officer whipped out his sword and slashed at the boy's head.  Luckily for Jackson, his stealth saved him from certain death, but leaving him with scars on his left hand and head which he carried with him his whole life, along with a hatred for the British.  
Thrown into prison camp, Elizabeth Jackson would not let her sons rot in British cells, and making deals for exchange of prisoners, got her sons in the trade.  Alas, Robert died during the trip home, and Elizabeth was barely able to save Andrew.  Being the courageous woman that she was, Elizabeth Jackson made a journey to Charlestown Harbor, where she intended to help American soldiers sick in British prison ships, but while nursing the plague-ridden men, she caught cholera herself and died.  Andrew Jackson's response, "I felt utterly alone", was all that needed to conclude his feelings about events at that time.  
	The following years after that, until he ventured into politics, included going from city to city in South Carolina seeking the horse-race and drinking his heart out.  Uncontrolled and unrestrained by anyone or anything besides money, Andrew would come to see and do almost everything imaginable at that time in the United States. He had also gone into various professions, from teaching to law.  It was at law where he began his rise to politics.  
	On the road to becoming a lawyer, Jackson's first stop was be apprentice to Spruce MaCay, in North Carolina.  But simply being apprentice wasn't enough, Jackson left MaCay after two years, and when he finally got admitted to the state bar, he began drifting about the local courts, taking a case here and there.  It wasn't until an old friend made him the public prosecutor of the new Western District of North Carolina that he got his first major break as a lawyer.  Now in his twenties, Jackson finally gains wealth and becomes a indispensable lawyer to the speculators in Nashville, N. Carolina.
	It was also during this time, that Andrew Jackson takes a wife. He had an intimate relationship with the landlady's daughter Rachel that he lived with during his time in Nashville but could not move in on her because she was married.  Her husband left her, and by the fall of 1790, rumor had spread that he was ready for divorce.  Andrew and Rachel then got married, but this event became an issue because of the fact that Rachel's husband's divorce was only a rumor, where, in later years, in the great game of politics, the issue would be brought up over and over again that Andrew Jackson committed ungentlemen-like bigamy.
	Marriage had brought Jackson a few miles ahead in the road through politics.  Being the very influential family that Rachel Donelson was from, she helped provide Jackson with enough political and economic boost to become one of the richest men on the Western Frontier.  Due to his vast holdings, and his leadership on this new state called "Tennessee", Andrew Jackson landed a seat in the U.S. Senate.  Showing very little political ambition, and not accomplishing a whole lot, Jackson soon resigns his seat.  
	It was after his senate resigning  that Jackson would become major general of the militia of Tennessee and where his great accomplishments in the battle field start.  During the War of 1812, General Jackson, with his troop of 2,500 men, was to march to Natchez, at the tip of the Mississippi, to prepare strikes on either Pensacola, Mobile, or New Orleans.  But unfortunately the War Department in Congress recalled his troops, and along the hardship-filled way back (through Indian territory, without pay, transportation, or medicine) to Nashville, Jackson received the nickname that would cling to him forever-Old Hickory-because of his willingness to walk alongside his troops in support, comforted the sick, encouraged the weary, and doled out rations.
Shortly after he had received the Old Hickory name came Jackson's greatest victory courtesy of the battle of New Orleans which ended the War of 1812.  The time was following Napoleon Bonaparte's defeat in France, Great Britain had now assembled a troop of 14,000 men to attack the U.S. in three directions: top from Lake Champlain, Chesapeake Bay in the middle, and New Orleans in the south.  The Lake Champlain and Chesapeake Bay campaigns were easy victories for Britain, but the most important battle rested in New Orleans, even with their victories, the tide can turn with a win by General Jackson in New Orleans against the British.  Recruiting two regiments of African Americans, dastardly employing pirates, it is still known as a miracle today that he pulls off this great win considering that the odds of 7:3 against the Americans which make this battle even more memorable.
"New Year's Day, 1815, General Edward Pakenham of Great Britain commands his (7,000) troops	 to begin a heavy bombardment of the American positions.  In two hours of steady fire, the British were outgunned; they failed to breach the American line.  Pakenham then came up with an unworkable plan.  He would hurl all his power straight ahead through the Americans' well-prepared fortifications.  It meant committing thousands of his redcoats to a frontal assault in the hop that their superior numbers would shatter the American resistance.  Fighting starts at dawn on the eighth of January, the files of soldiers made two direct attacks in the face of deadly rifle and artillery fire.  All the Americans had to do was shoot them down as them came.  ...The British broke completely and fled the field."
	Some years after that great victory in Orleans, once he regains his health in his Hermitage, Jackson enters politics in the form of assuming the newest state (Florida) to enter the Union's governorship.  And after a few years of that, at the age of 55, but, "...looking 65", he is once again elected into the U.S. Senate.  The interesting event that occurs during his third stint on the Senate is that now, the idea of Andrew Jackson as the next president of the United States has suddenly crept into everyone's mind.  The stage was now set for the greatest election the world has known in that time.
	Jackson's candidacy had come from state legislatures due to the collapse of the party caucus system.  Backed by one of the best politician in the U.S. at that time (William B. Lewis) and one of the wealthiest men (John Overton), his campaign was destined to be a success.  His opponents were John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, who was the Secretary of State; Henry Clay of Kentucky, majority leader of the House of Representatives; Secretary of War from South Carolina, John C. Calhoun, and William Crawford of Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury.  Due to lack of support for himself, and the apparent overwhelming support for Jackson, Calhoun withdrew from the race and joined Andrew Jackson's forces as the vice-presidential candidate.  
	As the campaign went on, Jackson's men had to sway voters by saying one thing in one state, while his men in another state would contradict that same statement, making him seem like a vote-monger in the eyes of many people and to which his opponents used as a weapon against him.  But, alas, Jackson was not to be denied votes since he stood so firmly on the issue of slavery.  Defending slavery caused him to finish with the most popular votes overall, but did not get enough votes to win the electoral college.  Upon which case, the irony of this election started.  It so happened that Henry Clay wound up as the last of the candidates to have a chance at the presidency, and since Jackson, Adams, and Crawford now needed to win by vote in the House of Representatives, Clay, being Speaker of the House, struck a deal with his least hated person out of the three, which was Adams.  So therefore, Adams getting the support of the leader of the House, wins the election of 1824, much to the dismay of Jackson.
	At this point in time, angry Old Hickory makes plans to usurp and defeat Adams in 1828 following the possible "corrupt bargain" that was struck between Clay and Adams.  Andrew Jackson and his followers now formed the Democratic Party.  With men such as Martin Van Buren and John C. Calhoun campaigning and propagandizing on his behalf, he found Campaign '28 to be an easy victory, despite vast accusations about his personal life from opponents that led to the saddest day in Andrew Jackson's life when Rachel, reacting to pamphlets about her alleged affair with Andrew, and other assorted gossip, grows ill and dies.  This event shocked and made Jackson utter the words, "I feel utterly alone" once again in his life: but he strives on, being the Old Hickory that he is, and inaugurates as the 7th President of the United States of America.
 One of the most memorable items during Jackson's terms was his "Kitchen Cabinet", which consisted of Francis P. Blair, Amos Kendall, Isaac Hill and William Lewis; all of whom are newspaper editors with the exception of Lewis.  The four men would assist in close matters with Jackson, who does not really trust the competence of his Congressional Cabinet.  These men's ideas helped shape Jackson's administrative policy, but in no way did they dictate what Jackson said or did, because he was "master in his own White House".  That label would soon come to bestow upon him the honor of being one of the most "king-like" presidents in history, due to his over-excessive use of the veto power.
Andrew Jackson's greatest battle in the political ground also resulted in his re-election when he started his War against the Bank (of the United States).  The Bank's story begins with Alexander Hamilton, who made Congress pass the Bank's charter in 1791, it was meant to stabilize  the government's finances and establish its credit.  Partly private, partly government-financed and -controlled, it became the cornerstone of the American economy by providing a safe place to deposit the government's funds, lend the government money when needed, regulate state banks' lending, issue bank notes, and collect taxes.
	The Bank's charter had ended in 1811, but in 1816, President Madison rechartered the Bank for twenty years.  By the Panic of 1819, when (land) speculative fever pushed people to the brink of bankruptcy and failure, state and local banks also arrived at that point because they made loans that they did not have equal amounts in gold or silver to back up.  Distrust everywhere, by mostly everyone in the system of the Bank had arrived at an all time high.  But a resurgence by the bank in the 1820's, led by its young, handsome, and energetic president, Nicholas Biddle, allowed it to survive.  	
	Biddle continues to do well until the early 1830's, when he tries to recharter the bank.  He tried to appeal to Jackson for recharter.  It is interesting to see that what fueled Jackson's anger towards the Bank of the United States was his own misfortune at the hands of it: during a time where he had planned to open a merchandise store, but a land-speculating deal gone awry, mainly because of Bank of the United State bank notes, forced him to forfeit his plans on the merchandise store, and left him in poverty for a time.
	And so with that hatred, Jackson makes this great fight against the bank, charging that the bank was the beneficiary of special privilege, granted a monopoly of the government's business by charter.  That monopoly worked for the aristocrats, and hurt the common man.  Not only was the bank evil, but it was also unconstitutional.  With that said, President Jackson rallied the people behind him in the stand on the Bank of the U.S.  So in the election of 1832, Henry Clay, the opponent of Jackson, supports the Bank's recharter, and therefore loses the election.  With his last breadth at a time of his greatest power, Clay gathers enough votes in Congress to pass a recharter of the Bank; but Jackson vetoes it, and that ended the life of the first Bank of the United States.
	With that beening his greatest use of the veto power, President Andrew Jackson becomes "King Andrew I" that so many people portrayed him to be.  In the totally contradicting statement, he cannot be that because him and his followers started the democratic party, which was essentially the party for the people!  Ending, it is interesting to see how his early childhood and wife shaped him, from being juvenile teenager, to the Old Hickory millions have come to praise.
	
	










Knowledge/Insights
	The new knowledge that I've gained from this book complements the ones I've received reading Hofstadter.  Where Hofstadter tells me mainly of the political side into the life of Jackson, this book gave me feelings and emotions towards Jackson's life.  In a sense, Hofstadter has a touch of "coldness" about his works, whereas the author of this book gives Andrew Jackson a heart.  Also, I see the great detail implemented in this book, or lack thereof from our text books which causes me to wonder about the quality of our textbooks, and that maybe I should always read a biography of a character in American History every time someone famous is mentioned in the textbooks.
	My insight into this book is that as most biographies go, this one is truly exemplary.  Not only does it tell of one of the most interesting men that ever graced this earth, it tells it in a melodramatic way, from the unparalleled reactions of Jackson's shooting of Charles Dickinson to Jackson hopeless mourning over the corpse of his dead wife, as he "(hopes) vainly for signs of returning life(in her)".  Jackson's pure energy, raw emotion, as shown in the Battle of new Orleans,  where even sick, he can give orders to win the battle, is truly mind-boggling.  Also, being the first ever "self-made" man and president, he is truly a character that seems almost fictional in the way he can transcend from one thing to another.  His survival at the hands of several duels, and to live to the incredible age of 78 with several bullets lodged in his chest from duels, truly shows how incredible a man Jackson had been.  The statement that he was "born poor and died rich" fits Andrew Jackson perfectly.
	My most important insight into this book is that if you take away the politics and egotistical displays of power, and make the Battle of New Orleans the focus, Jackson would make a great hero for young kids.  Also, if you strip away his machinations with battle and fighting, you could make Jackson to be the true self-made man that Abraham Lincoln is, in the rise to politics.
Relationship Between Book & 19th Century American History	
This book's intricate relation to developments of the 19th century include the rights and questions of slavery, the American Frontier and its ideals of the "self-made" man, and questions about the rights of Indians to their lands.  
	Regarding the slavery issue, the book tells clearly of Andrew Jackson's dealings as a "average" slave holding.  By "average", I mean that he would probably not do anymore or less to hurt or command his slaves around than anyone else would in other plantations.  To that end, what he cannot possibly condone was runaways; he would pay extra for slave catchers to have the runaways lashed in the effort to teach obedience.  Andrew Jackson is a very commanding and forceful person by nature, and when slaves step out of line, he had the right to punish them, so he feels no sorrow for either peoples-black or red-only contempt.  In one time, during a raid on a Negro Fort before Florida had joined the Union, Jackson and his soldier massacred free blacks, just because of the "slave-holders' desire to enslave or kill blacks enjoying their lives in freedom."  
	Slave trading contributed to those ideas that regarded  him as the first "self-made" man/president.  Abraham Lincoln might've been the best example of a "self-made" man, but Andrew Jackson was the forefather of that ideology.  Having born into poverty, and struggled most of his life through poverty, he climbed the first step in the ladder of success by knowing that the step was in the practice of law.  After some years of practice, it paid off, eventually leading to his marriage into aristocracy to Rachel Donelson.
	Out of all three of these relationships into 19th century American History, Andrew Jackson's thoughts and acts towards the Native Americans is the most intensified subject.  In this field, Jackson typified the "white man that would cheat the Indian out of land he did not own in the first place!"  President Jackson's greatest action towards Indian removal came in the form of the Trail of Tears.  This started in the state of Georgia, where the Cherokee nation was "catching" up to the white man, and as a measure of defense or out of fear, as Calhoun states, "The whole trouble with the Cherokees, ..., was precisely their progress in civilization."  Jackson, whom sometime ago made treaties and talked of peace with the "5 civilized tribes" of the Southeast, is now driving the Cherokees out of land that the "white, middle-classed" man wants.  And so, with the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee Indian population was forced to move from Georgia into what is now Oklahoma, losing about 1/4th of the total population along the way.
	
























Merits and Assessment
	My assessment as to the merit of this book is that it is one of great moral and intellectual integrity.  It cannot stress more on the moral side as it unbiasly tells the reader the whole truth about Andrew Jackson's love life, family life, war life, and political life.  This book is intellectually stimulating, making you feel the urge to somehow, some way, relive the life of Jackson, but you know that is not possible, so you go and reread the book again.  Andrew Jackson and His America clearly depicts emotions, and even though there is no open dialogue, you get a sense of what the characters feel during trying times.


 

















 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Life Of John Steinbeck.TXT
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Life Of John Steinbeck
John Steinbeck was a writer who used naturalism in his works to to bring
awareness about problems in society that he dealt with in his own life. He
frequently dealt with the economic and social problems of migrant workers in
California and how they dealt with everyday life. He wrote through his fiction
about what he knew and what affected him personally. Specifically, he wrote
a novella entitled, Of Mice and Men, about two California migrant workers,
George Milton and Lennie Small, who are trying desperately to earn enough
money to buy a couple of acres of their own so that they won't have to keep
running from there problems all the time. Naturalism was a literary movement
throughout the U.S. and Europe in the late 19th century to the early 20th
century. Naturalism writers had a strong belief in the natural sciences, and
used the ideas of Darwin's theory of evolution to show how humans are
animals that are changed by external factors, forced to adapt to the conditions
surrounding them (GRO 1). Naturalists often looked at the other side of life,
such as promiscuity, alcoholism, drug use and so on. They saw human beings
as creatures who are controlled by influences beyond their control and
therefore, being denied free will and moral choice. This often made gave them
the reputation of being pessimistic, for there stories were far from fantasy and
the "high life" (GRO 1). Steinbeck grew up in Salinas, California, where he
was born on Feb. 27, 1902. Salinas was a quiet agricultural center close to
the Monterey Peninsula, Carmel and King City. During high school he worked
on nearby farms and ranches. When he graduated from Salinas High School in
1919, he went on to Stanford University where he studied intermittently there,
never receiving a degree. While at Stanford he submitted many manuscripts to
publishing companies but they were constantly rejected. He began taking jobs
at factories for manual labor (LIS 7). He worked as a bench- chemist at
Spreckels beet factory and at the Willoughby Ranch south of Salinas as a
ranch hand (MCC 6-10). In 1925, Steinbeck left California for New York,
where he worked on the construction of Madison Square Garden. After
construction was completed, Steinbeck got a job at the New York American
newspaper where he wrote human interest stories. He was fired from this job
after a short period of time (LIS 7). In 1936, Of Mice and Men reached
Steinbeck's agents and it was published in January of 1937. It was
Steinbeck's first successful novel. At age 35, because of the success of Of
Mice and Men, it was named a Book-of-the-Month Club choice and
Steinbeck was named as one of Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Year.
Also, Steinbeck was asked to write articles about migrant workers for
magazines and newspapers, bringing further awareness to the hardships of the
migrant workers (LIS 7 ). In Of Mice and Men , Steinbeck wrote about two
laborers, George Milton and Lennie Small. George is a small, slender and
smart man; Lennie is a large, clumsy mentally challenged man who is
physically strong. George had promised Lennie's Aunt Clara that he would
take care of Lennie when she died. They have traveled from Weed,
California, to work together on a ranch in Soledad. Lennie and George have
fled from Weed because Lennie was accused of trying to assault a girl. He
was touching her dress and when he stroked it too hard she screamed and he
hung on to her in fear. George and Lennie have a dream, to earn enough
money so that they can have a place to call their own. They want to have
rabbits "An' live off the fatta the lan'" (STE 5). They arrive in Soledad and
meet The Boss, and his son Curley. George and Lennie also meet Slim, the
ranch hand who seems to have authority in the bunkhouse, Curley's wife, and
Candy, the old swamper. Candy has a dog, it's very old and dirty, and smells
up the bunkhouse; so when Slim's dog has puppies, they convince Candy to
let them kill the old dog and give him one of the new puppies. The night they
kill Candy's dog, George tells him about the dream that he and Lennie have,
and Candy puts his $350 dollars into the dream with them. The next Sunday,
while in the barn, Lennie accidentally kills his puppy that Slim has given to him
when he pets it too hard. Curley's wife shows up in the barn and tells him to
stroke her hair if he likes soft things. When she screams for him to stop, he
grabs her neck in fear and breaks it. Candy finds her in the barn and shows
George. When the men come back from playing horseshoes and find Curley's
wife in the barn, they grab their shotguns, but Curley's is missing. He assumes
that Lennie took it, and they go out to search for him. George finds Lennie
near the river bank, right where he told him to go if there was ever any
trouble. He talks to to him about their dream, and at the same time puts a gun
to his head and fires it. When the rest of the men find him they assume that
George found Lennie with the gun and took it away from him and shot him.
Steinbeck's motivation to write this novel came from the anger he felt about
the conditions of workers he saw and interacted with in California. His work
on the Willoughby ranch inspired the setting for Of Mice and Men. Many of
his stories came from the places he was familiar with in California. When
Steinbeck was young, he would drive in the family car and take in the scenery.
He would also hike in the Galiban Mountains (MCC 6). Steinbeck later
reflected on this to create the settings for his books. Soledad, a small town
below Salinas, is the town that Of Mice and Men is set in. The beginning of
the novel starts on the banks of the Salinas River, a region he was very
familiar with from his youth (MCC 6). The descriptions of the region that
Steinbeck gives in the novel shows his familiarity with the area. In the
beginning of Of Mice and Men, Steinbeck gives this beautiful description of
the Salinas River valley, south of Soledad: On one side of the river the golden
foothill slopes curve up to the strong and rocky Galiban mountains, but on the
valley side the water is lined with trees- willows fresh and green with every
spring, carrying in their lower leaf junctures the debris of the winter's flooding;
and sycamores with mottled, white, recumbent limbs and branches that arch
over the pool (STE 1). Steinbeck wrote many novels that were based in
California in the Long Valley, Of Mice and Men was one of the most well
received (MCC 6). By reading this novel, one can get in touch with the plight
of the migrant workers during the Depression through a work of fiction.
Naturalism literature is one of the better ways writers can express themselves
to the greater public, and Steinbeck has done just that with Of Mice and Men.
He showed no indication of believing in a perfect man, that would be
inconsistent with naturalist thinking that humans are "conditional and controlled
by environment, heredity, instinct or chance" (BLO 77). Also, Steinbeck
shows that in life, nature takes control, as Darwin explained. Lennie was
eliminated from a society where he was not considered normal, he was weak,
and he did not fit with the society (BLO 113). Steinbeck wrote about what he
knew and what he believed, and he raised issues that he felt were important
and told stories of the life that he knew.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Life Of Napoelan Bonaparte.TXT
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Life Of Napoelan Bonaparte
Few individuals have
come along that have captivated the imaginations of their
contemporaries and of historians. Perhaps the most prolific
of these characters is Napoleon Bonaparte. The part of his
life often found most intriguing was his humble beginnings.
Here, like some Hollywood movie is the tale of an
exceptional man whose intelligence and rise from the
bottom is eventually defeated by his flaws, which cause him
to fall from power. He was born in Corsica just off the
coast of Italy. France had annexed Corsica in 1768,
officially making him a French citizen. His parents, although
from an aristocratic family and considered nobility, were
anything but wealthy. His father's small income was not
enough to fulfill his dreams of sending Napoleon to France
to attend military school. He wrote a letter to the king,
Louis XVI, for a scholarship for Napoleon. The king had
set up a fund to pay for Napoleon's attendance of military
school. Upon arrival in France young Napoleon had to first
overcome the obstacle of learning to speak French, since it
was the only language spoken in the military schools. To do
this he would first have to attend a school in Autun before
going to military school. When he finally arrived in Brienne
to attend his military school, he soon discovered that his
defeat of his adversities was marred by the criticism he
received because of his Corsican upbringing and accent.
But nothing could break Napoleon's strong will and
determination. Instead of giving up, he persevered and gave
up socializing to put forth whatever effort he could into his
studies. His lust for conquest and omens of his great future
often surfaced at school. In the winter he eagerly applied
his military science knowledge into skillfully executed
snowball fights with his squadron always being the victors.
He also spent hours studying the conquests of rulers such
as Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great. This rigorous
study, however, did not make him a brilliant student except
in math where he had a natural talent. At age 15, Napoleon
graduated from Brienne and was accepted into the
prestigious military college in Paris, receiving an
all-expenses paid scholarship. While at military college, he
learned of his father's death from stomach cancer. His
father's final startling words were a revelation that would
prophesize Napoleon's future: "Where is Napoleon, my son
Napoleon, whose sword will make Kings tremble and who
will change the face of the world?" Napoleon finished
military academy 2 years ahead of schedule to help out his
poor mother and graduated as a lieutenant. The consulate
Napoleon's career as a French solider progressed. He
made his way through the ranks of general, military
commander, major general and finally at the bright age of
26 he was made commander-in-chief and was given full
command over all soldiers garrisoned in France. Napoleon
reorganized the entire Army and prepared them for
invasion at any moment. Although committed, Napoleon
was anything but heartless. He gave high posts in the army
to his friends and family, and promoted soldiers he had
fought with before to higher ranks. Napoleon even found
the time to marry a young woman named Josephine de
Beauharnais. Napoleon's lust for conquest ensured that he
didn't settle down. His ambitions were always growing
greater. In 1799 France's governing body, The Directory
grew weak and unsteady. The Austrians recaptured Italy
and were among several nations threatening to invade
France. If this wasn't enough competition, Napoleon
learned that the Royalists were planning on restoring the
monarchy. But Napoleon used this conflict to his advantage
and decided it was precise time to take over The
Directory, which he still served. He used his influences in
the government to gain political backing. His two
advantages over his opponents were that he was a national
hero for his many victories in battle and he had full
command of the army, in case it was necessary. Some
often criticize his motives, saying he was driven more by
ambition than for the love of his country. Napoleon
appeared before the Council of the Ancients - the upper
house of representatives - to make a passionate speech
asking to be put in charge of the entire country. He won
their support but faced resistance while trying to convince
the lower House of Representatives. With the use of the
military, Napoleon forced them into naming him First
Consul of France without having to harm a soul. To those
who viewed Napoleon as a tyrant, his actions as First
Consul seemed baffling. Napoleon immediately reduced
taxes, stabilized the economy, opened schools and
universities around the country and even established
programs to give jobs to the unemployed. Among his
greatest accomplishments as First Consul, was the
development of the Code Napoleon, which is the
foundation for the French legal system and is in use to this
day. He sought peace and to end the conflict in and outside
of France. Peace was made with Austria and Britain and all
the wars had concluded in the Treaty of Amiens made with
Britain. Emperor As First Consul, Napoleon was faced
with much adversity but he always prevailed using the
threats against his life as motive to secure his power
permanently. Since he was not royalty he could not be
made King so he decided to become Emperor. In a
ceremony with the Pope, Napoleon decided to undertake
the crowning himself. Some saw this move as a great
warning of his craving for power. However, all fear about
his motives faded with his generous use of the power. He
gave royal titles to his siblings, allowing them to be
monarchs over his conquered lands. Many countries, afraid
of his ambition to rule the continent, allied together to
prevent him from conquering any more land. Among these
were Austria and Great Britain. He defeated the Austrians
on land but Napoleon's greatest military flaw was realized
when he met in battle with a squadron of the British Navy,
and faced staggering losses. But Napoleon never admitted
defeat and destroyed an Austrian-Russian army to force
half of the allies in surrender. Defeat In Russia After years
of battle Napoleon eventually defeat Russia and allied with
them to try and destroy the British Empire. However, both
sides violated the treaty and waged war on each other.
Napoleon, as always decided to go on the offensive and
invade Russia. He took an army of 500,000 men and as he
made his way through the vast plains of the country he
noticed village after village was deserted. Finally just before
reaching the capital of Moscow, Napoleon faced resistance
from the Russian Army but after a hard-fought battle
Napoleon's troops prevailed. Upon his arrival in Moscow,
Napoleon sees that the capital is also deserted and later
that evening is lit on fire. The great blaze could not be
stopped because the Russians had smashed the water
pumps before their departure. The fires roared for days but
when the fires were finally over Napoleon stayed in Russia
for nearly a month awaiting a reply for his demands of
peace. However, upon inspection of the area for miles,
Napoleon discovered that almost the entire country had
been evacuated and moved. Napoleon then realized the
strategy of the Russian czar. He had leaded the French
Army into a trap in the heart of Russia near the start of the
frigid Russian winter. Napoleon's wait in Moscow proved
to be a fatal mistake. Realizing defeat, Napoleon ordered
his troops home. Since Napoleon's swift marches across
wide areas of land called for light travel, his troops weren't
equipped with winter clothing or enough food for their
unexpectedly long journey. The Russian winter took its toll
on his men as they made their way home and decimated his
army into nearly half the size of what it was. This campaign
in Russia would prove to be the greatest military disaster in
history. Napoleon's enemies banded together to deliver him
one final blow. He put together a makeshift army recruiting
350,000 new soldiers from within his empire. He decided
to go full force against the great contingency of the allies
and in several consecutive battles; his young army was
victorious despite astonishing odds. His military genius and
motivational words to the troops allowed them to
overcome great obstacles. However, his forces were finally
overwhelmed and Napoleon retreated back to Paris where
months later, the capital was overtaken by the allies. His
ego was too big to allow him to admit defeat so he fled
outside Paris and showed his cowardess by an
unsuccessful suicide attempt. He finally relented and signed
an act abdicating him as ruler of France. The Hundred
Days Exiled to an island near his birthplace of Corsica,
Napoleon immediately set to work to plan his comeback.
With the few troops and small naval fleet his allies allowed
him, he made his way back to France. Finally in early
1815, he arrived in France and made his way towards the
capital. By the time he reached the capital his army had
multiplied to several thousand as entire garrisons left the
reign of King Louis XVIII to join his troops. Reassuming
the title of emperor, Napoleon immediately faced
opposition from the allies. As always, Napoleon attacked
first. The allied forces were not yet united and Napoleon
knew he could defeat them if he met them separately. After
meeting and defeating the Prussians, he met with the British
army at Waterloo in Belgium. The British troops were able
to withstand Napoleon's fire and thousands from both sides
fell during the battle with neither side achieving victory.
However, at twilight the Prussians met with the British
troops to give them support. They had regrouped their
forces, coming to the rescue of their allies and creating a
force Napoleon himself knew was too large to beat. Final
Exile Again Napoleon was forced to abdicate, so he fled to
the United States but when he learned that all ships were
being inspected for his presence, he turned himself in. He
was forced to the desolate island of St. Helena, 600 miles
off the coast of nowhere. He lived out the rest of his weary
days in solitude and nearly six years later, Napoleon befell
the same fate as his father and died of stomach cancer at
the age of 51. Few people in history have met such great
achievements with having faced such great adversities. To
his historians and worshipers he was the greatest military
commander of the modern era. He overcame great odds in
every battle to satisfy his desire for power. To his enemies
he was power-hungry tyrant often associated with the devil
whose lust for conquest far outweighed his good will
toward his people. Either way, history writes this man as
one of the greatest military minds ever whose conquest and
code influenced revolutions and legal systems, which would
change the face of the earth.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Life Of Rodin.TXT
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Life Of Rodin
Auguste Rodin was born November 12, 1840 in Paris and attended the Ecole des Arts Decoratifs in Paris at age 14. Rodin had a special gift for modeling human figures and faces; therefore sculpting humans is all he did. Decorators and commercial sculptors exploited Rodin at a very young age. It was some 20 years before he could sculpt for himself, under the commercial sculptor Albert Carrier-Belleuse. (Auguste, 19)
Rodin sculpted ornamental figures for several major buildings in Brussels, such as the Bourse and the Palais des Academies. He then worked on the monument to Jean-Francois Loos, the former mayor of Antwerp. Rodin did not start this monument, but he work on it. Rodin acquired a sufficient amount of money to travel to Italy, which was an important step in his career. In 1877 he returned to Paris with his first major sculpture, The Age of Bronze. This piece of work showed a young man coming out of misery and depression to a state of heightened awareness. Critics and fellow artists thought and also accused Rodin of making this piece from a plaster cast taken directly from a living person. This deeply hurt Rodin. (Auguste, 19) In 1880, Rodin was contracted by the French government to make a door for the projected Musee des Arts Decortifs. Rodin worked endlessly on the sketches for the bronze door, now titled The Gates of Hell. In 1883 Rodin met Camille, this is when he had reached his "decisive stage" in preparations for The Gates of Hell. This aspect of Rodin's work and ideas has to be borne in mind considering the beginning of his relationship with Camille Claude. (Auguste, 21-22)
Camille and Rodin had, at first, an intimate attraction for each other. Rodin met Camille when he was an instructor correcting the work of a group of young ladies. This man was the master who could finally teach Camille a proper set of artistic bearings. Rodin could knead the clay "at lightning speeds" and instantly create the most complex and expressive form. (Auguste, 22)
In 1884, Rodin made his first portrait of Camille, an "austerely beautiful head with large eyes, short hair and sharply defined features". And by 1886, Rodin was so obsessed with Camille that he followed her to England where she was staying with her friend Jessie Lipcomb and her family in Peterborough. (Auguste, 24)
In the fall of 1884, he was commissioned to design the monument to The Burghers of Calais, which was to become one of his major works. He wrestled with the theme tenaciously for several years, and the outcome, with its democratic treatment of the figures, was a milestone in the development of monumental sculpture. (Auguste, 26)
From 1864-65, Rodin had been involved in a long-standing relationship with Rose Beuret. The attractive seamstress, who originally hailed from the eastern part of the Champagne region, had remained loyal through thick and thin, even in the worst circumstances. Besides of posing for Rodin in her youth, she acted as his housekeeper and studio assistant and took up sewing to pay the bills. Rose was also the mother of Rodin's son, Auguste Beuret. Although she occasionally grumbled and staged occasional protests, she generally accepted his refusal for marriage. (Auguste, 33)
Rose was essentially an outsider, since she could hold no intellectual conversations pertaining to art. Rose had been a used up hand towel and now expected to get up off the ground and clean herself. Rodin seemed to be a senseless jerk for treating one of God's best creations like that. (Auguste, 33-35)
Rodin carried on his work with minimal sculptures and various paintings until he died of old age November 18, 1917. This was a little less than ten months after he finally married Rose Beuret, and she died two weeks after the wedding. (Auguste, 122)
Rodin was a great sculptor and very talented at it too. He seemed to be a womanizer for his many entanglements with different woman, but only one he truly cared for, Camille Claudel. If he would of treated her with a little more respect and stopped following her around, they would of married. At least this is what I hypothesize. Works Cited
Auguste Rodin & Camille Claudel; (Prestel-Verlag, Muich, London, New York, 1999
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Linda Crew.TXT
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313
About Linda Crew and her reasons for writing this The author of Children of the River, Linda Crew, expresses her emotions and brings her past experiences into her writings. A lot of authors base their books on personal experiences; Linda Crew is just an example of one. Linda Crew went to the University of Oregon, since she lived in Oregon for a while before writing Children of the River, which could be a major factor in why it took place in Oregon. She then got married, had children and lived on a farm there. (http://www.randomhouse.com/teachers/authors/crew.html) After all, in the book, Sundara did move to Oregon from Cambodia. So Linda Crew probably liked it in Oregon and wanted the main characters in the book settle there. Speaking of Cambodia, when Linda Crew was in Oregon, her friends were Cambodian refugees who inspired her to write this novel. (Crew, Linda, Children of the River back cover) She probably asked them how it felt to be Cambodian refugees and what their past experiences were and how they dealt with all of their problems. Also, I think this book was about love because at the time when she wrote this book, she was in love and had just gotten married. She knew how it felt to be in love and what happens when you¡¦re in love. She just wrote about her feelings and how good it felt to be in love with the right person, just like how Sundara had to choose between being in love with Chamroeun or Jonathan. Linda Crew chose to write about her experiences, her feelings and her friends. Almost every author, if you look into their past deep enough does that with their novels. All in all, Linda Crew is an outstanding author with excellent novels of great quality.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\LogoedBiography.TXT
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Alfred M. Tarquinio

Tarquinio Recruiting Group, an independent operating affiliate of MRI, International, helps make up the world's largest international contingency, retainer and confidential search firm. The Group is dedicated to providing permanent placement and ancillary services like videoconferencing capabilities, relocation services, and compatibility assessment tools. Through the resources of our network of offices, experience, and data banks, over 1000 industry specialists can help our clients locate and attract candidates throughout the world.

TRG has effectively recruited in the telecommunications industry since 1994.

Mr. Tarquinio is the founder and President.  He has 31 years of effective sales, general sales management, and business ownership experience, combined with 20 years of P&L responsibilities.  Therefore, Mr. Tarquinio has a unique blend of perspectives that he brings to client and candidate relationships. 

He has been a leading producer of profits for firms like Procter & Gamble, Xerox Learning Systems, and several global consulting companies. He also was a teacher and head football coach at the high school level for three years.

As Vice-President and General Manager of Sales for Xerox Learning Systems, he had P&L responsibility for B2B training programs and consulting services, including surveys used for change management. The training programs include Professional Selling Skills, Effective Listening, and Account Development Strategies. In this assignment he held ultimate responsibility for hiring and managing hundreds of sales and sales management professionals. He is certified to teach 21 training programs including Focused Selection Interviewing. These programs had been used to train thousands of professionals throughout the world.

After graduating from Salem College, WV, he earned a Masters Degree from Carnegie-Mellon University, where he graduated with honors.

Mr. Tarquinio's experience in sales and executive sales management positions has convinced him that corporate effectiveness is determined by locating, attracting, and hiring the best; training and developing the best to be better; and, working as teams to create profits. He also believes that of all the competitive advantage sources available to any company, talent is the greatest!  Therefore, his firm dedicates itself to the front end of the value chain cycle - finding and placing the best talent. 

In partnering with clients, the Tarquinio Recruiting Group is committed to providing a wealth of recruited talent, high standards of quality, and a consistent record of success. 

"Our mission is to align with our clients to search, attract and place people who can add value by improving the top and bottom lines for their employer and customers. We do this with the highest degree of integrity, value, and without discrimination regarding any protected characteristics."

Post Office Box 2020?Warrendale, PA 15086?724-772-2000 Extension 23? job4you@nauticom.net?412-596-2314Cell



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ludwig van BEETHOVEN.TXT
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Ludwig van BEETHOVEN
The composer of some of the most influential pieces of music ever
written, Ludwig van Beethoven created a bridge between the 18th-century
classical period and the new beginnings of Romanticism. His greatest
breakthroughs in composition came in his instrumental work, including
his symphonies. Unlike his predecessor Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, for whom
writing music seemed to come easily, Beethoven always struggled to
perfect his work.
Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany, and was baptized on
Dec. 17, 1770. (There is no record of his birth date.) His father and
grandfather worked as court musicians in Bonn. Ludwig's father, a
singer, gave him his early musical training. Although he had only meager
academic schooling, he studied piano, violin, and French horn, and
before he was 12 years old he became a court organist. Ludwig's first
important teacher of composition was Christian Gottlob Neefe. In 1787 he
studied briefly with Mozart, and five years later he left Bonn
permanently and went to Vienna to study with Joseph Haydn and later with
Antonio Salieri.
Beethoven's first public appearance in Vienna was on March 29, 1795,
as a soloist in one of his piano concerti. Even before he left Bonn, he
had developed a reputation for fine improvisatory performances. In
Vienna young Beethoven soon had a long list of aristocratic patrons who
loved music and were eager to help him.
Onset of Deafness
In the late 1700s Beethoven began to suffer from early symptoms of
deafness. The cause of his disability is still uncertain. By 1802
Beethoven was convinced that the condition not only was permanent, but
was getting progressively worse. He spent that summer in the country and
wrote what has become known as the "Heiligenstadt Testament." In the
document, apparently intended for his two brothers, Beethoven expressed
his humiliation and despair. For the rest of his life he searched for a
cure, but by 1819 his deafness had become total. Afterward, in order to
have conversations with his friends, Beethoven had them write down their
questions and replied orally.
Beethoven never married. Though he had many friends, he seemed to be
a lonely man. He continued to appear in public but spent more and more
of his time working on his compositions. He lived in various villages
near Vienna and took long walks carrying sketchbooks in which he would
write down his musical ideas. Scholars who have studied these
sketchbooks have discovered the agonizingly long process that the
composer went through in order to perfect his melodies, harmonies, and
instrumentations.
Three Periods of Work
Most critics divide Beethoven's work into three general periods,
omitting the earliest years of his apprenticeship in Bonn. Although some
pieces do not fit exactly into the scheme, these divisions can be used
to categorize the composer's work.
The first period, from 1794 to about 1800, consists of music whose
most salient features are typical of the classical era. The influence of
such musicians as Mozart and Haydn is evident in Beethoven's early
chamber music, as well as in his first two piano concerti and his first
symphony. Beethoven added his own subtleties, including sudden changes
of dynamics, but in general the music was well constructed and not far
from the sensibilities of the classical period.
The second period, from 1801 to 1814, includes much of Beethoven's
improvisatory work. His Symphony No. 3, known as the "Eroica," and the
'Fourth Piano Concerto' are fine examples of this period.
The final period, from 1814 to the end of his life, is characterized
by even wider ranges of harmony and counterpoint. The last string
quartets contain some of the composer's most vivid new ideas. Beethoven
created longer and more complicated forms of music. In his symphonies
and string quartets, he often replaced the minuet movement with a
livelier scherzo. He also used improvisatory techniques, with surprise
rhythmic accents and other unexpected elements.
Many critics and listeners regard Beethoven as the finest composer
who ever lived. His music was unique and emotional. Never before had
instrumental music been brought to such heights. He also made great
strides with chamber music for piano, as well as for string quartets,
trios, and sonatas. His works include nine symphonies, 32 piano sonatas,
five piano concerti, 17 string quartets, ten sonatas for violin and
piano, one opera ('Fidelio'), the 'Mass in C Major', 'Missa Solemnis',
and other chamber music.
Beethoven died in Vienna on March 26, 1827. His funeral was attended
by hundreds of mourners. The bicentennial of his birth and the
sesquicentennial of his death were celebrated with new performances and
recordings of all of the master's works.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Malcolm X.TXT
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Malcolm X
1. Many believed that the "oppressed people" needed a leader or savior who could improve their life conditions, and Marcus Garvey would fit that description. Marcus Garvey was a black leader who started a "Back-to-Africa" movement in the United State. Garvey's main beliefs were that blacks would never receive justice in the countries where most of the people were white. He preached that blacks should go back to Africa, their homeland, and settle there. With Malcolm X's father strong belief in the ministry of Garveyism, Malcolm took Garvey as true; that the only way to achieve anything would be hard if the white man is ruling the country. Malcolm had to be strong while preparing for the civil rights movement; that strength would be very necessary in accomplishing anything. His father's ministry opened up the doors of truth of the harm of the white man on the blacks in America. Malcolm said that the black people would benefit in uniting the black race. Marcus Garvey was "convinced that success demanded the building of a strong economic base so that blacks will be self-sufficient" (Internet, Marcus Garvey). Because of Marcus Garvey's beliefs, many African Americans, found new strength and renewed their vision of success. Therefore, Garvey's teaching brightened up the chance for Malcolm to achieve change during the civil rights movement; providing a chance that everything would be all right and blacks would be equal to whites. Even though Marcus Garvey's helped and wanted the best for his fellow black people, he slammed fellow African-American leaders as being white puppets. Many blacks saw Marcus Garvey a lot in Malcolm X in that they both believed that the black race needs to stay just black to have real power, that the white people are the enemies, and that blacks should not mix with whites. Malcolm learned that the road would be tough because of the great power the white man has in America and that where the black man can have power would be where there is no white man in control, such as in Africa.
2. Martin Luther King Jr., shared more in common with Malcolm X, then any other contemporary civil rights leader. Martin Luther King and Malcolm X had more in common after Malcolm broke away from Elijah Mohammed. Before Malcolm broke away, he was an angry man who could never see anything positive and the reason why he could not see anything positive was because the whites had no "moral conscience." Malcolm also promoted segregation that is was the only way for blacks to achieve their rightful place in society. Martin Luther King, felt that blacks and whites should be united and there would be peace and happiness; this was the opposite of what Malcolm believed. In "Malcolm X: The Man and His Times," Malcolm says that separatist and nationalist strategy for black survival and that only through violence would conditions change. Malcolm also says that the white society had no moral conscience and promoted the role of the angry black against racist America. After Malcolm left the Nation of Islam, he, like Martin Luther King, believed greatly in unity and change through black pride and respect for oneself then hate and revenge, which he believed before. Malcolm even wanted to join forces with Martin Luther for their beliefs were very similar now. I think that the best thing that Malcolm and Martin Luther both believed in was the belief that blacks would attain freedom if they first get self-respect. They both fought for a difference in black America and to bring hope to blacks in the United States. Even though they had very different ways of promoting their message they both tried to bring power and strength to the black communities so that they can all rise above all the hatred that surrounded them. Malcolm X, compared to other contemporary civil rights leaders, was more aggressive.
3. "True" Islam defers from the teachings of Elijah Mohammad, by Elijah and the "true" Islam stressed different things. Elijah Mohammad stressed that there was more than one God. That these Gods had a beginning and an end, which means they did die and did not live forever. He said that God was a black man and the first one was Wallace D. Fard. So, Elijah Mohammad said that their God was a black man and the white man was the devil. Elijah had a racist view, where he wished to never accept whites as "sincere or capable of helping the blacks in their situation." He believed that Jesus was not miraculously born of a virgin. "True" Islam, believed in one God and that was Allah. He created all and from him they all came from only. The true Muslims believed that every righteous person is a god, but not a main God. "True" Muslims believed that Jesus was born from a virgin and died by being crucified on a cross. Even though they had many differences, the Nation of Islam and Islam were similar. They both called each other Muslims, they teach and worship in mosques, they appeal to the prophet Muhammad, they recite the Muslim creed, and they view the Qur'an as inspired Scripture. However, "true" Islam says that the only thing really in common is the language they both share. These "true" Muslims, believed that the Nation of Islam was misusing the word Islam because they were absolutely in violation of the certain basic principles contained within the Qur'an.
4. Malcolm's trip to Mecca changes his ministry completely. It is like he opened up some doors that brought him to reality. He saw the error of his ways and moved to goodness. Before leaving to Mecca, Malcolm believed that white and blacks should not be together and that keeping them apart is the best for them both. He believed that the white man was the devil for he was keeping the black man from gaining his rightful power in the world. Malcolm felt that violence was the only way to overcome the problems of the black man out on by the white man in the world. Nevertheless, when Malcolm returned, he learned other that his ways of the past were childish and was going to lead him nowhere. He wished to start his own organization with opposite beliefs then he had before he went to Mecca. Talking to Dr. Mahmoud Youssef Sharwarbi opened his eyes to achieving his goals of freeing the black man from the white man's powers. With the help of his transformation from his return from Mecca helped him to bring power and strength to the black people in America so that they could rise above all the hatred and injustices that the white man put on them. Malcolm dropped his violent approach and took up a more nonviolent approach. With his new look on life, Malcolm's message of black respect and black pride touched millions upon millions of blacks. Malcolm's helpful speeches, which brought the black community together, helped to reach the goal of equality between all races.

Bibliography
Clarke, John Henrik. "Malcolm X: The Man and His Times." African World Press INC. September 1991.
Dyson, Michael Eric. "Reflecting Black: African-American Culture Criticism." 1993.
"Garvey, Marcus." Online. February 23, 2000.
"Garvey, Marcus." World Book Online. 2000.
Laidlaw, Mark. "Televangelist of the Marcus Garvey and his Philosophy on the Black Movement of the Nineteen Twenties." Online. February 23, 2000.
"Marcus Garvey the Preacher." Online. February 23, 2000.
"Nation of Islam." Online. February 23, 2000.
Patterson, Lillie. "Martin Luther King Jr. and the Freedom Movement." Checkman Books. September 1993.
Pement, Eric. "Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam: Part Two." Cornerstone. 1997.
 
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Margaret Mead.TXT
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Margaret Mead
Margaret Mead was a great
scientist, explorer, writer, and teacher, who educated the
human race in many different ways. In the next few
paragraphs I will discuss the different ways Margaret
Mead, Anthropologist, effected our society. Margaret
Mead was born in Philadelphia on December 16, 1901,
and was educated at Barnard College and at Columbia
University. In 1926 she became assistant curator of
ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History in
New York City, and she served as associate curator and
as curator. She was director of research in contemporary
cultures at Columbia University from 1948 to 1950 and
professor of anthropology there after 1954. Participating in
several field expeditions, Mead conducted notable research
in New Guinea, Samoa, and Bali. Much of her work was
devoted to a study of patterns of child rearing in various
cultures. She also analyzed many problems in
contemporary American society, particularly those affecting
young people. Her interests were varied, including
childcare, adolescence, sexual behavior, and American
character and culture. Margaret Mead taught generations
of Americans about looking carefully and openly at other
cultures to understand the complexities of being human.
Margaret Mead brought the serious work of anthropology
to public consciousness. Mead studied at Barnard College,
where she met the great anthropologist Franz Boas. Franz
Boas became her mentor and her advisor when she
attended graduate school at Columbia University. Mead's
work is largely responsible for the treasures on view in the
Museum's Hall of Pacific Peoples. In addition to her work
at the Museum, Margaret Mead taught, and wrote more
best selling books. She contributed a regular column to
Redbook magazine. She was also lectured, and was
frequently interviewed on radio and television. A deeply
committed activist, Mead often testified on social issues
before the United States Congress and other Government
agencies. Mead died in New York City on November 15,
1978. Mead Margaret was an American anthropologist,
widely known for her studies of primitive societies and her
contributions to social anthropology. She will be
remembered everywhere by anthropologist all over the
world.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Margaret Thatcher.TXT
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Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of Great Britian. Margaret changed many policies and she also defended strongly other government policies. An example of this was when Margaret Thatcher was Secretary of state for education and science. The government had to cut school funding by $300 million. She didn't want to cut anything that had to do with the students missing out of education. It was her duty to provide the best education for them. The solution she had come up with would be one of the most unpopular moves in her career-up to and including her as Prime Minster (Hole 35). The decision she had made was to eliminate free milk from the lower grades. Free milk had already been eliminated from the older students of a previous labor government cut. She said " I took the view that most parents are able to pay for milk for their children, and that the job of the government was to provide such things in education which they couldn't pay for, like new primary schools." "Mrs. Thatcher, milk snatcher," was screamed at her (Hole 36).
When Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister the first thing she wanted to do was limit union power. She felt that union power applied to nationalized industrial monopolies resulted in poor service at exorbitant cost to the taxpayers. She pointed to inefficient work practices, overemployment and restrictive employment conditions such as the all union "closed shop". These rules were dictated by union contracts and served to tie the hands of managers and the government alike. Mrs. Thatcher's greatest grievance concerned the powers union leaders had over strikes ( Moskin 100).
Margaret's first targets were the closed shop, picketing practices, and the use of secondary strikes. During her first term in office, new legislation strengthened the power of individual union members against their leadership and provided for penalties imposed on unions that called illegal strikes. A law was enacted to compel unions to make strike decisions by secret ballot. The unions were getting very angry ( Moskin 100).
The National Union of Mine Workers (NUM) had a strike thinking it would defeat the Tory government and Margaret Thatcher. The NUM wanted to promote more socialism in Britian with more nationalization of industry and more control of industry by labor. Because Mrs. Thatcher's policies were exactly the opposite, his efforts were directed at toppling her Conservation administration. Margaret had done some planing she ordered lots of coal and other essential coal-using products. And then she forced Authur Scargill's hand when it suited her rather than when it suited him. She ordered the closing of a number of unproductive mines early in the spring in 1984. Scargill calls for strike again. To his surprise, his miners voted against walking out. When three separate calls did not produce a strike vote, Scargill decided to strike without polling his members. It was an inauspicious moment for Scargill's decision. There was lots of coal and many industries had converted to oil as North Sea oil became cheap and plentiful. The workers saw their problems more clearly than their leader did; they were not eager to strike. The government had offered them generous benefits to workers in the mines scheduled for closing. Scargill deployed his flying pickets. But this time the government did not hesitate to invoke its new laws. To protect workers who wanted to work (Moskin 101).
In 1982 Argentine forces occupied the nearby Falkland Islands, which were claimed by both Argentina and Great Britain ( Encarta ). In England, in a continued effort to cut government expenses, a decision was made to retire the HMS Endurance, a survey ship stationed 8,000 miles away in the South Atlantic. The reason for the ship's position so far away from home was the Falkland Islands, clusters of land located off the southeastern coast of Argentina. The British foreign office and the navy warned that removal of the ship would send the wrong message to Argentina. The budget cutters ignored the warnings. Thousands of miles away in Argentina things were changing fast Lieutenant General Leopoldo Galtieri, the new head of repressive Argentine junta, had serious problems. There was terrorism and inflation. Dictators always look for ways to distract their people attention from such problems. Recapturing the Falkland Islands seemed like a popular, heroic, yet safe, diversion. On April 1, 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands and reclaimed then selves as the Malvinas, their Spanish Name. But General Galtieri had no reckoned with Britain's Iron Lady. To Mrs. Thatcher the invasion came to her as a shock and a major dilemma. "Gentlemen, we have to fight," she told her cabinet, hastily summoned to a meeting on April 2. She had made her decision after long consultations with her most trusted advisors and with representatives of the military. She polled her cabinet ministers one by one so that their agreement with her decision would be on record for history (young 281).
On April 3, the plan to send the fleet was presented to Parliament and was accepted almost unanimously by members of all parties. There was a feeling of determination, although the dangers and obstacles were clear to all. On May 2 an Argentine ship was , the General Belgrano, was sunk by the British submarine the Conqueror. Over three hundred Argentine solders lost their lives in the icy sea. It was never clear what really happened. The timing was unbelievable it was just around the same time as a new third-party peace formula had been proposed and accepted by Great Britian. This had started a war. The fighting was fierce, with bloody battles on land as well as at sea. The men in her cabinet, those with first hand battle experience, rallied around her, felt they needed to shield her, to explain to her about casualties and losses in war. But she didn't hide her dismay or her tears, she never once considered a retreat. When asked later if, as a woman, she didn't mind having to give orders that would lead to bloodshed, she replied, "We were thinking in terms of saving lives" (Young 282).
After the sinking of the Belgrano and the Sheffield, the peace initiatives were dead. British troops landed on South Georgia Island and overwhelmed the Argentinean army. Ten days later it was all over (Dellheim 230) Mrs. Thatcher told the reporters gathered in front of Number 10 Downing street: "Rejoice, just rejoice!" The struggle to protect British rights has been won. She was now for the first time the hero (Young 284) .
This all shows the results of Margaret Thatcher ideas that majority of the time ended well. She got more money for the government, stopped the constant striking and even won a war. She was a very intelligent and remarkable woman.BOOKS
Dellheim, Charles. The Disenchanted Isle Mrs. Thatcher's Capitalist Revolution. New York: NY, 1995.
Hole, Dorothy. Margaret Thatcher. New Jersey: Hillside, 1990
Moskin, Marietta. Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, 1990
Young, Hugo. The Iron Lady. Printed in USA, 1989
"Thatcher, Margaret." Encarta 98 Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. Microsoft Corporation, 1998.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Marie Antoinette biography.TXT
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Marie-Antoinette
Marie-Antoinette, (Marie-Antoinett-Josèphe-Jeanne d'Autriche-Lorraine) (1755-1793) Queen of France, the forth daughter of Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and the Holy Roman Emperor Francis I. In 1770, when she was only 14, she was married to the Dauphin (Crown Prince) of France, afterwards Louis XVI. 
Louis then was 15; he was fat, shy, and openly preferred hunting and his locksmith shop to royal duties. 
Young and inexperienced, she aroused criticism by her rebellious behavior; she refused to follow the royal etiquette, refused to wear clothes not chosen by herself, disregarded conventions, and wasted big sums on her whims. On becoming queen, in 1774, she soon deepened the dislike of her subjects by her devotion to the interests of Austria, as well as by her opposition to all the measures for relieving the financial distress of France. She was called the "Austrian Whore" and "Madame Deficit." All miseries of France became identified with her extravagance, for which even her mother, Maria Theresa rebuked her: "a queen can only degrade herself by this sort of heedless extravagance in difficult times." 
Marie Antoinette's unpopularity was also aggravated by the fact that the royal couple did not have children for 7 years. The public blamed the queen for this, though the problem was with the king, who had to undergo a surgery to be able to impregnate his wife. Their first child, Marie Therese Charlotte, called Madame Royale, was born 1778. Marie Antoinette settled down and became a devoted wife and mother, though this did not save her reputation and did not stop the evil and dirty rumors about her. She was abused in pornographic songs, pictures and pamphlets; even a fake autobiography, in which the queen confessed her debauchery, was published. 
Louis XVI 

Louis XVI, 1754-93, king of France (1774-92), third son of the dauphin (Louis) and Marie Josèphe of Saxony, grandson and successor of King Louis XV. In 1770 he married the Austrian archduchess Marie Antoinette. His early attempts to enact reforms and to appoint competent and upright ministers met with general approval, but his character was unsuited to provide the leadership needed to control the complex social and political conflict smoldering in France. Shy, dull, and corpulent, he preferred the hunting field and his locksmith's workshop to the council chamber; indecisiveness made him subject to the poor advice of his intimates.


Louis XIV 

King of France, b. at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 16 September, 1638; d. at Versailles, 1 September, 1715; was the son of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria, and became king, upon the death of his father, 14 May 1643. 

Until 1661 the real master of France was Cardinal Mazarin, under whose government his country, victorious over Austria (1643-48) and Spain (1643-59), acquired by the Treaties of Westphalia (1648) and the Pyrennes (1659) Alsace, Artois, and Roussillon, which had already been occupied by French troops since the days of Richelieu. As a result of the marriage between Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Austria, Louis XIV also acquired rights over the Low Countries. When Louis's personal government began (1661), France was the arbiter of Europe: she had re-established peace among the Powers of the North (Sweden, Brandenburg, Denmark, and Poland); she protected the League of the Rhine; and her authority in Germany was greater than the emperor's. At that period the power of France, established upon the firmest foundations, was perhaps less imposing, but was assuredly more solid, than it became during the most glorious days of Louis XIV's personal government.



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Marilyn Monroe 2.TXT
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Marilyn Monroe elle est née le 1er juin 19(Vingt six) à Los Angeles, s'appelle en réalité Norma Jean Mortenson.
	Elle début de sa carrière quand un chasseur de talents du Twentieth Century Fox la rèpere, en 19(Qaurent six). Elle est engagée pour (Soizante-dix cinq) dollars par samaine, et c'est à ce moment qu'elle change de nom, pour devenir Marilyn Monroe. En 19(Cinquant deux) et 1953 la star Marilyn Monroe nait variment à partir de 1952 et 1953, avec "Monkey Business" et surtout "Niagara". Entre 1954 et 1955 Marilyn Monroe  denvenir  tres a celebre quand sa avoir pour vedette le films, "River of No Return", "There's No Business Like Show Business" et "The Seven-Year Itch".
	En 19(qaurent deux), elle épouse jim Dougherty, quand elle a seize ans. Plus tard elle abandonne Jim Dougherty et épouse le prand joueur de baseball Joe Dimaggio en 19(Cinquant quartre), mais ils se dicorcent eu peu de temps après. Elle s'installe à New York, et entre à L'Actors' Studio quand elle rencontre Arthur Miller, qu'elle épouse dans la religion juive le 1er juillet 19(Cinquant six).
	Elle est morte le 5 aout 19(soixante deux) à Los Angeles quand elle est sur le point de reprendre le tournage de "Something's Got to Give". On la retrouve morte dans sa chambre empoisonnèe de barbituriques
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Marilyn Monroe Report.TXT
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	Marilyn Monroe elle est née le 1er juin 19(Vingt six) à Los Angeles, s'appelle en réalité Norma Jean Mortenson.
	Elle début de sa carrière quand un chasseur de talents du Twentieth Century Fox la rèpere, en 19(Qaurent six). Elle est engagée pour (Soizante-dix cinq) dollars par samaine, et c'est à ce moment qu'elle change de nom, pour devenir Marilyn Monroe. En 19(Cinquant deux) et 1953 la star Marilyn Monroe nait variment à partir de 1952 et 1953, avec "Monkey Business" et surtout "Niagara". Entre 1954 et 1955 Marilyn Monroe  denvenir  tres a celebre quand sa avoir pour vedette le films, "River of No Return", "There's No Business Like Show Business" et "The Seven-Year Itch".
	En 19(qaurent deux), elle épouse jim Dougherty, quand elle a seize ans. Plus tard elle abandonne Jim Dougherty et épouse le prand joueur de baseball Joe Dimaggio en 19(Cinquant quartre), mais ils se dicorcent eu peu de temps après. Elle s'installe à New York, et entre à L'Actors' Studio quand elle rencontre Arthur Miller, qu'elle épouse dans la religion juive le 1er juillet 19(Cinquant six).
	Elle est morte le 5 aout 19(soixante deux) à Los Angeles quand elle est sur le point de reprendre le tournage de "Something's Got to Give". On la retrouve morte dans sa chambre empoisonnèe de barbituriques.
 




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mark Twai1.TXT
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Mark Twain
Mark Twain was a pilot, a comic lecturer, a humorist, a
short story writer, and a novelist, to name a few of his
many accomplishments. On November 30, 1835, Samuel
Langhorne Clemens, otherwise known as Mark Twain,
became the first man of any importance ever to be born
west of the Mississippi River. He has become an icon as
the American writer. This is because his way of writing
cannot be simulated by Europeans or anyone else, due to
the fact that the western setting of America creates a whole
new atmosphere and style of writing. Mark Twain is a
classic American writer that acquired fame by using satire,
writing with single-minded use of words, and by writing the
way that most people think and speak. Twain writes with
single-minded use of words, which is understood to be
plain and simple, yet still intelligent, which enhances
American literature. He writes what comes into his mind
without fear. This is an example from Huckleberry Finn: ...
"then comes a h-wack! bum! bum!
bumble-umble-um-bum-bum-bum-bum - and the thunder
would go rumbling and grumbling away" ... (Twain 45).
This enriches American literature, because it is a clever
way, and the only way to make the reader actually seem to
hear and feel the sounds the writer is trying to convey. This
is an example from Tom Sawyer : "Set her back on the
stabboard! Ting-a-ling-ling! chow! ch-chow-wow! chow!".
(Twain 15). This dialect can be explained as a familiar
speech spoken around us all the time. It is the speech of the
illiterate, the preliterate, the children, and the poor people
(Bloom 46). This is actually a very intelligent style of
writing, for it is difficult for an author to write in a different
level of dialect than they actually speak. The reader can tell
that this dialect isn't Twain's own, since he doesn't write
with it in every part of the book. Huckleberry Finn is
supposed to be written from Huck's point of view. The
story is written as he would speak it, so mistakes inevitably
appear. However, this single- minded dialect was worked,
composed, and written by Twain. It was not done
haphazardly (Bloom 46). American literature would not be
the same if not for Twain's ideas for ways of writing in a
way that spectacularly conveys the feelings of touch, sound,
and sight by the use of single-minded words. Another way
that Mark Twain enriches the heritage of American
literature is by his style of writing in the vernacular, which
means to write the way that people think and speak
(Kesterson 14). The vernacular portrays the word in the
purest sense of its original meaning. The vernacular
symbolizes American writing because nobody else on earth
would talk in that way besides the early American settlers.
An example from Huckleberry Finn is : " I reck'n I could
eat a hoss. I think I could. How long you ben on de islan'
?" (Twain 46). This style is done by writing without
worrying about spelling or context, and rather just writing
the way that the speech sounds. This style of writing is
uniquely American, because the famous European authors
did not write that way since the people of Europe didn't
speak that way. Another example from this book is: " Say,
who is you? Whar is you? Dog my cats ef I didn't hear
sumf'n." (Twain 5). Europeans had never spoken like this
or heard of it before Mark Twain. The vernacular enhances
American writing solely because it is uniquely early
American. It also gives a face to American writing,
distinguishing it from writing in other parts of the world. The
vernacular also shows the rural, uneducated portion of
America. These are two examples from Tom Sawyer : "
Can't, Mars Tom. Ole missis, she tole me I got to go an'
git dis water an' not stop foolin' roun' wid anybody. She
say she spec' Mars Tom gwine to ax me to whitewash, an'
so she tole me to go 'long an' 'tend to my own business -
she 'lowed she'd tend to de whitewashin'" (Twain 13).
Another example is: " Look at him, Jim! He's a-going up
there. Say-look! He's a-going to shake hands with
him..."(Twain 38). This shows how they are uneducated,
because of the sloppy sentence structure, and it hints at the
fact of them being rural by mentioning whitewashing the
fence. This enriches American literature by showing a point
of view from the poor, which is welcome to those who are
tired of hearing about the glamour of rich people. Mark
Twain's legacy as a humorist is to use satire, which greatly
enhances American literature. Satire is a term for a work
that uses ridicule to attack ideas, institutions, people, or
other objects taken from real life. The main purpose for
using satire is to arouse disdain for its targets (Rasmussen
418). It belittles human weaknesses, using humor as its
weapon (Rasmussen 418). Twain doesn't try to mislead
the readers intentionally, for he believes that all humans
already misunderstand themselves (Kesterson 27). One
example of satire is in the Grangerford episode of The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Here, Twain attempts to
make fun of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet by mocking
the story line. Both stories include two otherwise intelligent
families who destroy each other because of a feud so old,
they don't even know why they're fighting (Rasmussen
419). The story lines are so similar, everybody knows that
he's mocking Romeo and Juliet, but the subtle twists make
it humorous. Another example of satire is in Twain's first
novel, The Gilded Age. This book is filled with a lot of
sharp satire that "satirizes almost every aspect of 19th
century political and social mores." (Rasmussen 419). The
whole idea of this book was focused on satire. People
liked this book so much that there were constant cries for a
sequel (Kesterson 71). Surely enough, the sequel to The
Gilded Age , called The American Claimant was written. It
is about a democratic English noble, Lord Berkeley, who
comes to America prepared to give up inherited
Aristocratic privileges for republican equality. However, the
American society is obsessed with grasping for what he
wants to cast off (Rasmussen 419). For example, Lord
Berkeley came to America for hope of less authority from
the government, however, the Americans were stuck on the
idea that giving the government more power would be
better for them in the long run. This acute example of satire
is directed at the people of America whom wish to go back
to the old traditions of England. Twain uses satire in this
book to make the American people question why they
would come to the "land of freedom" if they were planning
on turning around and giving the government more authority
than necessary. Another great example of Twain's use of
satire is in his novel called Captain Stormfield's Visit to
Heaven. This novel has very clear satirical targets and
sticks to them the whole story (Rasmussen 419). As it says
in Rasmussens's Mark Twain A to Z, "Stormfield discovers
that Earth counts for so little in the cosmic scheme of things
that a clerk in heaven needs two days just to find it on a
map" (p. 419). This is pointing out the vanity of all human
beings. The satire in this book enriches American literature,
by letting readers see themselves in a new light that they
may not have thought about before reading it. Using satire,
single-minded words, and writing in the vernacular has all
helped Mark Twain to become the classic American icon
that he is today. He left behind a legacy of unmatched
ingenuity to think of sharp, efficient satire in many of his
writings. Twain's use of single-minded words captures the
reader's attention, making them feel almost as if they are in
the book themselves. His masterful use of the vernacular
portrays the speech of early rural America. Twain's use of
the vernacular lets the reader read more smoothly since
they do not have to pay attention to the structural
significance of the word. Since Mark Twain was the first
truly great western author to define American writing, he
has opened the way for many future authors to come.
Works Cited Bloom, Harold. Interpretations of Mark
Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. NewYork:
Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Clemens, Samuel L. The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. NewYork: Dodd, Mead
& Company, 1953. Clemens, Samuel L. The Adventures
of Tom Sawyer. NewYork: Dodd, Mead & Company,
1958.
Http://galenet.gale.com/a/acp/netacgi/nph...thor-search.html/&r=1&f=l3;1;
+ "1647-1".ID. Kesterson, David B. ed. Critics on Mark
Twain. Florida: University of Miami Press, 1973.
Rasmussen, Kent R. Mark Twain A to Z. NewYork: Facts
on File, Inc., 1995. Stapleton, Michael, comp. The
Cambridge Guide to English Literature. NewYork:
Cambridge University Press, 1983.
 
















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                            Mark Twain

     Mark Twain's works are some of the best I've ever read.  I love the way he brings you
into the story, especially with the dialogue  used, like in Tom Sawyer or Huckleberry Finn.  Mark
Twain is my favorite dead author.  
     Mark Twain was never "Mark Twain" at all.  That was only his pen name.  His real name
was Samuel Langhorne Clemens.  Samuel was born in Florida, Missouri in 1835.  He 
accomplished worldwide fame during his lifetime for being a great author, lecturer, satirist, and
humorist.  Since his death on April 21, 1910, his great literary reputation has further increased. 
Many writers such as Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner have declared his work-especially
Huckleberry Finn- a major influence on 20th-century American fiction.
     Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, a town on the Mississippi river.  After the death
of his father in 1847, Twain joined his brother Orion's newspaper, the Hannibal Journal.  During
this time he became accustomed with much of the frontier humor of the time.
     From 1853 to 1857, Twain worked in many cities as a printer, and wrote articles for  his
brother's newspapers under various nicknames.  After a visit to New Orleans, he learned how to
pilot a steamboat.  That became his job until the Civil War closed the Mississippi River, and
 it set him up for "Old Times on the Mississippi" and "Life on the Mississippi."
     In 1861, Twain traveled to Carson City, Nevada, with his brother Orion.  After attempts
for silver and gold mining had failed, he continued to write for newspapers.  It was in 1863 when
Samuel Clemens adopted the name "Mark Twain", a riverman's term for "two fathoms" deep.
     In 1884 Twain went to San Francisco and reached national fame with his story, "The
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."  He then took a trip to Hawaii which started him
on  a very successful career as a public speaker.  His trips to the Mediterranean and the Holy Land
were recorded in letters to a San Francisco newspaper, and later formed into The Innocents
Abroad, which was popular all over the world.
     In 1870 Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon.  He then abandoned journalism to focus on
serious literature.  From 1870-1875, Twain produced many novels, including the famous tale,
Tom Sawyer.  
     A European vacation in 1878-1879, inspired novels like The Prince and the Pauper and A
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.  Meanwhile, he established his own firm, Charles L.
Webster and Co., and after that, completed his masterpiece, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, in
1884.
     In 1891, Twain was forced to move to Europe because of financial problems.  In 1894,
because of the failure of his firm and other reasons, he had to declare bankruptcy.  During this
time he produced many works, but they were not some of his best.  To help his situation, he
commenced a world lecture tour.
     Even though his financial situation rapidly improved, much stress and sorrow came to
Twain following the death of first his daughter, in 1896, then his wife in 1904.  His writings in the
late 1890's and 1900's became increasingly gloomy.  One of his accomplishments during these
years is "The Man Who Corrupted Hadleyburg", a pessimisstic examination of human nature.
     After these bleak years Twain died in 1910.  Yet his reputation as a writer did not die
along with him.  Instead it rose as people began to look at his works differently.  Mark Twain has
become an embedded part of America's history.  
   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mark Twain.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


                            Mark Twain

     Mark Twain's works are some of the best I've ever read.  I love the way he brings you
into the story, especially with the dialogue  used, like in Tom Sawyer or Huckleberry Finn.  Mark
Twain is my favorite dead author.  
     Mark Twain was never "Mark Twain" at all.  That was only his pen name.  His real name
was Samuel Langhorne Clemens.  Samuel was born in Florida, Missouri in 1835.  He 
accomplished worldwide fame during his lifetime for being a great author, lecturer, satirist, and
humorist.  Since his death on April 21, 1910, his great literary reputation has further increased. 
Many writers such as Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner have declared his work-especially
Huckleberry Finn- a major influence on 20th-century American fiction.
     Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, a town on the Mississippi river.  After the death
of his father in 1847, Twain joined his brother Orion's newspaper, the Hannibal Journal.  During
this time he became accustomed with much of the frontier humor of the time.
     From 1853 to 1857, Twain worked in many cities as a printer, and wrote articles for  his
brother's newspapers under various nicknames.  After a visit to New Orleans, he learned how to
pilot a steamboat.  That became his job until the Civil War closed the Mississippi River, and
 it set him up for "Old Times on the Mississippi" and "Life on the Mississippi."
     In 1861, Twain traveled to Carson City, Nevada, with his brother Orion.  After attempts
for silver and gold mining had failed, he continued to write for newspapers.  It was in 1863 when
Samuel Clemens adopted the name "Mark Twain", a riverman's term for "two fathoms" deep.
     In 1884 Twain went to San Francisco and reached national fame with his story, "The
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County."  He then took a trip to Hawaii which started him
on  a very successful career as a public speaker.  His trips to the Mediterranean and the Holy Land
were recorded in letters to a San Francisco newspaper, and later formed into The Innocents
Abroad, which was popular all over the world.
     In 1870 Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon.  He then abandoned journalism to focus on
serious literature.  From 1870-1875, Twain produced many novels, including the famous tale,
Tom Sawyer.  
     A European vacation in 1878-1879, inspired novels like The Prince and the Pauper and A
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.  Meanwhile, he established his own firm, Charles L.
Webster and Co., and after that, completed his masterpiece, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, in
1884.
     In 1891, Twain was forced to move to Europe because of financial problems.  In 1894,
because of the failure of his firm and other reasons, he had to declare bankruptcy.  During this
time he produced many works, but they were not some of his best.  To help his situation, he
commenced a world lecture tour.
     Even though his financial situation rapidly improved, much stress and sorrow came to
Twain following the death of first his daughter, in 1896, then his wife in 1904.  His writings in the
late 1890's and 1900's became increasingly gloomy.  One of his accomplishments during these
years is "The Man Who Corrupted Hadleyburg", a pessimisstic examination of human nature.
     After these bleak years Twain died in 1910.  Yet his reputation as a writer did not die
along with him.  Instead it rose as people began to look at his works differently.  Mark Twain has
become an embedded part of America's history.  
   




















































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Martha Christensen.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


                          Martha Christensen

                  Om forfatteren og forfatterskabet

I min dansk opgave, har jeg  valgt  at skrive om Martha Christensen da
hendes mÂde at se tingende p fascinerer mig. Jeg har lÊst nÊsten alle
af hendes b¯ger, s jeg  har  derved  dannet  mig  et klart indtryk af
hende, som person, men sandelig ogs som forfatter.

"Jeg er noget af det mindst  offentlige,  man kan tÊnke sig"(1), siger
Martha Christensen (f¯dt 1926) om sig selv  i et interview. I en anden
avissamtale ytrer hun: "Jeg er  tit  s  usikker,  en sag har jo flere
sider."(2) Journalisten tilf¯jer om  den  interviewede,  at "hun siger
alting meget stille - og med meget lange pauser."(3)
  Martha  Christensen  er   virkelig   et  beskedent,  selvudslettende
menneske, der ikke har det godt med at komme frem i rampelyset. Hun er
af en stille eksistens, som de fleste af de  mennesker  hun skildrer i
sine b¯ger. Hun f¯ler, at  hun  h¯rer  til  i den almindelige hverdag,
hvor ogs hendes roman- og novellepersoner befinder sig.
  "Der er nok af andre forfattere til  at skrive om de unge, de smukke
og  de  rige",(4)   mener   Martha   Christensen.   Samtidig   er  det
hendes
overbevisning, at jo h¯jere man  kommer  op  i samfundslagene, jo mere
skjules eller bortforklares de f¯lelser og problemer mennersker har.
  De personer, som virkelig er  trÊngt, ogs socialt, viser tydeligst,
hvad de tÊnker og f¯ler.  Bl.a.  derfor skildrer Martha Christensen sÂ
ofte anonyme  sm hverdagsmennesker, der er kommet i klemme, lÂst fast
eller trÊngt op i en krog. Deres  handlemÂde  kan have bragt dem i den
pinagtige situation. Men det kan  sandelig ogs vÊre omgivelserne, der
overser,  isolerer,  fejlbehandler  eller  ligefrem  mishandler  disse
mennesker.
  Omgivelserne er et vidt begreb. Hos  Martha Christensen kan det vÊre
familien, bekendtskabskredsen,  arbejdsfÊllerne,  boligkvarteret,  men
det kan ogs vÊre skolen, socialkontoret, b¯rne- eller ungdomshjemmet.
Mange af Martha Christensens b¯ger foregÂr p institutioner og handler
om systemet og den enkelte - ofte under systemets pres.
  Hos Martha Christensen er der et  tÊt samspil mellem den enkeltes og
omgivelsernes adfÊrd. Der er tale om et sammensat forhold; en gensidig
pÂvirkning, der danner et  skÊbnem¯nster.  "Det  psykiske drama er for
mig selve den gnist, der g¯r  romanen  til en roman"(5), udtaler hun i
endnu et interview, i en avisartikel.
  I hendes forfatterskab er skyld og ansvar ikke s let at placere. De
bedste  hensigter  kan  have  skÊbnesvangerer  f¯lger.  Det  er  f.ex.
tilfÊldet  i  romanen  Manden   som   ville   ingen  ondt,  1989.  Den
midelaldrende socialrÂdgiver Daniel, romanens  hovedperson, er bl¯d og
eftergivende.  Ogs  overfor  sin  afstumpede  klient,  Joakim.  Denne
udnytter Daniels godhed groft, terroriserer ham, s Daniels tilvÊrelse
gÂr i opl¯sning. SocialrÂdgiveren ender med  i desperation at lade sig
dirigere af sin  hÊvntrang  -  andre  kommer  ham  i  fork¯bet  p det
makabre punkt. Daniel handler  her  stik  imod  sine egne idealer. Den
handlingsladede,  spÊndende  bog   rejser   faktisk   sp¯rgsmÂlet,  om
venlighed og forstÂelse kan vÊre udtryk for holdningsl¯shed og pladder
humanisme. Har godheden rimelige grÊnser ?
  Mennesker g¯r tit hinanden ondt uden at  ville det. "SÂ mange har sÂ
svÊrt ved at omgÂs hinanden, bruge  hinanden"(6), konstaterer hun i et
interview. Hun viser gang p gang, at  vi har svÊrt ved at overskue de
situationer, vi havner i, med  eller  uden vor gode vilje. TilvÊrelsen
er en kompliceret sag. SÂdan tÊnker hovedpersonen i hendes debutroman,
VÊr god ved Remond, 1962,  ved  at  se  tilbage  p sit hidtidige liv:
"Alle disse trÂde man knyttede  i  flÊng.  Ingen kunne ane, hvornÂr og
med hvilken smerte de ville  brydes.  Det  var livets hÂrde vilkÂr  at
man var afmÊgtig over for det, man satte igang."



Martha Christensen er vokset  op  p  landet,  hendes  far  var smed i
landsbyen Holsted. Hun tÊnkte p at blive lÊrer eller bibliotikar, men
endte med at uddanne sig som fritidspÊdagog. I en menneskealder (1952-
1986) arbejdede hun p et fritidshjem i Odense, indtil hun som 60 Ârig
tog sin afsked. Hun fremhÊver selv at arbejdet har givet hende stof og
erfarringsgrundlag for b¯gerne.
  Hun skriver da ogs tit om  b¯rn  og  unge,  isÊr  om dem, der af en
eller anden grund bliver outsidere. Hun  kredser i sine b¯ger om unges
opvÊkst, deres forhold til  familien,  institutioner, omgivelserne. Om
magtforholdet ml. unge indbyrdes og ml. generationerne. Om forskellige
slags opdragelse  og  konsekvenser  deraf.  Oplevelserne  i  de f¯rste
barndomsÂr er altafg¯rende for den senere voksentilvÊrelse, mener hun,
og viser det i  sine  b¯ger.  Navnlig  tydeligg¯r  hun, hvad mangel pÂ
kÊrlighed og opmÊrksomhed fra forÊldrenes  side  kommer til at medf¯re
for deres b¯rn - hele livet igennem.
  H¯vdingeb¯rn, 1991, hedder Martha Christensen hidtil seneste bog. En
omfattende slÊgtsroman, der strÊkker sig  over  40 Âr, op til nutiden.
Bogen belyser den enorme  indflydelse,  opvÊkst  og  opdragelse har pÂ
b¯rn; en indflydelse p godt og  ondt. "H¯vdingen" kaldes for faderen,
der er alene  med  sine  6  b¯rn.  Han  er  en  bÂde  streng og kÊrlig
opdrager; s¯ger indflydelse, bÂde i det  lokale landsogn og i hjemmet.
B¯rnene er under pres; de  m  enten  f¯lge  ham helt, eller vÊre imod
ham. Fadderen krÊver absolute afg¯relser og holdninger.
  Martha Christensen fortÊller tit  om  unge med handicaps, hÊmninger,
blokeringer. "Det er min  pÊdagogsygdom  at  nÊre  forkÊrlighed for de
forkerte"(7), erklÊrer hun. Forkertheden kan  vÊre et anlÊg hos barnet
og den unge. Eller den kan fremkaldes ved omgivelsernes f¯lelseskulde.
Ved manglen p forstÂelse eller afvisning,  forf¯lgelse af dem, der er
anderledes og derfor svage, udsatte.
  Det  var  f¯rst  i  1970erne,  der  for  alvor  kom  gang  i  Martha
Christensens forfatterskab. I de sidste tiÂr  er det blevet til en bog
hvert eller  hvertandet  Âr.  Hun  debuterede  forholdsvis  sent,  med
romanen VÊr god mod Remond,  1962.  Den  handler om en Ândssvag drengs
svÊre vilkÂr under opvÊksten. F¯rst hos moderen og siden p en insti-
tution. To gange ber¯ves han det menneske, som han helt og fuldt knyt-
ter sig til - uden at de  pÂgÊldende  har villet det. "Man havde gjort
ham fortrÊd. Af kÊrlighed og god  vilje."  SÂ  svÊrt kan livet vÊre at
overskue og forst  sig  pÂ.  Remonds  oplevelse  af hÊndelserne s¯ger
forfatteren at gengive i ganske korte, enkle sÊtninger - udtryk for et
begrÊnset synsfelt, og en  sl¯ret  forstÂelse,  hentet  frem med stort
besvÊr.
  Marthe Christensen havde dog f¯r den  tid fors¯gt sig med bÂde digte
og romaner, men uden st¯rre  held. Roman-manuskripterne havde hun fÂet
retur fra forlagene.  Sit  egentlige  gennembrud  fik  hun med romanen
Vores egen Irene, 1976.  Titlen  fortÊller  hvordan familien betragter
den unge fraskilte datter, der er enlig  mor. Nemlig kÊrligt - som sin
ejendom. Faderen, moderen og den  invalide  lillebror lÊgger beslag pÂ
hende, omklamrer hende med en krÊvende  og klÊbende kÊrlighed, der g¯r
det umuligt for hende at leve sit eget liv. Hendes, og familiens gen-
sidige hensyntagen fastlÂser.
  Efter den tid kom Martha Christensens  b¯ger i temmelig store oplag;
de blev efterspurgt hos boghandlerne  og  p bibliotekerne. Det f¯rste
forfatterlegat fik  hun  i  1977.  Siden  er  hun  mange  gange blevet
prisbel¯nnet. Den helt store succes  kom  med  romanen om et Êgteskab:
Dansen med Regitze, 1987. Den noget vege og tilbageholdende pensionist
Karl Aage tÊnker tilbage p sit 40 Âr lange samliv med den viljestÊrke
og livsglade Regitze.  Deres  fÊlles  tilvÊrelse  har vÊret stormfuld,
bevÊget - og tryg. Det sÂkaldte  almindelige  liv viser sig at have et
ualmindeligt, rigt  indhold.  Bevidstheden  om  Regitzes  snarlige d¯d
frig¯r Êgtemandens str¯m  af  erindringer.  Livets overvÊldende rigdom
melder sig med d¯dsvisheden. Ogs Regitze  vil holde fast ved livet sÂ
lÊnge som muligt uden at lyve for sig selv eller for andre om hvad der
venter hende. LivsglÊden lader sig ikke udrydde. Dansen med Regitze er
ikke bragt til oph¯r.
  Kaspar Rostrups filmatisering af bogen,  1989, bidrog yderligere til
at skabe opmÊrksomhed omkring romanen.  BÂde ord- og billedberetningen
om Regitze er blevet prisbel¯nnet ved flere lejlligheder.

I alt er det for Martha  Christensens vedkommende forel¯big blevet til
14 romaner og 2 novellesamlinger. Den ulige fordeling p de to fortÊl-
lertyper viser at  forfatteren  har  det  bedst  med  fordybelsen i et
skÊbnem¯nster og med  bredden  i  milj¯skildringen.  Det sammensatte i
menneskers indbyrdes  forhold,  kan  og  vil  hun  sjÊldent  belyse  i
novellens korte form.

Martha Christensens romaner ligner novellerne derved, at de er
realistiske; de er virkelighedstro  og  genkendelige  skildringer i et
enkelt sprog af nutidige situationer  og  problemer,  der bÂde har med
samfundet og sindet at g¯re.  Personernes  problemer  tÂrner sig op og
bliver til kriser, konflikter,  der  driver  personerne  ud i ekstreme
positioner. De involverede tvinges ud i  afg¯rende opg¯r med sig selv,
og med deres omverden. Ofte opgiver  personerne  dog at g¯re noget ved
det som truer og knuger  dem.  Men  det  g¯r  blot deres forhold endnu
utÂleligere.
  Martha g¯r gerne temmelig  svage  og  eftergivende personer til sine
hovedfigurer.






















 








                       En fridag til fru Larsen

                             Indledning :

En fridag til fru Larsen af  Martha Christensen er en socialrealistisk
bog. Bogen indeholder mange af de  emner,  vi  har arbejdet med i 1.Y.
Blandt andet : Kommunikation,  fremmedg¯relse  og  k¯nsroller. Det var
'en grund til at jeg valgte Martha Christensen, en anden grund var, at
min mor er f¯dt og opvokset i Holsted, det gjorde det bare mere spÊnd-
ende.  Martha  Christensen  blev  f¯dt  i   1926.  Hun  er  datter  af
smedemester Anders og Johanne Christensen,  som  min  mor har kendt da
hun var lille.














Handlingen foregÂr som  et  flash-back  fra  hun  bliver  ringet op pÂ
fabrikken, til det sted hvor hun  skal  hen, der f¯rst bliver opklaret
p de sidste sider.
































                       Evelyn Larsens barndom : 

Hjemmet er et middelklasse hjem, hvor faderen er beskrevet som en h¯j,
fjern mand, moderen er hjemmegÂende. Hun har to s¯stre, Karen og Vivi.
Ret tideligt gÂr det op for  Evelyn,  at hun er anderledes. Hun bliver
drillet i skolen og i fritiden med, at hun er dum og tyk. Selv moderen
behandler hende anderledes. Hun fortÊller,  at  Karen ligner hende, og
Vivi ligner faderen, men hvem Evelyn  ligner,  ved hun ikke. Dog siger
hun et sted i bogen, at Evelyn er lige s god som de andre.
Evelyn er fuldstÊndig underlagt  familiens  livsvÊrdier  og normer. Et
barn, der vokser op i disse omgivelser vil efterhÂnden f¯le sig s dum
som de andre siger hun er. Hun  fÂr ikke dannet sin egen identitet men
lever efter de andres normer. Det  skaber  en usikkerhed og en lÊngsel
efter at blive holdt af for sin  egen  skyld, man f¯ler heller ikke at
hun fÂr tryghed, eller den kÊrlighed 'en s f¯lsom pige som Evelyn er.
Det er noget, der f¯lger hende  som  voksen. Alligevel ved Evelyn selv
inderst inde, at hun ikke er s dum, som de andre pÂstÂr hun er.



                           Evelyns ungdom :

Som ung pige kommer hun p fabrik, og fÂr sit eget vÊrelse ude i byen.
Da hun en aften, i biografen, m¯der  en  ung soldat, som er s¯d og rar
ved hende, tager hun ham  med  hjem  p  sit  vÊrelse. Fordi han er sÂ
venlig, gÂr hun i seng med ham. Hun s ham aldrig siden. Det viser den
lÊngsel efter kÊrlighed, som hun har.
  Hun er ikke dum, men meget naiv. Havde hun fÂet kÊrlighed og st¯tte,
fra familien, da hun var barn, havde hun  haft mere tro p sig selv og
mere selvtillid.
  Den f¯rste gang hun pr¯ver  at  g¯re  opr¯r  mod familien, er da hun
finder ud af,  at  hun  er  blevet  gravid  med  soldaten.  I lang tid
fors¯ger hun at fortÊlle det, men Karens laboratorium og Vivis semina-
rium, er altid det snakken gÂr om. Da hun endelig fÂr det sagt, bryder
balladen l¯s. De g¯r alt, for at hun skal f en abort. For f¯rste gang
stÂr Evelyn fast, ligemeget  hvor  ihÊrdigt  de  fors¯ger, at f hende
overtalt. De bruger gode, rare,  og  s¯de  ord.  De bruger grimme ord.
Evelyn stÂr fast ved sit.



                     Evelyns voksne tilvÊrelse :

Manden, som hun kalder ham i  sine  tanker, er arbejder. De bpr sammen
og han er meget stolt  af  Evelyns  s¯n,  Jimmy. Alt hvad Jimmy laver,
viser han stolt frem for sine  kammerater. Men hendes familie fÂr ogsÂ
ham, til at f¯le sig usikker og til sidst h¯rer forbindelsen op.


Hendes tanker fortÊller ikke om den store kÊrlighed til manden, men om
en kvinde, der har fundet tryghed  og  st¯tte  hos  en mand. Der er et
tydeligt  k¯nsrollem¯nster  i  deres  forhold.   Han  skal  have  sine
frikadeller, avisen, ¯llen og lov til at sove middagss¯vn om s¯ndagen.







                               Jimmy :



Evlyns barndom bliver i lÊngden skyld i Jimmys opvÊkst. Hun er under-
lagt autoriteterne, som kommer ind i  hendes  liv.  Jimmy er en god og
kÊrlig dreng, i hans barndom. SkrÂplanet  starter, da han er begyndt i
skole. Da hans lÊrer kommer p bes¯g og vil have Jimmy i en sÊrklasse,
da det kniber ham at lÊse. Ordet retaderet bliver brugt, ellers er han
sÂdan  en  god  og  medg¯rlig  dreng,  siger  lÊreren,  men  de  mange
fors¯mmelser kan vÊre skylden. Manden  og  Evelyn griber med det samme
den undskyldning : Det er lejligheden,  den  er fugtig og han har lidt
meget af mellem¯rebetÊndelse.
LÊrerens bes¯g, og Jimmys flytning  i en sÊrklasse, bliver begyndelsen
til Jimmys endeligt.
Da han bliver drillet p  skolen,  bliver  han adfÊrdsvanskelig. P et
m¯de med skoleinspekt¯ren og  lÊrerne,  er  Evelyn  helt lammet og t¯r
ikke sige noget. De vil  jo  kun  hjÊlpe  os, siger hun. Autoriteterne
skrÊmmer hende til at sende Jimmy p  et  hjem. Alle er s rare, mener
hun, hendes tro p sit eget  vÊrd,  g¯r  at Jimmy bliver sendt fra det
ene hjem til det andet. NÂr han endelig er hjemme, er han mere vanske-
ligere end f¯r.



Den eneste gang, hvor fru Larsen m¯der  menneskelighed, er en af de fÂ
gange hvor Jimmy er hjemme, det  er  i  form af en personlig rÂdgiver,
ved navn : A. Duncker.
Selv efter at Jimmy har stjÂlet  100 kr. p fritidshjemmet, bakker han
dem begge op. Overfor de andre b¯rn, er han stemplet. Han har vÊret pÂ
b¯rnehjem. Og b¯rn kan vÊre grusomme mod hinanden.
  Da hun finder en lommekniv, som  Jimmy har stjÂlet, siger hun intet,
men smider den vÊk. EfterhÂnden  finder  hun  flere  ting, som han har
taget, og hun s¯ger hjÊlp hos Duncker, men han er rejst.


  SÂ begynder det hele  forfra  med  m¯der  med  psykologer og social-
rÂdgivere. Det ene hjem  efter  det  andet,  enkelte ophold hjemme for
hver gang er han mere vanskelig.
  Evelyn bes¯ger ham trofast p  de  hjem,  han er pÂ. Andre forÊldre,
som hun taler med p hjemmene, fatter  ikke, at hun firvilligt er gÂet
med til at sende  ham  p  hjemmene.  De  fleste er tvangsfjernet. Hun
stoler p psykologerne, socialrÂdgiverne og andre af autoriteterne.
  Jeg vil tro, at mange af dem har  nydt, at der var en, de havde magt
over og kunne handle med etfer forgodtbefindelse.


  Frk. Lund, en ny socialrÂdgiver, s¯rger for  at de fÂr telefon og en
ny lejlighed. Det bliver ingen  lykke,  telfonen bliver en fjende, nÂr
den ringer er det altid noget med Jimmys opf¯rsel.


  Da den en dag  ringer,  er  det  s¯steren  Karen,  der fortÊller, at
faderen er d¯d. TÊnk at nogen  af  familien kunne finde p at henvende
sig til hende efter s mange Âr.  Ved begravelsen er de alle fremmede,
og hun f¯ler ingenting.




  Den nye lejlighed fjerner dem  ogs  fra  deres venner, de fÂr ingen
bes¯g mere. Da manden bliver  fyret,  forandres hendes trygge, stabile
mand sig. Han begynder at drikke.


  Tredie gang hun laver sit eget  opr¯r,  sker da Jimmy og en kammerat
flygter fra ungdomshjemmet. Denne gang  ringer  hun  ikke, som hun f¯r
har gjort, nÂr han var flygtet. Selv da betjentene ringer pÂ, indr¯m-
mer hun ikke noget, men da sidder Jimmy og kammeraten allerede i poli-
tibilen.


  De sidste tilbageblik foregÂr p det  hospital, hvor taxaen har k¯rt
hende hen. Hun skal identificere Jimmy,  som er blevet drÊbt, efter at
have k¯rt galt i en stjÂlet bil.


  Nu har hun ikke lÊngere brug for at samle p venlige ord, og frygter
ikke mere "de andre".


  Hvordan hendes liv bliver efter  Jimmys  d¯d,  kan man kun gisne om.
Personlig tror jeg, at hun vil  fortsÊtte  p fabrikken og leve videre
som en robot. Hun har ikke mere brug for systemet til Jimmy og alle de
"s¯de og rare hjÊlpere".





   
   




























                               Konlusion :



  Bogen greb mig meget dybt, den  kan  foreg i 1950- eller 1990'erne,
nÂr man f¯rst har haft sÂdan  en  barndom,  og er lidt anderledes, som
fru Larsen. Hun tror tillidsfuldt p systemet, og hun tror naivt p at
alle vil dem deres bedste, S‰ SKAL DET  G‰ GALT. At det blev Jimmy der
mÂtte lide under det, er  desvÊrre  nok  en hverdags historie, hvor et
barn m flytte fra det ene b¯rnehjem til det andet

      Martha Christensen rammer DYBT ind i hjertet, p lÊseren.

  Mens jeg lÊste bogen, greb jeg mange  gange  mig selv i at sige : SÂ
g¯r dog noget, fru Larsen.

  Martha Christensen forstÂr, at skrive  om  de  oversete i livet, der
stÂr magtesl¯se overfor  omverdenen,  og  for  samfundets  indgriben i
forskellige familier.

          Man kan mÊrke at hun holder af sine hovedpersoner.





























































                           Kilde oversigt :

                           

                        1. Avisen : Politiken

                        2. Avisen : Politiken

                        3. Avisen : Politiken

                        4. Avisen : Politiken

                        5. Avisen : Politiken

                        6. Avisen : Politiken

                        7. Avisen : Politiken



























 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Martin Luther 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
			             MARTIN LUTHER


   Martin Luther was a German theologian and religious reformer, who started 
the Protestant Reformation, and whose vast influence during his time period 
made him one of the crucial figures in modern European history.  Luther was
born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483 and  was descended from the peasantry,
a fact that he often stressed. Hans Luther, his father, was a copper miner.
Luther received a sound primary and secondary education at Mansfeld, 
Magdeburg, and Eisenach. In 1501, at the age of 17, he enrolled at the
University of Erfurt, receiving a bachelor's degree in 1502 and a master's
degree in 1505 . He then intended to study 
law, as his father had wished. In the summer of 1505, he abandoned his 
studies and his law plans, sold his books, and entered the Augustinian 
monastery in Erfurt. The decision surprised his friends and appalled his 
father. Later in his life, Luther explained his suprising decision by 
recollecting several brushes with death that had occurred at the time, 
making him aware of the fleeting character of life. In the monastery he 
observed the rules imposed on a novice but did not find the peace in God 
he had expected. Nevertheless, Luther made his profession as a monk in 
the fall of 1506, and his superiors selected him for the priesthood. 
Ordained in 1507, he approached his first celebration of the mass with awe.
After his ordination, Luther was asked to study theology in order to 
become a professor at one of the many new German universities staffed by
monks. In 1508 he was assigned by Johann von Staupitz, vicar-general of 
the Augustinians and a friend and counselor, to the new University of 
Wittenberg (founded in 1502) to give introductory lectures in moral 
philosophy. He received his bachelor's degree in theology in 1509 and
returned to Erfurt, where he taught and studied. 
   In November 1510, on behalf of seven Augustinian monasteries, he made a 
visit to Rome, where he performed the religious duties customary for a
pious visitor and was shocked by the worldliness of the Roman clergy. 
Soon after resuming his duties in Erfurt, he was reassigned to Wittenberg
and asked to study for the degree of doctor of theology. In 1512, after 
receiving his doctorate,  he took over the chair of biblical theology which 
he held till his death.  
   Although still uncertain of God's love and his own salvation, Luther was 
active as a preacher, teacher, and administrator. Sometime 
during his study of the New Testament in preparation for his lectures, he 
came to believe that Christians are saved not through their own efforts but
by the gift of God's grace, which they accept in faith. Both the exact date
and the location of this experience have been a matter of controversy among
scholars, but the event was crucial in Luther's life, because it turned him
decisively against some of the major tenets of the Catholic church.
Luther became a public and controversial figure when he published his 
Ninety-Five Theses on October 31, 1517. 
   His main purpose of writing the theses was to show his opposition for 
the corruption and wealth of the papacy and to state his belief that salvation 
would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather then by works.  Although
it is generally believed that Luther nailed these theses to the door of All 
Saints Church in Wittenberg, some scholars have questioned this story, which
does not occur in any of his own writings. Regardless of the manner in 
which his propositions were made public, they caused great excitement and 
were immediately translated into German and widely distributed . 
   Luther's spirited defense and further development of his position through 
public university debates in Wittenberg and other cities resulted in an 
investigation by the Roman Curia that led to the condemnation of 
his teachings and his excommunication.  Summoned to appear before Charles V 
at the Diet of Worms in April 1521, he was asked
before the assembled secular and ecclesiastical rulers to recant. He
refused firmly, asserting that he would have to be convinced by Scripture
and clear reason in order to do so and that going against conscience is 
not safe for anyone. Condemned by the emperor, Luther was spirited away by
his prince, the elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and kept in hiding 
at Wartburg Castle. There he began his translation of the New Testament 
from the original Greek into German, a seminal contribution to the
development of a standard German language. Disorders in Wittenberg caused 
by some of his more extreme followers forced his return to the city in March
1521, and he restored peace through a series of sermons.
   Luther continued his teaching and writing in Wittenberg but soon became 
involved in the controversies surrounding the Peasants' War (1524-26) 
because the leaders of the peasants originally justified their demands with
arguments somewhat illegitimately drawn from his writings.
He considered their theological arguments false, although he supported many
of their political demands. When the peasants turned violent, he angrily 
denounced them and supported the princes' effort to restore order. Although
he later repudiated the harsh, vengeful policy adopted by the nobles, his 
attitude toward the war lost him many friends. In the midst of this 
controversy he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun. The marriage was happy, and his wife became an important supporter in his busy life. After having articulated his basic theology in his earlier writings, he published his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. By commenting briefly in question and answer form on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper, the Small Catechism explains the theology of the evangelical reformation in simple yet colorful language. Not allowed to attend the Diet of Augsburg because he had been banned and excommunicated, Luther had to leave the presentation of the reformers' position to his friend and colleague Melanchthon. In 1532 Luther's translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew was published. Meanwhile, his influence spread across northern and eastern Europe. His advocacy of the independence of rulers from papal supervision won him the support of many princes. His fame made Wittenberg an intellectual center.
   By 1537, Luther's health had begun to deteriorate, and he felt burdened by
the resurgence of the papacy and by what he perceived as an attempt by Jews 
to take advantage of the confusion among Christians and reopen the question
of Jesus' messiahship. Apprehensive about 
his own responsibility for this situation, he wrote a violent polemic 
against the Jews, as well as polemics against the papacy and the radical
wing of the reformers, the Anabaptists. In the winter of 1546, Luther was
asked to settle a controversy between two young counts who ruled the area
of Mansfeld, where he had been born. Old and sick, he went there, resolved
the conflict, and died on February 18, 1546, in Eisleben.
Luther left behind a movement that quickly spread throughout the Western 
world.  His doctrines, especially justification by faith and the final 
authority of the Bible, were adopted by other reformers and are shared 
by many Protestant denominations today.  As the founder of the 16th-century
Reformation, he is one of the major figures of Christianity and of 
Western civilization. 

	



 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Martin Luther King 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Martin Luther King



 



The most important person to have made a significant change in the



rights of Blacks was Martin Luther King. He had great courage and passion



to defeat segregation and racism that existed in the United States, and it



was his influence to all the Blacks to defy white supremacy and his belief



in nonviolence that lead to the success of the Civil Rights movement.



 



Martin Luther King was born on January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia



where the city suffered most of the racial discrimination in the South,



and, in addition, the Ku Klux Klan had one of it's headquarters there. But



it was his father, Martin Luther King Sr. who played an important role in



shaping the personality of his son. M.L. Sr. helped to advocate the idea



that Blacks should vote. He was involved with the National Association for



the Advancement of Coloured People, an important Civil Rights group. These



efforts to improve the way of life for Blacks could be seen by his son.



 



In December 5, 1955 King began to be significant in the changing of



the Black man's way of life. The boycott of the Montgomery Bus was begun



when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on a bus to a white man on



December 1st. Two Patrolmen took her away to the police station where she



was booked. He and 50 other ministered held a meeting and agreed to start a



boycott on December 5th, the day of Rosa Parks's hearing. This boycott



would probably be successful since 70% of the riders were black. The bus



company did not take them seriously, because if there was bad weather, they



would have to take the bus. The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)



was established to co-ordinate the boycott. They had a special agreement



with black cab companies, in which they were allowed to get a ride for a



much cheaper price than normal. Blacks had to walk to work, and so they did



not have time to do any shopping and therefore the sales decreased



dramatically. On January 30, while M.L was making a speech, his house was



bombed. Luckily his wife and baby had left the living room when the bomb



exploded, but a black mob formed and was angry about what had happened, and



Policemen were sent to the scene to control the situation, even though they



were outnumbered. King, however, because of his strong belief in



nonviolence, urged the crowd to not use their guns and to go home.



 



The news coverage increased on the Montgomery boycott as months



passed. He travelled to many places and made speeches in order to raise



money for the MIA's legal fees. When he returned he found that he was



charged for breaking an anti-boycott law. He and the others were found



guilty, but they appealed the sentence. When in November 13, the MIA was



fined $15,000, at the same time, the Supreme Court found the Alabama's



segregation laws were unconstitutional. That night the KKK looted 40 cars



in hopes of scaring the Blacks. But the black people did not hide in their



homes and turn the lights off. They stayed on their porches and waved



showing that they were not afraid of them at all. By 1957 Martin Luther



King became a national figure. Time magazine wrote a story on him, and his



ideology of nonviolence began to spread throughout the country. The boycott



gave a strong psychological push of courage that would continue until



Blacks obtained what was morally right.



 



What made Martin Luther King striking was his conviction on



non-violence. He believed that this belief could give blacks a superior



level of morality over whites. This ideology was important for his success



in later years. As a result, it helped restrain the use of violence from



whites to blacks and vice versa. This philosophy was tested during the



Montgomery bus boycott. Before the successful boycott, blacks used violence



in order to protest racism. During the boycott, however, on both sides



violence was not a measure to be taken. When someone bombed King's home,



the fact that violence was used against a nonviolent group made the idea of



the black man's cause more agreeable.



 



Whites, as a result of the boycott, realised the threat for blacks to



be equal was increasing. They used legal measures to break up the NAACP



(National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People). In time the



NAACP became very weak, and so the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership



Conference) became more significant to the black man's cause. It was lead



by King, Rustin, Levison, and Baker, and was a Negro church which



represented "the most stable institution of the Southern Negro community".



The party gave a tremendous morale strength in the goal for the equality of



blacks. The SCLC was stronger than the NAACP because it did not depend on



state officials. Because there were no membership lists, it was difficult



to single out individual black followers.



 



It is noteworthy to mention one incident that occurred in 1958 when he



made visits to promote his book. A demonic woman attempted to stab him.



When he was rushed to a hospital, he later found out that if he had tried



to take out the knife or if it moved in any way, he would have died because



the tip of the knife was touching the aorta of his heart. King's will and



courage to fight for civil rights was affected by the achievements of



Gandhi's philosophy. On February 10, 1959, he toured India and admired



Gandhi for his achievements in breaking down the caste system, which was a



system in which the hierarchy of social classes dominated the country.



 



His influence onto black students was incredible. They felt the



courage to revolt against segregation. For example, on February 1, 1960,



there was a group of black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina,



who sat down in a lunch room for whites. This tactic became popular and was



being used everywhere. As a result, King suggested that they create a



permanent organization. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee



(SNCC) was formed.



 



One of the instrumental factors which aided King to his role in the



Civil Rights Movement was Senator John F. Kennedy's support for his



beliefs. Kennedy showed his support when King, for example, was found



guilty of driving with an invalid license, and was find $25 plus one year's



probation. When police arrested him again during the probationary period,



he was sentenced to four months in a jail which demanded heavy labour. This



jail was also the home of KKK criminals. Senator Kennedy promised to help



King and by doing so, won the support of 75% blacks. King urged for Kennedy



to help the Civil Rights Movement, and so the Congress of Racial Equality



(CORE) decided to see for themselves whether the banning of segregation was



actually working. These civil rights activists were called Freedom Riders.



But white activists beat them and burnt the buses they were on. King



realised that the media was a very powerful tool when they covered the use



of violence by the KKK.



 



The continual effort to strengthen the message for rights can be



outlined in Birmingham, Alabama. After King and three other leaders were



released from jail (they were arrested because during one of his organized



protests), they were surprised to find that 1000 youths were protesting.



Though 900 were arrested, the next day 2500 children were protesting. Water



hoses were used by authorities to fight the blacks. Attack dogs were also



used to control the mob. But when the public was shown of the violent



methods, it increased the sympathy onto King's cause. Despite this, 3000



youngsters demonstrated the next day. There was no more space in the jails



and finally the business leaders of the community realized that the would



need to start negotiating, or they would suffer financially.



 



The height of King's career was in 1964, when the Civil Rights Act was



enacted. It was sent through Congress by President Kennedy in 1963, but he



did not live to see it go through. He was assassinated on November 22,



1963. His successor, President Johnson, passed it through Congress. It



allowed the federal government to enforce any racial discrimination in



public areas like restaurants and hotels. It allowed the government to hold



federal funds from places where racism existed. It also prohibited



discrimination in the voter-registration procedures. Whites previously



discriminated Blacks from voting if they were illiterate, but the Act



forbade this. M.L.'s success was acknowledged when he was awarded the Nobel



Prize in the same year.



 



A tragic day struck on April 4, 1968 in Memphis, Tenn.. He was



planning to participate in a Poor People's March to Washington. While



standing on the balcony of the motel where he was staying with his



partners, he was killed by a bullet which was shot by James Earl Ray. On



March 10, 1969, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced 99 years in prison.



 



Martin Luther King was able to achieve the impossible. He was an



ambitious man who wanted to make a difference in the lives of every



American Black. Step by step, he organized demonstrations and made speeches



to further strengthen his cause. His philosophy of non-violence played a



key role in the success of the right to be free. Carved on his crypt is a



phrase he said many times:



 



Free at last, free at last



Thank God Almighty



I'm free at last. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Martin Luther King.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Martin Luther King



 



The most important person to have made a significant change in the



rights of Blacks was Martin Luther King. He had great courage and passion



to defeat segregation and racism that existed in the United States, and it



was his influence to all the Blacks to defy white supremacy and his belief



in nonviolence that lead to the success of the Civil Rights movement.



 



Martin Luther King was born on January 15, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia



where the city suffered most of the racial discrimination in the South,



and, in addition, the Ku Klux Klan had one of it's headquarters there. But



it was his father, Martin Luther King Sr. who played an important role in



shaping the personality of his son. M.L. Sr. helped to advocate the idea



that Blacks should vote. He was involved with the National Association for



the Advancement of Coloured People, an important Civil Rights group. These



efforts to improve the way of life for Blacks could be seen by his son.



 



In December 5, 1955 King began to be significant in the changing of



the Black man's way of life. The boycott of the Montgomery Bus was begun



when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat on a bus to a white man on



December 1st. Two Patrolmen took her away to the police station where she



was booked. He and 50 other ministered held a meeting and agreed to start a



boycott on December 5th, the day of Rosa Parks's hearing. This boycott



would probably be successful since 70% of the riders were black. The bus



company did not take them seriously, because if there was bad weather, they



would have to take the bus. The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)



was established to co-ordinate the boycott. They had a special agreement



with black cab companies, in which they were allowed to get a ride for a



much cheaper price than normal. Blacks had to walk to work, and so they did



not have time to do any shopping and therefore the sales decreased



dramatically. On January 30, while M.L was making a speech, his house was



bombed. Luckily his wife and baby had left the living room when the bomb



exploded, but a black mob formed and was angry about what had happened, and



Policemen were sent to the scene to control the situation, even though they



were outnumbered. King, however, because of his strong belief in



nonviolence, urged the crowd to not use their guns and to go home.



 



The news coverage increased on the Montgomery boycott as months



passed. He travelled to many places and made speeches in order to raise



money for the MIA's legal fees. When he returned he found that he was



charged for breaking an anti-boycott law. He and the others were found



guilty, but they appealed the sentence. When in November 13, the MIA was



fined $15,000, at the same time, the Supreme Court found the Alabama's



segregation laws were unconstitutional. That night the KKK looted 40 cars



in hopes of scaring the Blacks. But the black people did not hide in their



homes and turn the lights off. They stayed on their porches and waved



showing that they were not afraid of them at all. By 1957 Martin Luther



King became a national figure. Time magazine wrote a story on him, and his



ideology of nonviolence began to spread throughout the country. The boycott



gave a strong psychological push of courage that would continue until



Blacks obtained what was morally right.



 



What made Martin Luther King striking was his conviction on



non-violence. He believed that this belief could give blacks a superior



level of morality over whites. This ideology was important for his success



in later years. As a result, it helped restrain the use of violence from



whites to blacks and vice versa. This philosophy was tested during the



Montgomery bus boycott. Before the successful boycott, blacks used violence



in order to protest racism. During the boycott, however, on both sides



violence was not a measure to be taken. When someone bombed King's home,



the fact that violence was used against a nonviolent group made the idea of



the black man's cause more agreeable.



 



Whites, as a result of the boycott, realised the threat for blacks to



be equal was increasing. They used legal measures to break up the NAACP



(National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People). In time the



NAACP became very weak, and so the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership



Conference) became more significant to the black man's cause. It was lead



by King, Rustin, Levison, and Baker, and was a Negro church which



represented "the most stable institution of the Southern Negro community".



The party gave a tremendous morale strength in the goal for the equality of



blacks. The SCLC was stronger than the NAACP because it did not depend on



state officials. Because there were no membership lists, it was difficult



to single out individual black followers.



 



It is noteworthy to mention one incident that occurred in 1958 when he



made visits to promote his book. A demonic woman attempted to stab him.



When he was rushed to a hospital, he later found out that if he had tried



to take out the knife or if it moved in any way, he would have died because



the tip of the knife was touching the aorta of his heart. King's will and



courage to fight for civil rights was affected by the achievements of



Gandhi's philosophy. On February 10, 1959, he toured India and admired



Gandhi for his achievements in breaking down the caste system, which was a



system in which the hierarchy of social classes dominated the country.



 



His influence onto black students was incredible. They felt the



courage to revolt against segregation. For example, on February 1, 1960,



there was a group of black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina,



who sat down in a lunch room for whites. This tactic became popular and was



being used everywhere. As a result, King suggested that they create a



permanent organization. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee



(SNCC) was formed.



 



One of the instrumental factors which aided King to his role in the



Civil Rights Movement was Senator John F. Kennedy's support for his



beliefs. Kennedy showed his support when King, for example, was found



guilty of driving with an invalid license, and was find $25 plus one year's



probation. When police arrested him again during the probationary period,



he was sentenced to four months in a jail which demanded heavy labour. This



jail was also the home of KKK criminals. Senator Kennedy promised to help



King and by doing so, won the support of 75% blacks. King urged for Kennedy



to help the Civil Rights Movement, and so the Congress of Racial Equality



(CORE) decided to see for themselves whether the banning of segregation was



actually working. These civil rights activists were called Freedom Riders.



But white activists beat them and burnt the buses they were on. King



realised that the media was a very powerful tool when they covered the use



of violence by the KKK.



 



The continual effort to strengthen the message for rights can be



outlined in Birmingham, Alabama. After King and three other leaders were



released from jail (they were arrested because during one of his organized



protests), they were surprised to find that 1000 youths were protesting.



Though 900 were arrested, the next day 2500 children were protesting. Water



hoses were used by authorities to fight the blacks. Attack dogs were also



used to control the mob. But when the public was shown of the violent



methods, it increased the sympathy onto King's cause. Despite this, 3000



youngsters demonstrated the next day. There was no more space in the jails



and finally the business leaders of the community realized that the would



need to start negotiating, or they would suffer financially.



 



The height of King's career was in 1964, when the Civil Rights Act was



enacted. It was sent through Congress by President Kennedy in 1963, but he



did not live to see it go through. He was assassinated on November 22,



1963. His successor, President Johnson, passed it through Congress. It



allowed the federal government to enforce any racial discrimination in



public areas like restaurants and hotels. It allowed the government to hold



federal funds from places where racism existed. It also prohibited



discrimination in the voter-registration procedures. Whites previously



discriminated Blacks from voting if they were illiterate, but the Act



forbade this. M.L.'s success was acknowledged when he was awarded the Nobel



Prize in the same year.



 



A tragic day struck on April 4, 1968 in Memphis, Tenn.. He was



planning to participate in a Poor People's March to Washington. While



standing on the balcony of the motel where he was staying with his



partners, he was killed by a bullet which was shot by James Earl Ray. On



March 10, 1969, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced 99 years in prison.



 



Martin Luther King was able to achieve the impossible. He was an



ambitious man who wanted to make a difference in the lives of every



American Black. Step by step, he organized demonstrations and made speeches



to further strengthen his cause. His philosophy of non-violence played a



key role in the success of the right to be free. Carved on his crypt is a



phrase he said many times:



 



Free at last, free at last



Thank God Almighty



I'm free at last. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Martin Luther.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
			             MARTIN LUTHER


   Martin Luther was a German theologian and religious reformer, who started 
the Protestant Reformation, and whose vast influence during his time period 
made him one of the crucial figures in modern European history.  Luther was
born in Eisleben on November 10, 1483 and  was descended from the peasantry,
a fact that he often stressed. Hans Luther, his father, was a copper miner.
Luther received a sound primary and secondary education at Mansfeld, 
Magdeburg, and Eisenach. In 1501, at the age of 17, he enrolled at the
University of Erfurt, receiving a bachelor's degree in 1502 and a master's
degree in 1505 . He then intended to study 
law, as his father had wished. In the summer of 1505, he abandoned his 
studies and his law plans, sold his books, and entered the Augustinian 
monastery in Erfurt. The decision surprised his friends and appalled his 
father. Later in his life, Luther explained his suprising decision by 
recollecting several brushes with death that had occurred at the time, 
making him aware of the fleeting character of life. In the monastery he 
observed the rules imposed on a novice but did not find the peace in God 
he had expected. Nevertheless, Luther made his profession as a monk in 
the fall of 1506, and his superiors selected him for the priesthood. 
Ordained in 1507, he approached his first celebration of the mass with awe.
After his ordination, Luther was asked to study theology in order to 
become a professor at one of the many new German universities staffed by
monks. In 1508 he was assigned by Johann von Staupitz, vicar-general of 
the Augustinians and a friend and counselor, to the new University of 
Wittenberg (founded in 1502) to give introductory lectures in moral 
philosophy. He received his bachelor's degree in theology in 1509 and
returned to Erfurt, where he taught and studied. 
   In November 1510, on behalf of seven Augustinian monasteries, he made a 
visit to Rome, where he performed the religious duties customary for a
pious visitor and was shocked by the worldliness of the Roman clergy. 
Soon after resuming his duties in Erfurt, he was reassigned to Wittenberg
and asked to study for the degree of doctor of theology. In 1512, after 
receiving his doctorate,  he took over the chair of biblical theology which 
he held till his death.  
   Although still uncertain of God's love and his own salvation, Luther was 
active as a preacher, teacher, and administrator. Sometime 
during his study of the New Testament in preparation for his lectures, he 
came to believe that Christians are saved not through their own efforts but
by the gift of God's grace, which they accept in faith. Both the exact date
and the location of this experience have been a matter of controversy among
scholars, but the event was crucial in Luther's life, because it turned him
decisively against some of the major tenets of the Catholic church.
Luther became a public and controversial figure when he published his 
Ninety-Five Theses on October 31, 1517. 
   His main purpose of writing the theses was to show his opposition for 
the corruption and wealth of the papacy and to state his belief that salvation 
would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather then by works.  Although
it is generally believed that Luther nailed these theses to the door of All 
Saints Church in Wittenberg, some scholars have questioned this story, which
does not occur in any of his own writings. Regardless of the manner in 
which his propositions were made public, they caused great excitement and 
were immediately translated into German and widely distributed . 
   Luther's spirited defense and further development of his position through 
public university debates in Wittenberg and other cities resulted in an 
investigation by the Roman Curia that led to the condemnation of 
his teachings and his excommunication.  Summoned to appear before Charles V 
at the Diet of Worms in April 1521, he was asked
before the assembled secular and ecclesiastical rulers to recant. He
refused firmly, asserting that he would have to be convinced by Scripture
and clear reason in order to do so and that going against conscience is 
not safe for anyone. Condemned by the emperor, Luther was spirited away by
his prince, the elector Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and kept in hiding 
at Wartburg Castle. There he began his translation of the New Testament 
from the original Greek into German, a seminal contribution to the
development of a standard German language. Disorders in Wittenberg caused 
by some of his more extreme followers forced his return to the city in March
1521, and he restored peace through a series of sermons.
   Luther continued his teaching and writing in Wittenberg but soon became 
involved in the controversies surrounding the Peasants' War (1524-26) 
because the leaders of the peasants originally justified their demands with
arguments somewhat illegitimately drawn from his writings.
He considered their theological arguments false, although he supported many
of their political demands. When the peasants turned violent, he angrily 
denounced them and supported the princes' effort to restore order. Although
he later repudiated the harsh, vengeful policy adopted by the nobles, his 
attitude toward the war lost him many friends. In the midst of this 
controversy he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun. The marriage was happy, and his wife became an important supporter in his busy life. After having articulated his basic theology in his earlier writings, he published his most popular book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. By commenting briefly in question and answer form on the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, baptism, and the Lord's Supper, the Small Catechism explains the theology of the evangelical reformation in simple yet colorful language. Not allowed to attend the Diet of Augsburg because he had been banned and excommunicated, Luther had to leave the presentation of the reformers' position to his friend and colleague Melanchthon. In 1532 Luther's translation of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew was published. Meanwhile, his influence spread across northern and eastern Europe. His advocacy of the independence of rulers from papal supervision won him the support of many princes. His fame made Wittenberg an intellectual center.
   By 1537, Luther's health had begun to deteriorate, and he felt burdened by
the resurgence of the papacy and by what he perceived as an attempt by Jews 
to take advantage of the confusion among Christians and reopen the question
of Jesus' messiahship. Apprehensive about 
his own responsibility for this situation, he wrote a violent polemic 
against the Jews, as well as polemics against the papacy and the radical
wing of the reformers, the Anabaptists. In the winter of 1546, Luther was
asked to settle a controversy between two young counts who ruled the area
of Mansfeld, where he had been born. Old and sick, he went there, resolved
the conflict, and died on February 18, 1546, in Eisleben.
Luther left behind a movement that quickly spread throughout the Western 
world.  His doctrines, especially justification by faith and the final 
authority of the Bible, were adopted by other reformers and are shared 
by many Protestant denominations today.  As the founder of the 16th-century
Reformation, he is one of the major figures of Christianity and of 
Western civilization. 

	



 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mary Flannery OConnor.TXT
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Mary Flannery O'Connor
Mary Flannery O'Connor is one of the most preeminent and more unique short story authors in American Literature (O'Connor 1). While growing up she lived in the Bible-belt South during the post World War II era of the United States. O'Connor was part of a strict Roman Catholic family, but she depicts her characters as Fundamentalist Protestants. Her characters are also severely spiritually or physically disturbed and have a tendancy to be violent, arrogant or overly stupid. (Garraty 582) She mixes in her works a full-fledged gothic eeriness with an authentic feeling for the powers of grace and redemption. O'Connor's substantial literary reputation is based upon her two novels and her short stories collected in Everything That Rises Must Converge (1965), A Good Man is Hard to Find (1955), and The Complete Short Stories of Flannery O'Connor. Despite the fact that her unique style of writing has caused many judgments and rumors about her, O'Connor has received many awards and honors throughout her entire life.
On March 25, 1925, Mary Flannery O'Connor was born in Savannah, Georgia as a first and only child to a strict Roman Catholic couple. Her parents were Edward Francis O'Connor, a real estate broker, and Regina L. Cline O'Connor. (Garraty 581) Until 1938 O'Connor attended St. Vincent and Sacred Heart Parochial Schools. She was known as Mary in grade school but eventually dropped it and went by Flannery O'Connor. (Garraty 581) During grade school O'Connor claimed that her hobby was collecting rejection slips. Then the family moved to the Cline house in Milledgeville, Georgia when her father became sick with disseminated lupus. Lupus is a disease of the connective tissue, which would later claim her life. While in Milledgeville, O'Connor went to school at Peabody High School (Garraty 582). During high school she wrote and illustrated books while still maintaining a high academic average. Her father died of lupus in 1941. In 1942, at the age of 16, O'Connor entered Georgia State College for Women, which is now known as Georgia College. (O'Connor 2)
During college O'Connor majored in social sciences (O'Connor 2). She also drew cartoons and made illustrations for college paper and yearbook. O'Connor also edited the college literary magazine (Garraty 582). One of her professors started off her writing career by submitting some of her works to the Writers' Workshop at the University of Iowa, because of this she was awarded a Rhinehart Fellowship. O'Connor graduated in 1945 with Bachelors Arts in English and social sciences. She published her first story ," The Geranium" in the summer issue of Accent. Several stories and even portions of her first novel, Wise Blood were published between 1946 and 1952 in "Accent," "Sewanee Review," "Tomorrow," "Mademoiselle," "Partisan Review," and "New World Writing." (Garraty 582) Then she received a Master of Arts in Literature in 1947 she lived at the writers' colony at Saratoga Springs for a short time. Then O'Connor lived in New York until she got sick in 1950 and moved back home, to Georgia. (Garraty 582) When O'Connor returned to Georgia, her condition was diagnosed as disseminated lupus. She was admitted to Emory Hospital in Atlanta and remained there until she was discharged in the spring of 1951. O'Connor and her mother moved to "Andalusia.." Even during the years in Andalusia she regularly received honors and awards for her work. (Garraty 582) In 1954 o's' short story collection The Life You Save May be Your Own was selected for publication in O. Henry Prize Stories of 1954. Although her condition worsened she still corresponded widely and even traveled to lecture and give readings even though she was on crutches after 1955. In 1959 her condition stabilized and she and her mother traveled to Lourdes and Rome. In early 1964 a benign abdominal tumor was removed, but in the end all the operation succeeded in doing was speed up the development of her lupus. And after a long, painful illness, that had also claimed her father, she died on August 3, 1964 in Milledgeville. (Garraty 583)
During her life O'Connor was almost universally admired, but not fully understood author. She was an author who filled her stories with characters who are all deformed in some way. Some have labeled her an atheist because of her views on religion and for using grotesque examples. (O'Connor 3) It is true that she frequently criticized the materialism and spiritual apathy of contemporary society and it's need for religious faith and redemption (O'Connor 2). In response to these accusations O'Connor simply said "To the hard of hearing you shout and to the almost blind you draw large and startling figures." (O'Connor 2)
O'Connor was noted for her strangely touching stories about the life in the South. O'Connor had a fine ear for Georgia dialect and a merciless eye for the flamboyant aspects of modern life. In her work demented comedy and grotesque violence often mask a deeper seriousness of purpose and an abiding religious faith. O'Connor's writing's made people open their eyes to our way of life and beliefs. They may not have changed their ways but at least they thought about it. The world is more open and objective because of O'Connor's moving stories.
Works Cited Garraty, John A. "Mary Flannery O'Connor" Dictionary of American Biography: Supplement Seven. 1981 edition.
"O'Connor, Flannery." DISCovering Authors Modules Online. Galenet; 30 March 1999.
Polk, Noel. "Flannery O'Connor." The World Book encyclopedia. Fourteenth edition. 1992.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mary Shelley.TXT
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602
Mary Shelley: Bride of Frankenstein Authors have written horror novels with old props of haunted castles and moonlit dagger scenes for ages. However, there is one author deserving of significant commemorations for her horrific novel, Frankenstein. Mary Shelley, author of the most notable gothic novel of all times, inspires authors who read her work. Mary Shelley's professional life as her husband's editor, a novelist, and a poet began in 1816, in Scotland when she began her first novel. First of all, while Mary Shelley visited her family in England, Shelley became an acquaintance to the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, and later became his wife (Walling 9) and full time editor. As Percy Shelley's reviser, she promoted the understanding of his works, which led to the history of biographical-literary criticism (Spark ix). Shelley traveled frequently, once to Italy in 1818, where she composed Italian Lives, which appeared in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia (Walling 10). Shelley's marriage persisted for eight years (Spark ix), which ended on July 8, 1822 when Percy Shelley drown (Walling 10), and left her a single mother of a child, and a son on the way (Spark ix). Second, Mary Shelley achieved her highest acknowledgments for her writings and gothic novels. Shelley began her first novel Frankenstein (Thompson 2), at nineteen years of age in the summer of 1816 and publicized it on March 11, 1818 (Walling 9). The horror novel received numerous reviews and became one of the literary events of 1818 (Walling 34). Shelley wrote five other novels in her lifetime including The Last Man (Walling 72) and Valpera. The Last Man, published in 1826 (Walling 10), and Frankenstein are Shelley's two most sought novels, and William Walling observes that they are "two novels whose loneliness is final Mensik 2 and irreparable" (86). Valperga, published in 1823, received reviews with modern critics that were not as highly ranked as the others. Shelley first began Valperga in 1817, however, she completed the novella in 1821, during which Shelley went through a marriage crisis with her husband Percy Shelley and mourned over the loss of two children (Walling 52). Walling observes that Shelley's other novelettes were Matilda, completed in 1819, Perkin Warbeck, published in 1830, Lodore, published in 1835, and Falker, published in 1837. Society also granted fame to Mary Shelley for her intriguing poetry. In 1822, Shelley wrote her first poem, "The Choice". Shelley's release of Shelley's Prometheus Poems in 1824 sold more than three hundred copies (10). Over all, Mary Shelley accomplished numerous goals in her life and earned respect as an author. Mary Shelley composed countless invigorating novels and poems throughout her life and will remain widely known for Frankenstein. Muriel Spark comments, "[Frankenstein] was the first of a new hybrid fictional species," (11). Horror novelist will always look to her work for inspiration. Works Consulted "Arguments Through the Ages". Startribune. 27 Dec 1999. 3. ProQuest. Access 6 Jan 2000. Bloom, Harold. Mary Shelley. New York: Chelsea House, 1985. Spark, Muriel. Mary Shelley. New York: Dutton, 1987. Thompson, Terry. "Shelley's Frankenstein". The Explicator. 1999. 4. ProQuest. Access 6 Jan 2000. Walling, William. Mary Shelley. Boston: Twayne, 1972.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mary Todd Lincoln.TXT
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Mary Todd Lincoln
Mary Ann Todd Lincoln, wife of the sixteenth President of the United States, was born December 13, 1818, in Lexington, Kentucky to Robert and Eliza Parker Todd. She was raised in a wealthy, yet dysfunctional family. She was well educated as a child, but needed more attention while growing up.Mary had a lot of problems as a Southern woman during the Civil War. Many people disliked her and people often criticized her actions while she was in the White House. Her problems began early in her life. She had five brothers and sisters and was not given all of the attention she needed. This was difficult because she had a short temper and demanded a lot of attention. When Mary was four her baby brother died. She didn't know what exactly happened, but she still showed that she was hurt by his death. Two years later when Mary was six years old her mother died. Eliza Parker Todd was only 31 years old when she died and she left her husband Robert with six children to look after. Eliza's death was extremely hard for Mary because she was just starting to get close to her mom. After just a year, her dad married Betsy Humphreys. Robert and Betsy were married on November 1, 1826. Betsy had eight children, giving them a total of 14 children to care for. This many children made it hard for Robert and Betsy to properly care for their children. Eliza's children were not fond of Betsy and she did not care much for them either. Those children watched out for each other and Elizabeth, Mary's oldest sister, took on her mother's role. Mary started to become more independent just like her older sisters.Soon the Todd family moved into a new home in Lexington, which was yet another difficult change for Mary. Mary found an escape from the family problems in 1836. She was 18, and had completed boarding school and was now leaving home. Her two sisters, Elizabeth and Frances, had already moved to Springfield, Illinois. Mary visited her sisters often and in 1839 moved to Springfield to live with Frances and her husband, William Wallace (Baker 79).After spending some time in Springfield, Mary started to look for a husband. It's been said that "social affairs became critical episodes for women in their twenties, who soon must marry or be old maids" (82). The fear of being an old maid caused her to attend many social events where she met many guys. Mary's brother-in-law, Edward, and her cousin, John Todd Stuart, both had government positions. They helped her meet her future husband, Abraham Lincoln, who at the time was a delegate in the state legislature.Mary and Abraham were two very different people, and their meeting was anything but love at first sight (83). In 1840, their relationship was going well and there was talk of marriage. A year later they both were having doubts and they broke things off for a while. Mary was scared that she was going to marry the wrong guy. Because in the 1800's, one you were married that was it. Even if the love was no more, the marriage stayed. Lincoln had also. As the son of a farmer, he was worried financially, thinking he might not be able to support her. The break up was hard for both of them, especially Mary "...Mary Todd was caught in a female dilemma between girlish sociability and wifely withdrawal..."(92). The two got back together in 1842, after having a difficult time away from each other. In fact, three days after the election in November of 1842, Mary Todd and Abraham Lincoln got married. The Lincoln's' marriage was not centered on love but on politics. Their relationship was more of a friendship with random signs of affection.. Mary provided Lincoln with children, friendship, and domestic, economic and political support (131). Mary used her background to teach Lincoln how to dress and proper manners to help him be successful politically. Politics were important in the Lincoln's' lives. While Lincoln gave speeches and introduced bills, Mary also got involved in politics. However, she was not interested in the political issues but the fame she got with the issues. She was always willing to help her husband if she was recognized in return (134).They had three children by 1850, Robert, Edward and William. Tad, their fourth son, was born in 1853. Mrs. Lincoln stayed at home with the kids while Abraham was busy with his career. He was an Illinois representative in the United States Congress. Mary was fine with staying at home with the children because now they were now living in Washington D.C. in a boarding house and were close to Lincoln. Mrs. Lincoln was a "...full-fledged, home-based counselor available for insightful judgements..." for her husband (Baker 135-136). Mary's being involved in her career caused her to lose a lot of her friends. She devoted tons of her time to her children and her husband, trying to strengthen his reputation. It has been said that "politics brought them together, politics must remain, from her point of view a joint enterprise" (136). Lincoln was elected President in 1860. When he found out he had won the election he ran home yelling, "Mary, Mary we are elected" (162). Lincoln appreciated her help in all of his political success. In fact, though Lincoln's success came mostly because of his leadership skills, they also came because of his wife's faith and support. Mary was very happy by her husband's election to the presidency; however, she was upset because for the first time she felt inferior to Lincoln.After Lincoln's election, the family started moving into the White House. She had a difficult time dealing with the inequality of power in the relationship and so she started to speak her mind, never holding anything back. Often Mary got into trouble either with her husband or other politicians because of her outspokenness. It has been said of Mary that "none took up her duties under more difficult circumstances, none was so consistently criticized, none so vulnerable to criticism" (Turner 77). The people in Washington D.C. didn't pay very much attention to her, only writing mean letters about "the southern lady in the White House" (79). The rejection by the media was hard for her to cope with because she had always been treated well, especially being raised in a socially accepted family. " She had to find a way of proving that she was a well-bred, Intelligent and sophisticated woman, loyal to her husband and her country, and more than qualified for the demanding role that history had thrust upon her" (79). The First Lady also wanted to prove that she knew about politics.In February of 1862, the Lincoln's third child, Willie, became very ill. His illness was very hard on Mary. There was no medicine at the time of his illness, so Mary sat by his bed and watched him get worse. It was also painful for the President because there was nothing he could do. On February 20, 1862, Willie died. Mrs. Lincoln lost all control. She was very miserable and maybe suffered a mild nervous breakdown. She refused to enter the room where Willie died. She was also depressed and lonely for some time and didn't go to any social events for over a year. Lincoln was concerned about her and threatened to put her in an insane asylum if she didn't get over her grieving. It took Mary over a year to get over Willie's death. Eventually she returned to her outgoing self, keeping any feelings of grief inside. She was now more involved with the war than she ever had been. She was brave enough to visit the wounded at the local hospitals, bringing flowers and stuff from the White House. Ironically, Mary didn't receive any recognition for this. Not only did she visit the hospitals, she also told her opinion more freely to her husband (Barton 331). Mary wasn't afraid anymore to tell Lincoln what she thought about his decisions. In fact, she even told him, in front of General Grant and his wife, that General Ord should be removed from his position. Another major issue that Mary faced was slavery. When she was little, her family had a lot of slaves. Coming from a slave-owning family, Mary wanted a few slaves herself. It's been said that "her southern sympathies were to an extent responsible for Lincoln's hesitation and slow movement toward emancipation" (Barton 335). After living in the north for over twenty years her opinion on slavery changed. Early in 1862, Mrs. Lincoln took action to convince her husband to free the Slaves and give them equal. Being a Southerner in the White House, she was always being accused of treason. Northerners thought that Mary had constant connections with the South and for protection purposes, she was not allowed to open her own mail (334). Throughout the entire Civil War, "southerners scorned her as a traitor to her birth, and citizens loyal to the union suspected her of treason" (Mary Todd Lincoln, part 6). In 1864, Lincoln was re-elected. Although the couple grew apart during the last year of the war, Lincoln noticed their problems and he was able to bring them back together. They were miserable mostly because the war. This all ended on April 14, 1865, when Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater, where the couple was viewing "Our American Cousin" (218). After Lincoln died, Mary's life seemed to be over. All her life she had devoted her time to him. Now she didn't know if she had anything to live for. She left to live with her oldest son Robert after her son Tad died July 15, 1871. A few years later, he had his mother declared insane on May 19, 1875. She was put into a private mental institution in Batavia, Illinois (Angle 508). She was a patient there for just over a year, until June 15, 1876 when she was declared sane again. Keeping to herself, Mary moved to Europe to get away from everyone. She returned in early 1880 after an accident in France. She was mounting a picture above a mantelpiece when she lost her balance and fell. She had both back and leg injuries. She then decided to stay in the United States with her sister, Elizabeth. Not long after she died on July 16, 1882. She died in the same house in which she and Lincoln had gotten married.Mary Todd Lincoln had an extremely difficult life. The challenges she faced from growing up in a dysfunctional Southern family affected many areas of her life. Marrying Abraham Lincoln made problems for her as well as the demands placed on both of them when he became President. "As a Southern woman in the White House during the Civil War Mary was disliked by many and often criticized" (Turner 78).
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mary Tyler Moore.TXT
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941
Who can turn the world on with her smile? One person stands out. A TV legend and an American icon: Mary Tyler Moore. Mary was born in Flatbush on December 29, 1973 to Irish-Catholic parents. Mary's family was neither rich nor poor. As a child, she attended St. Rose de Lima Parochial School. Her family moved to Los Angeles when she was only ten years old. When she became older, she became a popular actress. Through the years, Mary Tyler Moore has remained as popular as ever. With recent movies such as "Flirting With Disaster" and "Payback". But it wasn't always so easy for her. She started out as the leggy secretary, Sam on "Richard Diamond, Private Detective" in 1957, where you could only see her legs. In 1961, Mary got her biggest break yet, playing Laura Petrie, the wife of Rob on "The Dick Van Dyke Show". Mary played her part well for the next six years. During this time, she was awarded two Emmy's. In 1966, the show was taken off and Mary was left without a job. In 1967, Mary went on to play the part of Miss Dorothy in the Oscar winning, "Thoroughly Modern Millie". She played along side Julie Andrews and Carol Channing. In a survey taken by 97 people who had seen the movie, "Thoroughly Modern Millie" ranked a 7.7 out of on the rating scale, where 10 is the highest and 1 is the lowest. The number 10 received the highest number of votes (29). Through the years, Mary appeared in other movies, which did little for her career. Then, in 1969, she appeared with Dick Van Dyke in a special "How To Succeed in the 70's Without Really Trying" which appeared on CBS on April 13, 1969. It was this show that rekindled the network's interest in Mary Tyler Moore. CBS is reported to have said, "My God, we've discovered a star". CBS wanted Mary for a series. At the time, they felt that they needed to explain to the audience why a 30 year old woman had not been married. In a way, it demonstrated how limited the public's thinking was at the time, with respect to women. At first, the studio suggested a divorcee. Mary loved the idea, but the network soon decided that the viewing audience would think that Mary had divorced Dick Van Dyke. At first it was so frustrating to executives that they considered giving up on the series completely. On January 10, 1970, Jim Brooks and Allan Burns came up with the "format" for "The Mary Tyler Moore Show". This started one of televisions most memorable series. When the show first tested among viewers though, it received the worst ratings in CBS history. The network decided to try the show out anyway. With a combination of a great cast, including Cloris Leachman, Edward Asner, Valerie Harper, Ted Knight and Gavin MacLeod, and a great group of writers, the show finally made it. Over it's seven year run, "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" received 29 well deserved Emmy awards, which is more than any other show ever. Among these awards were "Actress of the Year: Mary Tyler Moore", Three "Outstanding Comedy Series" awards, Three "Outstanding Supporting Actress" awards for Valerie Harper, and others. The popular show, launched three spinoffs for other cast members. They included "Rhoda", starring Valerie Harper, which started in 1974, and was once higher rated than "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" itself. Also launched was "Lou Grant" starring Edward Asner, and "Phyllis" starring Cloris Leachman. In those days, there were few entertainment programs which featured career women, but 'Mary Richards' was the ideal of a modern, independent Midwestern career woman. Mary Tyler Moore paved the road for other leading female television performers. Who knows? Without Mary Tyler Moore, they may have never been a Roseanne, Ellen Degeneres, Brett Butler, or Candice Bergan. After seven years, the show ended sadly in 1977. In a heartwarming episode entitled simply, "The Last Show", "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" left the airways in a way most shows only dream of going. Mary Tyler Moore believes that the show could be put on again and still work. "If you were to re-do the hair and re-do the clothing, you wouldn't be able to tell the difference, because the shows were about feelings, insecurities and small triumphs. We were never on the soapbox." Moore said. After "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", Mary went on to win a Golden Globe and an Academy Award Nomination for her role as Beth in "Ordinary People", and she appeared in other films such as "Just Between Friends" and "Six Weeks". She also appeared in various television series, including "Mary" and "Annie McGuire", in which she played the title roles. A victim of diabetes, Mary serves as the International Chairperson for the Juvenile Diabetes Foundation International and The Diabetes Research Foundation. Mary is also a strict vegetarian and animal rights activist. Mary believes that while there are other things to eat on the earth that don't require the killing of innocent creatures, than animals should not be killed. Mary hopes that one day people will say "Can you believe people used to eat animals?". Mary Tyler Moore recently wrote her autobiography, which is entitled, "After All". Her biography proves that Mary Tyler Moore and Mary Richards are not much alike. She breaks new ground when she talks about her struggle with drugs and the pain of trying to help her brother commit suicide. Mary's latest feature film, "Flirting With Disaster", starring Ben Stiller and Patricia Arquette, shows a new side of Mary. The film teeters on the edge for most viewers who are used to the 'Mary Richards' side of Mary Tyler Moore. Ms. Moore, on the other hand, thinks otherwise. "The characters are married adults and there's nothing actually explicitly shown. It's always over the back of the head and nothing is seen." After bit parts and lead roles, Mary Tyler Moore shows that she has had her share of ups and downs. Her production company, "Mary Tyler Moore", has produced many popular television sitcoms, and today, Mary is one of the wealthiest women in show business. In 1996 Mary was crowned Queen of Brooklyn, showing that she truly did "Make It After All"
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Melville and the Social Injustices of His Day.TXT
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Thesis Statement
In the novella Billy Budd, Melville uses ordinary people of his day to highlight the social injustices of the time.






















Melville and the Social Injustices of His Day
	Herman Melville was a common man. He never went to college, and he never had the things that most writers of his day had; for in that time, writing alone was not normally enough to sustain you. While his contemporaries were lawyers, doctors, clerks, businessmen, politicians, and other white-collar workers, Melville learned to write while working on a number of different ships as a crewmember. On ships, it was a great skill to be able to tell stories of land and sea, to be able to transport the people on board to another time and place. Melville first learned to tell a story here. He would talk of epic sea battles. He would talk about brave sailors and dastardly villains. It was from this time that his great talent for allegories would arise. But it was not until his final novel, which was not printed until after his death, that he wrote his masterpiece. In the novella Billy Budd, Melville uses the ordinary people of his day to highlight the social injustices of the time.
	Billy Budd shows how we see heroes, villains, and war today, but in reality it is best when you understand the context.  Billy Budd was written in the late nineteenth century (1888-1891). America had expanded from sea to shining sea. The frontier had been closed in 1890, and America could no longer expand. The Pioneer's days were over. The country did not have a great navy. In fact it was struggling to rebuild itself after the bloody Civil War. The United States was attempting to rise above its beginnings, but America was stuck in a paradox.  H. Bruce Franklin talks about America's problem:
To become a world power, America would need both overseas colonies and a large peacetime navy. Indeed, these two were inseparable, for a military fleet was necessary to seize and hold colonies, and these colonies provided bases indispensable to maintaining such a fleet. The crucial question being debated was this: what were the consequences for the American republic and its democratic ideology, both founded in a revolution against imperialism and the standing armies indispensable to imperialism, if the nation were to rule overseas colonies and maintain a large, permanent, peacetime navy? (200)
	This debate is waged symbolically between Billy Budd and Captain Vere. Billy symbolizes the belief that doing the right thing is all that is needed while Captain Vere believes that doing right was secondary to maintaining the control and sanctity of the Queen's Navy. In essence, Melville uses Billy as an allegory for the young United States trying to do what was right, while Captain Vere has all the characteristics of imperialism that Melville had detested all his life. Vere lives his life in fear of anyone going outside of the "rules" on which he has based his life.
	The story foresees the consequences of unbridled militarism and imperialism, which ignores the rules of man not only in colonized lands, but also among the people forced to do the fighting and the colonizing. By going into the past to explore the consequences of the triumph of militarism and imperialism in England, it foreshadows the future, with the consequences of the triumph of militarism and imperialism in America. The story shows how a country can often be blinded by current events and not see the consequences of its actions. Wendell Glick talks about the repercussions of Vere's decision:
Having decided upon the absolute necessity for maintaining unweakened the strength of the social fabric, Melville shudders when he contemplates the price exacted in terms of human values; and Billy Budd became the balance-sheet upon which he reckoned the price men have to pay for the ordered society which they have to have. The most obvious price was the destruction of "Nature's Nobleman," the superlatively innocent person: every Billy Budd impressed by an Indomitable is forced to leave his Rights-of-Man behind. To the destruction of innocent persons, moreover, it was necessary to add the mental suffering of the individual forced to make moral judgements. (107)
The author is saying that Vere decided to sacrifice the good of humankind for the good of the military. Vere believes that the Naval Code is more important than the concepts of right and wrong. The names of the ships that Billy serves on are both allegories. The Indomitable is an allegory for something that is huge and awe inspiring. The Rights-of-Man symbolizes the smaller, more moral decision people often forget about. Billy journeys from ship to ship. The machinery of the Royal Navy traps Billy; he becomes a cog rather than a thinking human being. When Billy places his faith completely in the royal Navy his fate is sealed. No one must agree with everything that the country does. There should always be philosophical debate about current events. The leaders of a country will do whatever they want unless the common people watch out for their rights.
Franklin writes, " Vere's action, and his entire argument to his drumhead court, is based on a fear of an imminent mutiny. But we the readers of this 'inside narrative' never see the faintest hint of any such possibility. Discipline is only breached after Billy's execution" (204-205).  Much like the character of Captain Queeg in Herman Wouk's The Caine Mutiny, Vere's rigid adherence to the letter of the Naval Code as he sees it is what ultimately leads to what he most fears: a mutiny.  His very reliance on the rules dooms him.
After Claggart accuses Billy of attempted mutiny, Vere decides to confront the two men with each other in his cabin. There Billy, angered by the charge, confused and frustrated by his stammer, kills Claggart. Apparently Vere's purpose in bringing them together is to find out the truth. This plan does not make sense. Claggart would have accused, and Billy would have denied.  Vere's decision is a result of his fear of mutiny.
Vere calls a court martial. During the trial the members of the court seem reluctant to hang Billy, and the Captain has to talk them into it. But it is hard to understand why Vere calls the court at all. What purpose does it serve? Is it called to guide him to a right decision? But Vere has already made his decision. In any case the court does not guide him; he guides the court. Perhaps he thinks the court will overrule him and release Billy. But Vere has reserved for himself the right of supervising the proceedings. Obviously all Vere wanted is to have on record a trial agreeing with his decision. Withim talks about the psyche of Captain Vere:
Stripped of verbiage, Vere is saying that men cannot think for themselves, that form and habit can control men as if they were no more than beasts. Vere, in an earlier passage, had thought to himself that Billy was a "'Kings Bargain,' that is to say, His Britannic Majesty's navy a capital investment at small outlay or none at all". In this light, Vere, far from being a wise man, balanced in his judgements and fair in his attitudes, is discovered to be narrow, literal, prejudiced, completely circumscribed by the needs of the navy, less compassionate than his officers, and lastly, guilty of that worst of naval sins, over-prudence. (84)
Vere's fear of losing control shapes his actions throughout the book.  Vere shows that he would rather sacrifice innocence than give up control.
Franklin questions, "There is only one ambiguity about Vere: is he sane or mad? Insofar as the story focuses on Vere, it is the study of an apparently rational, humane man who can argue with learning, calm, and some plausibility that the most ethical course of action is to kill the most innocent and beloved person in your world to preserve the military law and order necessary for monarchy and empire" (207). Melville shows throughout the book that Vere is a careful man and that he is well read, well mannered, and basically a gentleman. Yet, slowly through the course of the story we see that sanity is a façade; twisted into Vere's thought patterns are the Naval Code--that archaic code that prizes obedience over all else. The very crew he is worried about mutinying is the same that holds Billy in such high regard. None except Claggart, whom he kills, had ever said anything unbecoming about Billy Budd. So by his actions, the "gentle" captain shows himself to be quite insane. This was obviously what Melville thought. He had always prized the heart over the head.
Captain Vere is of two minds throughout the story. His evil side is represented by the spectre of war in his communications with Claggart, and Billy represents his good side. Good and evil are always two sides of the same coin. Melville uses poetic concepts to illustrate humankind's values and morals. It is a tragedy that in the end Vere upholds Claggart's ideals and ignores Billy's values (Schiffman 53).  Vere attempts to be portrayed as a just and moral man. But when it is not the easy way out, he chooses his duty over his heart.
Melville's prevailing style throughout his life was one of allegory and satire. He eschewed the straight narratives of many of his contemporaries. Yet Billy Budd shows a change in style. His weapon for his final attack on the social injustices of the time is his use of irony. In all other respects it is similar to his earlier works. It is a sea story, which was Melville's favorite genre. It is rich in historical detail and dealt with the "everyman." There is no upper class portrayed in his book, although the irony often lands in that same group. In Billy Budd his barbed comments often find their mark.
Melville often relates the common man to that of a savage and that of the ruling class to that of civilized men.  The author portends that the "noble" savages have a better value system than so-called civilized society. When Billy utters his final phrase "God bless Captain Vere," he shows that with his simple faith he has a greater understanding of the world than Captain Vere ever will. Again the "savage" has shown that through pure instinct he is the better man. Captain Vere, upon hearing the words, is shocked. He addresses the crowd. But the Captain's words no longer have the ability to sway the sailors. The sailors have decided to go with the "heart" of the noble savage rather than the "mind" of the civilized man.
The character of Billy Budd is one of simplicity itself. Billy wants nothing more than to live his days in a virtuous way. Ironically, it is his saintly virtue that sets him apart from his seafaring comrades for most of the novella. At the end of the story, that which had set Billy apart from his shipmates in life bonds them indelibly at the moment of his death. By then, the sympathy of the men is not with the Captain, but with the virtuous Billy. Joseph Schiffman put it best when he said, "In Billy Budd, Melville presents a picture of depravity subduing virtue, but not silencing it. Billy is sacrificed, but his ballad-singing mates seize upon this as a symbol of their lives. They never accepted natural depravity and victor, and they lived to see the end of the impressment" (49).
	Billy accepts his fate without question. Joyce Adler talks about his position: 
Billy accepts his impressment without complaint. Like the crew of the Pequod and all but a few of the sailors on the Neversink he is incapable of saying "no" to anyone in authority, or indeed of speaking at all when he most needs to defend himself. His "imperfection" is concretized in an actual "defect", a tongue-tie or "more or less of a stutter or even worse" (p53; Ch. ii). The reverse of this "organic hesitancy"-the ability to speak with authority-is possessed by no one in Billy Budd, but the dedication to Jack Chase, whose outstanding quality in White-Jacket is his willingness to be a spokesman, points to the contrast. There is no one resembling him on the Bellipotent-a rereading of the dedication after the novel is read will remind one-no independent spirit to speak up firmly for Billy. (165) 
The character of Billy shows how Melville felt about the sailors in the Royal Navy during this time (the novella takes place shortly after the French/Indian War) and about the common man in general. He felt overall that man was virtuous, as is evident in the basic good nature of the crew on both ships in the novel. Sure, there are always a few bad seeds like Claggart or men subverted from their original intentions like Captain Vere. Yet most men are, like Billy, not extraordinary, and lack the courage to stick up for themselves even when the case is clear that they are right. 
	The character of Vere shows not just the tendency of those in power to attempt to keep the status quo but the tendency of those in the military to fall in love with war. Though every military man would say that the ultimate goal of the armed services is peace, how many sailors (or soldiers) are happy during peacetime? Vere, although shown to be a "thoughtful" man, only acts quickly during time of violence. Adler had this to say on the matter: "Vere's devotion to war -- his "madness"-- is not sudden; it is his constant state of mind. But the peculiar circumstances of Billy's killing of Claggart bring his obsession into sharper focus" (163-164).
	Claggart is the obvious villain of the story. Melville gives him no redeeming qualities. In fact, Melville talks of his "pasty white complexion" to show the outward sign of his evil. It is interesting to note that Melville made Moby Dick and Claggart, his two most evil creations, both white instead of black. The character of Claggart is so unrealistic and so uncompromisingly evil that his only purpose is to expose the morality of the other major players (Captain Vere and Billy Budd). His character eventually shows the unwavering faith of Billy and the underlying madness of Captain Vere.
	Melville goes to great length to show the differences in his characters. Billy is a novice; Claggart is civilized and evil.  Barbara Johnson has this to say about the characters: "Innocence and guilt, criminal and victim, change places through the mute expressiveness of Billy's inability to speak"(51). What she means by this is that when Billy kills Claggart, although he is the innocent, in the eyes of the system he has now become the villain. Indeed, in the only scene in the entire book when Billy (the common man) finally stands up for what he believes, he is found guilty by the very system he has put his faith in from day one. By this turn of events, Melville shows irony to be a double-edged sword.
	Is Billy as pure as he would seem? Can Billy Budd be a veritable babe in the world? His character seems to exist mainly on avoiding everything that would be considered "bad" by civilized society. When Billy is told to join the crew of a man-of-war, he does not complain. Yet when Billy is asked by a shady character to go to a secret meeting, he responds with an unequivocal "no." This is one of the few times in the story Billy does say "no." He does not tell his superiors of the encounter because he does not want to look like a "snitch." Billy goes along with everything that people in authority tell him to do, but he will avoid getting in trouble with his shipmates. He seems to choose cognitively his decisions by making the ones that will upset no one (Johnson 56). He is like a politician in the way he avoids getting anyone angry, but he lacks the politician's drive to further his or her own position. Billy seems to have no purpose other than to stay as "pure" as possible.
Morality is one of Melville's favorite themes. Repeatedly he shows his characters to be immoral, moral, or amoral. His characters all have a strong sense of morality.  But what is his definition of moral? William York Tindall states, "As I shall use it and as I think Melville did, morality implies not only action but motive, attitude, and being. It involves a sense of obligation to self, community, and the absolute, which provide a frame by conscience, law, tradition, or revelation. If we demand a single equivalent, Melville's 'responsibility' will do" (35-36).
	Captain Vere is, through two-thirds of the book, a model Naval Officer. He seems at first glance to be the naval archetype, if you will. He loves to read about "real men" and "real events" according to Melville. Is it this very trait that sends him on his trip towards madness? Phil Withim states, "Does he suggest here that the only result of Vere's reading is that his mind becomes more and more firmly fixed on his earliest opinions, that no author can ever modify them, either because he will not let their ideas penetrate or because he never reads books that do not agree with him" (80)? I believe he has the right idea. It is a common axiom that you can teach people only about things they already believe. Vere only believes in his own rigid ideals and in the end, they overtake him.
	Vere learns his lessons from the past. Vere uses what had happened during the bloody French Revolution as a gauge of things to come. Like many naval men, he chooses to try to keep a stable society or at least one under his control. What is his price to pay for keeping the sailors in line? The destruction of the stammering innocent and ultimately the human value cost Vere more than he gained by executing Billy. Wendell Glick reflects on this, "Billy was too good for this world; he properly belonged to another, not to this; and the moral principles from which he acted were appropriate enough for the world to which he belonged. But in a society composed of men, not angels --in a society in which even Claggarts are to be found --an inferior standard, that of expediency, is the only workable one" (111).
	The allegories in Billy Budd are often of the biblical kind.  Melville compares Billy throughout the book to biblical characters, often Adam or Jesus. Melville relates Billy's innocence to that of Adam's before the fall. He compares him to Jesus because both are "peacemakers." Indeed, Billy is destined for a metaphorical crucifixion. When Billy hangs, his death becomes an ascension (Tindale 39). It is interesting that Melville refers to the living Billy as Adam. The author is implying that he is without evil. Billy, once confronted by evil, reacts quickly. He is, from that point on, no longer an innocent. He has stood up for what he believed, and it will cost him his life. But in doing so, he gives the passive crew back their spirit. After Billy's death, he becomes a martyr for the crewmembers. He becomes an inspiring symbol. This symbol allows sailors to overcome their timid nature and change the world around them.
	The tale of Billy Budd is the tale of three men in a boat, but that subject is just the beginning of the story. At its heart it is Herman Melville's last stand against social injustice and the hypocrisy of his times. Melville, in his many years working on sailing vessels, came up with a strong idea of right and wrong. His belief system, steeped in allegory, permeated his earlier works. In his last major work, Melville uses his own experiences and irony to highlight the moral deficiencies in the modern naval world. Billy is undone by his very virtue. By being unable to speak up, or when he does, stuttering and speaking impotently, he is a symbol of the masses: virtuous but without a voice. He lacks the fire that transforms people into something more. Only by his death does Billy become more than he was in life. Vere is the consummate naval officer. He reads, he writes, and he seems to have compassion. Yet, like many officers in positions of power, Vere sees only how to keep order and not the bigger picture. Ultimately, his shortsightedness does him in. Melville shows that there must be a balance between innocence and the rigidity of order if a country is to survive. 


































	





























	















Thesis Statement
In the novella Billy Budd, Melville uses ordinary people of his day to highlight the social injustices of the time.






















Melville and the Social Injustices of His Day
	Herman Melville was a common man. He never went to college, and he never had the things that most writers of his day had; for in that time, writing alone was not normally enough to sustain you. While his contemporaries were lawyers, doctors, clerks, businessmen, politicians, and other white-collar workers, Melville learned to write while working on a number of different ships as a crewmember. On ships, it was a great skill to be able to tell stories of land and sea, to be able to transport the people on board to another time and place. Melville first learned to tell a story here. He would talk of epic sea battles. He would talk about brave sailors and dastardly villains. It was from this time that his great talent for allegories would arise. But it was not until his final novel, which was not printed until after his death, that he wrote his masterpiece. In the novella Billy Budd, Melville uses the ordinary people of his day to highlight the social injustices of the time.
	Billy Budd shows how we see heroes, villains, and war today, but in reality it is best when you understand the context.  Billy Budd was written in the late nineteenth century (1888-1891). America had expanded from sea to shining sea. The frontier had been closed in 1890, and America could no longer expand. The Pioneer's days were over. The country did not have a great navy. In fact it was struggling to rebuild itself after the bloody Civil War. The United States was attempting to rise above its beginnings, but America was stuck in a paradox.  H. Bruce Franklin talks about America's problem:
To become a world power, America would need both overseas colonies and a large peacetime navy. Indeed, these two were inseparable, for a military fleet was necessary to seize and hold colonies, and these colonies provided bases indispensable to maintaining such a fleet. The crucial question being debated was this: what were the consequences for the American republic and its democratic ideology, both founded in a revolution against imperialism and the standing armies indispensable to imperialism, if the nation were to rule overseas colonies and maintain a large, permanent, peacetime navy? (200)
	This debate is waged symbolically between Billy Budd and Captain Vere. Billy symbolizes the belief that doing the right thing is all that is needed while Captain Vere believes that doing right was secondary to maintaining the control and sanctity of the Queen's Navy. In essence, Melville uses Billy as an allegory for the young United States trying to do what was right, while Captain Vere has all the characteristics of imperialism that Melville had detested all his life. Vere lives his life in fear of anyone going outside of the "rules" on which he has based his life.
	The story foresees the consequences of unbridled militarism and imperialism, which ignores the rules of man not only in colonized lands, but also among the people forced to do the fighting and the colonizing. By going into the past to explore the consequences of the triumph of militarism and imperialism in England, it foreshadows the future, with the consequences of the triumph of militarism and imperialism in America. The story shows how a country can often be blinded by current events and not see the consequences of its actions. Wendell Glick talks about the repercussions of Vere's decision:
Having decided upon the absolute necessity for maintaining unweakened the strength of the social fabric, Melville shudders when he contemplates the price exacted in terms of human values; and Billy Budd became the balance-sheet upon which he reckoned the price men have to pay for the ordered society which they have to have. The most obvious price was the destruction of "Nature's Nobleman," the superlatively innocent person: every Billy Budd impressed by an Indomitable is forced to leave his Rights-of-Man behind. To the destruction of innocent persons, moreover, it was necessary to add the mental suffering of the individual forced to make moral judgements. (107)
The author is saying that Vere decided to sacrifice the good of humankind for the good of the military. Vere believes that the Naval Code is more important than the concepts of right and wrong. The names of the ships that Billy serves on are both allegories. The Indomitable is an allegory for something that is huge and awe inspiring. The Rights-of-Man symbolizes the smaller, more moral decision people often forget about. Billy journeys from ship to ship. The machinery of the Royal Navy traps Billy; he becomes a cog rather than a thinking human being. When Billy places his faith completely in the royal Navy his fate is sealed. No one must agree with everything that the country does. There should always be philosophical debate about current events. The leaders of a country will do whatever they want unless the common people watch out for their rights.
Franklin writes, " Vere's action, and his entire argument to his drumhead court, is based on a fear of an imminent mutiny. But we the readers of this 'inside narrative' never see the faintest hint of any such possibility. Discipline is only breached after Billy's execution" (204-205).  Much like the character of Captain Queeg in Herman Wouk's The Caine Mutiny, Vere's rigid adherence to the letter of the Naval Code as he sees it is what ultimately leads to what he most fears: a mutiny.  His very reliance on the rules dooms him.
After Claggart accuses Billy of attempted mutiny, Vere decides to confront the two men with each other in his cabin. There Billy, angered by the charge, confused and frustrated by his stammer, kills Claggart. Apparently Vere's purpose in bringing them together is to find out the truth. This plan does not make sense. Claggart would have accused, and Billy would have denied.  Vere's decision is a result of his fear of mutiny.
Vere calls a court martial. During the trial the members of the court seem reluctant to hang Billy, and the Captain has to talk them into it. But it is hard to understand why Vere calls the court at all. What purpose does it serve? Is it called to guide him to a right decision? But Vere has already made his decision. In any case the court does not guide him; he guides the court. Perhaps he thinks the court will overrule him and release Billy. But Vere has reserved for himself the right of supervising the proceedings. Obviously all Vere wanted is to have on record a trial agreeing with his decision. Withim talks about the psyche of Captain Vere:
Stripped of verbiage, Vere is saying that men cannot think for themselves, that form and habit can control men as if they were no more than beasts. Vere, in an earlier passage, had thought to himself that Billy was a "'Kings Bargain,' that is to say, His Britannic Majesty's navy a capital investment at small outlay or none at all". In this light, Vere, far from being a wise man, balanced in his judgements and fair in his attitudes, is discovered to be narrow, literal, prejudiced, completely circumscribed by the needs of the navy, less compassionate than his officers, and lastly, guilty of that worst of naval sins, over-prudence. (84)
Vere's fear of losing control shapes his actions throughout the book.  Vere shows that he would rather sacrifice innocence than give up control.
Franklin questions, "There is only one ambiguity about Vere: is he sane or mad? Insofar as the story focuses on Vere, it is the study of an apparently rational, humane man who can argue with learning, calm, and some plausibility that the most ethical course of action is to kill the most innocent and beloved person in your world to preserve the military law and order necessary for monarchy and empire" (207). Melville shows throughout the book that Vere is a careful man and that he is well read, well mannered, and basically a gentleman. Yet, slowly through the course of the story we see that sanity is a façade; twisted into Vere's thought patterns are the Naval Code--that archaic code that prizes obedience over all else. The very crew he is worried about mutinying is the same that holds Billy in such high regard. None except Claggart, whom he kills, had ever said anything unbecoming about Billy Budd. So by his actions, the "gentle" captain shows himself to be quite insane. This was obviously what Melville thought. He had always prized the heart over the head.
Captain Vere is of two minds throughout the story. His evil side is represented by the spectre of war in his communications with Claggart, and Billy represents his good side. Good and evil are always two sides of the same coin. Melville uses poetic concepts to illustrate humankind's values and morals. It is a tragedy that in the end Vere upholds Claggart's ideals and ignores Billy's values (Schiffman 53).  Vere attempts to be portrayed as a just and moral man. But when it is not the easy way out, he chooses his duty over his heart.
Melville's prevailing style throughout his life was one of allegory and satire. He eschewed the straight narratives of many of his contemporaries. Yet Billy Budd shows a change in style. His weapon for his final attack on the social injustices of the time is his use of irony. In all other respects it is similar to his earlier works. It is a sea story, which was Melville's favorite genre. It is rich in historical detail and dealt with the "everyman." There is no upper class portrayed in his book, although the irony often lands in that same group. In Billy Budd his barbed comments often find their mark.
Melville often relates the common man to that of a savage and that of




 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Metallica.TXT
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Metallica
So it's Wednesday night. I'm lying in bed, trying to decide what to write my research paper on, but mostly focusing on the television. VH1's Behind the Music is on. Tonight, the show spotlights my favorite band: Metallica. Suddenly it hits me. I should do my paper on the most fascinating band in the world. And so the story begins.
We'll start over in Copenhagen Denmark. A young boy named Lars Ulrich is growing up in a rich neighborhood. He plays tennis, and has hopes of one day being one of the worlds best (Tolinski, 46). But that dream comes to an abrupt halt when Lars gets his first drum set for his twelfth birthday (Tolinski, 46). This was also around the same time when heavy metal was beginning to catch on in Europe. The rise of this type of music is referred to as the new wave of British Heavy Metal (NWOBHM). Suddenly Lars' life has a new focus. Forget about tennis. Now this spoiled rich kid wants to be a drummer.
In early 1979,Lars moved to Los Angeles California (VH1). He began to place ads in the cities local heavy metal magazine. For several months, he got no response. In fact no one else even placed ads looking for other people to start a band, except for one guy. Desperate to start his musical career, Lars decided to call this other guy to see if he would like to jam sometime.
Jamyz Hetfield was ecstatic to receive that phone call. He had grown up listening to the NWOBHM, and had taught himself how to play the guitar. When the two met for the first time, an instant brotherhood was born. Not because they liked each other, but because no one else was willing to give this new type of music a chance.
After a few jam sessions, Lars and Jamyz decided that they were ready to form a band. Lars knew a man named Brian Slagel that was putting together a metal compilation album called Metal Massacre (Tolinski, 46). Brian assured Lars a spot on the record if he could throw together a band. With this in mind Lars and Jamyz hit the Los Angeles club scene to try to discover possible band mates. They found a lead guitarist named Lloyd Grant, and a bassist named Ron McGovney. The foursome hit the studios and recorded one track: "Hit The Lights" (Tolinski, 47).
So now it's 1981. The foundation for the greatest heavy metal band of all time has been formed, but they had no name, until another metal head named Ron Quintana came into the scene. He was developing a magazine dedicated to heavy metal music. The final nominees for the magazine title were Metallica and Metal Mania. Lars assured Ron that Metal Mania was far catchier, and promptly stole the other name for his band (VH1).
It took a while, but Metal Massacre was finally released in the summer of 1982 (Tolinski, 47). Needless to say, Metallica's debut didn't set the world on fire. And to top it all off, the band's name was misspelled on the track listing. But nothing could stop these guys from reaching the top. They were destined for stardom.
In late 1982, Dave Mustaine replaced Lloyd Grant as lead guitarist (VH1). The band went back into the studios to rerecord their only song, and the new version was released on all subsequent pressings of Metal Massacre. With a now more solid line-up, "Hit The Lights" went on to be the most popular track on the record (VH1).
With the end of 1982 quickly approaching, the band decided to hit the studios again and record a seven-track demo album titled No Life 'Til Leather. In November of 1982 Metallica played their first show. It was a show dedicated to metal fans, and featured seven of the ten bands on the Metal Massacre album. Metallica quickly stole the show. In fact several of the other bands were booed off the stage by angry fans who were there just to see Metallica (Tolinski, 47).
So now things were going okay for the guys. They had a steady underground following. But they weren't making any money. They knew they needed to step up their music, but how? This question was answered when Jamyz attended a show in a LA bar. On stage was a man named Cliff Burton(VH1). Burton, a bass player, was by far the most talented musician Hetfield had ever seen. He knew immediately that he must get him to join Metallica. Cliff issued Jamyz an ultimatum: "Relocate to San Francisco, and I'll join your band"(Tolinski, 48).
Metallica, who had already developed a following in the Bay Area decided to leave LA, which was being populated with glam rock bands such as Motley Crue and Poison. They ditched Ron McGovney, and moved their stuff to San Francisco.
Their popularity continued to grow in the San Francisco club scene. They became so popular in fact that word spread all the way to a small musical flea market in New Jersey. A man named Johnny Zazula, or Johnny Z ran the flea market. Upon hearing the bands demo, he immediately began tracking them down. When initial contact was made, the band finally had its first real break, for Johnny Z was a metal god on the East Coast. He asked that the band relocate once again, but this time it was to the other side of the country.
After some consideration, Metallica rented a U-Haul, packed up their gear and began the long trip cross-country. During this trip they took turns driving. Apparently, Dave thought it was a good idea to get drunk before his driving shift. He went off the road, nearly killing the band before their careers had even started. Upon arriving in New Jersey, Lars and Jamyz gave Dave the boot (VH1).
So now they were in New Jersey, but they had no lead guitarist. One of their friends' back home suggested Kirk Hammet from Exodus. Metallica had played several shows with Exodus back in the bay area, and knew of his talent. But why would he want to leave the second most popular heavy metal band in on the West Coast? One reason; to join the most popular heavy metal band on the West Coast.
Kirk flew to New Jersey on April Fools Day, 1983 (Tolinski, 49). He auditioned for the guys, and was hired instantly. This new foursome would go on to become the most powerful band in the world. They went into the studios and recorded their first full length album, titled Kill Em All. The album was released on Johnny Z's record label Megaforce Records. It was a smash nation wide.
After a few months of touring to support their debut album, they group headed back into the studios to record Ride the Lightning. It was released in late 1984. Finally, their dreams were coming true. They were a force to be reckoned in the world of music. Around this time, all four guys quit their other jobs and dedicated all their time to the music.
In 1986, Metallica headed back into the studios to record their third album Master of Puppets. This album marked a plateau for the band. Never before had a heavy metal band been able to combine thunderous guitar riffs with coherent vocals. The album went platinum in less than three months which was unheard of for a band of their nature.
On September 26, 1986 while touring in support of their album, tragedy struck the band for the first time. On the road between shows in Europe, their tour bus hit some black ice and subsequently went off the road. Jamyz, Lars, and Kirk escaped the accident unhurt. But Cliff Burton perished in the crash (VH1). Several years passed before the band finally made the decision to go on with out Cliff.
While holding auditions for a new bassist, Jason Newstead came into the picture. He was perfect for the band. He was hired on the spot, and plans to record their fourth album became a reality.
...And Justice For All was released in September of 1989. It went on to sell almost 10 million copies (VH1). During a supporting tour the band played with the likes of Van Halen, Ozzy, Bon Jovi, and Motley Crue. The band also decided to shoot their first music video for the track "One". It went to the top of MTV's charts (VH1).
In August of 1991, Metallica released their fifth, and what some will argue their best album. It was called Metallica, but it commonly referred to as The Black Album. Their supporting tour featured the other big name in heavy metal at the time; Guns-n-Roses. During a show at Olympic Stadium in Montreal, tragedy struck the band for a second time. During an encore, Jamyz walked into a pyrotechnic, and the intense flames engulfed his entire body. But the band treaded on. A roadie named John Marshall filled in on the guitars, and Jamyz continued to sing from a stool in the center of the stage (Tolinski, 106).
The tour continued that way for quite some time. In fact they toured for almost three years strait. After Jamyz was fully recovered, the band made a decision to take a well-needed break. They went their separate ways, and returned to their family lives.
When the band joined forces again in late 1996, a new bond was formed. It wasn't all about the music anymore. Everyone but Jason was now married, and Lars and Jamyz had children. They were financially set for life, so their new attitude was just to make music for fun. This attitude was apparent by the release of their sixth album titled Load.
A lot of people say that Metallica sold out at this point. With new haircuts and a totally new sound, they hit the road again, attempting to prove to the world that they were still the same heavy metal band of days past. It worked. Load was very successful.
During the recording sessions for Load , thirty tracks were recorded. Only fourteen were released on Load, so instead of writing more music, the guys decided to release the other sixteen tracks on their seventh album Reload. This album didn't do all that well. Well, by any other bands standards, it was a smash. But by Metallica standards, it was a flop.
Taking a different attitude once again the boys went back to their roots, recording a double CD chock full of covers from their favorite NWOBHM bands. Also they performed live with the San Francisco orchestra. This spawned another double CD. Sure some fans were disappointed by both efforts. I for one love all of their music regardless of their sounds and hairstyles.
If you've ever watched Behind the Music on VH1, you know that there are crucial elements to being a successful band in America. Someone has to die, someone has to have a problem with drugs, and the band has to lose their fan base at least once. All of these things have happened to Metallica, so I guess you'd call them an American band. I just call them my idols and inspiration, and also the greatest heavy metal band of all time.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Michael Jackson 4.TXT
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Michael Jackson

          My topic for my report is Michael Jackson.  Michael Jackson is a longtime pop
music star, known as the King of Pop.  Michael is a winner of many Grammys and other
music awards.  My first subtopic goes into his music.  The details giong into Music are his
many albums, the many awards Michael Jackson has won, and the songs he has written. My
second subtopic goes into the history of Michael Jackson.  The details going itno History
are Michael's family members, the places he has lived, and Michael Jackson's family life. 
My third subtopic goes into his tours.  The details going itno Tours are the places he has
given concerts, the incidents that happened on his tours, and the kinds of people that were
at his concerts.  My fourth subtopic goes goes into the interviews of Michael Jackson.  The
details going into Interviews are the television interviews, the magazine interviews, and
the newspaper interviews.  To find all of this out, you have to be patient and read this
report!

     Michael Jackson is the King of Pop music.  When Michael Jackson was nine years old,
he started being the lead singer of the Jackson 5.  The Jackson 5 also consisted of his older
brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon. (Jackson: 8)  The Jackson 5 had many songs.
Michael Jackson's first solo album is called "Off the Wall," and it first released in 1979.
The songs on "Off The Wall" include "Don't Stop Till You Get Enough" and "Rock With
You." His following albums include "Bad," "Thriller," and "Dangerous."  Michael had a 2
CD album called "HIStory Past, Present, and Future Book 1," and it first released in 1995.
The first CD has his most popular songs from the past.  The second CD has his newest
including "Scream," which is a duet with with his younger sister Janet Jackson, "You Are
Not Alone," which was a 1996 Grammy Awards nominee, and "Childhood," which is the
theme to "Free Willy 2."  Some of his past songs include "Black And White," "Billie Jean,"
"Thriller," "Beat It," "Remember The Time," and "Heal The World."  Michael Jackson has
been famous for so long that he has won many awards, especially Grammys.

     Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, in Gary, Indiana.  His Mother's
name is Katherine and his father's name is Joseph. Michael's older siblings are Maureen,
Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, La Toya, and Marlon. (Jackson: 8)  Michael's younger siblings are
Randy and Janet. (Jackson: 8)  Janet is a famous pop music star just like her older brother
Michael.  Tito's sons Taj, Taryll, and T.J. are a famous music group called 3T.  The
Jackson family lived in a small home in Gary, Indiana.  Michael's mother Katherine was
crippled by polio since she was a child. (Jackson: 12)  When she was a child, she partially
recovered from polio when many died from the disease at that time. (Jackson: 12)

     Michael has been on his "World Tour" for a few years.  Lately, he has to wear
something over his face during concerts because of his skin condition called vitiligo.
(Carlson: 6)  In 1984, Michael and his brothers from the Jackson 5 reunited for their
"Victory" tour. (Anonymous: 519)  There were many different kinds of people at his
concerts, all Michael Jackson fans.

     Michael Jackson has had many interviews.  Some are true, and some are trash.  There
have been interviews on him in magazines from People to Enquirer.  Michael has been on
many television shows and networks, including MTV and VH1.  He has been interviewed
by newspapers worldwide.  Lately, most interviews have been about him being a
father-to-be and his recent marriage to Debbie Rowe, the mother of his child.  Past
interviews have been about his marriage in 1994 and his divorce in the summer of 1996
from Lisa Marie Presley, Elvis Presley's daughter.  Another subject of his past interviews
have been about his alleged rape a few years ago.

     That was my report on Michael Jackson.  I enjoyed writing it.  I hope you enjoyed
reading it!  Some additional information I'd like to add is that that Jackson 5's first
recorded song is "Big Boy," wich was the beginning of their stardom. (Jackson: 42)


Bibliography

 1. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia, Copyright 
     1991, p. 1
 2. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Microsoft Encarta '95, Copyright 1994, p. 1
 3. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia,
     Copyright 1993, p. 1
 4. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson," http://yoyo.cc.monash.edu.au/~frestlyz/mj/mjbio.html
     Copyright February 3, 1996, p. 1
 5. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson The King Of Pop," http://lottoworldmagazine.com/
     jackson.html, Copyright 1996, p. 2
 6. Anonymous, The New Lexicon Webster's Dictionary Of The English Language 1988 
     Edition, Lexicon Publications, Inc., New York, Copyright 1987, p. 519
 7. Anonymous, "3T Biography," http://www.sony.com/Music/Artist Info/3Tsite/Artist 
     Info/3TBio.html, Copyright 1996, p. 3
 8. Carlson, Jan, "MJ Biography," http://www.ozemail.com.au/~gwoody/biography.html#
     beginning, Copyright July 31, 1996, p. 6
 9. Grun, Bernard, The Timetables Of History 3rd Revised Edition, Simon & Schuster, 
     New York, Copyright 1991, pp. 611, 613
10. Jackson, Michael, Moonwalk, Doubleday, New York, Copyright 1988, pp. 8, 12, 42
11. Mc Leese, Don, "Jackson, Michael," The World Book Encyclopedia 1995 Volume 11,
     World Book, Inc., Chicago, Copyright 1994, p. 15 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Michael Jackson.TXT
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Michael Jackson

          My topic for my report is Michael Jackson.  Michael Jackson is a longtime pop
music star, known as the King of Pop.  Michael is a winner of many Grammys and other
music awards.  My first subtopic goes into his music.  The details giong into Music are his
many albums, the many awards Michael Jackson has won, and the songs he has written. My
second subtopic goes into the history of Michael Jackson.  The details going itno History
are Michael's family members, the places he has lived, and Michael Jackson's family life. 
My third subtopic goes into his tours.  The details going itno Tours are the places he has
given concerts, the incidents that happened on his tours, and the kinds of people that were
at his concerts.  My fourth subtopic goes goes into the interviews of Michael Jackson.  The
details going into Interviews are the television interviews, the magazine interviews, and
the newspaper interviews.  To find all of this out, you have to be patient and read this
report!

     Michael Jackson is the King of Pop music.  When Michael Jackson was nine years old,
he started being the lead singer of the Jackson 5.  The Jackson 5 also consisted of his older
brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon. (Jackson: 8)  The Jackson 5 had many songs.
Michael Jackson's first solo album is called "Off the Wall," and it first released in 1979.
The songs on "Off The Wall" include "Don't Stop Till You Get Enough" and "Rock With
You." His following albums include "Bad," "Thriller," and "Dangerous."  Michael had a 2
CD album called "HIStory Past, Present, and Future Book 1," and it first released in 1995.
The first CD has his most popular songs from the past.  The second CD has his newest
including "Scream," which is a duet with with his younger sister Janet Jackson, "You Are
Not Alone," which was a 1996 Grammy Awards nominee, and "Childhood," which is the
theme to "Free Willy 2."  Some of his past songs include "Black And White," "Billie Jean,"
"Thriller," "Beat It," "Remember The Time," and "Heal The World."  Michael Jackson has
been famous for so long that he has won many awards, especially Grammys.

     Michael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, in Gary, Indiana.  His Mother's
name is Katherine and his father's name is Joseph. Michael's older siblings are Maureen,
Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, La Toya, and Marlon. (Jackson: 8)  Michael's younger siblings are
Randy and Janet. (Jackson: 8)  Janet is a famous pop music star just like her older brother
Michael.  Tito's sons Taj, Taryll, and T.J. are a famous music group called 3T.  The
Jackson family lived in a small home in Gary, Indiana.  Michael's mother Katherine was
crippled by polio since she was a child. (Jackson: 12)  When she was a child, she partially
recovered from polio when many died from the disease at that time. (Jackson: 12)

     Michael has been on his "World Tour" for a few years.  Lately, he has to wear
something over his face during concerts because of his skin condition called vitiligo.
(Carlson: 6)  In 1984, Michael and his brothers from the Jackson 5 reunited for their
"Victory" tour. (Anonymous: 519)  There were many different kinds of people at his
concerts, all Michael Jackson fans.

     Michael Jackson has had many interviews.  Some are true, and some are trash.  There
have been interviews on him in magazines from People to Enquirer.  Michael has been on
many television shows and networks, including MTV and VH1.  He has been interviewed
by newspapers worldwide.  Lately, most interviews have been about him being a
father-to-be and his recent marriage to Debbie Rowe, the mother of his child.  Past
interviews have been about his marriage in 1994 and his divorce in the summer of 1996
from Lisa Marie Presley, Elvis Presley's daughter.  Another subject of his past interviews
have been about his alleged rape a few years ago.

     That was my report on Michael Jackson.  I enjoyed writing it.  I hope you enjoyed
reading it!  Some additional information I'd like to add is that that Jackson 5's first
recorded song is "Big Boy," wich was the beginning of their stardom. (Jackson: 42)


Bibliography

 1. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia, Copyright 
     1991, p. 1
 2. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," Microsoft Encarta '95, Copyright 1994, p. 1
 3. Anonymous, "Jackson, Michael," The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia,
     Copyright 1993, p. 1
 4. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson," http://yoyo.cc.monash.edu.au/~frestlyz/mj/mjbio.html
     Copyright February 3, 1996, p. 1
 5. Anonymous, "Michael Jackson The King Of Pop," http://lottoworldmagazine.com/
     jackson.html, Copyright 1996, p. 2
 6. Anonymous, The New Lexicon Webster's Dictionary Of The English Language 1988 
     Edition, Lexicon Publications, Inc., New York, Copyright 1987, p. 519
 7. Anonymous, "3T Biography," http://www.sony.com/Music/Artist Info/3Tsite/Artist 
     Info/3TBio.html, Copyright 1996, p. 3
 8. Carlson, Jan, "MJ Biography," http://www.ozemail.com.au/~gwoody/biography.html#
     beginning, Copyright July 31, 1996, p. 6
 9. Grun, Bernard, The Timetables Of History 3rd Revised Edition, Simon & Schuster, 
     New York, Copyright 1991, pp. 611, 613
10. Jackson, Michael, Moonwalk, Doubleday, New York, Copyright 1988, pp. 8, 12, 42
11. Mc Leese, Don, "Jackson, Michael," The World Book Encyclopedia 1995 Volume 11,
     World Book, Inc., Chicago, Copyright 1994, p. 15 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Michael Jordan.TXT
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Michael Jordan


          Michael  Jordan  is an  American  Professional Basketball Player .
I  picked  Michael  for  my  biography  because  I consider  him  to  be
the  best  basketball  player  in  the  NBA .  Michael  is recognized  for
his spectacular  ball handling  skills  and  for  his outrageous  dunks .
He  is  also the  leading  scorer  in  the  NBA ,  and  a winner  of  three
NBA  most valuable  player  award  in  1988,1991, and 1992 . Jordan  was
born  in Brooklyn ,  New  York , and  raised  in  Wilmington , North
Carolina .  He accepted  a  basketball scholarship  at  the  University of
North  Carolina  and as  a  freshman  he  scored  the  winning  shot  in
the  1982  NCAA championship  game .

		In  1984  Jordan  led  the   U.S.  basketball   team  to
victory  in the  Olympics . After  that  he  left  college  to  play  for  the
Chicago  Bulls . Jordan  was  successful  as  a  professional  from  his  first
season ,  Leading the  NBA  in  the  1984-85  season  in  points  scored .  He
also  was  named rookie  of   the  year  and  started  in  the  All  Star  game .

		In  the  1986-87  season  Jordan  became  the  second  player
ever  to  score  3000  points  in  one  season .  In  the  following  six
seasons  he led  the  NBA  in  scoring  averaging  more  than  30  points  per
game . Jordan  led  the  Chicago  Bulls  to  their  first  NBA  championship
tittle  in 1991,  and  did  it  again  in  1992  and  in  1993 .  Jordan
retired  from basketball  in  1994  to  play  baseball . He  only  played  for
about  one  year but  he  didn't  have  what  it  took  to  be  a   baseball
player .  He  came  back to  play  basketball  in  the  middle  of  the  1995
season  to  lead  the  Bulls into  the  first  round  of  the  playoffs  where
they  where  beat .

		Jordan  was  the  NBA's  most  valuable  player  for  the  1987-
88 season  and  again  for  the  1990-91  and  the  1991-92  season . This  is
the first   time  a  NBA  player  won  for  two  consecutive  seasons .  He  was
also a  member  of  the  Dream  Team  that  won  the  gold  metal  in
basketball  at the  1992  Summer Olympics .

		Many  people consider  Michael  to  be  the  best  basketball
player  in the  world .  I  consider  him  to  be  the  best  on  earth .  Also
one  of  the  most   world renown  players  ever  to  be  recognized  all  over
the  world  .  Jordan  has  signed many  profitable  contracts  to  endorse
commercial   products  such  as  Nike , Pepsi , Gatorade , and  many  more .



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Micheal Jordan.TXT
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    	                                Michael  Jordan

		
                         Michael  Jordan  is an  American  Professional  Basketball 
Player .  I  picked  Michael  for  my  biography  because  I  consider  him  to  be 
the  best  basketball  player  in  the  NBA .  Michael  is  recognized  for  his 
spectacular  ball handling  skills  and  for  his  outrageous  dunks .  He  is  also 
the  leading  scorer  in  the  NBA ,  and  a  winner  of  three  NBA  most 
valuable  player  award  in  1988,1991, and 1992 .  Jordan  was  born  in 
Brooklyn ,  New  York , and  raised  in  Wilmington ,  North  Carolina .  He 
accepted  a  basketball scholarship  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  and 
as  a  freshman  he  scored  the  winning  shot  in  the  1982  NCAA 
championship  game .
		In  1984  Jordan  led  the   U.S.  basketball   team  to  victory  in 
the  Olympics . After  that  he  left  college  to  play  for  the  Chicago  Bulls . 
Jordan  was  successful  as  a  professional  from  his  first   season ,  Leading 
the  NBA  in  the  1984-85  season  in  points  scored .  He  also  was  named 
rookie  of   the  year  and  started  in  the  All  Star  game .
		In  the  1986-87  season  Jordan  became  the  second  player 
ever  to  score  3000  points  in  one  season .  In  the  following  six  seasons  he 
led  the  NBA  in  scoring  averaging  more  than  30  points  per game . 
Jordan  led  the  Chicago  Bulls  to  their  first  NBA  championship  tittle  in 
1991,  and  did  it  again  in  1992  and  in  1993 .  Jordan  retired  from
basketball  in  1994  to  play  baseball . He  only  played  for  about  one  year 
but  he  didn't  have  what  it  took  to  be  a   baseball  player .  He  came  back 
to  play  basketball  in  the  middle  of  the  1995  season  to  lead  the  Bulls 
into  the  first  round  of  the  playoffs  where  they  where  beat .
		Jordan  was  the  NBA's  most  valuable  player  for  the  1987-88
season  and  again  for  the  1990-91  and  the  1991-92  season . This  is  the 
first   time  a  NBA  player  won  for  two  consecutive  seasons .  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Dream  Team  that  won  the  gold  metal  in  basketball  at 
the  1992  Summer Olympics . 
		Many  people consider  Michael  to  be  the  best  basketball  player  in 
the  world .  I  consider  him  to  be  the  best  on  earth .  Also one  of  the  most   world 
renown  players  ever  to  be  recognized  all  over  the  world  .  Jordan  has  signed
many  profitable  contracts  to  endorse  commercial   products  such  as  Nike , Pepsi ,
Gatorade , and  many  more . 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\MIGUEL de CERVANTES.TXT
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		  MIGUEL de CERVANTES

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, born September 29, 1547, was a Spanish novelist, dramatist, and poet.  Cervantes was the author of the novel Don Quixote, a masterpiece of world literature that was a great influence to other renaissance writers. Cervantes was born to a poor family in a town called Alcala de Henares. His father was a surgeon who made little money to support the family .  Without the means for much formal education, Cervantes became a soldier. On his return to Spain he worked at a series of government jobs that involved extensive travel in Andalucia. (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia) . His career as a public servant was marked by as much misfortune as was his military career. Not till his later years did Cervantes find a patron.  It was then that he had the time to devote to his writing.
	Cervantes was a literary experimenter. In 1568, when Cervantes was a student, a number of his poems appeared in a volume published in Madrid to commemorate the death of the Spanish queen Elizabeth of Valois. In 1569 he went to Rome, where in the following year he entered the service of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva. Soon afterward Cervantes joined a Spanish regiment in Naples. He fought in 1571 against the Turks in the naval battle in Lepanto, in which he lost the use of his left hand. While returning to Spain in 1575, Cervantes was captured by Barbary pirates. He was taken to Algeria as a slave and held there for ransom. (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). He did however make several unsuccessful escape attempts, but  he was finally ransomed in 1580 by his family and friends.
Returning to Spain at the age of 33, Cervantes, despite his wartime service and Algerian adventure, was unable to obtain employment with a noble family. This was usually the gift presented to military veterans for their distinguished courage. Deciding to become a writer, he turned out poems and plays at a prodigious rate between 1582 and 1585 (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). Few of these are still existent.  His pastoral novel La Galatea (1585) gained him a reputation, but the proceeds from its sale were insufficient to support him. Cervantes then took government jobs, first furnishing goods to the fleet of the Armada and later collecting taxes. The government imprisoned him several times because he failed to give a satisfactory explanation of his tax-collecting activities.
While in prison Cervantes conceived the idea for a story about a madman who imagines himself a knight-errant performing the splendid feats described in medieval tales of chivalry. The first part was issued under the title The History of the Valorous and Wittie Knight-Errant Don Quixote of the Mancha (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). It became such an immediate success that within two weeks after publication three pirated editions appeared in Madrid. Partly because of the pirating and partly because of his lack of financial acumen, Cervantes never gained substantial wealth from the enormous success of the work. His Novelas ejemplares (Exemplary Novels, 1613), a collection of 12 short stories, includes romances in the Italian style, descriptions of criminal life in Seville, and sketches of unusual events and characters (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). One of these stories, "El coloquio de los perros" (The Talking Dogs), is particularly renowned for its satirical prose style. The second part of Don Quixote was published in 1615. Cervantes completed the fantastic allegorical novel Persiles y Sigismunda (1617) four days before he died in Madrid on April 23, 1616 (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia).
Cervantes's most influential work, Don Quixote, is generally regarded as the first modern novel. It is a brilliant satire, not only of the chivalric romances of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance but also of the sentimental and pastoral novels popular in Cervantes's own time (Byron, 24). The principal character of the novel is Don Quixote, an elderly village gentleman of modest means. An enthusiastic reader of old-fashioned tales of chivalry, he becomes obsessed with the idea of reintroducing the practice of knight-errantry into the world. In Part I Don Quixote equips himself with arms and armor and rides forth on Rosinante, a broken-down horse, to challenge evil wherever he may find it. He is accompanied by the loyal and shrewd, but credulous, peasant Sancho Panza, who serves him as squire.  In his deranged state, Don Quixote sets himself the task of defending orphans, protecting maidens and widows, befriending the helpless, serving the causes of truth and beauty, and reestablishing justice. His adventures and skirmishes are often grotesquely inappropriate to the situation; for example, he attacks a windmill, thinking it a giant, and a flock of sheep, thinking it an army. The obstinacy of his illusions never permits him to heed the warnings of Sancho Panza, whose attitude is as realistic as that of his master is idealistic (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia). The philosophical perception of the novel lies in the suggested balance of their contrasting views; realism verses idealism.
In Part II the contrast between the romanticism of Don Quixote and the practical wisdom of Sancho Panza is less striking. Don Quixote becomes a trifle more reasonable, and Sancho Panza begins to understand rather dimly the illusions of his master. In the end Don Quixote returns to his village and abandons knighthood. He realizes the error of his ways, declaring that "in the nests of yesteryear there are no birds today," falls ill, and dies. Critics generally agree that Part II of Don Quixote is superior because of its compact organization (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia).
Don Quixote has had a tremendous influence on the development of prose fiction. It has been translated into all modern languages and has appeared in some 700 editions. The theme of realism verses idealism, brought forth by this novel, shaped and were major influences of other renaissance writers and artists. Cervantes was truly a renaissance mind at it's best.

	
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mind and Brain.TXT
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Mind and Brain: The Genius of Fortune 
Jesus, according to the Bible1, tells his followers a parable about a man who, before embarking on a long journey, called together his three servants and entrusted them with the greater part of his wealth. To the first servant, he gave five talents2 of gold, to the second, two talents, and to the third, one talent. Upon his return several years later, he called upon his servants to deliver up the wealth which he had left to them. The first servant reported that he had made productive use ofthe five talents entrusted to him and thereupon returned ten talents to his master, who was so delighted with this good and faithful servant, he rewarded him. The second servant made a similar report and returned not only his original two talents, but an additional two which he had earned during his master's absence. The man was as delighted with this servant as he was with the first, and the second servant was similarly rewarded. The third servant reported that, because he had dug a hole in the ground and hid the one talent entrusted to him, he was only able to offer back to his master his one original talent.This report angered the man, who took the one talent from the servant, gave it to the first servant, and cast the slothful servant out of doors, where, according to Matthew, there was much gnashing of teeth.
The Parable of the Talents is intended to warn even those with the meanest ability to use to the best advantage his or herGod-given or natural "talents." We do commonly observe that some people appear to exercise more or less talent than others, and these differing degrees of talent among individuals vary from field to field -- for example, some have a higher degree of talent in artistic creation, others in their power to solve problems in mathematics. Why is this so? Are these talents, as the parable may suggest, God-given, or is there some material explanation for varying degrees of artistic and intellectual abilities?
Our inquiry builds upon the moderate immaterialistic view of the relationship between the mind and body, a view articulated by Mortimer J. Adler in his book, Intellect,3 and which may be summarized as follows: The brain is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition of conceptual thought. In other words, some immaterial substance (e.g.,human soul, spirit, or intellect) is required for conceptual thought, but conceptual thought depends upon the operation of the material brain, without which we could not think conceptually.4 Upon that, it is submitted that the difference in degree among humans in intellectual talent -- a difference, when evident in one extreme, we call gifted talent or genius -- has its basis in the dependence of conceptual thought upon the structure and operation of the material brain. Specifically, an intellectual talent springs from physical conditions in the brain that are disposed toward the exercise of that talent -- the better those conditions, the better the talent is likely to be. The causes of these bodily dispositions are, paradoxically, both material and, in a sense, divine.
This inquiry will begin with a brief review of the ancient concept of the mind or soul of living things, including their rational and non-rational powers, followed by a brief discussion of the human potentialities, acquired habits and bodily dispositions that influence human behavior. Recent neuroscientific evidence is shown to be entirely consistent with the thinking of ancient and Middle Age philosophy. Finally, this essay concludes with some final thoughts on an important question raised by the consequences of the conclusion reached.
The mind -- its nonrational and rational powers
Every living thing, believed Aristotle, possesses a soul and each soul has various kinds of powers.5 Those animals that possess nutritive, sensitive, appetitive, imaginative, and "rememorative" powers use those powers to think perceptually -- that is, using their senses they perceive real objects in the world, such as prey or predators, and by combining these senseswith their other powers they are able to recognize similarities between a real object and a stored image remembered -- a process which has been called perceptual abstraction.6 To this perceptual abstraction the animal applies its appetitive powers to determine whether it should be attracted to the object or whether the object is to be avoided, and to act accordingly. The nature of an animal's appetitive power determines its behavior toward objects it perceives. Lower forms of animals, such as ants, bees, and other insects, have appetitive powers that are completely determined by instinct, an innate, pre-programmed pattern of behavior. Higher animals combine instinct with an ability to learn from experience. In both the lower and higher animals, "thinking" occurs merely on the perceptual level, using only the nutritive, sensitive, appetitive, imaginative, and rememorative powers, what the ancient Greeks would call the nonrational powers of the soul. 
The souls of human animals, by contrast, consists of all of the foregoing non-rational powers, powers which are shared by many other animals, plus the rational powers, which only human souls possess. The rational, or higher, powers of the soul comprise the cognitive (i.e., the power of knowing or opining about real objects -- things that are variable, such as things perceived by the senses), the calculative (i.e., the power to reason or make inferences), and the conceptive (i.e., the power to understand intelligible objects -- things that are invariable, such as forms and ideas). These rational powers are used, together with our animalistic nonrational powers, to perform distinctly human thinking. The possession of these rational powers of the mind -- which provides us with the ability to think conceptually, rather than just perceptually -- is what distinguishes man from all other animals.
Potentiality 
Perceptual experiences influence the appetitive behavior of all animals, but the appetitive behavior of all animals is not governed the same way. Although a nonhuman animal's appetitive power is governed by its instinct, the appetitive power of the human animal is governed by its rational powers. Humans have no instinct -- no innate, pre-programmed patterns of behavior -- to instruct the individual how to act. Instead, humans are endowed with what we call a free will, the potential to allow our rational powers to govern our appetitive desires, so that, even in the absence of a preprogrammed instinct to tell us what is really good for us, our reason may prompt a desire to perform those actions that are really good for us, our reason may prompt a desire to perform those actions that are really good for us, including those actions which involve no physical pleasure to attract us or those for which we suffer some pain or discomfort.
The natural powers, or potentialities, of the human mind are the same in every human being, under all cultural conditions, at all times, and at all places.7 Potentiality is like a tablet on which there is nothing actually written.8 Thus, the potential to use our rational powers for our own good is something all humans have and have to the same degree -- that is, every person is born with the same potential to use his or her cognitive, calculative, and conceptive powers. Nevertheless, there is a difference between possessing something and using it -- as in the difference between having the power to think rationally and actually exercising that power. Accordingly, the degree to which a person's "talent" in the exercise of his or her rational powers varies from the talents of others derives not from our innately endowed, natural potentials, which all humans possess on an equal basis, but from something that affects each individual's exercise of their human potential. Thus, genius does not result from our equal powers or potentialities for rational thought -- our immaterial, clean slate -- but from something else.
Acquired habits
As noted, we use our rational powers to help govern the exercise of our appetitive powers -- that is, we use our reason to govern our desires.9 The proper governing of our desires is aided by the development of virtues, or good habits (and impeded by the development of vices, or bad habits). Habits are dispositions of our appetitive powers and are formed by the repetition of particular acts. Being formed by actions taken after we are alive, habits are not natural powers, but products of nurturing and are influenced by such things as cultural conditions and the individual's social environment. Thus, a person may certainly acquire a "talent" through an acquired habit, such as taking piano lessons or practicing one'smath drills.
It does not escape common observation, however, that certain individuals, though they may be the product of the same environment as others, such as a gifted child and his or her normal siblings, just seem better disposed than others to perform certain actions. Thus, mathematical, artistic or other genius discovered in the very young cannot be explained solely by cultural conditions, social environment, or other factors that contribute to the development of good habits. In other words, genius does not appear to be an acquired habit.
Bodily dispositions
Genetic research has discovered that genius runs in families. Genes are physical causes. Thus, leaving aside acquired habits which may be employed to develop one's talents, the degrees to which the exercise of human talents vary from individual to individual appear to be physically, or materially, caused. If genius is materially determined, then it is not a product of the immaterial, natural powers of man. This is not to say that the exercise of genius is based in purely material operations: Genius involves the exercise of the immaterial powers of the mind; what is materially caused is the varying degrees to which individuals have the ability to exercise such immaterial powers.
Thus, there appears to be something material that underlies the virtuous exercise of human potential -- some physical structure in our body, perhaps genetically determined, that is particularly conducive to the development of good habits or the exercise of what we call genius or gifted talent. Is this not what Aquinas suggested in his examination of the question, "Whether one person can understand one and the same thing better than another can"?10 Experience shows, says Aquinas, that some understand more deeply than others, and in the following sentence, he suggests why this is so: 
  
"[B]ecause some men have bodies of better disposition, their souls have a greater power of understanding."
Thus, the cause of superior intellectual talent appears to involve something else besides natural powers, or potentialities shared equally by all men, on the one hand, and acquired habits, the dispositions to act that we acquire by performing certain actions repeatedly, on the other. What's new here are dispositions that are neither natural nor acquired -- dispositions that are in-born, but material and which vary from individual to individual. We will call these, after Aquinas's suggestion, bodily dispositions.
Neuroscientific evidence
In pondering this material source of genius, it is useful to briefly review recent developments in neuroscience. Neuroscientists have been busily researching "the neural basis of mental phenomena."11 These scientists estimate that a three to four pound human brain contains 100 billion nerve cells, called neurons, and believe that mental events can be correlated with patterns of nerve impulses in the brain. By studying how these neurons work, how they communicate with one another, how they are organized into local or distributed networks, and how the connections between neurons changewith experience, they believe they can unlock the key to the "grand synthesis of mental life."
By research conducted through the observation of abnormalities in human sensory perception, combined with new tissue-staining techniques and the advent of the positron emission tomographer (i.e., a device which can measure increasesin regional cerebral blood flow when people perform specific tasks), scientists have begun to discover that discrete areas of the brain specialize in certain sensory functions and work in parallel to accomplish particular tasks, such as vision. For example, the evidence suggests that the movement, color and shape of an oncoming tennis ball are each processed in a different area of the brain. How this "parallel processing" works remains a mystery, but it is hoped that further researchinto the structure and composition of the brain will uncover some answers.
This research has already revealed a great diversity in the kinds of neurons found in the brain, including differences in their shape, molecular structure, and chemical composition. Some neurons have short axons, or tentacular arms, designed to communicate with neighboring neurons and others have long axons that project to other regions. At birth, the brain is only one-fourth of adult size. The brain grows in size because its neurons grow in size and the number of axons and extent of their connections increase. The development of neural connections within the brain as it grows can be compared with the process of stringing telephone lines between homes and among cities.12 This massive "wiring" project is largely genetically determined, but genes seem to go only as far as sending the axons to the right "town." The hookups of axons to the right "addresses" is aided by molecular clues in the neurons, which can be influenced by external factors such as chemicals, hormones, and sensory stimulation. Thus, the specificity of synaptic connections that comes about during development of the brain is influenced not only by genetic factors, but also by a variety of other internal and external factors occurring during the growth of the brain while in the womb and during early childhood.
Brain Structure and Talent
Behavioral research is also beginning to reveal differences among individuals that cannot be explained by environmental or cultural factors. For example, recent evidence suggests that men and women differ in the way in which they solve perceptual problems: men tend to perform better than women on certain spatial tasks, and woman tend to be better than men at rapidly identifying matching items.13 Scientists are beginning to attribute these differences to the influence of sex hormones on the "wiring" or organization of the brain during its early stages of growth.
If factors such as genetic makeup, chemical balance, sex hormones, and sensory stimulation, influence how the brain develops its specific structure, and if that structure plays a role in determining patterns of ability or talent in individuals, then was not Aquinas correct in his view that the souls of some men have a greater power of understanding, because of their "bodies of better disposition"? The evidence does seem to suggest that the structure and composition of the brain influences how well an individual is able to perform certain tasks, and this seems quite consistent with Aquinas's view of the matter as stated in the Summa Theologica:
[O]ne may understand the same thing better than someone else, through having a greater power of understanding, just as a man may see a thing better with his bodily sight, whose power is greater, and whose sight is more perfect.14
Thus, it appears some may have a greater power of understanding than others by reason of a better disposition of the body. For example, actors, and those who are said to have "photographic memories," would seem to have brains disposed to the exercise of their rememorative powers, or potential to memorize, and recall on demand, lines of text,images or other information. Of course, excellence in intellectual activities, such as art, acting, and calculating, can be created purely through the development of good habits, but no doubt, one who has the gift of bodily disposition toward a certain kind of intellectual activity would tend to out-perform those whose bodies are not similarly disposed toward thatkind of activity.
Relationship between bodily dispositions and rational powers 
Thus far, it has been suggested, if not reasonably established, that material conditions in the body affect our exercise of human potentialities. A key problem that must be addressed is whether material conditions in the body which affect intellectual thought do so by directly affecting our rational powers. For example, would a mathematical genius have a brain disposed to the superior exercise of his rational power of calculative thought, or do his superior calculative powers arise from conditions in the brain disposed to the exercise of some combination of nonrational powers, such as imaginative and rememorative? In other words, do material conditions in the body better dispose the mind for nutritive, sensitive, imaginative and rememorative (nonrational) powers, which, being better disposed, aid the operation of the rational powers, or do material conditions in the body better dispose the rational powers directly?
Aquinas appears to have suggested that material conditions directly improve the exercise of both the nonrational and rational powers when he said that the effect of bodily dispositions applies to the intellect "in two ways": "First, as regards the intellect itself . . . [and] [s]econdly, this occurs in regard to the lower powers of which the intellect has need in its operation." [emphasis mine] Moreover, he says, "The intellect is that which most pertains to form in man."15 What if neurological research suggested that even the understanding of form depends upon the material attributes of the brain? Consider the following passage:
Blindsight patients are people who "see" but do not "understand." Because they are unaware of what they have seen, they have not acquired any knowledge. . . . [One such] patient has an extensive prestriate lesion [i.e., affecting the visual association cortex] from a stroke that has generally spared area V1 [i.e., the primary visual cortex]. He can reproduce a sketch of St. Paul's Cathedral with greater skill than many normal people, although it takes him a great deal of time to do so. Yet this patient has no comprehension of what he has drawn. Because his V1 system is largely intact, he can identify the local elements of form, such as angles and simple shapes, and accurately copy the lines he sees and understands. The prestriate lesion, however, prevents him from integrating the lines into a complex whole and recognizing it as a building.16
It would appear that the patient's rational power of cognitive thought [i.e., the power of understanding real objects, things that are variable, such as things perceived by the senses] has been adversely affected by a material condition of the patient's brain. Of course, it could be said that this proves nothing -- that a closer examination of the facts would reveal that merely perception, not rational understanding of invariable forms, is impeded by the patient's physical condition, in which case the answer may need await further neurological research.
Nevertheless, assuming that neuroscientific research has proven, or will soon prove, that our rational powers are directly affected by material conditions, does this suggest we must alter our assumption of the moderate immaterialistic view of the relationship between the mind and the brain? No. Intellect is only potentially the object of thought.17 As Aristotle pointed out, potentiality is like that of the tablet on which there is nothing actually written.18 In his work, On the Soul, the philosopher says,
It was a good idea to call the soul the 'place of the forms,' though (1) this description holds only of the intellective soul, and (2) even this is the forms only potentially, not actually. (emphasis mine)19
We thus return to the important difference between possessing something and using it -- between possessing our rational powers, which are merely potentialities, and the actual exercise of those powers. It is the exercise of our rational powers, not the mere possession of them, which depends upon the material brain as a necessary condition, and, as noted above, it is the actual exercise of our rational powers, not the mere possession of them potentially, which influences the degree to which an individual's talents vary from those of others. Nevertheless, because the immaterial potentiality -- the empty tablet -- remains a necessary condition of intellectual thought, a scientific finding that the recognition of forms, or any act of rational thinking, is influenced by the material condition of the brain is not inconsistent with the view that the possession of the necessary means of rational thought is purely immaterial. Accordingly, even if neuroscientific research successfully proves that our rational powers are directly affected by material conditions, the moderate immaterialistic view of the relationship between the mind and the brain stands unaffected.
The cause of superior intellectual ----power 
The material cause20 of a superior intellectual power (i.e., that out of which the superior power is made) is, as we have said, a physical structure of the body or brain well disposed to the exercise of that power. The exercise of intellectual power exhibits itself in a variety of talents and the particular talent is dependent on the particular structural and chemical composition of the brain.21 The formal cause of superior intellectual power (i.e., that into which the power is made) is, of course, the product of the exercise of the power -- the particular display of genius -- in whatever form the variety of human genius may take. The efficient cause of superior intellectual power (i.e., that by which the power is made) is, as noted, a confluence of nature and art: the internal genetic makeup of the individual and external material factors (some of which are man-made) that influence the structure, chemical composition, and operation of the brain during its early development. Yet, there appears to be an additional factor influencing the degree of intellectual talent in an individual, and that is chance, or Fortune. As noted, parents who have certain gene structures may combine to produce offspring with brains conducive to genius. The environment into which one is born is, or certainly appears to be, entirely determined by fortuity. Moreover, neuroscientists may well find that Fortune -- a goddess they may prefer to call, randomness -- may even play a considerable role in the development of the brain, as the wiring of a billion neurons guided by "molecular clues" -- like the development of a crystal into one of a seemingly infinite variety of structures -- would appear to leave to chance a material role to play in the development of genius.
But is the notion that chance plays a role in superior intellectual power a reasonable one? "There is noincompatibility whatsoever," says Alder, "between the presence of chance, randomness, and contingency in the cosmos and God's creation of it (and presumably, gift to man of conceptual thought)."22 The structure of all human brains are substantially similar, but as the film director, Cecil B. DeMille once said, "God is in the details."
Final thoughts
Not every human develops the material bodily conditions that are well disposed to the exercise of human genius. However, if these conditions are material, as suggested, it would appear that man does have the capacity to create or modify those conditions, through genetic and pharmaceutical research. If neuroscience succeeds in understanding the structural and chemical composition of the brain and discovering techniques to artificially enhance the conditions that underlie human genius, then we will be forced to make a prescriptive judgment about whether we should use this knowledge to engineer genius in coming generations -- the development of what marketers might call, designer kids.
In considering that question, we would need look no further than to the final cause (i.e., the purpose) of superior intellectual power. Whether we determine that final cause to be the discovery of truth, the performance of virtuous acts, or just plain contemplation, it is clear that the improvement of our intellectual capabilities, essential to all three of these pursuits, would serve the end of intellectual power. Would we not be justified in improving human contemplation itself, what Aristotle called the highest form of activity, an activity which is appreciated for its own sake?23 As noted at the outset, the Parable of the Talents warns even those with the meanest ability to use to the best advantage their natural talents. If, therefore, through scientific inquiry we can find a way to improve our bodily dispositions to improve ourpowers of conceptual thought, it appears, from sources both reasonable and divine, that we should do so. But prudently.
  
"What is a man,
If his chief good and market of his time
Be but to sleep and feed? A beast, no more.
Sure he that made us with such large discourse,
Looking before and after, gave us not
That capability and godlike reason
To fust in us unused."
Shakespeare, Hamlet
(GBWW I: 27, 59; II: 25, 59
 
Footnotes
1. Matt 25:14-30.[back]
2. According to Dr. Samuel Johnson's Dictionary, "1. A talent signified so much weight or a sum of money, the value differing according to the differing ages and countries. . . . 2. Faculty, power, gift of nature. A metaphor borrowed from the talents mentioned in the holy writ." Samuel Johnson, LL.D, A Dictionary of the English Language, 8th Edition (London: J. Johnson, 1799).[back]
3. See, Mortimer J. Adler, Intellect: Mind Over Matter, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1990), pp. 41-53.[back]
4. The concept of thinking conceptually encompasses all the rational powers described below.[back]
5. See, generally, Aristotle, On the Soul (GBWW I: 8, 631-68; II: 7, 631-68) For example, Aristotle believed that plants have souls, the powers of which may be summarized as follows: the nutritive (i.e., the power to take in nutrition and grow), the sensitive (i.e., the power to use certain senses, such as touch, to perceive real objects in the world) and the appetitive (i.e., the power to desire, which compels them to seek nourishment, such as by facing the sun and sprouting roots in the direction of water). The souls of higher forms of life have those powers, plus some additional powers. Some animals, in addition to the sensitive power of touch shared by plants, possess the sensitive powers of sight, hearing, smell and taste. Many animals which possess these additional senses also possess higher powers, such as the imaginative (i.e., the power to grasp images in the mind without the physical presence of image) and the rememorative (i.e., the power to store and recall images). The foregoing description of the nonrational powers, and that of the rational powers set forth in the text, are intended to differ in name only from the descriptions set forth in Adler's Intellect, merely for the purpose of simplifying the discussion.[back]
6. Adler, Intellect, pp., 34, 36, 57-60 [back]
7. Ibid., p. 136.[back]
8. Aristotle, On the Soul (GBWW I:8, 661-62; II: 7, 661-62). [back]
9. Our desires are governed properly when we act upon right desires. See Mortimer J. Adler, Desires, Right and Wrong, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1991). [back]
10. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, (GBWW I: 19, 459-60; II: 17, 459-60). [back]
11. Gerald D. Fischbach, "Mind and Brain," 267 Scientific American (September 1992), p. 48. [back]
12. Carla J. Shatz, "The Developing Brain," 267 Scientific American (September 1992), pp. 62-63. [back]
13. Doreen Kimura, "Sex Differences and the Brain," 267 Scientific American (September 1992), p. 119. [back]
14. Aquinas, Summa Theologica (GBWW I: 19, 460; II: 17, 460). See also, Aristotle,On the Soul, (GBWW I: 8, 642; II: 7, 642) If an eye were an animal, its soul would be vision. Thus, just as vision is better with the better formed eye, the powers of the soul are better with a better formed brain. [back]
15. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, (GBWW 1: 19, 459-60; II: 17, 459-60). [back]
16. Semir Zeki, "The Visual Image in Mind and Brain," 267 Scientific American (September 1992), p. 74. [back]
17. Aristotle, On the Soul, (GBWW I: 8, 661-62; II: 7, 661-62). [back]
18. Id. [back]
19. Aristotle, On the Soul, GBWW I: 8, 661; II: 7, 661). [back]
20. Aristotle's doctrine of the "four causes" -- material, formal, efficient and final -- may be found in Aristotle, Metaphysics (see, for example, Book I, chaps. 3-10) [GBWW I: 8, 501-11; II: 7, 501-11]. [back]
21. The disposition of some bodies toward the exercise of artistic talent and others toward talent in mathematics may be likened to the structure and composition of computer semiconductor chips: some chips are structured specifically for enhanced graphical capabilities, some for rapid numerical calculations. [back]
22. Adler, "Natural Theology, Chance and God" (GIT 1992, 298-99). [back]
23. Aristole, Ethics (GBWW I: 9, 430-32; II: 8, 430-32). [back]
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mohandas Gandh1.TXT
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Mohandas Gandhi


Born into a merchant family in 1869, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
under the influence of powerful people. Members of his family had served as
prime ministers of an Indian state for several generations. His parents
were strong in their religion, being devout and earnest Hindus. They were a
part of a Hindu sect that worshipped Vishnu and promoted non-violence.

Apparently, he was most influenced by his mother, a gentle and
intelligent person. According to Hindu custom, he married at an early age
and grew to love his wife greatly. Together, they had four children and
adopted a fourth.

Later, in 1888, he travelled to England to become a barrister-at-law.
There were several important influences that he encountered here: the
Western material style of life, which he decided not to follow, and in the
simple Russian way of living he found: the New Testament, and the
Bhagavadgita, the bible of the Hare Krishna movement. It was here that he
developed a sense of the presence of God in his life and the lives of men.

Gandhi then returned to India and studied law in Bombay, but he
quickly denounced it, feeling that it was immoral and could not satisfy
one's conscience. Despite this, he used his schooling to help plead for
Indian settlers in South Africa that were being oppressed by the white
population. His personal experiences, including being ejected from a train
in Maritzburg, of not being allowed the same rights as others lead him to
begin a movement to help his people.

While in South Africa, Gandhi made himself poor so that he could
identify with his the peasants. He then proceeded to start a colony that
consisted of abused labourers. The colony became very large and many cities
were crippled by the lack of labourers. The government reacted to this by
jailing Gandhi several times along with many other of his followers. The
war he fought was one without weapons, already Gandhi was on his way to
starting his career of non-violent campaigns.

The main idea behind Gandhi's teachings was non-violence. The words of
the Sanskrit language: ahinsa and sayagraha clearly express Gandhi's
beliefs. The former means non-killing, non-destructive and the latter means
the force of universal truth. He believed that the killing of man or beast
is an unforgivable sin. Many who promoted these teachings of Gandhi simply
believed that it was their only option for resisting imperialism rather
than having a moral conviction towards his teachings. He taught that the
weapon that could be used was the conscience of the aggressor. This ahimsa
is, to some degree, in the tradition of Hinduism.

Hinduism teaches to stay away from temptation through various
exercises that test one's ability to perform a difficult task, this
devitalizes a person and causes him to act on a non-violent level.

In addition, he taught that one should act rather be held under
subservience. Gandhi himself once stated, "Mere knowledge of right and
wrong will not make one fit for salvation...the Gita says: 'No one has
attained his goal without action...' From this quotation, we learn that his
teachings are influenced by the Bhagavadgita and that he believes that one
must act to reach a goal. But, he believed that one should denounce the
rewards and simply devote one's life to acting on the behalf of others and
that life should be lived near the soil, away from the influence of
machines.

Also, Gandhi strongly believed in upholding the caste system,
believing that a person of one caste should stay a part of that caste. He
also upheld the old Hindu tradition of segregation of castes, indicating
that, "Interdining and intermarraige have never been a bar to disunion,
quarrels or worse." According to Hinduism, the caste system lies in respect
for one another's individuality.

Gandhi is well known for his efforts in fighting imperliasm in India
and South Africa. His methods were, unique in that they did not involve the
use of weapons.

During the South African War of 1899-1902 and during the Zulu
rebellion in 1906, Gandhi organised an ambulance corps consisting of
Indians to help the British fight. He believed that duty dictated that the
Indian population had a responsibity to help the British when they were in
a time of need. Perhaps he was trying to show them that the Indians put an
effort into helping the British forces just like everyone else and deserved
the same rights as everyone else.

It is interesting to note that Gandhi did not promote fighting, but he
helped those who were in need of assistance.¢  
After the law was passed that all Indians were required to carry an
identity card with them at all times, Gandhi organised a group that
resisted the government. In 1914, Gandhi and his followers recieved their
first victory, the South African Government took away many of the laws that
had no real purpose except to humiliate the Indian people.

When Gandhi returned to India in 1914, the Indian population had heard
of his accomplishments and he was given the name Mahatma, which means 'a
man of great soul'. For the next little while, he examined the situation
here and, while doing so, attained a few victories in his fight against
oppression. Several times in 1917, he unhardened the spirits of peasants
and motivated them to rebel without the use of violence.

In 1919, Gandhi called upon all Indians to engage in non-violent
disobedience against the British Government by withdrawing from Government
jobs and from schools and colleges. The magnitude of this act showed when
many cities were held at a standstill as the governmental system was unable
to act. Such was the power of non-violent protest.

When, in 1920, Gandhi became the leader of the Congress, more Indians
gave up their governmental jobs to join the movement. After many of his
follower's were put into prison and cruelly dealt with, some people engaged
in violence. Gandhi's distaste for this reaction showed, yet he blamed
himself calling it a 'Himalayan miscalculation' to have failed to teach the
people how to react non-violently before asking them to protest. As a
result of his 'mistake', he called off the entire movement, thinking it had
been a failure. On the contrary, the movement had been a great success, no
longer did the Indians fear the British jails or the British guns. It was
evident now, that the British Government in India was inevitably going to
fall.

After many failures to reach an agreement with the British Government
and after a short 'Individual Civil Disobedience' movement where many were
imprisoned, the British finally gave the power to the Indians in 1946. But,
the question remained as to whether or not the area should be separated
into two on a communal basis. As a result, many riots broke out between the
different interests of the people.

Gandhi himself was opposed to separation and to the violence that had
broken out. He went from village to village trying to get the people to
understand the benefits of unity, but it wasn't working. He was forced to
agree with his comrades in the Congress who promoted partition into two
areas: India and Pakistan, which came about in 1947.

In 1948, Gandhi was fatally shot by a Hindu fanatic. All over the
globe, there was a certain sadness as many realized that the man whom they
had looked up to and followed was now dead. As Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the
Prime Minister of India, put it, "The light has gone out of our lives and
there is darkness everywhere and I do not quite know what to tell you and
how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu, as we call him the father of our
nation, is no more.

Gandhi's influence certainly spreads the globe. He has been the role
model for many famous, influential people. One of these persons is Martin
Luther King, Jr (1929-1968) who was famous for leading a non-violent
movement for racial equality in the U.S.A.. Another person is Joan Baez
(1941- ) who became famous as a folk-singer, a composer, and a guitarist.
She lead many antiwar and civil rights movements in the U.S.. A third
person could be Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister of India. He was
deeply saddened by Gandhi's death and could not have become Prime Minister
without Gandhi's efforts.

Indeed, Gandhi was a influential man who helped father the nation of
India as we know it today. Without him, the Indians might still be held
under British rule. Without him, many might not have been inspired to fight
racism or imperialism non-violently.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mohandas Gandhi 4.TXT
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Mohandas Gandhi



 



Born into a merchant family in 1869, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was



under the influence of powerful people. Members of his family had served as



prime ministers of an Indian state for several generations. His parents



were strong in their religion, being devout and earnest Hindus. They were a



part of a Hindu sect that worshipped Vishnu and promoted non-violence.



 



Apparently, he was most influenced by his mother, a gentle and



intelligent person. According to Hindu custom, he married at an early age



and grew to love his wife greatly. Together, they had four children and



adopted a fourth.



 



Later, in 1888, he travelled to England to become a barrister-at-law.



There were several important influences that he encountered here: the



Western material style of life, which he decided not to follow, and in the



simple Russian way of living he found: the New Testament, and the



Bhagavadgita, the bible of the Hare Krishna movement. It was here that he



developed a sense of the presence of God in his life and the lives of men.



 



Gandhi then returned to India and studied law in Bombay, but he



quickly denounced it, feeling that it was immoral and could not satisfy



one's conscience. Despite this, he used his schooling to help plead for



Indian settlers in South Africa that were being oppressed by the white



population. His personal experiences, including being ejected from a train



in Maritzburg, of not being allowed the same rights as others lead him to



begin a movement to help his people.



 



While in South Africa, Gandhi made himself poor so that he could



identify with his the peasants. He then proceeded to start a colony that



consisted of abused labourers. The colony became very large and many cities



were crippled by the lack of labourers. The government reacted to this by



jailing Gandhi several times along with many other of his followers. The



war he fought was one without weapons, already Gandhi was on his way to



starting his career of non-violent campaigns.



 



The main idea behind Gandhi's teachings was non-violence. The words of



the Sanskrit language: ahinsa and sayagraha clearly express Gandhi's



beliefs. The former means non-killing, non-destructive and the latter means



the force of universal truth. He believed that the killing of man or beast



is an unforgivable sin. Many who promoted these teachings of Gandhi simply



believed that it was their only option for resisting imperialism rather



than having a moral conviction towards his teachings. He taught that the



weapon that could be used was the conscience of the aggressor. This ahimsa



is, to some degree, in the tradition of Hinduism.



 



Hinduism teaches to stay away from temptation through various



exercises that test one's ability to perform a difficult task, this



devitalizes a person and causes him to act on a non-violent level.



 



In addition, he taught that one should act rather be held under



subservience. Gandhi himself once stated, "Mere knowledge of right and



wrong will not make one fit for salvation...the Gita says: 'No one has



attained his goal without action...' From this quotation, we learn that his



teachings are influenced by the Bhagavadgita and that he believes that one



must act to reach a goal. But, he believed that one should denounce the



rewards and simply devote one's life to acting on the behalf of others and



that life should be lived near the soil, away from the influence of



machines.



 



Also, Gandhi strongly believed in upholding the caste system,



believing that a person of one caste should stay a part of that caste. He



also upheld the old Hindu tradition of segregation of castes, indicating



that, "Interdining and intermarraige have never been a bar to disunion,



quarrels or worse." According to Hinduism, the caste system lies in respect



for one another's individuality.



 



Gandhi is well known for his efforts in fighting imperliasm in India



and South Africa. His methods were, unique in that they did not involve the



use of weapons.



 



During the South African War of 1899-1902 and during the Zulu



rebellion in 1906, Gandhi organised an ambulance corps consisting of



Indians to help the British fight. He believed that duty dictated that the



Indian population had a responsibity to help the British when they were in



a time of need. Perhaps he was trying to show them that the Indians put an



effort into helping the British forces just like everyone else and deserved



the same rights as everyone else.



 



It is interesting to note that Gandhi did not promote fighting, but he



helped those who were in need of assistance.



 



After the law was passed that all Indians were required to carry an



identity card with them at all times, Gandhi organised a group that



resisted the government. In 1914, Gandhi and his followers recieved their



first victory, the South African Government took away many of the laws that



had no real purpose except to humiliate the Indian people.



 



When Gandhi returned to India in 1914, the Indian population had heard



of his accomplishments and he was given the name Mahatma, which means 'a



man of great soul'. For the next little while, he examined the situation



here and, while doing so, attained a few victories in his fight against



oppression. Several times in 1917, he unhardened the spirits of peasants



and motivated them to rebel without the use of violence.



 



In 1919, Gandhi called upon all Indians to engage in non-violent



disobedience against the British Government by withdrawing from Government



jobs and from schools and colleges. The magnitude of this act showed when



many cities were held at a standstill as the governmental system was unable



to act. Such was the power of non-violent protest.



 



When, in 1920, Gandhi became the leader of the Congress, more Indians



gave up their governmental jobs to join the movement. After many of his



follower's were put into prison and cruelly dealt with, some people engaged



in violence. Gandhi's distaste for this reaction showed, yet he blamed



himself calling it a 'Himalayan miscalculation' to have failed to teach the



people how to react non-violently before asking them to protest. As a



result of his 'mistake', he called off the entire movement, thinking it had



been a failure. On the contrary, the movement had been a great success, no



longer did the Indians fear the British jails or the British guns. It was



evident now, that the British Government in India was inevitably going to



fall.



 



After many failures to reach an agreement with the British Government



and after a short 'Individual Civil Disobedience' movement where many were



imprisoned, the British finally gave the power to the Indians in 1946. But,



the question remained as to whether or not the area should be separated



into two on a communal basis. As a result, many riots broke out between the



different interests of the people.



 



Gandhi himself was opposed to separation and to the violence that had



broken out. He went from village to village trying to get the people to



understand the benefits of unity, but it wasn't working. He was forced to



agree with his comrades in the Congress who promoted partition into two



areas: India and Pakistan, which came about in 1947.



 



In 1948, Gandhi was fatally shot by a Hindu fanatic. All over the



globe, there was a certain sadness as many realized that the man whom they



had looked up to and followed was now dead. As Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the



Prime Minister of India, put it, "The light has gone out of our lives and



there is darkness everywhere and I do not quite know what to tell you and



how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu, as we call him the father of our



nation, is no more.



 



Gandhi's influence certainly spreads the globe. He has been the role



model for many famous, influential people. One of these persons is Martin



Luther King, Jr (1929-1968) who was famous for leading a non-violent



movement for racial equality in the U.S.A.. Another person is Joan Baez



(1941- ) who became famous as a folk-singer, a composer, and a guitarist.



She lead many antiwar and civil rights movements in the U.S.. A third



person could be Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister of India. He was



deeply saddened by Gandhi's death and could not have become Prime Minister



without Gandhi's efforts.



 



Indeed, Gandhi was a influential man who helped father the nation of



India as we know it today. Without him, the Indians might still be held



under British rule. Without him, many might not have been inspired to fight



racism or imperialism non-violently. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mohandas Gandhi.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Mohandas Gandhi



 



Born into a merchant family in 1869, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was



under the influence of powerful people. Members of his family had served as



prime ministers of an Indian state for several generations. His parents



were strong in their religion, being devout and earnest Hindus. They were a



part of a Hindu sect that worshipped Vishnu and promoted non-violence.



 



Apparently, he was most influenced by his mother, a gentle and



intelligent person. According to Hindu custom, he married at an early age



and grew to love his wife greatly. Together, they had four children and



adopted a fourth.



 



Later, in 1888, he travelled to England to become a barrister-at-law.



There were several important influences that he encountered here: the



Western material style of life, which he decided not to follow, and in the



simple Russian way of living he found: the New Testament, and the



Bhagavadgita, the bible of the Hare Krishna movement. It was here that he



developed a sense of the presence of God in his life and the lives of men.



 



Gandhi then returned to India and studied law in Bombay, but he



quickly denounced it, feeling that it was immoral and could not satisfy



one's conscience. Despite this, he used his schooling to help plead for



Indian settlers in South Africa that were being oppressed by the white



population. His personal experiences, including being ejected from a train



in Maritzburg, of not being allowed the same rights as others lead him to



begin a movement to help his people.



 



While in South Africa, Gandhi made himself poor so that he could



identify with his the peasants. He then proceeded to start a colony that



consisted of abused labourers. The colony became very large and many cities



were crippled by the lack of labourers. The government reacted to this by



jailing Gandhi several times along with many other of his followers. The



war he fought was one without weapons, already Gandhi was on his way to



starting his career of non-violent campaigns.



 



The main idea behind Gandhi's teachings was non-violence. The words of



the Sanskrit language: ahinsa and sayagraha clearly express Gandhi's



beliefs. The former means non-killing, non-destructive and the latter means



the force of universal truth. He believed that the killing of man or beast



is an unforgivable sin. Many who promoted these teachings of Gandhi simply



believed that it was their only option for resisting imperialism rather



than having a moral conviction towards his teachings. He taught that the



weapon that could be used was the conscience of the aggressor. This ahimsa



is, to some degree, in the tradition of Hinduism.



 



Hinduism teaches to stay away from temptation through various



exercises that test one's ability to perform a difficult task, this



devitalizes a person and causes him to act on a non-violent level.



 



In addition, he taught that one should act rather be held under



subservience. Gandhi himself once stated, "Mere knowledge of right and



wrong will not make one fit for salvation...the Gita says: 'No one has



attained his goal without action...' From this quotation, we learn that his



teachings are influenced by the Bhagavadgita and that he believes that one



must act to reach a goal. But, he believed that one should denounce the



rewards and simply devote one's life to acting on the behalf of others and



that life should be lived near the soil, away from the influence of



machines.



 



Also, Gandhi strongly believed in upholding the caste system,



believing that a person of one caste should stay a part of that caste. He



also upheld the old Hindu tradition of segregation of castes, indicating



that, "Interdining and intermarraige have never been a bar to disunion,



quarrels or worse." According to Hinduism, the caste system lies in respect



for one another's individuality.



 



Gandhi is well known for his efforts in fighting imperliasm in India



and South Africa. His methods were, unique in that they did not involve the



use of weapons.



 



During the South African War of 1899-1902 and during the Zulu



rebellion in 1906, Gandhi organised an ambulance corps consisting of



Indians to help the British fight. He believed that duty dictated that the



Indian population had a responsibity to help the British when they were in



a time of need. Perhaps he was trying to show them that the Indians put an



effort into helping the British forces just like everyone else and deserved



the same rights as everyone else.



 



It is interesting to note that Gandhi did not promote fighting, but he



helped those who were in need of assistance.



 



After the law was passed that all Indians were required to carry an



identity card with them at all times, Gandhi organised a group that



resisted the government. In 1914, Gandhi and his followers recieved their



first victory, the South African Government took away many of the laws that



had no real purpose except to humiliate the Indian people.



 



When Gandhi returned to India in 1914, the Indian population had heard



of his accomplishments and he was given the name Mahatma, which means 'a



man of great soul'. For the next little while, he examined the situation



here and, while doing so, attained a few victories in his fight against



oppression. Several times in 1917, he unhardened the spirits of peasants



and motivated them to rebel without the use of violence.



 



In 1919, Gandhi called upon all Indians to engage in non-violent



disobedience against the British Government by withdrawing from Government



jobs and from schools and colleges. The magnitude of this act showed when



many cities were held at a standstill as the governmental system was unable



to act. Such was the power of non-violent protest.



 



When, in 1920, Gandhi became the leader of the Congress, more Indians



gave up their governmental jobs to join the movement. After many of his



follower's were put into prison and cruelly dealt with, some people engaged



in violence. Gandhi's distaste for this reaction showed, yet he blamed



himself calling it a 'Himalayan miscalculation' to have failed to teach the



people how to react non-violently before asking them to protest. As a



result of his 'mistake', he called off the entire movement, thinking it had



been a failure. On the contrary, the movement had been a great success, no



longer did the Indians fear the British jails or the British guns. It was



evident now, that the British Government in India was inevitably going to



fall.



 



After many failures to reach an agreement with the British Government



and after a short 'Individual Civil Disobedience' movement where many were



imprisoned, the British finally gave the power to the Indians in 1946. But,



the question remained as to whether or not the area should be separated



into two on a communal basis. As a result, many riots broke out between the



different interests of the people.



 



Gandhi himself was opposed to separation and to the violence that had



broken out. He went from village to village trying to get the people to



understand the benefits of unity, but it wasn't working. He was forced to



agree with his comrades in the Congress who promoted partition into two



areas: India and Pakistan, which came about in 1947.



 



In 1948, Gandhi was fatally shot by a Hindu fanatic. All over the



globe, there was a certain sadness as many realized that the man whom they



had looked up to and followed was now dead. As Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the



Prime Minister of India, put it, "The light has gone out of our lives and



there is darkness everywhere and I do not quite know what to tell you and



how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu, as we call him the father of our



nation, is no more.



 



Gandhi's influence certainly spreads the globe. He has been the role



model for many famous, influential people. One of these persons is Martin



Luther King, Jr (1929-1968) who was famous for leading a non-violent



movement for racial equality in the U.S.A.. Another person is Joan Baez



(1941- ) who became famous as a folk-singer, a composer, and a guitarist.



She lead many antiwar and civil rights movements in the U.S.. A third



person could be Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister of India. He was



deeply saddened by Gandhi's death and could not have become Prime Minister



without Gandhi's efforts.



 



Indeed, Gandhi was a influential man who helped father the nation of



India as we know it today. Without him, the Indians might still be held



under British rule. Without him, many might not have been inspired to fight



racism or imperialism non-violently. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Mohandas Ghandi.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,  also known as mahatma Gandhi,  was a Indian 

nationalist leader, who established his country's freedom through a nonviolent revolution.

	Gandhi became a leader in a difficult struggle, the Indian campaign for home rule.  

He believed and dedicated his life to demonstrating that both individuals and nations owe 

it to themselves to stay free, and to allow the same freedom to others.  Gandhi was one of 

the gentlest of men, a devout and almost mystical Hindu, but he had and iron core of 

determination.  Nothing could change his convictions.  Some observers called him a 

master politician.  Others believed him a saint.  					
		
	Gandhi became a leader in a difficult struggle, the Indian campaign for home rule.  

He worked to reconcile all classes and religious sects.  Gandhi meant not only technical 

self-government but also self-reliance.   After World War I, in which he played an active 

part in recruiting campaigns, he launched his movement of  passive resistance to Great 

Britain.  When the Britain government failed to make amends, Gandhi established an 

organized campaign of noncooperation.  Through India, streets were blocked  by 

squatting Indians who refused to rise even when beaten by the police.  He declared he 

would go to jail even die before obeying anti-Asian Law.  Gandhi was arrested, but the 

British were soon forced to release him.  Economic independence for India, involving the 

complete boycott of  British goods, was made a result of Gandhi's self-ruling movement.  

The economic aspects of the movement were serious, for the exploitation of Indian 

villagers by British industrialists has resulted in extreme poverty in the country and the 

virtual destruction of Indian home industries.  As a  solution for such poverty, Gandhi 

supported revival of cottage industries; he began to use a spinning wheel as a token of the 

return to the simple village life he preached, and of the renewal of native Indian 

Industries.  

	Gandhi became the international symbol of a free India.  He lived a spiritual and 

ascetic life of prayer, fasting, and meditation.  He employed propaganda, agitation, 

demonstration, boycott, noncooperation, parallel government, and strikes.  He refused 

earthly possessions, he wore the loincloth and shawl of the lowliest Indian and lived on 

vegetables, fruit juices, and goat's milk. Indians thought of him as a saint and began to call 

him Mahatma.  Mahatma meant great soul, a title reserved for the greatest leaders.  

Gandhi's  nonviolence was the expression of a way of life understood in the Hindu 

religion.  By the Indian practice of nonviolence, Gandhi said, Great Britain would 

eventually consider violence useless and would leave India.  

	The Mahatma's political and spiritual hold on India was so great that the British 

authorities dared not to interfere with him.  In 1921 the Indian National Congress, the 

group that spearheaded the movement for nationhood, gave Gandhi complete executive 

authority, with the right of naming his own successor.  A series of armed revolts against 

Great Britain broke out, culminating in such violence that Gandhi confessed failure of the 

civil-disobedience campaign he had called, and ended it.  The British government again 

seized and imprisoned him in 1922. 

	In 1930 the Mahatma proclaimed a new campaign for civil disobedience, calling 

upon the Indian population to refuse to pay taxes, particularly the tax on salt.  The 

campaign was a two hundred mile march to the sea, in which thousands of Indians 

followed Gandhi from Ahmadabad to the Arabian Sea, where they made salt by vaporating 

sea water.  Once more Gandhi was arrested, but he was released in 1931, halting the 

campaign after the British made compromises to his demands.  In the same year Gandhi  

represented the Indian National Congress at a conference in London.  

	In 1932, Gandhi began new civil-disobedience campaigns against the British.  

Gandhi fasted for long periods several times; these fasts were effective measures against 

the British, because revolution might well have broken out in India if he had died.  In 

September 1932, while in jail, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death to improve the status of 

the Hindu Untouchables.  The British, by permitting the Untouchables to be considered as 

a separate part of the Indian voters, were, according to Gandhi, aid an injustice.  Although 

he was himself a member of the Vaisya (merchant) caste, Gandhi was the great leader of 

the movement in India dedicated to terminating the unjust social and economic aspects of 

the caste system.
	
	In 1934 Gandhi formally resigned from politics.  He raveled through India, 

teaching nonviolence.  A few years later, in 1939, he again returned to active political life 

because of the pending federation of Indian principalities with the rest of India.  Public 

unrest caused by the fast was so great that the colonial government intervened and the 

demands were granted.  The Mahatma again became the most important political figure in 

India.

	When World War II broke out, the congress party and Gandhi demanded a 

declaration of war aims and their application to India.  As a reaction to the unsatisfactory 

response from the British, the party decided not to support Britain in the war unless the 

country was granted complete and immediate independence.  The British refused, offering 

compromises that were rejected.

	By 1944 the Indian struggle for Independence was in its final stages, the British 

government having agreed to independence on condition that the two contending 

nationalist groups, the Muslim league and the Congress party, should resolve their 

differences.  Gandhi stood steadfastly against the partition of India but ultimately had to 

agree, in the hope that internal peace would be achieved after the Muslims demand for 

separation had been satisfied.  India and Pakistan became separate states when the British 

granted India its independence in 1947.  During the riots that followed the partition of 

India, Gandhi pleaded with Hindus and Muslims to live together peacefully.  Riots 

engulfed Calcutta, one of the largest cities in India, and the Mahatma fasted until 

disturbance ceased.  On January 13, 1948, he undertook another successful fast in New 

Delhi to bring about peace.

	Religious violence soon declined in India and Pakistan, and the teachings of 

Gandhi came to inspire nonviolent movements elsewhere. Within fifty five years of his self 

awakening after being evicted from South Africa train compartment, Gandhi managed to 

evict the British Empire from India.

	  








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Muhammad Ali.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
1005
Cassius Clay better known as Muhammad Ali is by far the greatest boxer of all time. "King of the World" by David Reminick is a very detailed biography of Muhammad and good documentation how boxing used to be. The book takes you on a journey behind the scenes of Alli's rise to the top and boxing run in with La Costra Nostra. On an October afternoon in 1954 when Cassius was 12 he left his 60 dollar red Schwinn outside the Columbia Auditorium to visit a bazaar. When he and his friends left he realizes that his new bike was stolen. Cassius was in a tearing rage and someone said that there was a police officer in the basement of a boxing gym. He went in demanding a statewide bike hunt and threatening to beat the hell out of whoever had stolen it. The officer Joe Martin asked Cassius if he could fight, and Cassius said no, so Martin invited him to come to the gym and learn how to box, so he could get pay back on the bicycle thief. This is the story of how Cassius first got interested and determined to become a great boxer. He also showed determinations when he brought home and Olympic gold medal. He trained very hard for our country and did a really good job. Even back then he ran his trashed talked his opponents, like in his first match he fought he one by a spit decision, after he found out he had one he shouted he would soon be "the greatest of all time". Know one knew at the time that his boasts would soon be the truth. Cassius mouth has gotten him a lot of key matches in his career. He gained his first title shot form Sonny Liston this way. One of his famous quotes was "I'm so mean I make medicine sick." He ran his mouth so often that people thought he ran his mouth just to psyche him self-out for the matches. That is said to be how he one all of his matches. Before the Liston fight he charted a bus around with signs that read "We all love Cassius Clay", "Without Cassius the game is dead! "March on Liston's camp." "BEAR HUNTIN'." Cassius first heavy weight title shot was against Sonny Liston a very big man who would give Mike Tyson a good run for his money. There was a lot of hype surrounding their first fight. Cassius ran his mouth so much that everyone thought that Liston was going to kill Clay. Liston actually threatened to kill Clay. The day of the fight the tension in the air was so thick you could cut it with a knife. In the ring before they touched gloves and Cassius told Liston "I've got you now, sucker!" Cassius knew that he could not match Liston's power, so he danced. Liston could land a punch on Clay all night. By the sixth round Liston knew he was going down that night with the quickness. It has been said but not proven that Sonny instructed his assistant to juice his gloves. This is were you rub ferric chloride on a pair of boxing gloves, which is a stinging solution that tends to blind. During the fourth round Cassius's eyes began to sting. He lost his vision and the sixth round. By the seventh he gained it back and came back with the knock out. He screamed "Eat your words!" Cassius was now world heavy weight champion. A rematch happened between Clay and Liston on May 25, 1965. Very early in the match Cassius knocked out Liston with the infamous "phantom punch". This punch was thrown so quickly that it almost escaped even the eye of the camera. Before the referee counted to ten Cassius was over Liston shouting "Get up and fight, you bum! You're supposed to be so bad! Nobody will believe this!" Liston was out cold. The crowd shouted "FAKE!" It has never been proven that Liston actually threw the fight. Muhammad was baptized Catholic, but got very interested with The Nation of Islam. In the beginning of his career he had to hide his interests in "The Nation", because he felt that the public was not ready for his conversion. In an interview he was once asked if he was a Muslim, and he replied "I am not Muslim, but they are the cleanest people I have ever met." When Cassius Clay converted to Muslim he changed his name to Muhammad Alli. He became very close with Elijah Muhammad and Malcom X. Malcom went to all of Alli's matches, disused The Nation of Islam, and ate breakfast together frequently. When Malcom X was assassinated it hit Alli very hard. He was depressed and got more scared about it getting killed him self. Muhammad Alli was an amazing athlete who did what he told everyone back when his bicycle was stolen. He is the greatest of all time. He is a very nice man who does many nice things for charities and The Nation of Islam worldwide. He had gotten a lot of brain damage from boxing so much that now in his old age he cannot speak and function quite right. But this does not affect "the butterfly" in his daily life. Muhammad Alli made a great contribution to boxing and the dancing style, and he will never be forgotten for his amazing technique. This book is a very entertaining and true to life book Muhammad Alli. I recommend this book to anyone who is interested in boxing and Muhammad Alli.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Music.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
278
The major characters in The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison were Pecola Breedlove, Cholly Breedlove, Claudia Macteer, and Frieda Macteer. Pecola Breedlove is an eleven-year-old black girl around which the story revolves. Her desire is to have the "bluest" eyes so that others will see her as pretty in the end that desire is what finishes her, she believes that God gives her blue eyes causing her insanity. Pecola doesn't have many friends other than Claudia and Frieda. In the Story we see how Pecola is teased on by other children her age and then later on abused by Cholly, her own father. Her mother doesn't care for her. Cholly Breedlove is Pecola's drunk father. He has never experienced a loving family; his father left him at an adolescent age and his mother then left him to die in a garbage can. His great aunt saved him and raises him She dies, which Happened when Cholly was fourteen. Cholly himself deserts his family, not really physically, but mentally, for Mr. Breedlove is always in a drunken state. Cholly dies alone in some warehouse. Claudia MacTeer is about nine years old when they story takes place. Claudia is black and doesn't see anything wrong with Begin Black. She isn't like the other girls who think it would be better if she was white, she destroys the white dolls that she receives for Christmas. Claudia learned from her mother how to be a "strong black female" and How to express her opinions in a white society. Frieda is somewhat a lot like her sister and had the same morals which were taught by none other then her mother.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Brother Christopher Mikula.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
My Brother Christopher Mikula


          Growing up with my brother wasn't the easiest thing in the world. We
never got along and my parents always had to brake up fights between the two of
us. Everything was a competition and I always fell short of victory. I was
different then my brother and that's the way I wanted to stay. I socialized with
a different crowd and I thought I knew it all. He would try to talk to me and I
would just role my eyes and walk away. But as time past and he moved out of the
house to study in the United States I began to realize how much I missed him. We
were both getting older and life seemed too short to waste. He was doing really
well and I wanted to do the same in the future. We began to talk and laugh
together. He had so much to say and he was full of good advice. He began to
treat me like a friend. When I was down he would try to get me up. When I was
frustrated he told me to hit him and nobody else, When I was hurt inside he
would sit there and just listen even if I didn't make any sense. His time at
home was precious to me and I took full advantage of him being home. When he
left I was losing not only a brother but a friend !

          Five years have pasted since my brother first left home. I'm away at
school and having a good time doing it. My brother goes to school just a ways
down the road. We have grown very close over the years. What I have here today ,
at school, playing hockey and studying to make the honor role, I owe partially
to my brother. He kicked me when I was almost going to let go and encouraged me
with his stories of his experience away from home. He has truly made the
greatest impact on my life and has helped me through those rough times. Although
it may have seemed I didn't like my brother in the past, you know as well as I
do I always wanted to be just like him. Christopher Mikula is not only my
brother but is my best friend forever !



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Brother.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 



          Growing up with my brother wasn't the easiest thing in the world. We never got along and my parents always had to brake up fights between the two of us. Everything was a competition and I always fell short of victory. I was different then my brother and that's the way I wanted to stay. I socialized with a different crowd and I thought I knew it all. He would try to talk to me and I would just role my eyes and walk away. But as time past and he moved out of the house to study in the United States I began to realize how much I missed him. We were both getting older and life seemed too short to waste. He was doing really well and I wanted to do the same in the future. We began to talk and laugh together. He had so much to say and he was full of good advice. He began to treat me like a friend. When I was down he would try to get me up. When I was frustrated he told me to hit him and nobody else, When I was hurt inside he would sit there and just listen even if I didn't make any sense. His time at home was precious to me and I took full advantage of him being home. When he left I was losing not only a brother but a friend ! 

          Five years have pasted since my brother first left home. I'm away at school and having a good time doing it. My brother goes to school just a ways down the road. We have grown very close over the years. What I have here today , at school, playing hockey and studying to make the honor role, I owe partially to my brother. He kicked me when I was almost going to let go and encouraged me with his stories of his experience away from home. He has truly made the greatest impact on my life and has helped me through those rough times. Although it may have seemed I didn't like my brother in the past, you know as well as I do I always wanted to be just like him. Christopher Mikula is not only my       brother but is my best friend forever !
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Job at EDak.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
My Job at E-Dak


Coming to E-Dak, for me, meant leaving a comfortable "big-six" accounting
position to work for a 30-person start-up.  It was a tremendous gamble, but my
choice came down to whether I wanted to continue performing repetitive audits or
face new challenges at E-Dak Dynamics, and in the process help to change the
world.

Working for E-Dak places me at the epicenter of one of the world's most dynamic
industries: telecommunications/ networking.  Although I knew little about E-
Dak's  domain of fiber-optics, I felt strongly that my fate rested in the
trenches of Silicon Valley, in an industry where only the paranoid survive, at a
company with a business model in defiance of Moore's Law.  At the time the term
'information superhighway' hadn't been coined yet, but it would soon become our
driving focus, as data traffic over long-haul networks skyrocketed and the
world's telecommunications providers increased their investment in high-capacity
fiber-optics.  With an innovative product line that provides pavement for the
information highway, E-Dak quenches an unending and growing thirst for bandwidth.

For me E-Dak has meant working at the fourth fastest growing company in Silicon
Valley, with $500 thousand of revenue exploding to over $60 million in four
short years.  It has also meant playing a role in the information revolution.

E-Dak gives me a broad business perspective. It's relatively small size
facilitates a close interaction with department heads.  If had I stayed in
public accounting or gone to a larger corporation, I would not have earned the
same breadth of experience, most likely being limited to working within a single
division or with a handful of accounts.  At E-Dak my scope encompasses all
aspects of accounting and finance across the entire enterprise.  My reports show
the "big picture" and are used extensively by senior management as a map to
chart company progress and plot future growth.

A start-up firm gives me the opportunity to deal with a wide variety of issues.
From its infancy, I have had the chance to help shape E-Dak's growth strategy.
Once proving myself to management, I was given challenges beyond the realm of
debits and credits, including managing a short-term investment portfolio,
implementing an information system, establishing a German joint venture, and
financing a real estate deal.  I derive much pleasure in overcoming each new
challenge and cherish the knowledge and experience gained in each endeavor.

E-Dak has allowed me to develop working relationships with a premium community
of finance and accounting professionals.  I've gained insight into how
accounting firm partners manage audit teams, how top-caliber investment bankers
perform valuations, how banking officers approve funding requests, and how tax
attorneys structure cross-border transactions.  Additionally, the contacts I've
made are invaluable to my career development. International exposure is
imperative to success in today's integrated global economy and I've also found
it to be very enjoyable.  Enriching business travels with the CEO to Ireland,
France, Germany, Japan, Hong Kong, and China have allowed me  to visit museums
and other places of interest, to talk with locals, and to observe other cultures.

My direct supervisor, the CEO of E-Dak, fosters a set of values that reflects a
confidence in, concern for, and desire for open communication with me and every
other employee.  In offering us new challenges she gives her staff the
opportunity to professionally evolve.  If an employee is faced with financial
difficulty, she assists them with personal funds.  All of this encourages a
sense of nurturing and belonging.  E-Dak employees share the same vision, work
as a team, and care for each other like family.

A common downside of family controlled companies is the tendency toward nepotism.
Employees learn to become wary of an "untouchable" group of staff and feel they
must continually consider the political implications in dealing with them.  I
applaud the good natured intentions of a business owner to aid relatives, but at
some stage in the growth of an enterprise, nepotism needs to be restricted.  At
E-Dak,  if I were promoted to senior management position, I would have
accounting  launch a new measurement program which, if effectively implemented,
can give managers objective feedback on employee performance and subsequently,
cultivate a new management culture. In a position of greater authority I would
continue to address this issue by emphasizing a clear body of employee standards
and measurements.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Job.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Coming to E-Dak, for me, meant leaving a comfortable "big-six" accounting position to work for a 30-person start-up.  It was a tremendous gamble, but my choice came down to whether I wanted to continue performing repetitive audits or face new challenges at E-Dak Dynamics, and in the process help to change the world.

Working for E-Dak places me at the epicenter of one of the world's most dynamic industries: telecommunications/ networking.  Although I knew little about E-Dak's  domain of fiber-optics, I felt strongly that my fate rested in the trenches of Silicon Valley, in an industry where only the paranoid survive, at a company with a business model in defiance of Moore's Law.  At the time the term 'information superhighway' hadn't been coined yet, but it would soon become our driving focus, as data traffic over long-haul networks skyrocketed and the world's telecommunications providers increased their investment in high-capacity fiber-optics.  With an innovative product line that provides pavement for the information highway, E-Dak quenches an unending and growing thirst for bandwidth.  

For me E-Dak has meant working at the fourth fastest growing company in Silicon Valley, with $500 thousand of revenue exploding to over $60 million in four short years.  It has also meant playing a role in the information revolution.

E-Dak gives me a broad business perspective. It's relatively small size facilitates a close interaction with department heads.  If had I stayed in public accounting or gone to a larger corporation, I would not have earned the same breadth of experience, most likely being limited to working within a single division or with a handful of accounts.  At E-Dak my scope encompasses all aspects of accounting and finance across the entire enterprise.  My reports show the "big picture" and are used extensively by senior management as a map to chart company progress and plot future growth. 

A start-up firm gives me the opportunity to deal with a wide variety of issues. From its infancy, I have had the chance to help shape E-Dak's growth strategy.  Once proving myself to management, I was given challenges beyond the realm of debits and credits, including managing a short-term investment portfolio, implementing an information system, establishing a German joint venture, and financing a real estate deal.  I derive much pleasure in overcoming each new challenge and cherish the knowledge and experience gained in each endeavor. 

E-Dak has allowed me to develop working relationships with a premium community of finance and accounting professionals.  I've gained insight into how accounting firm partners manage audit teams, how top-caliber investment bankers perform valuations, how banking officers approve funding requests, and how tax attorneys structure cross-border transactions.  Additionally, the contacts I've made are invaluable to my career development. International exposure is imperative to success in today's integrated global economy and I've also found it to be very enjoyable.  Enriching business travels with the CEO to Ireland, France, Germany, Japan, Hong Kong, and China have allowed me  to visit museums and other places of interest, to talk with locals, and to observe other cultures.   

My direct supervisor, the CEO of E-Dak, fosters a set of values that reflects a confidence in, concern for, and desire for open communication with me and every other employee.  In offering us new challenges she gives her staff the opportunity to professionally evolve.  If an employee is faced with financial difficulty, she assists them with personal funds.  All of this encourages a sense of nurturing and belonging.  E-Dak employees share the same vision, work as a team, and care for each other like family.  

A common downside of family controlled companies is the tendency toward nepotism.  Employees learn to become wary of an "untouchable" group of staff and feel they must continually consider the political implications in dealing with them.  I applaud the good natured intentions of a business owner to aid relatives, but at some stage in the growth of an enterprise, nepotism needs to be restricted.  At E-Dak,  if I were promoted to senior management position, I would have accounting  launch a new measurement program which, if effectively implemented, can give managers objective feedback on employee performance and subsequently, cultivate a new management culture. In a position of greater authority I would continue to address this issue by emphasizing a clear body of employee standards and measurements.  

Coming to E-Dak, for me, meant leaving a comfortable "big-six" accounting position to work for a 30-person start-up.  It was a tremendous gamble, but my choice came down to whether I wanted to continue performing repetitive audits or face new challenges at E-Dak Dynamics, and in the process help to change the world.

Working for E-Dak places me at the epicenter of one of the world's most dynamic industries: telecommunications/ networking.  Although I knew little about E-Dak's  domain of fiber-optics, I felt strongly that my fate rested in the trenches of Silicon Valley, in an industry where only the paranoid survive, at a company with a business model in defiance of Moore's Law.  At the time the term 'information superhighway' hadn't been coined yet, but it would soon become our driving focus, as data traffic over long-haul networks skyrocketed and the world's telecommunications providers increased their investment in high-capacity fiber-optics.  With an innovative product line that provides pavement for the information highway, E-Dak quenches an unending and growing thirst for bandwidth.  

For me E-Dak has meant working at the fourth fastest growing company in Silicon Valley, with $500 thousand of revenue exploding to over $60 million in four short years.  It has also meant playing a role in the information revolution.

E-Dak gives me a broad business perspective. It's relatively small size facilitates a close interaction with department heads.  If had I stayed in public accounting or gone to a larger corporation, I would not have earned the same breadth of experience, most likely being limited to working within a single division or with a handful of accounts.  At E-Dak my scope encompasses all aspects of accounting and finance across the entire enterprise.  My reports show the "big picture" and are used extensively by senior management as a map to chart company progress and plot future growth. 

A start-up firm gives me the opportunity to deal with a wide variety of issues. From its infancy, I have had the chance to help shape E-Dak's growth strategy.  Once proving myself to management, I was given challenges beyond the realm of debits and credits, including managing a short-term investment portfolio, implementing an information system, establishing a German joint venture, and financing a real estate deal.  I derive much pleasure in overcoming each new challenge and cherish the knowledge and experience gained in each endeavor. 

E-Dak has allowed me to develop working relationships with a premium community of finance and accounting professionals.  I've gained insight into how accounting firm partners manage audit teams, how top-caliber investment bankers perform valuations, how banking officers approve funding requests, and how tax attorneys structure cross-border transactions.  Additionally, the contacts I've made are invaluable to my career development. International exposure is imperative to success in today's integrated global economy and I've also found it to be very enjoyable.  Enriching business travels with the CEO to Ireland, France, Germany, Japan, Hong Kong, and China have allowed me  to visit museums and other places of interest, to talk with locals, and to observe other cultures.   

My direct supervisor, the CEO of E-Dak, fosters a set of values that reflects a confidence in, concern for, and desire for open communication with me and every other employee.  In offering us new challenges she gives her staff the opportunity to professionally evolve.  If an employee is faced with financial difficulty, she assists them with personal funds.  All of this encourages a sense of nurturing and belonging.  E-Dak employees share the same vision, work as a team, and care for each other like family.  

A common downside of family controlled companies is the tendency toward nepotism.  Employees learn to become wary of an "untouchable" group of staff and feel they must continually consider the political implications in dealing with them.  I applaud the good natured intentions of a business owner to aid relatives, but at some stage in the growth of an enterprise, nepotism needs to be restricted.  At E-Dak,  if I were promoted to senior management position, I would have accounting  launch a new measurement program which, if effectively implemented, can give managers objective feedback on employee performance and subsequently, cultivate a new management culture. In a position of greater authority I would continue to address this issue by emphasizing a clear body of employee standards and measurements.  

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
My Participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team


TOPIC 2. An experience or achievement that has had significant meaning in your
life ( You may discuss an obstacle that you have overcome )

	The  intellectual achievement that I feel is my most prominent academic
experience is participating, for the second consecutive year, in the Prince of
Wales Robotics Team.  This was an opportunity to gain valuble insights into
designing and manufacturing electrical robots with fellow teammates and
professional engineers.
	Firstly, in connection with my involvement in the Robotics Team, I was
able to learn the systematic ways of applying textbook material to realistic
problem solving. This was my greatest challenge. As a member of a core group, we
were able to devise a functional remote-controlled robot designed to achieve a
specific task under the constraints of time. As a consequence of team effort and
ingenuity, we ranked first in our province of British Columbia at the 1996
National Championships. Another aspect of my participation with this high school
club in problem solving was to acquire the neccessary funds in the construction
materials, competition fees as well as for personal expenses required for
traveling outside the province for competitions. Fund-raising was both stressful
and difficult due to the fact that corporate sponsors had limited resources and
could not finance to the extent that had been previously predicted. As time
progressed, the situation worsened simply because the district school board
received financial cuts due to the reduced provincial budget. The problem of
convincing sponsors outside of the norm became a task in itself. With this type
of experience, I am sure that I can organize a better fund-raising scheme as an
active member in future groups.
	However, without any doubt to have a successful fund-raising campaign,
promotion is definitely necessary. The main reason for this is that if the
knowledge of about the team was other than "we need financial sponsors", then
they could have been more comfortable and probably even willingful to donate
larger sums of money simply because they "could see" and trust where the money
was being spent. Hence, how to get people familiar about our Robotics Team
became critical. For instance, during last year's promotion scheme, I performed
the usual marketing mix with our team. Such a mix consisted of distributing
invitations for a Robotics Cocktail Party, sending out business letters to
target corporations and finallly, voicing the team's bulletin in the school
announcements. I believe the promotion of the team was not intensified
throughout the school year because it did not leave a lasting impression, or
sufficient information about the Robotics Competition itself to potential
sponsors and students. Therefore, the image of the "Prince of Wales Robotics
Team" could still not escape the stigma of "a team that does nothing but needs
money". This could explain why it became extremely difficult when we actually
tried to obtain financial aid from our sponsors. Such a precious experience is
essential and recommended for any student who loves engineering because in the
real and cut-throat business world, most engineering projects require business
finances in order to be successfully achieved.
	In conclusion, my participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team
helped me to gain valuble insights into designing and manufacturing electrical
robots with fellow teammates and professional engineers. In addition, I gained
some precious intellectural and business experience which I never encountered
before.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\My Personal Achivement.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
TOPIC 2. An experience or achievement that has had significant meaning in your life ( You may discuss an obstacle that you have overcome ) 			

	The  intellectual achievement that I feel is my most prominent academic experience is participating, for the second consecutive year, in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team.  This was an opportunity to gain valuble insights into designing and manufacturing electrical robots with fellow teammates and professional engineers. 
	Firstly, in connection with my involvement in the Robotics Team, I was able to learn the systematic ways of applying textbook material to realistic problem solving. This was my greatest challenge. As a member of a core group, we were able to devise a functional remote-controlled robot designed to achieve a specific task under the constraints of time. As a consequence of team effort and ingenuity, we ranked first in our province of British Columbia at the 1996 National Championships. Another aspect of my participation with this high school club in problem solving was to acquire the neccessary funds in the construction materials, competition fees as well as for personal expenses required for traveling outside the province for competitions. Fund-raising was both stressful and difficult due to the fact that corporate sponsors had limited resources and could not finance to the extent that had been previously predicted. As time progressed, the situation worsened simply because the district school board received financial cuts due to the reduced provincial budget. The problem of convincing sponsors outside of the norm became a task in itself. With this type of experience, I am sure that I can organize a better fund-raising scheme as an active member in future groups.
	However, without any doubt to have a successful fund-raising campaign, promotion is definitely necessary. The main reason for this is that if the knowledge of about the team was other than "we need financial sponsors", then they could have been more comfortable and probably even willingful to donate larger sums of money simply because they "could see" and trust where the money was being spent. Hence, how to get people familiar about our Robotics Team became critical. For instance, during last year's promotion scheme, I performed the usual marketing mix with our team. Such a mix consisted of distributing invitations for a Robotics Cocktail Party, sending out business letters to target corporations and finallly, voicing the team's bulletin in the school announcements. I believe the promotion of the team was not intensified throughout the school year because it did not leave a lasting impression, or sufficient information about the Robotics Competition itself to potential sponsors and students. Therefore, the image of the "Prince of Wales Robotics Team" could still not escape the stigma of "a team that does nothing but needs money". This could explain why it became extremely difficult when we actually tried to obtain financial aid from our sponsors. Such a precious experience is essential and recommended for any student who loves engineering because in the real and cut-throat business world, most engineering projects require business finances in order to be successfully achieved.
	In conclusion, my participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team helped me to gain valuble insights into designing and manufacturing electrical robots with fellow teammates and professional engineers. In addition, I gained some precious intellectural and business experience which I never encountered before. 

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Myra Hindley.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
777
A sadistic temptress, the aid and probable prompt of an evil and cold blooded killer. Or a 'political prisoner being used as a scapegoat by politicians and the media'? This is a very sensitive subject and people often respond with fear and anxiety when we decide to examine things like the Moors murders. We are told that our curiosity is 'unhealthy', and that wanting to know,or openly debate about a matter which is 'naturally' closed, can only be the desire of a sick mind. We are encouraged to turn a blind eye and leave well alone. It is obvious to me that to wish to examine something is not to condone it. Yet when somebody tries to ask questions about taboo subjects today, they are assumed to be sympathetic to the subject, maybe even a little deranged, and certainly suspect. They become an outcast, and this coming adrift from the herd is also something which many fear. Many say better to be seen to be part of the lynch-mob than to become its quarry but these are the people who don't have the strength of character to even attempt to be the quarry. During their trial, neither Hindley nor Brady showed remorse. Both were sentenced to life. They are still in prison at this time. The judge has stated that she will indeed spend the rest of her days in prison with no chance of ever being paroled, so why does she still argue against the judges decision ? A lot of pressure is put on Governments to keep Hidley inside and whether or not she is to be released is now often stated in party political statements prior to elections, as it is feared that the overriding pubic opinion could win or lose elections. On November the twenty - first supporters of Hindley called for a review of sentencing procedures after Jack Straw reaffirmed the decision of his predecessor, Michael Howard, of never releasing Hindley from prison. The ruling came under immediate attack from penal reformers and civil liberties campaigners. Myra Hindley is still petitioning for her release On October the seventh, 1998 Hindley concluded a hearing at the Court of Appeal trying to overrule her "whole-life tariff." In her new attempt at overturning her life sentence and win the right to a parole hearing, Hindley claimed that she can prove that she took part in the Moors murders only because Brady abused her, and threatened to kill her mother, grandmother and younger sister if she did not comply with his wishes. Freedom seeking Hindley alleges that Brady bit, strangled, whipped, drugged and even blackmailed her into taking part in the murders. Her lawyers claimed that the new material that was presented to court includes photographs taken by Brady showing her naked with bruises and injuries caused by bites, whips and canes. Then again, they did have a sadomasochistic relationship, and bruises and bite marks are something that goes with the territory. This latest court action represents the third strategy Hindley has adopted since conviction. At first she stayed silent, and then later revealed evidence of other murders in a fruitless bid to convince the public that she had reformed. Now she is claiming that she took part in the crimes unwillingly. Hindley has many supporters including Lord Longford, who has lobbied for Hindley's release, and describes her as a "good woman". Lord Longford said that Hindley had been a good young woman "until she began to work under a very gifted, but mentally disturbed man, Ian Brady. She was an infatuated accomplice 31 years ago". In December 1995, Hindley, who is in jail in northern England , gave her first public account of her crime spree, admitting she had been wicked and corrupt but claiming she was now a changed woman. Hindley described herself as a political prisoner who was being used as a scapegoat by politicians and the media. The formerly monstrous killer said: "The majority of people don't want to accept that people like myself can change, They prefer to keep me frozen in time together with that awful mugshot so that their attitudes, beliefs and perceptions can remain intact." This seems like a well thought out statement prepared by an inteligent woman who has had 30 years to think it up. The mugshots Hindley refers to are part of the results of the horrifying pressure exerted by the tabloids, Hindley, the Moors Murders they all make for a great story as the editor for once has the upper hand and knows what the public opinion is and that a story like this will recreate a public uproar and of course sell papers.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Napoleon I 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
NAPOLEON I



Napoleon's life was a very interesting one.  Starting a poor boy, hated by most, rising to rule a huge empire, and then finally being destroyed by his own arrogance and ending his life humbled, remembering what he had doe, and leaving it all in his memoirs for the world to read.

Napoleon was born in 1769, on the Island of Corsica.  His parents, Carlo and Letizia Bonaparte, were poor nobles.  When Napoleon was just 10 years old, his father helped to get him a mathematical scholarship to a military school at Brienne.  In the school, Napoleon was hated and considered a foreigner.  With no friends, Napoleon concentrated on academics, but still only graduated 42nd in us class of 58.  he then continued his education at the Military academy of Paris.  After one year there, he became second Lieutenant of artillery, at the age of 17.  As a Lieutenant, Napoleon did a lot of reading, mainly in the subjects of history, geography, economic affairs, and philosophy.  
Napoleon was assigned to a post at the Valence garrison when he became a Lieutenant, but spent most of his time in Corsica, without permission.  During one of these visits, Napoleon had trouble with a Corsican nationalist, named Pasquale Paoli, and Napoleon and his family fled to Marseille in 1793.
Later in 1793, the beginning of the French revolution, Napoleon led an artillery brigade to push out a British fleet that the Royalists had allowed in.  Napoleon's mission was a success, and he was promoted to general, and was assigned to the army in Northern Italy.
During the early part of the revolution, Napoleon had supported Maximilien Robespierre's revolutionary group, and when Robespiere was overthrown in 1794, Napoleon spent two months in jail for being associated with him.
When he was released from jail, Napoleon refused to fight a rebellion in Vandee, and he lost his military position for it.
In 1795, Paul Barras, the military leader of a soon to be implemented government, asked Napoleon to fight a revolt in Paris, Napoleon accepted, and quickly ended the revolt.  When the directory, the government Barras was part of, came into power, they rewarded Napoleon by appointing him the commander of the army of the interior in 1796.  He also married Josephine de Beauharrais in the same year.
Later in 1796, Napoleon launched a campaign to push the Austrian and Sardinian armies out of Northern Italy.  Napoleon quickly defeated the Sardinians at Mandovi (about 25 miles from current French borders).  In a treaty with the Sardinians, France was given Nice and Savoy.  He then went further into Italy, pushing into the Lombardy region.  He took the stronghold at Mantua after a long siege, and was heading toward Venice with little resistance when the Austrians surrendered, and Napoleon negotiated the treaty of Campo Formio, which ended what is now called the war of the first coalition.  While in Italy, Napoleon took large amounts of money and art to bring to France.
When Napoleon returned from Italy, it was suggested that he invade England.  Instead, he decided to invade British-owned Egypt.  After sneaking by the British navy, Napoleon landed in Egypt, and quickly carried out the occupation.  While Napoleon as inland, the British destroyed the French fleet, leaving Napoleon stuck in Egypt.
In early 1799, the Ottoman empire declared war on France.  To stop the Ottoman's from invading Egypt, Napoleon invaded Syria, but was turned back by Turkish troops. By mid-1799, the second coalition (formed by the Ottoman's and Austrians)  were defeating French forces in Europe, so Napoleon decided to return to France.
When Napoleon arrived in Paris, he began a conspiracy to overthrow the government.  He succeeded, and created a new government called the consulate, of which Napoleon became the first consul.
As consul, Napoleon made many good changes in France.  He created the Napoleonic code, which set up a complex code of civil law in the nation.  He worked with the Pope to reestablish the Roman Catholic faith in France.  He also stabilized the French economy, balancing the budget, established a national bank, and restored the value of French bonds.
In the mean time, Napoleon defeated Austria in Marengo, Italy, and signed the treaty of Luneville, ending the war of the second coalition.  He also made peace with Britain with the treaty of Amiens.  For his accomplishments in his first years in office, Napoleon was made consul for life in late 1802.
In this time of peace, Napoleon began to try to gain more territory, and exert influence on Europe.  He started to attempt control in Holland, Switzerland, and an area called Savoy-Piedmont.
In 1804, a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon drove the senate to tell Napoleon to begin a hereditary dynasty, making him emperor.  At his crowning, Napoleon took the crown from the Pope and crowned himself.  This shows the arrogance that Napoleon was capable of.  As an emperor, he began to value family ties, and he put much of his family in high positions, and had many of them marry people of power.  Even Napoleon himself divorced Josephine and Married the daughter of Emperor Francis of Austria, Marie Louise, who he quickly had a male heir with.
In 1803, Britain once again became angry with Napoleon's actions, and war began again.  Napoleon took the offensive and took an army of 170,000 to invade Britain.  He failed to draw the British navy away from Britain, and didn't have enough power to face them.  This, combined with Austria renewing war, forced Napoleon to return to France.  Toward the end of 1805, the fleet Napoleon had taken was destroyed by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending the threat of a French invasion of Britain.
After this victory, Britain formed the third coalition and was preparing revenge for the attempted invasion of Britain.  However, Napoleon had created the extremely powerful grand army, and, after easily pushing through southern Germany, crushed the Austrians and Russians at Ulm.
After taking Ulm, Napoleon went on to occupy Vienna, one of his largest victories came soon after.  The Austrian and Russian forces attacked Napoleon in Austerlitz, in an attempt to cut him off from Vienna.  However, Napoleon easily defeated the combined forces in what is now called the battle of Austerlitz.  In the treaty of Pressburg, the Austrians gave Venice and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, owned by France.
In 1806, not long after the defeat of the third coalition, Prussia organized the fourth coalition.  In the battles of Jena-Auerstadt, Eylau, and Friedland, Napoleon completely annihilated the Prussians and Russians, forcing them to surrender and sign the treaties of Tilsit, giving more land to France.
Angry at the power and defiance of Britain, Napoleon decided to eliminate their economic influence on the mainland.  His plan was called the continental system.  It was a blockade of British trade.  Portugal refused to follow this policy, and France sent troops into the Iberian Peninsula, starting the Peninsular war.
Austria took advantage of the conflict in Portugal and started the fifth coalition.  Napoleon quickly won many battles and finally defeated the Austrians at Wagram.  The treaty of Schonbrunn ended the fifth coalition in 1809, only four months after it had begun.
In 1802, Napoleon made the decision to invade Russian, in spite of the raging war in Iberia.  The Russians fell back and allowed Napoleon to take Moscow with little resistance.  While in Moscow waiting for a Russian surrender, Russian reinforcements surrounded the city while arsonists set much of it on fire.  Famine and the onset of winter made Napoleon's only option to break out of the city and retreat.  Napoleon's army narrowly escaped, and he quickly went to Paris to renew his forces.
The nations of Europe once again took advantage of Napoleon's time of weakness.  The Prussians, Russians, British, and Swedes organized the sixth coalition in 1813.  Napoleon had foreseen such an attempt, and had rebuilt his grand army.  Napoleon's victories at Lutzen and Bautzen brought about a short peace, but later in the year, Austria joined the coalition, and war began again.  Napoleon won the battle of Dresden, but was defeated while outnumbered two to one in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig.  He then fled to Paris, refusing to give up any territory, fearing that doing so would result in an overthrow.
In 1814, the coalition invaded France.  Napoleon tried to take advantage of the distance between the armies approaching Paris by picking them off one by one, but was eventually outnumbered.  Napoleon gave up his rule and was exiled to the island of Elba, and giving small amounts of governmental power there.  Louis XVII took the crown of France.  Aware of the French peoples dissatisfaction with Louis XVII's rule, Napoleon returned to France in 1815.  Napoleon marched toward Paris, going through areas in which he was popular, and King Louis fled the nation.
Napoleon said that he wished to return in peace, but the allies prepared to push him out.  Napoleon won several early victories against the rush of allied attackers, but was defeated for the last time at the battle of Waterloo.  Fleeing back to Paris, Napoleon once again stepped down, and surrendered to the British ship Bellerophon.  The British exiled him to the Island of Saint Helena.
Napoleon spent the remaining six years of his life living with his secretary and a few friends.  There, he dictated his memoirs.  He died on May 5, 1821. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Napoleon I.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
NAPOLEON I



Napoleon's life was a very interesting one.  Starting a poor boy, hated by most, rising to rule a huge empire, and then finally being destroyed by his own arrogance and ending his life humbled, remembering what he had doe, and leaving it all in his memoirs for the world to read.

Napoleon was born in 1769, on the Island of Corsica.  His parents, Carlo and Letizia Bonaparte, were poor nobles.  When Napoleon was just 10 years old, his father helped to get him a mathematical scholarship to a military school at Brienne.  In the school, Napoleon was hated and considered a foreigner.  With no friends, Napoleon concentrated on academics, but still only graduated 42nd in us class of 58.  he then continued his education at the Military academy of Paris.  After one year there, he became second Lieutenant of artillery, at the age of 17.  As a Lieutenant, Napoleon did a lot of reading, mainly in the subjects of history, geography, economic affairs, and philosophy.  
Napoleon was assigned to a post at the Valence garrison when he became a Lieutenant, but spent most of his time in Corsica, without permission.  During one of these visits, Napoleon had trouble with a Corsican nationalist, named Pasquale Paoli, and Napoleon and his family fled to Marseille in 1793.
Later in 1793, the beginning of the French revolution, Napoleon led an artillery brigade to push out a British fleet that the Royalists had allowed in.  Napoleon's mission was a success, and he was promoted to general, and was assigned to the army in Northern Italy.
During the early part of the revolution, Napoleon had supported Maximilien Robespierre's revolutionary group, and when Robespiere was overthrown in 1794, Napoleon spent two months in jail for being associated with him.
When he was released from jail, Napoleon refused to fight a rebellion in Vandee, and he lost his military position for it.
In 1795, Paul Barras, the military leader of a soon to be implemented government, asked Napoleon to fight a revolt in Paris, Napoleon accepted, and quickly ended the revolt.  When the directory, the government Barras was part of, came into power, they rewarded Napoleon by appointing him the commander of the army of the interior in 1796.  He also married Josephine de Beauharrais in the same year.
Later in 1796, Napoleon launched a campaign to push the Austrian and Sardinian armies out of Northern Italy.  Napoleon quickly defeated the Sardinians at Mandovi (about 25 miles from current French borders).  In a treaty with the Sardinians, France was given Nice and Savoy.  He then went further into Italy, pushing into the Lombardy region.  He took the stronghold at Mantua after a long siege, and was heading toward Venice with little resistance when the Austrians surrendered, and Napoleon negotiated the treaty of Campo Formio, which ended what is now called the war of the first coalition.  While in Italy, Napoleon took large amounts of money and art to bring to France.
When Napoleon returned from Italy, it was suggested that he invade England.  Instead, he decided to invade British-owned Egypt.  After sneaking by the British navy, Napoleon landed in Egypt, and quickly carried out the occupation.  While Napoleon as inland, the British destroyed the French fleet, leaving Napoleon stuck in Egypt.
In early 1799, the Ottoman empire declared war on France.  To stop the Ottoman's from invading Egypt, Napoleon invaded Syria, but was turned back by Turkish troops. By mid-1799, the second coalition (formed by the Ottoman's and Austrians)  were defeating French forces in Europe, so Napoleon decided to return to France.
When Napoleon arrived in Paris, he began a conspiracy to overthrow the government.  He succeeded, and created a new government called the consulate, of which Napoleon became the first consul.
As consul, Napoleon made many good changes in France.  He created the Napoleonic code, which set up a complex code of civil law in the nation.  He worked with the Pope to reestablish the Roman Catholic faith in France.  He also stabilized the French economy, balancing the budget, established a national bank, and restored the value of French bonds.
In the mean time, Napoleon defeated Austria in Marengo, Italy, and signed the treaty of Luneville, ending the war of the second coalition.  He also made peace with Britain with the treaty of Amiens.  For his accomplishments in his first years in office, Napoleon was made consul for life in late 1802.
In this time of peace, Napoleon began to try to gain more territory, and exert influence on Europe.  He started to attempt control in Holland, Switzerland, and an area called Savoy-Piedmont.
In 1804, a failed assassination attempt on Napoleon drove the senate to tell Napoleon to begin a hereditary dynasty, making him emperor.  At his crowning, Napoleon took the crown from the Pope and crowned himself.  This shows the arrogance that Napoleon was capable of.  As an emperor, he began to value family ties, and he put much of his family in high positions, and had many of them marry people of power.  Even Napoleon himself divorced Josephine and Married the daughter of Emperor Francis of Austria, Marie Louise, who he quickly had a male heir with.
In 1803, Britain once again became angry with Napoleon's actions, and war began again.  Napoleon took the offensive and took an army of 170,000 to invade Britain.  He failed to draw the British navy away from Britain, and didn't have enough power to face them.  This, combined with Austria renewing war, forced Napoleon to return to France.  Toward the end of 1805, the fleet Napoleon had taken was destroyed by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending the threat of a French invasion of Britain.
After this victory, Britain formed the third coalition and was preparing revenge for the attempted invasion of Britain.  However, Napoleon had created the extremely powerful grand army, and, after easily pushing through southern Germany, crushed the Austrians and Russians at Ulm.
After taking Ulm, Napoleon went on to occupy Vienna, one of his largest victories came soon after.  The Austrian and Russian forces attacked Napoleon in Austerlitz, in an attempt to cut him off from Vienna.  However, Napoleon easily defeated the combined forces in what is now called the battle of Austerlitz.  In the treaty of Pressburg, the Austrians gave Venice and Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, owned by France.
In 1806, not long after the defeat of the third coalition, Prussia organized the fourth coalition.  In the battles of Jena-Auerstadt, Eylau, and Friedland, Napoleon completely annihilated the Prussians and Russians, forcing them to surrender and sign the treaties of Tilsit, giving more land to France.
Angry at the power and defiance of Britain, Napoleon decided to eliminate their economic influence on the mainland.  His plan was called the continental system.  It was a blockade of British trade.  Portugal refused to follow this policy, and France sent troops into the Iberian Peninsula, starting the Peninsular war.
Austria took advantage of the conflict in Portugal and started the fifth coalition.  Napoleon quickly won many battles and finally defeated the Austrians at Wagram.  The treaty of Schonbrunn ended the fifth coalition in 1809, only four months after it had begun.
In 1802, Napoleon made the decision to invade Russian, in spite of the raging war in Iberia.  The Russians fell back and allowed Napoleon to take Moscow with little resistance.  While in Moscow waiting for a Russian surrender, Russian reinforcements surrounded the city while arsonists set much of it on fire.  Famine and the onset of winter made Napoleon's only option to break out of the city and retreat.  Napoleon's army narrowly escaped, and he quickly went to Paris to renew his forces.
The nations of Europe once again took advantage of Napoleon's time of weakness.  The Prussians, Russians, British, and Swedes organized the sixth coalition in 1813.  Napoleon had foreseen such an attempt, and had rebuilt his grand army.  Napoleon's victories at Lutzen and Bautzen brought about a short peace, but later in the year, Austria joined the coalition, and war began again.  Napoleon won the battle of Dresden, but was defeated while outnumbered two to one in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig.  He then fled to Paris, refusing to give up any territory, fearing that doing so would result in an overthrow.
In 1814, the coalition invaded France.  Napoleon tried to take advantage of the distance between the armies approaching Paris by picking them off one by one, but was eventually outnumbered.  Napoleon gave up his rule and was exiled to the island of Elba, and giving small amounts of governmental power there.  Louis XVII took the crown of France.  Aware of the French peoples dissatisfaction with Louis XVII's rule, Napoleon returned to France in 1815.  Napoleon marched toward Paris, going through areas in which he was popular, and King Louis fled the nation.
Napoleon said that he wished to return in peace, but the allies prepared to push him out.  Napoleon won several early victories against the rush of allied attackers, but was defeated for the last time at the battle of Waterloo.  Fleeing back to Paris, Napoleon once again stepped down, and surrendered to the British ship Bellerophon.  The British exiled him to the Island of Saint Helena.
Napoleon spent the remaining six years of his life living with his secretary and a few friends.  There, he dictated his memoirs.  He died on May 5, 1821. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nat Turner.TXT
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555
Nat Turner Early in the morning of August 22,1831, a band of black slaves, led by a lay preacher named Nat Turner, entered the Travis house in Southampton County, Virginia and killed five members of the Travis family. This was the beginning of a slave uprising that was to become known as Nat Turner's rebellion. Over a thirty-six hour period, this band of slaves grew sixty or seventy in number and slew fifty-eight white persons in and around Jerusalem, Virginia (seventy miles east of Richmond) before the local community could act to stop them. This rebellion raised southern fears of a general slave uprising and had a profound influence on the attitude of Southerners towards slavery. Nat Turner was born a slave in Virginia in 1800, owned by a southern man, named Ben Turner. It was common during this time for the slave to be given the last name of their owner. In this relatively easygoing atmosphere at this particular plantation, Nat was allowed to learn to read and write. growing up, Nat played with his owners' son until the age of twelve. He was then put to work as a field hand. He believed that that God had chosen him to lead the blacks to freedom. After seeing a halo around the sun on August 13, 1831, Turner believed this to be a sign from god to begin the revolt. Beginning on August 22 and lasting for two days, Turner and seventy recruits went on a rampage. They killed Turner's master and fifty-eight more men, women and children. Many blacks did not join him because they feared the futility of his effort. The revolt was crushed within two days and Nat Turner managed to escape. The first report of the Turner revolt was sent in form of a letter from the Postmaster of Jerusalem to the Governor of Virginia. This letter as sent by way of Petersburg and was first published in the Richmond Constitutional Whig of August 23,1831. This group of 40 blacks, led by Nat Tuner , terrorized the white population of Southampton County, Virginia and killed 60 whites before the Virginia Militia and local residents killed of captured the insurgents. Even though the rebellion was over on August 23, the leader of the blacks, Nat Turner escaped capture by the militia. On August 24, militia units from the surrounding counties descended on Jerusalem, Virginia and a massacre of blacks in Southampton began. Much of this torture and killing of blacks was done by outrageous groups of white men , bent on revenge. Hundreds of blacks were killed, most of whom were totally innocent of any involvement on total clue of Turner's rebellion. On October 31, Benjamin Phipps, a local farmer, spotted Nat Turner at gun point hiding behind a bush. Tuner was then later placed in jail where he confessed. On November 5, Turner was convicted if insurrection and sentenced to hang and on November 11 the sentence was carried out. His corpse was used for scientific study. Nat Tuner's Rebellion was significant in pointing out to Northerners that slavery was a problem. The Northerners then fought for thirty years to end the "peculiar institution" in America.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\nate martins.TXT
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990
nate martins black ass should rot in hell. Charles Darwin Essay submitted by Blake Labrato Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. He was the son of Robert Waring Darwin and his wife Susannah, and the grandson of the scientist Erasmus Darwin. His mother died when he was eight years old, and he was brought up by his sister. He was taught the classics at Shrewsbury, then sent to Edinburgh to study medicine, which he hated. Like many modern students Darwin only excelled in subjects that intrigued him. Although his father was a physician, Darwin was uninterested in medicine and he was unable to stand the sight of surgery. He did eventually obtain a degree in theology from Cambridge University, although theology was of minor interest to him also. What Darwin really liked to do was tramp over the hills, observing plants and animals, collecting new specimens, scrutinizing their structures, and categorizing his findings, guided by his cousin William Darwin Fox, an entomologist. Darwin's scientific inclinations were encouraged by his botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, who was instrumental, despite heavy paternal opposition, in securing a place for Darwin as a naturalist on the surveying expedition of HMS Beagle to Patagonia. Under Captain Robert Fitzroy, Darwin visited Tenerife, the Cape Verde Island, Brazil, Montevideo, Buenos Aires, Chile, the Galapagos Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, and Tasmania. In the Cape Verde Island Darwin devised his theory of coral reefs. Another significant stop on the trip was in the Galapagos Islands, it was here that Darwin found huge populations of tortoises and he found that different islands were home to significantly different types of tortoises. Darwin then found that on islands without tortoises, prickly pear cactus plants grew with their pads and fruits spread out over the ground. On islands that had hundreds of tortoises, the prickly pears grew substantially thick, tall trunks, bearing the pads and fruits high above the reach of the tough mouthed tortoises. During this five-year expedition he obtained intimate knowledge of the fauna, flora, and geology of many lands, which equipped him for his later investigations. In 1836, Darwin returned to England after the 5 years with the expedition, and by 1846 he had became one of the foremost naturalists of his time, and he also published several works on the geological and zoological discoveries of his voyage. He developed a friendship with Sir Charles Lyell, became secretary of the Geological Society, a position which Darwin held for four years. In 1839 Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood. But constantly bothering Darwin was the problem of the origin of the species. Darwin sought to prove his ideal of evolution with simple examples. The various breeds of dogs provided a striking example of what Darwin sought to prove. Dogs descended from wolves, and even today the two will readily crossbreed. With rare exceptions, however, few modern dogs actually resemble wolves. Some breeds, such as the Chihuahua and the Great Dane, are so different from one another that they would be considered separate species in the wild. If humans could cross breed such radically different dogs in only a few hundred years, Darwin reasoned that nature could produce the same spectrum of living organisms given the hundreds of millions of years that she had been allowed. From 1842 Darwin lived at Down House, a country gentleman among his gardens, conservatories, pigeons, and fowls. The practical knowledge he gained there, especially in variation and interbreeding proved invaluable. At Down House Darwin addressed himself to the great work of his life, the problem of the origin of species. After five years of collecting the evidence, Darwin began to speculate on the subject. In 1842 he drew up his observations in some short notes, expanded in 1844 into a sketch of conclusions for his own use. These conclusions were the principle of natural selection, the germ of the Darwinian Theory, but with typical caution he delayed publication of his hypothesis. However, in 1858 Alfred Wallace sent Darwin a letter of his book, Malay Archipelago, which, to Darwin's surprise, contained the main ideas of his own theory of natural selection. Lyell and Joseph Hooker persuaded him to submit a paper of his own, based on his 1844 sketch, which was read simultaneou! sly with Wallace's before the Linnean Society in 1858. Neither Darwin nor Wallace was present on that historic occasion. Darwin then set to work to condense his vast mass of notes, and put into shape his great work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, published in 1859. This great work, received throughout Europe with the deepest interest, was violently attacked because it did not agree with the account of creation given in the Book of Genesis. But eventually it succeeded in obtaining recognition from almost all biologists. Darwin, contrary to popular belief, never said that human beings evolved from apes. He said that all life began as a primordial soup, with molecules acting on each other. So from the first single celled organism all life came. One single organism, when acted on by several different molecules could give rise to many different species of animals. It is in this way that he stated that Ape and man were similar...each having a similar life's beginning. Darwin died after a long illness, leaving eight children, several of whom achieved great distinction. Though not the sole originator of the evolution hypotheses, or even the first to apply the concept of descent to plants and animals, Darwin was the first distinction thinker to gain for that theory a wide acceptance among biological experts. By adding to the crude evolutionism of Erasmus Darwin, Lamarck, and others, his own specific idea of natural selection, Darwin supplied a sufficient cause, which raised it from a hypothesis to a verifiable theory. "A man who dares to waste an hour of life has not discovered the value of life." Darwin
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Neil Armstrong 4.TXT
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Background


	
Neil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio in the year 1930.  His services as a pilot were called upon during the Korean War.  Shortly after graduating from Purdue University in 1955, Armstrong joined the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, then known as the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.  At the time the functions of the N.A.C. were to plan, direct, and conduct all United States aeronautical and space activities, except for those that were primarily military.  Armstrong served as a civilian test pilot at Edwards Air Base in Lancaster, California.  In 1962 Armstrong became the first civilian to enter the astronaut-training program.  

Gemini VII Mission
	
	In March of 1966, Armstrong completed his training and became the command pilot of the Gemini 8 mission.  The crew of this mission was made up of David R. Scott and himself.  In case of any emergencies with the two men before the launch, either physical or mental, a backup crew was made.  The backup crew consisted of Charles Conrad Junior, and Richard Gordon Junior.  The objectives of the mission were: 
	A. (Main) Rendezvous and dock with Gemini Agena target vehicle (GATV) and                
                 conduct  EVA operations.
	B. (Secondary) Rendezvous and dock in the 4th revolution.  Perform docked-
                 vehicle maneuvers, Evaluate systems and conduct 10 experiments.
The mission was set to launch on March 15, 1966.  Due to minor problems with the spacecraft and launch vehicle hardware the launch was delayed one day.  The launch was successful.  Because of problems with the spacecraft control system, the crew was forced to undock after approximately thirty minutes.  The spacecraft-target vehicle combination had begun to encounter increasing yaw and roll rates.  The crew regained control of their spacecraft by using the reentry control system, which prompted and early landing in a secondary landing area in the Pacific after 10 hours, 41 minutes, and 26 seconds.  No EVA was performed.  An electrical short caused the failure in the control system.  Docking and re-rendezvous secondary objectives were not achieved due to the shortened mission.      

Apollo 11 mission


	
	The Apollo 11 mission was funded under the Nixon administration during the heat of the space race with the Russians.  The main purpose of this launch was to put a man on the moon, and successfully back down to Earth.  The crew consisted of three men, two of which would walk on the moon.  Edwin Aldrin Junior of the United Stated Air Force, Armstrong, and Lieutenant Colonel Michael Collins, also of the U.S. airforce made up the crew.  Collins remained in the Lunar Orbit following the separation, piloting the command and service module.  The Lunar Module descended to the surface of the moon on July 20, landing at the edge of Mare Tranquilitatis.  A few hours later, Armstrong, in his somewhat bulky space suit, descended the latter and, at 10:56 PM (Eastern Standard Time) stepped onto the surface of the moon.  His first words, which will forever go down in history were, "That's one small step for man.... One giant leap for mankind."  Aldrin soon joined him, and the two astronauts spent more then two hours walking on the lunar surface.  They gathered 47 pounds of soil samples, took photographs, and set up solar wind equipment, a laser beam reflector, and a seismic experiment package.  The two men also put up an American flag, and talked, by satellite communications, with United States President Richard Nixon in the White House.  The men found that walking and running at one-sixth the gravity of Earth was not difficult.  Also by satellite communication, millions of people watched live television broadcast from the moon.   Returning to the Lunar Module, and taking off their space suits, the two astronauts rested several hours before takeoff.  They left the moon in the ascent stage of the Lunar Module, after docking with the command and service module and the transfer of the astronauts to the spacecraft.  The return flight of the Apollo 11 was without mishap and the vehicle splashed down and was recovered on July 24 in the Pacific Ocean, close to Hawaii.
	Due to fears of terrestrial contamination by living lunar organisms, the astronauts put on biological isolation garments before leaving the spacecraft.  They were placed under quarantine for three weeks.  Both men remained in good health.  The mission was completely successful.  It also set the stage for future space exploration and lunar landings. 

Life after Apollo 11
After his years as a pilot during the Korean War, and becoming commander of both the Gemini 8 and the Apollo 11 missions, not to mention being the first civilian to enter NASA's astronaut program, and the first man to walk on the moon, Neil Armstrong retired from the space program.  In 1971 he became a professor of Aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati.  Neil Armstrong still lives today, a very proud and accomplished man.  
	      
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Neil Armstrong.TXT
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Background


	
Neil Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio in the year 1930.  His services as a pilot were called upon during the Korean War.  Shortly after graduating from Purdue University in 1955, Armstrong joined the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, then known as the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.  At the time the functions of the N.A.C. were to plan, direct, and conduct all United States aeronautical and space activities, except for those that were primarily military.  Armstrong served as a civilian test pilot at Edwards Air Base in Lancaster, California.  In 1962 Armstrong became the first civilian to enter the astronaut-training program.  

Gemini VII Mission
	
	In March of 1966, Armstrong completed his training and became the command pilot of the Gemini 8 mission.  The crew of this mission was made up of David R. Scott and himself.  In case of any emergencies with the two men before the launch, either physical or mental, a backup crew was made.  The backup crew consisted of Charles Conrad Junior, and Richard Gordon Junior.  The objectives of the mission were: 
	A. (Main) Rendezvous and dock with Gemini Agena target vehicle (GATV) and                
                 conduct  EVA operations.
	B. (Secondary) Rendezvous and dock in the 4th revolution.  Perform docked-
                 vehicle maneuvers, Evaluate systems and conduct 10 experiments.
The mission was set to launch on March 15, 1966.  Due to minor problems with the spacecraft and launch vehicle hardware the launch was delayed one day.  The launch was successful.  Because of problems with the spacecraft control system, the crew was forced to undock after approximately thirty minutes.  The spacecraft-target vehicle combination had begun to encounter increasing yaw and roll rates.  The crew regained control of their spacecraft by using the reentry control system, which prompted and early landing in a secondary landing area in the Pacific after 10 hours, 41 minutes, and 26 seconds.  No EVA was performed.  An electrical short caused the failure in the control system.  Docking and re-rendezvous secondary objectives were not achieved due to the shortened mission.      

Apollo 11 mission


	
	The Apollo 11 mission was funded under the Nixon administration during the heat of the space race with the Russians.  The main purpose of this launch was to put a man on the moon, and successfully back down to Earth.  The crew consisted of three men, two of which would walk on the moon.  Edwin Aldrin Junior of the United Stated Air Force, Armstrong, and Lieutenant Colonel Michael Collins, also of the U.S. airforce made up the crew.  Collins remained in the Lunar Orbit following the separation, piloting the command and service module.  The Lunar Module descended to the surface of the moon on July 20, landing at the edge of Mare Tranquilitatis.  A few hours later, Armstrong, in his somewhat bulky space suit, descended the latter and, at 10:56 PM (Eastern Standard Time) stepped onto the surface of the moon.  His first words, which will forever go down in history were, "That's one small step for man.... One giant leap for mankind."  Aldrin soon joined him, and the two astronauts spent more then two hours walking on the lunar surface.  They gathered 47 pounds of soil samples, took photographs, and set up solar wind equipment, a laser beam reflector, and a seismic experiment package.  The two men also put up an American flag, and talked, by satellite communications, with United States President Richard Nixon in the White House.  The men found that walking and running at one-sixth the gravity of Earth was not difficult.  Also by satellite communication, millions of people watched live television broadcast from the moon.   Returning to the Lunar Module, and taking off their space suits, the two astronauts rested several hours before takeoff.  They left the moon in the ascent stage of the Lunar Module, after docking with the command and service module and the transfer of the astronauts to the spacecraft.  The return flight of the Apollo 11 was without mishap and the vehicle splashed down and was recovered on July 24 in the Pacific Ocean, close to Hawaii.
	Due to fears of terrestrial contamination by living lunar organisms, the astronauts put on biological isolation garments before leaving the spacecraft.  They were placed under quarantine for three weeks.  Both men remained in good health.  The mission was completely successful.  It also set the stage for future space exploration and lunar landings. 

Life after Apollo 11
After his years as a pilot during the Korean War, and becoming commander of both the Gemini 8 and the Apollo 11 missions, not to mention being the first civilian to enter NASA's astronaut program, and the first man to walk on the moon, Neil Armstrong retired from the space program.  In 1971 he became a professor of Aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati.  Neil Armstrong still lives today, a very proud and accomplished man.  
	      
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nicholas Ferrar 4.TXT
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Christian History 102


Nicholas Ferrar


Nicholas Ferrar was assumed to be born in 1592. I have found that his most probable birth 
date was in February of 1593. This is due to the usual calendar confusion: England was 
not at that time using the new calendar adopted in October 1582. It was 1593 according 
to our modern calendar, but at the time the new year in England began on the following 
March 25th.
Nicholas Ferrar was one of the more interesting figures in English history. His family was 
quite wealthy and were heavily involved in the Virginia Company, which had a Royal 
Charter for the plantation of Virginia. People like Sir Walter Raleigh were often visitors to 
the family home in London. Ferrars' niece was named Virginia, the first known use of this 
name. Ferrar studied at Cambridge and would have gone further with his studies but the damp air of the fens was bad for his health and he traveled to Europe, spending time in the warmer climate of Italy.

On his return to England he found his family had fared badly. His brother John had become over extended financially and the Virginia Company was in danger of loosing its charter. Nicholas dedicated himself to saving the family fortune and was successful. He served for a short time as Member of Parliament, where he tried to promote the cause for the Virginia Company. His efforts were in vain for the company lost their charter anyway.

Nicholas is given credit for founding a Christian community called the English Protestant Nunnery at Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, England. After Ferrar was ordained as a deacon, he retired and started his little community.  Ferrar was given help and support with his semi-religious community by John Collet, as well as Collet's wife and fourteen children. They devoted themselves to a life of prayer, fasting and almsgiving (Matthew 6:2,5,16). 

 The community was founded in 1626, when Nicholas was 34 years old. Banning together, they restored an abandoned church that was being used as a barn. Being of wealthy decent, Ferrar purchased the manor of Little Gidding, a village which had been discarded since the Black Death (a major outbreak of the bubonic plague in the 14th century), a few miles off the Great North Road, and probably recommended by John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln whose palace was in the nearby village of Buckden. About thirty people along with Mary Ferrar (Ferrars' mother) moved into the manor house. Nicholas became spiritual leader of the community.

The community was very strict under the supervision of Nicholas. They read daily offices of the Book of Common Prayer, including the recital of the complete Psalter. every day.




Day and night there was at least one member of the community kneeling in prayer at the alter, that they were keeping the word, "Pray without ceasing". They taught the neighborhood children, and looked after the health and well being of the community. They fasted and in many ways embraced voluntary poverty so that they might have as much money as possible for the relief of the poor. They wrote books and stories dealing with various aspects of Christian faith and practice. The memory of the community survived to inspire and influence later undertakings of Christian communal living, and one of T.S. Eliots' Four Quartets is called "Little Gidding."

Nicholas was a bookbinder and he taught the community the craft as well as gilding and the so-called pasting printing by means of a rolling press. The members of the community produced the remarkable "Harmonies" of the scriptures, one of which was produced by Mary Collet for King Charles I.. Some of the bindings were in gold toothed leather, some were in velvet which had a considerable amount of gold tooling. Some of the embroidered bindings of this period have also been attributed to the so-called nuns of Little Gidding.

The community attracted much attention and was visited by the king, Charles I. He was attracted by a gospel harmony they had produced. The king asked to borrow it only to return it a few months later in exchange for a promise of a new harmony to give his son, Charles, Prince of Wales. This the Ferrars did, and the superbly produced and bound manuscript passed through the royal collection, and is now on display at the British Library. 

Nicholas Ferrar, who was never married, died in 1637, and was buried outside the church in Little Gidding. Nicholas's brother John assumed the leadership of the community.

 John did his best to make the community thrive. He was visited by the king several times. At one time the king came for a visit with the Prince of Wales, he donated some money that he had won in a card game from the prince.  The kings last visit was in secret and at night. He was fleeing from defeat from the battle of Naseby and was heading north to try to enlist support from the Scots. John brought him secretly to Little Gidding and got him away the next day.

The community was now in much danger. The Presbyterian Puritans were now on the rise and the community was condemned with a series of pamphlets calling them an "Arminian Nunnery" (Ariminius was a Dutch reformer and theologian who opposed the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and election)

In 1646 the community was forcibly broken up by Parliamentary soldiers. Their brass baptismal font was damaged, cast into the pond and not recovered until 200 years later. The village remained in the Ferrar family but it was not until the 18th century that the church was restored by another Nicholas Ferrar. Ferrar restored the church, shortened the nave by about 8 feet and built the "dull facade" that Eliot spoke of.


In the mid 19th century, William Hodgkinson came along and restored the church more. He installed the armorial stain glass windows, (4 windows with the arms of Ferrar, Charles the 1st and Bishop Williams inserted). He then put in a rose window at the east end (this rose window was later replaced by a Palladian-style plain glass window). Hodgkinson recovered the brass font, restored it and reinstalled it in the church. An elaborate 18th century chandelier now hangs in the church, installed by Hodgkinson. 







from _Little Gidding_ by T.S. Eliot 

     If you came this way,
     Taking any route, starting from anywhere,
     At any time or at any season,
     It would always be the same: you would have to put off
     Sense and notion. You are not here to verify,
     Instruct yourself, or inform curiosity
     Or carry report. You are here to kneel
     Where prayer has been valid. And prayer is more
     Than an order of words, the conscious occupation
     Of the praying mind, or the sound of the voice praying.
     And what the dead had no speech for, when living,
     They can tell you, being dead: the communication
     Of the dead is tongued with fire
     beyond the language of the living.
     Here, the intersection of the timeless moment
     Is England and nowhere. Never and always.














Bibliography


Etherington & Roberts. Dictionary--Ferrar, Nicholas - Bookbinding and the Conservation
     of Books A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology. Ferrar, Nicholas ( 1592-1637 )


Columbia Encyclopedia - Table Of Contents - Columbia Encyclopedia. F. Faber, Frederick
     William. Faber, Johannes. Fabian, Saint. Fabian Society. Fabius. Fabius, Laurent. fable.
     fabliau, plural...


Christian Biographies Commemorated in November - FOR THE FEAST OF ALL SAINTS
     (1 NOV) FIRST READING: Ecclesiasticus 44:1-10,13-14 ("Let us now praise famous
     men...."; a commemoration of patriarchs,...


A History Of The Church In England, J.R.H.Moorman,  Morehouse Publishing copyright 1980


The Story Of Christianity, Justo L Gonzalez, Harper Collins Publishers copyright 1984


The Episcopal Church, David Locke Hippocrene Books, New York copyright 1991
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nicholas Ferrar.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

Christian History 102


Nicholas Ferrar


Nicholas Ferrar was assumed to be born in 1592. I have found that his most probable birth 
date was in February of 1593. This is due to the usual calendar confusion: England was 
not at that time using the new calendar adopted in October 1582. It was 1593 according 
to our modern calendar, but at the time the new year in England began on the following 
March 25th.
Nicholas Ferrar was one of the more interesting figures in English history. His family was 
quite wealthy and were heavily involved in the Virginia Company, which had a Royal 
Charter for the plantation of Virginia. People like Sir Walter Raleigh were often visitors to 
the family home in London. Ferrars' niece was named Virginia, the first known use of this 
name. Ferrar studied at Cambridge and would have gone further with his studies but the damp air of the fens was bad for his health and he traveled to Europe, spending time in the warmer climate of Italy.

On his return to England he found his family had fared badly. His brother John had become over extended financially and the Virginia Company was in danger of loosing its charter. Nicholas dedicated himself to saving the family fortune and was successful. He served for a short time as Member of Parliament, where he tried to promote the cause for the Virginia Company. His efforts were in vain for the company lost their charter anyway.

Nicholas is given credit for founding a Christian community called the English Protestant Nunnery at Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, England. After Ferrar was ordained as a deacon, he retired and started his little community.  Ferrar was given help and support with his semi-religious community by John Collet, as well as Collet's wife and fourteen children. They devoted themselves to a life of prayer, fasting and almsgiving (Matthew 6:2,5,16). 

 The community was founded in 1626, when Nicholas was 34 years old. Banning together, they restored an abandoned church that was being used as a barn. Being of wealthy decent, Ferrar purchased the manor of Little Gidding, a village which had been discarded since the Black Death (a major outbreak of the bubonic plague in the 14th century), a few miles off the Great North Road, and probably recommended by John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln whose palace was in the nearby village of Buckden. About thirty people along with Mary Ferrar (Ferrars' mother) moved into the manor house. Nicholas became spiritual leader of the community.

The community was very strict under the supervision of Nicholas. They read daily offices of the Book of Common Prayer, including the recital of the complete Psalter. every day.




Day and night there was at least one member of the community kneeling in prayer at the alter, that they were keeping the word, "Pray without ceasing". They taught the neighborhood children, and looked after the health and well being of the community. They fasted and in many ways embraced voluntary poverty so that they might have as much money as possible for the relief of the poor. They wrote books and stories dealing with various aspects of Christian faith and practice. The memory of the community survived to inspire and influence later undertakings of Christian communal living, and one of T.S. Eliots' Four Quartets is called "Little Gidding."

Nicholas was a bookbinder and he taught the community the craft as well as gilding and the so-called pasting printing by means of a rolling press. The members of the community produced the remarkable "Harmonies" of the scriptures, one of which was produced by Mary Collet for King Charles I.. Some of the bindings were in gold toothed leather, some were in velvet which had a considerable amount of gold tooling. Some of the embroidered bindings of this period have also been attributed to the so-called nuns of Little Gidding.

The community attracted much attention and was visited by the king, Charles I. He was attracted by a gospel harmony they had produced. The king asked to borrow it only to return it a few months later in exchange for a promise of a new harmony to give his son, Charles, Prince of Wales. This the Ferrars did, and the superbly produced and bound manuscript passed through the royal collection, and is now on display at the British Library. 

Nicholas Ferrar, who was never married, died in 1637, and was buried outside the church in Little Gidding. Nicholas's brother John assumed the leadership of the community.

 John did his best to make the community thrive. He was visited by the king several times. At one time the king came for a visit with the Prince of Wales, he donated some money that he had won in a card game from the prince.  The kings last visit was in secret and at night. He was fleeing from defeat from the battle of Naseby and was heading north to try to enlist support from the Scots. John brought him secretly to Little Gidding and got him away the next day.

The community was now in much danger. The Presbyterian Puritans were now on the rise and the community was condemned with a series of pamphlets calling them an "Arminian Nunnery" (Ariminius was a Dutch reformer and theologian who opposed the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and election)

In 1646 the community was forcibly broken up by Parliamentary soldiers. Their brass baptismal font was damaged, cast into the pond and not recovered until 200 years later. The village remained in the Ferrar family but it was not until the 18th century that the church was restored by another Nicholas Ferrar. Ferrar restored the church, shortened the nave by about 8 feet and built the "dull facade" that Eliot spoke of.


In the mid 19th century, William Hodgkinson came along and restored the church more. He installed the armorial stain glass windows, (4 windows with the arms of Ferrar, Charles the 1st and Bishop Williams inserted). He then put in a rose window at the east end (this rose window was later replaced by a Palladian-style plain glass window). Hodgkinson recovered the brass font, restored it and reinstalled it in the church. An elaborate 18th century chandelier now hangs in the church, installed by Hodgkinson. 







from _Little Gidding_ by T.S. Eliot 

     If you came this way,
     Taking any route, starting from anywhere,
     At any time or at any season,
     It would always be the same: you would have to put off
     Sense and notion. You are not here to verify,
     Instruct yourself, or inform curiosity
     Or carry report. You are here to kneel
     Where prayer has been valid. And prayer is more
     Than an order of words, the conscious occupation
     Of the praying mind, or the sound of the voice praying.
     And what the dead had no speech for, when living,
     They can tell you, being dead: the communication
     Of the dead is tongued with fire
     beyond the language of the living.
     Here, the intersection of the timeless moment
     Is England and nowhere. Never and always.














Bibliography


Etherington & Roberts. Dictionary--Ferrar, Nicholas - Bookbinding and the Conservation
     of Books A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology. Ferrar, Nicholas ( 1592-1637 )


Columbia Encyclopedia - Table Of Contents - Columbia Encyclopedia. F. Faber, Frederick
     William. Faber, Johannes. Fabian, Saint. Fabian Society. Fabius. Fabius, Laurent. fable.
     fabliau, plural...


Christian Biographies Commemorated in November - FOR THE FEAST OF ALL SAINTS
     (1 NOV) FIRST READING: Ecclesiasticus 44:1-10,13-14 ("Let us now praise famous
     men...."; a commemoration of patriarchs,...


A History Of The Church In England, J.R.H.Moorman,  Morehouse Publishing copyright 1980


The Story Of Christianity, Justo L Gonzalez, Harper Collins Publishers copyright 1984


The Episcopal Church, David Locke Hippocrene Books, New York copyright 1991
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nixon Platform.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
I.  Civil Rights

	A.  Some people, mostly blacks, did not get equal rights.

	B.  Nixon believed  fundamentaly in responsible civil rights policy on the part of the federal 	      	      government.

II.  Health Care Issues

	A.  People believed in having health care for everyone, and being taken care of from the 	    
                      goverments money.

	B.  Nixon believed that there should be health care for everyone, employer mandates,
                      pharmancy care, and preventive care.

III.  Law Enforcement

	A.  Crime increased and drud use began to bloom.	

	B.  Nixon believed that the judiciary had moved too far to the left.

IV.  Nutrition and Human Needs

	A.  Nutrition and Health programs were needed to teach people about thier human needs.
	
	B.  Nixon believed in being concerned with people's health and thinks that programs like
	      Meals on Wheels are good for teaching people about nutrition and food.

V.  Poverty

	A.  More and more people began to lose thier homes, causing poverty to rise up.

	B.  Nixon believed that the only way to end the war on poverty is for the goverment to provide 	                                                                       
                      welfare for everyone, which would mean raising taxes, which means more poverty.  He says                                                                                                                                     there is always going to be poverty.   








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nixon.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Nixon


I.  Civil Rights

	A.  Some people, mostly blacks, did not get equal rights.

	B.  Nixon believed  fundamentaly in responsible civil rights policy on
the part of the federal government.

II.  Health Care Issues

	A.  People believed in having health care for everyone, and being taken
care of from the goverments money.

	B.  Nixon believed that there should be health care for everyone,
employer mandates, pharmancy care, and preventive care.

III.  Law Enforcement

	A.  Crime increased and drud use began to bloom.

	B.  Nixon believed that the judiciary had moved too far to the left.

IV.  Nutrition and Human Needs

	A.  Nutrition and Health programs were needed to teach people about
thier human needs.

	B.  Nixon believed in being concerned with people's health and thinks
that programs like Meals on Wheels are good for teaching people about nutrition and
food.

V.  Poverty

	A.  More and more people began to lose thier homes, causing poverty to
rise up.

	B.  Nixon believed that the only way to end the war on poverty is for
the goverment to provide welfare for everyone, which would mean raising taxes,
which means more poverty.  He says there is always going to be poverty.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nostradamus 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Nostradamus 
	

	Michel De Nostradame, otherwise known as Nostradamus was born December 14, 1503.  His family was of Jewish ancestry.  His grandfather, Pierre de Nostradame, had settled in Provence because by the mid-1400s,  many Jews had come to live there.
	Nostradamus' father was Jacques de Nostradame.  Jacques worked as a scholary, since most people didn't know how to write he wrote things for them, from love letters to formal documents.  Jacques' income provided a good home at the time. Nostradamus' earliest recollection of his home was the following:
	Typical of all provençal homes in the sixteenth century was the room 
             where both domestic and social life was carried on.  The center and 
	symbol of the room's activity was the great fireplace, majestic, caver-
	nous, holding a banked fire that never went out since his mother and 
	father moved in.  Shining pots and pans of brass hung low from the 
	mantle shelf.  At either angle of the fireplace was an oak settle were his 
	grandfathers liked to laze and talk when they came to visit.  On the walls 
	hung light cabinet shelves holding salt and spices.   
	Nostradamus had one definite brother, Cèsar who wrote Histoire de Provence, a book which sustains the myth of the Nostradamus royal line.  Historians think Nostradamus had three other brothers, Bertrand, Hector, and Antoine, but they are not sure and almost nothing is known about them besides their names.
	Nostradamus was educated by his grandfathers.  First Peyrot, who had been a great traveler, brought Nostradamus up in his home.   He taught Nostradamus the basics of mathematics, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Astrology.  After Peyrot de Nostradamus' death Nostradamus moved back in with his parents, Jacques and Reynière.  It is thought that his other grandfather took over his education for a while, but the family decided to send Nostradamus to Avignon, which at that period was the center of Renaissance learning.   At Avignon, Nostradamus spent many hours at University libraries. 
	Nostradamus' biggest interest was astrology.  His interest in astrology began to worry his parents, and by the advice of his grandfather he was sent to the University of Montpellier to study medicine.  The University of Montpellier was regarded as second only to that of  Paris in all of France.  	Nostradamus arrived there in 1522 at nineteen years of age.  In three years he studied all the subjects needed for his bachelor's degree.  He was tutored by some of the finest doctors in Europe.  The process of getting a degree was far more arduous than in the present day, and lasted much longer.  A successful candidate was given his license to practice by the bishop of  Montpellier.  Nostradamus achieved this in 1525.  
	Nostradamus left the University and acquired a great reputation as a doctor by treating victims of the plague that ravaged that part of Europe, he would return later to get his doctorate.  He was widely known for his use of his own formulas and prescriptions.  He was recorded as being very successful.  He made his medicines according to the patient; the richer the patient, the more expensive the ingredients were.  
	One of Nostradamus' medicines used for tooth decay consisted of the following, it was not at all unusual for the time:
	
	300-400 red roses, picked before dawn.
	1oz. Sawdust from green fresh Cyprus.
	6oz. Iris of Florence.
	3oz. cloves.
	3 drams sweet smelling calamus, tiger lily.
	6 drams lignaloes.
Pulverize the rose petals, in a mortar, mixed with a powder made from the above.  Make the mixture in to lozenges , dry and keep enclosed, away from the air.  Keep one in the mouth at all times. 
	
	Nostradamus got married in 1547 to a woman named Anne Ponsarde Gemelle, a rich woman and a widow.  Even though Nostradamus was Christian he had not always been that way, and the townspeople abused him as a Jew.  His reputation decreased.  It was around this time that he started writing books called Almanachs.  The first one, which came out in 1550, had information on things like the weather and crops.  Many of these things were wrong, but the book was a success.  
	In 1555 Nostradamus completed a series of books of prophecies, each containing 100 predictions about the future.  They were joined in a book for the first time in 1568, the book contained 1000 predictions.  Nostradamus predicted a lot of things.  The following are several:
	In prophecy number I.XXVI he says that in mid-day a great man, one that promises change to the world will be struck and killed in front of thousands of people.  This is thought to explain John F. Kennedy's death.  In prophecy number II.V Nostradamus predicts a third World War.  He says a great country in the north will be struck by a great blast from the sky, plague and blood.  Many will suffer.  
     The books of prophecies are very interesting to read and are very accurate. 
     Starting in 1561 a streak of prophecies became true and Nostradamus' reputation grew so much that Jean Aymes de Chavigny the ex-mayor Beaunne, a city in France was quoted as saying "People came to France and sought Nostradamus as the only thing to be seen."  
     By the end of 1565 Nostradamus was seriously ill suffering from arthiritis and gout, a painfull swelling of the joints.  On June 17, 1566 he wrote his will; a couple of days later he died.  He lived 62 years, 6 months, 7 days.  He was very old if you consider the fact that he lived in the 1500's when the life expectancy was around 43 years.  When he was 57 Chavigny described him as the following:
	He was a little under medium height, robust, nible, and vigorous.  He had a large open 
	forehead, a straight nose and  gray eyes which were usually pleasant, but blazed when he
	 was angry.  His cheeks were red even at his old age.  He spoke little, but thought a great 
	deal.  He slept only four or five hours a night.  I can remember his charity to the poor
	towards whom he was very generous. 
	Nostradamus had a great life he had everything he wanted besides that fact that his family was killed by the plague and he was not able too help them.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Nostradamus.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Nostradamus 
	

	Michel De Nostradame, otherwise known as Nostradamus was born December 14, 1503.  His family was of Jewish ancestry.  His grandfather, Pierre de Nostradame, had settled in Provence because by the mid-1400s,  many Jews had come to live there.
	Nostradamus' father was Jacques de Nostradame.  Jacques worked as a scholary, since most people didn't know how to write he wrote things for them, from love letters to formal documents.  Jacques' income provided a good home at the time. Nostradamus' earliest recollection of his home was the following:
	Typical of all provençal homes in the sixteenth century was the room 
             where both domestic and social life was carried on.  The center and 
	symbol of the room's activity was the great fireplace, majestic, caver-
	nous, holding a banked fire that never went out since his mother and 
	father moved in.  Shining pots and pans of brass hung low from the 
	mantle shelf.  At either angle of the fireplace was an oak settle were his 
	grandfathers liked to laze and talk when they came to visit.  On the walls 
	hung light cabinet shelves holding salt and spices.   
	Nostradamus had one definite brother, Cèsar who wrote Histoire de Provence, a book which sustains the myth of the Nostradamus royal line.  Historians think Nostradamus had three other brothers, Bertrand, Hector, and Antoine, but they are not sure and almost nothing is known about them besides their names.
	Nostradamus was educated by his grandfathers.  First Peyrot, who had been a great traveler, brought Nostradamus up in his home.   He taught Nostradamus the basics of mathematics, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Astrology.  After Peyrot de Nostradamus' death Nostradamus moved back in with his parents, Jacques and Reynière.  It is thought that his other grandfather took over his education for a while, but the family decided to send Nostradamus to Avignon, which at that period was the center of Renaissance learning.   At Avignon, Nostradamus spent many hours at University libraries. 
	Nostradamus' biggest interest was astrology.  His interest in astrology began to worry his parents, and by the advice of his grandfather he was sent to the University of Montpellier to study medicine.  The University of Montpellier was regarded as second only to that of  Paris in all of France.  	Nostradamus arrived there in 1522 at nineteen years of age.  In three years he studied all the subjects needed for his bachelor's degree.  He was tutored by some of the finest doctors in Europe.  The process of getting a degree was far more arduous than in the present day, and lasted much longer.  A successful candidate was given his license to practice by the bishop of  Montpellier.  Nostradamus achieved this in 1525.  
	Nostradamus left the University and acquired a great reputation as a doctor by treating victims of the plague that ravaged that part of Europe, he would return later to get his doctorate.  He was widely known for his use of his own formulas and prescriptions.  He was recorded as being very successful.  He made his medicines according to the patient; the richer the patient, the more expensive the ingredients were.  
	One of Nostradamus' medicines used for tooth decay consisted of the following, it was not at all unusual for the time:
	
	300-400 red roses, picked before dawn.
	1oz. Sawdust from green fresh Cyprus.
	6oz. Iris of Florence.
	3oz. cloves.
	3 drams sweet smelling calamus, tiger lily.
	6 drams lignaloes.
Pulverize the rose petals, in a mortar, mixed with a powder made from the above.  Make the mixture in to lozenges , dry and keep enclosed, away from the air.  Keep one in the mouth at all times. 
	
	Nostradamus got married in 1547 to a woman named Anne Ponsarde Gemelle, a rich woman and a widow.  Even though Nostradamus was Christian he had not always been that way, and the townspeople abused him as a Jew.  His reputation decreased.  It was around this time that he started writing books called Almanachs.  The first one, which came out in 1550, had information on things like the weather and crops.  Many of these things were wrong, but the book was a success.  
	In 1555 Nostradamus completed a series of books of prophecies, each containing 100 predictions about the future.  They were joined in a book for the first time in 1568, the book contained 1000 predictions.  Nostradamus predicted a lot of things.  The following are several:
	In prophecy number I.XXVI he says that in mid-day a great man, one that promises change to the world will be struck and killed in front of thousands of people.  This is thought to explain John F. Kennedy's death.  In prophecy number II.V Nostradamus predicts a third World War.  He says a great country in the north will be struck by a great blast from the sky, plague and blood.  Many will suffer.  
     The books of prophecies are very interesting to read and are very accurate. 
     Starting in 1561 a streak of prophecies became true and Nostradamus' reputation grew so much that Jean Aymes de Chavigny the ex-mayor Beaunne, a city in France was quoted as saying "People came to France and sought Nostradamus as the only thing to be seen."  
     By the end of 1565 Nostradamus was seriously ill suffering from arthiritis and gout, a painfull swelling of the joints.  On June 17, 1566 he wrote his will; a couple of days later he died.  He lived 62 years, 6 months, 7 days.  He was very old if you consider the fact that he lived in the 1500's when the life expectancy was around 43 years.  When he was 57 Chavigny described him as the following:
	He was a little under medium height, robust, nible, and vigorous.  He had a large open 
	forehead, a straight nose and  gray eyes which were usually pleasant, but blazed when he
	 was angry.  His cheeks were red even at his old age.  He spoke little, but thought a great 
	deal.  He slept only four or five hours a night.  I can remember his charity to the poor
	towards whom he was very generous. 
	Nostradamus had a great life he had everything he wanted besides that fact that his family was killed by the plague and he was not able too help them.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\One of the achieve that I am proud of.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
TOPIC. An experience or achievement that has had significant meaning in your life ( You may discuss an obstacle that you have overcome ) 		
	The  intellectual achievement that I feel is my most prominent academic experience is participating, for the second consecutive year, in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team.  This was an opportunity to gain valuable insights into designing and manufacturing electrical robots with fellow teammates and professional engineers. 
	Firstly, in connection with my involvement in the Robotics Team, I was able to learn the systematic ways of applying textbook material to realistic problem solving. This was my greatest challenge. As a member of a core group, we were able to devise a functional remote-controlled robot designed to achieve a specific task under the constraints of time. As a consequence of team effort and ingenuity, we ranked first in our province of British Columbia at the 1996 National Championships. Another aspect of my participation with this high school club in problem solving was to acquire the necessary funds in the construction materials, competition fees as well as for personal expenses required for traveling outside the province for competitions. Fund-raising was both stressful and difficult due to the fact that corporate sponsors had limited resources and could not finance to the extent that had been previously predicted. As time progressed, the situation worsened simply because the district school board received financial cuts due to the reduced provincial budget. The problem of convincing sponsors outside of the norm became a task in itself. With this type of experience, I am sure that I can organize a better fund-raising scheme as an active member in future groups.
	However, without any doubt to have a successful fund-raising campaign, promotion is definitely necessary. The main reason for this is that if the knowledge of about the team was other than "we need financial sponsors", then they could have been more comfortable and probably even willing to donate larger sums of money simply because they "could see" and trust where the money was being spent. Hence, how to get people familiar about our Robotics Team became critical. For instance, during last year's promotion scheme, I performed the usual marketing mix with our team. Such a mix consisted of distributing invitations for a Robotics Cocktail Party, sending out business letters to target corporations and finally, voicing the team's bulletin in the school announcements. I believe the promotion of the team was not intensified throughout the school year because it did not leave a lasting impression, or sufficient information about the Robotics Competition itself to potential sponsors and students. Therefore, the image of the "Prince of Wales Robotics Team" could still not escape the stigma of "a team that does nothing but needs money". This could explain why it became extremely difficult when we actually tried to obtain financial aid from our sponsors. Such a precious experience is essential and recommended for any student who loves engineering because in the real and cut-throat business world, most engineering projects require business finances in order to be successfully achieved.
	In conclusion, my participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team helped me to gain valuable insights into designing and manufacturing electrical robots with fellow teammates and professional engineers. In addition, I gained some precious intellectual and business experience which I never encountered before. 

HONOR STATEMENT: My signature certifies that this statement is entirely my own original work.

@copyright by alan chan (sorry but I forgot to type this by the first time!)

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\oprah biography.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

	What makes a strong person? Strong is generalized in many forms; physical and mental. From Webster's dictionary, a strong person is defined as having moral or intellectual power. Every strong person has overcome something to make them who they are. Within the world of entertainment there are many strong individuals but only one stands out. Oprah Winfrey stands as a beacon, not only in the worlds of media and entertainment but also in the larger realm of public discourse.(Everton) Oprah's strong personality was developed in her childhood, contributed to her rise to fame, and made a lasting impact on society.
	First, Oprah's strong personality was developed in her childhood. How she developed her strong personality can be seen in her family life. Born in 1954 to unmarried parents, Winfrey was raised by her grandmother on a farm with no indoor plumbing in Kosciusko, Mississippi. (Winfrey) Her household is definitely not like and ordinary American house. Even thought times were hard Oprah made the best of it. When she thought things couldn't get any worse, something no one should be put through happened. A number of male relatives and friends of Oprah's mother sexually abused her. (Winfrey) Something this horrible happing most people would just give up in life, but not Oprah. Her strength is probably the only thing that helped her out this bad period of her life but she kept on going and eventually started college at Tennessee University. In her childhood Oprah's strong personality was developed.
	Second, Oprah's strong personality was contributed in her rise to fame. Oprah had continued to stay strong through out her childhood which brought success to her rise to fame. Two years later, while a sophomore at Tennessee State University, she was hired as Nashville's first female and first black TV news anchor. (Oprah) This showed strength in her personality because of the color of her skin and gender, people thought something like this couldn't be done but she proved them wrong because she kept at it. Oprah knew that when she wanted something she wouldn't give up and this shows how strong her personality was. Oprah discovered that anchoring was really not a good job for her because she cried when a story was sad, laughed and when she misread a word, so she found her medium by being a talk show hostess. Winfrey launched the Oprah Winfrey Show in 1986 as a nationally syndicated program. (Oprah) At first ratings were low, but her intense stories of her childhood and how her strong personality brought her this far drastically brought her ratings to the top. Oprah probably never thought she would come this far in life; she was once poor with parents who didn't care about her, but with her strong personality it brought her so far. Contributing to her rise to fame was her strong personality.
	Third, Oprah's strong personality made a lasting impact on society. How she demonstrated her strong personality can be seen in the impacted to society Winfrey has been making a difference for millions of viewers, young and old, black and white for nearly a dozen years. (Everton) It's through her talk show that she can show her strong personality by keeping others strong by encouraging them. Oprah exhorts viewers to improve their lives and the world by sharing her intelligent thoughts. You'll be surprised how many people look up to Oprah. Although she doesn't hold any political office she has impacted our nation by presenting herself to mothers and young adult women as a role model. (Everton) Oprah has inspired others who are working towards their personal goal by interviewing successors and aim the conversation on the person's achievements. Oprah's strong personality has presented women in this country with the tool to build their own lives and to strengthen their families. In her impact to society, Oprah's strong personality has inspired people.
	In conclusion Oprah strong personality has been see through out her life and has been a huge impact on society. Oprah serves the country as a leader. For many women young and old women she is an outstanding role model because she makes them feel as if she's a friend. A strong personality can take anyone a long way; it's just up to them to do so. If Oprah can go through what she did, we all can.
Yenelle Jackson
2 English
12/18/03
Biography Essay




f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Orson Welles.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Orson Welles


	The term 'genius' was applied to him from the cradle, first by the man
who would vie with Orson's father to nurture the talent all agreed resided in
the fragile boy.(Leaming, 3)
	George Orson Welles was born in Kenosha, Wisconsin on May 6, 1915. He
was the second son of Richard Head Welles, an inventor, and his wife Beatrice
Ives, a concert pianist.  His mother was the child of a wealthy family.  She had
been brought up to revere artistic achievements, and began playing the piano,
professionally, only after her marriage broke up when Orson was six.  A local
doctor, Russian-Jewish orthopedist named Maurice Bernstein, who was a passionate
admirer of Mrs. Welles, on first sight of the infant Orson declared him to be
without a doubt a genius.  Bernstein showered Orson with gifts and virtually
took over the direction of his life, to such an extent that Orson called him
'Dadda'. When Orson was four, his father moved his family to Chicago, possibly
to get away from Bernstein's attentions.  This plan failed when Bernstein almost
immediately followed them.  Through Bernstein who was always forcing him to
perform, and through his mother musical talents, the young Orson quickly came
into contact with Chicago's musical society and walked on in the Chicago Opera's
production of 'Samson and Delilah', then in a more important role of Butterfly's
love-child Trouble in 'Madame Butterfly'.  He also got a temporary job dressed
up as a rabbit at Marshall Fields.
	Shortly after Orson's sixth birthday his parent's formally separated,
his father taking off and his mother remaing to pursue her music ambitions in
Chicago.  Welles live most of his time with his mother and Dadda Bernstein, but
regularly traveled with his father on holidays.
	His health effectively kept him out of school until he was eleven, so he
had acquired a lot of cultural groundings at home with his mother and the doctor.
 Fears that he might prove ungovernable like his brother Richard, who had been
expelled from school by the age of ten and subsequently banished from home,
brought him in 1926 to enrollment in the Todd School for Boys at Woodstock,
Illinois, a few months after his mothers death from a liver condition at the age
of forty-three.  The school was ideally equipped for the nurturing of a young
wayward genius.(Taylor)  It was run by the proprietor, a terror rejoicing in the
name as 'the King'.
	Todd School had something of a tradition in drama, though mainly
lightweight revues, nativity plays and such.  In this department Orson soon got
his own way.  He was before long adapting, directing and starring in:  'Doctor
Faustus', 'Everyman', 'Le Medicin Malgre Lui', 'Julius Caesar' with Orson as
Cassius, 'Dr. Jekkyl and Mr. Hyde', with Orson as both.  He also built and
managed a large puppet theater, writing his own melodramatic scripts and
directing his assistants with the utmost authority.
		As he moved into his teens Orson was already well on his way to
becoming a legend. Everybody seemed to be convinced that he was extraordinary,
and quite possibly a genius in the making.  But for all his outward reassurance,
the child lived in a constant fear of not living up to his parent's expectations.
 "I always felt I was letting them down.  That's why I worked so hard.  That's
the stuff that turned the motor."(Leaming, 6)  He would do anything for their
approval.  He remembers that when he was very young his parents sent him on
errands to the other side of town.  Terrified to go off alone, but wanting to
please them, the child repeatedly forced himself to do as they asked without
flinching.  " I was taught to feel secure, it was not in my character."
	It is important in looking at Welles's arrival in Hollywood and his
extraordinary contract his agent Arnold Weissburger managed to get out of RKO to
be quite clear what the 'it' was.  What Welles had done was to hit the headlines
with amazing consistency.  From the black Macbeth onwards, Welles had shown an
uncanny knack, not only of delivering enough quality to keep the intellectual
audiences returning, but also of doing it in the most public and newsworthy way,
so that he was a name and had achieved a notoriety even with millions who had
never had the chance to sample his work.  The talent was worth gambling on, even
in Hollywood.(Taylor, 41)
	And that sort of gamble is just what Schaefer and RKO decided to take.
The very nature of Welles's contract, which tied him to make two films, the
first by 1940, the second by 1941.  Getting paid $100,000 for the first, and
$125,000 for the second, plus percentages of the profits after RKO had made back
that initial investment of $500,000 per picture.  Orson would produce, write,
direct, and appear in both of these pictures which was news in itself, and
supported his public image of the wonder boy.  In early February of 1939 Orson
began to work on the idea which was to become a milestone in motion picture
history, 'Citizen Kane'.  To help him he hired Herman J. Mankiewicz, successful
screenwriter, and more immediately a regular writer for the Welles radio shows
and collaborator on "The Smiler with a Knife" script.
	Apart from anything else, there are very clear autobiographical
connotations in Welles's picture of Charles Foster Kane.  The most obvious is
the naming of young Kane's kindly, protective guardian as Bernstein, like
Welles's own.
	Citizen Kane was them, and is now, essentially a film-makers film. there
was possibly nothing in the film that was absolutely unprecedented.(Taylor,57




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Oscar De La Hoya.TXT
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678
Oscar De La Hoya is a famous professional boxer. He is known all over the world for his looks, talent in the ring and his great sportsmanship. He is one of the best fighters in the field of boxing and a good role model for young children in the world today. PERSONAL Oscar De La Hoya lives and was born in East Los Angeles, California on February 4, 1973. His parents names are Joel, a former professional boxer from Durango, Mexico, and Dona Cecilia De La Hoya. His mother, Cecilia, passed away in her late thirties when breast cancer attacked her body. Oscar is the youngest boy in the family. He has an older brother name Joel, Jr., and a little sister name Maria. As a boy, Oscar never did like fighting or any physical sports. (Oscar, 1) He never looked like a type of person that would like those kind of things. Everytime he got into a fight with another kid, he always ran immediately to his house and cried. Don Joel, his father did not think much of it. For the fifth or sixth time, however, Don Joel started to believe that his son had a problem because, not fighting back when attacked was hardly a Mexican custom. So he decided that the best medicine for his disgrace, within the family, was to bring Oscar to visit a boxing gym. After all, Don Joel himself got the same medicine from his father, who had boxed in Mexico in the amateur ranks in the 1930's. (Kawakami, 18) BOXING CAREER Oscar first saw boxing gloves when he was five years old. From then on he was a boxer all his life. He started winning awards and trophies when he was eleven years old. Oscar De La Hoya never went to college, he finished high school and focused all his energy on his boxing. As an amateur, De La Hoya spent the early mornings running through the streets of East Los Angeles to train. Oscar De La Hoya, also known as " Golden Boy", first captured America's hearts by becoming the only American boxer to win an Olympic Gold Medal at the 1992 summer games. Oscar got his nickname by publicist John Beyrooty introducing him with the name "Golden Boy" at a press conference. After a few months Oscar won America's only gold medal. Oscar's professional career hit the stratosphere in June 11, 1994. (Hoffer, 56) He sky-rocketed through the professional ranks becoming the undisputed, undefeated lightweight champion of the world in just his twenty fights. De La Hoya, earned $9 million dollars for the bout and preserved his position as boxing non--heavy weight superstar. The most stunning moment of his career was when Oscar hit the canvas in the first moment against Journeyman Narcisco Valenzuela on October 1993. Perhaps the cleanest, best punch of his career was when he fought Rafael Rueles and a knockout victory on the second round on May 6, 1995, in Las Vegas, Nevada. AWARDS In addition to his Olympic Gold Medals, his titles include the 1994 former World Boxing Championship welterweight championship and super lightweight champion. In 1995, he became the former International Boxing Federation lightweight champion and former World Boxing Organization lightweight champion. Oscar's first professional fight was on November 23, 1992; He stopped Lamar Williams in the first round. One of his biggest fights was when he fought Julio Cesar Chavez and won on the fourth round on June 17, 1996. Oscar's last fight was on September 18, 1999 and lost to Felix Trinidad by a twelve-round majority decision. Oscar is continuing even today, asking for a re-match. Oscar De La Hoya is renovating the 72-year-old gym where he trained all his life, into headquarter is a Youth Foundation, non-profit organization dedicated to sponsoring Olympic hopefuls and providing educational scholarships on a selected basis. It is also a tribute to his mother, Cecilia. Oscar is currently 26 years old and is one of the hottest stars in sports; His good looks made him one of People Magazine, most beautiful people in America. AUTHOR'S NOTES I learned new things about Oscar De La Hoya that I have not learned before. I hope I learn more about him and his great ability to fight. Oscar is one of the great entertainers in America. Even though he lost his last fight against Felix Trinidad, he is still my favorite boxer. If there is one thing I hope that Oscar will do is to fight Muhammad Ali. I hope you have learn things about Oscar De La Hoya.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Oscar Wilde.TXT
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Oscar Wilde


	Oscar Wilde (real name Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde) was born on
October 16th, 1854 in Dublin.  His father, William Robert Wilde, was an eminent
eye doctor, with an interest in myths and folklore.  He was the founder of the
first eye and ear hospital in Great Britain, as well as the appointed Surgeon
Occultist to the Queen, who knighted him.  His mother, Jane Francesca Elgee
Wilde, was a poet who wrote patriotic Irish verse under the pen name Speranza,
and had a considerable following.  As a youngster, Wilde was exposed to the
brilliant literary talk of the day at his mother's Dublin salon.

	In 1864 Wilde entered the Portora Royal School at Enniskillen, and in
1871 entered Trinity College in Dublin.  In 1874 he left Ireland and went to
England to attend Magdalen College at Oxford.  As a student there, he excelled
in classics, wrote poetry, and incorporated the Bohemian life style of his youth
into a unique way of life.  He came under the influence of aesthetic innovators
such as English writers Walter Pater and John Ruskin.  He found the aesthetic
movement's notions of "art for art's sake" and dedicating one's life to art
suitable to his temperament and talents.  As an aesthete, Wilde wore long hair
and velvet knee breeches, and became known  for his eccentricity as well as his
academic ability.  His rooms were filled with various objets d'art such as
sunflowers, peacock feathers, and blue china.  Wilde frequently confided that
his greatest challenge at University was learning to live up to the perfection
of the china.  Wilde won numerous academic prizes while studying there,
including the Newdigate Prize, a coveted poetry award, for his poem Ravenna.

	In 1879 Wilde moved to London to make himself famous.  He set about
establishing himself as the leader and model of the aesthetic movement.  Besides
his hair and breeches, he added loose-fitting wide-collared silk shirts with
flowing ties and lavender colored gloves.  He frequently carried a jewel-topped
cane and was caricatured in the press flamboyantly attired and holding an over-
sized sunflower, an icon of the movement.  Wilde quickly became well known
despite having any substantial achievements to build on.  His natural wit and
good humor endeared him to the art and theater world, and through his lover
Frank Miles, he found it easy to become part of the cliques that frequented
London's theater circuit and drawing rooms.  He became a much desired party
guest, and eventually his popularity led to his being chosen as an advance
publicity man for a new Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, Patience, that spoofed
aesthetes like himself.

	In 1881,  Wilde's first book of poems, called Poems, was published.  In
1882, short of money, he accepted an invitation to embark on a lecture tour of
America.  He produced his first play in New York City, called Vera, about
nihilism in Russia.  According to some, it was canceled at the last moment,
probably for political reasons;  others say he saw it performed there but that
it ran unsuccessfully.  Throughout that year he lectured in 70 American cities
as well as Ontario and Quebec in Canada on the arts and literature. The tour was
an unmitigated smash and Wilde returned to London in 1883 in triumph and richer
by several thousand pounds.

	By the time he returned from America he had already tired of being the
Great Aesthete and began dressing more conventionally.  He did a successful tour
of the U.K. He also wrote his second unsuccessful play, The Duchess Of Padua.
In 1884, he married Constance Lloyd, the daughter of an Irish barrister.  They
had two sons, Cyril and Vyvyan.  The family moved into a house in Chelsea, an
artist section of London.  In 1887, he took a job at  Woman's World, a popular
magazine for which he wrote literary criticism.  In 1888 he published The Happy
Prince and Other Tales, a collection of original fairy tales which he wrote for
his sons.  Two years later he tired of journalism and journalists.  He returned
to partying and spending his time with friends and lovers, often overstepping
the bounds of what was considered morally and socially proper for the time.

	In 1890 his novel, The Picture Of Dorian Gray, was published in
Lippincott's Magazine. It raised a storm of protest to thinly veiled allusions
to the protagonist's homosexuality.  In 1891 he published Intentions, a
collection of dialogues about the aesthetic philosophy;  Lord Arthur Savile's
Crime, a collection of short stories;  and A House Of Pomegranates, a collection
of children's' stories.  He also produced The Duchess Of Padua.  In that same
year he met and befriended Lord Alfred Douglas, the son of the Marquess of
Queensberry.  In 1892, he produced Lady Windermere's Fan;  in 1893, A Woman of
No Importance; and in 1895, the Importance of Being Earnest, which was  hailed
as the first modern comedy in English, as well as An Ideal Husband.  All were
very successful, and Wilde became the toast of London.  His only setback in
these years was with his play Salome, originally written in French, which was
banned by Lord Chamberlain under an old law forbidding theatrical depiction of
biblical characters. Renowned actress Sarah Bernhardt, who was to appear in the
play, produced it in Paris in 1894.  Thirteen years later German composer
Richard Strauss turned it into a successful opera.

	In 1895, Wilde began flaunting his off-and-on relationship with Douglas
in public. Outraged by this, the Marquess of Queensberry left a visiting card at
Wilde's London club, the Albemarle, upon which he had written, "To Oscar Wilde
posing as a somdomite" (sic). Wilde sued him for libel but lost the case and was
charged with homosexual offenses.  The jury failed to reach a decision but at a
second trial he was found guilty and sentenced to two years in Reading Gaol, a
labor prison.  There Wilde was declared bankrupt, and his house and possessions
were sold to pay off his debts.  An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being
Earnest, which were both running very successfully, were closed.


	In 1897, while in prison, Wilde wrote a 30,000 word letter to Douglas,
published after his death with the title De Profundis, which was a moving
description of his spiritual progress to religious insight.  It is regarded as
possibly being his most important and mature statement on life and art in
general, and his own life and art in particular. Wilde left prison on May 19th,
1897 and left For France.  He began wandering around Europe using the alias
Sebastian Melmoth (Sebastian was the Christian martyr slain in a hail of arrows).
In 1898 he published his best-known poem, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a gripping
account of prison brutality based on his own harrowing experiences with a plea
for prison reform.  This came that same year with The Prisons Act, which was
partly due to his writing.  Also that year came the death of his wife.

	During these last years Wilde sank deeper into a despair from which none
of his friends could extricate him.  He was in poor health,  living on borrowed
money and the kindness of friends and sympathetic hotel managers.  In 1899 he
was baptized by the Roman Catholic Church.  He died on November 30th, 1900, in
Hotel d'Alsace in Paris, suffering from cerebral meningitis.  Among his last
words were, "It's the wallpaper or me - one of us has to go."  He was buried at
Pere LaChaise cemetery in Bagneaux. Lord Alfred Douglas was one of the attendees
at his funeral.  In 1912 a monument to him was erected at the gravesite by an
anonymous woman.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Pancho villa Doroteo Aranga.TXT
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1435
Pancho villa Doroteo Aranga learned to hate aristocratic Dons, who worked he and many other Mexicans like slaves, Doroteo Aranga also known as Pancho villa hated aristocratic because he made them work like animals all day long with little to eat. Even more so, he hated ignorance within the Mexican people that allowed such injustices. At the young age of fifteen, Aranga came home to find his mother trying to prevent the rape of his sister. Aranga shot the man and fled to the Sierra Madre for the next fifteen years, marking him as a fugitive for the first time. It was then that he changed his name from Doroteo Aranga to Francisco "Pancho" Villa, a man he greatly admired. Upon the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1911 against the Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz, Villa offered his services to the rebel leader Francisco I. Madero. During Madero's administration, he served under the Mexican general Victoriano Huerta, who sentenced him to death for insubordination. With his victories attracting attention in the United States, Villa escaped to the United States. President Woodrow Wilson's military advisor, General Scott, argued that the U.S. should support Pancho Villa, because he would become "the George Washington of Mexico." In August of 1914, General Pershing met Villa for the first time in El Paso, Texas and was impressed with his cooperative composure; Pancho Villa then came to the conclusion that the U.S. would acknowledge him as Mexico's leader. Following the assassination of Madero and the assumption of power by Huerta in 1913, he returned to join the opposition under the revolutionary Venustiano Carranza. Using "hit and run" tactics, he gained control of northern Mexico, including Mexico City. As a result, his powerful fighting force became "La Division Del Norte." The two men soon became enemies, however, and when Carranza seized power in 1914, Villa led the rebellion against him. By April of 1915, Villa had set out to destroy Carranzista forces in the Battle of Celaya. The battle was said to be fought with sheer hatred in mind rather than military strategy, resulting in amass loss of the Division del Norte. In October of 1915, after much worry about foreign investments, in the midst of struggles for power, the U.S. recognized Carranza as President of Mexico. When Pancho Villa learned of this he felt betrayed by President Wilson and assumed Carranza had signed a dangerous pact with the U.S., putting Mexico in United States' hands. As a result, this set the stage for a confrontation between the U.S. and Pancho Villa. Hence, the United States put an embargo on Villa, not allowing him to purchase guns, ammunition, equipment, etc., in American border towns. His transactions were, thus, made illegal, which automatically doubles his price. Considering his shortages, troops through harsh terrain to Aagua Prieta. Villa assumed it would be poorly protected and by capturing it, he would create a buffer zone with the U.S. to transport arms in his campaigning efforts. Too his surprise, Agua Prieta was heavily protected, because Wilson had allowed Carranza to transport 5000 Mexican troops to American soil, which had arrived before Villa. The trains of soldiers forced Villa's tired horseback troops into retreat. The U.S. was delighted when Carranza declared Villa done for good. Consequently, Carranza invited old U.S. investors (from before the Revolution) to invest again. On March 9th 1916, Villa crossed the border with about 600 men and attacked Columbus, NM killing 17 American citizens and destroying part of the town. Because of the growing discrimination towards Latinos, the bodies of Mexicans were gathered and burned as a sanitary precaution against "Mexican diseases." A punitive expedition, costing the U.S. about twenty-five million dollars, dispatched and about 150,000 troops to be mobilized in efforts to capture Pancho Villa, who was now known as a bandit in U.S. territory and a hero to many in Mexico. The Tenth Cavalry, which was made up of African-Americans and headed by Anglo-American officers, were labeled the "Buffalo Soldiers" because they were tough men who would punish the Mexicans. This was first time the United States used heavily armored vehicles and airplanes, which in turn served as a practice run before W.W.II. General John Joseph "Blackjack" Pershing had already earned a respectable name in the U.S. with his service in the Apache campaign, Therefore, he was assigned to head the Punitive Expedition, an attractive assignment. His mission objective, as he understood it, was to bring Villa in dead or alive. On March 16th, the New York Times reported, "When Word Was Given, All Were After Villa." The expedition included new machinery, which the American people were not familiar with yet. Tanks weighing up to four tons, along with the production of trucks and planes, were the reason for the deaths of many American soldiers who did not know how to operate them. None-the-less, Pershing ordered many pilots to board and land as he wished. Villa's troops did not have uniforms, so wherever American troops traveled, they paralleled the route. Hence, their survival was based on their familiarity with the land. Towards the end of March, Pershing established his headquarters 125 miles south of Chihuahua. Pershing realized how strong Pancho Villa's countrymen supported him and his raids, when he was met with dramatic hostility and resentment. In actuality it is ostensibly logical to believe that the hostility was due to fear of foreign powers on their territory. Most of the blood spills were amongst townspeople and Carranzista troops, because Pershing's troops never caught sight of Villa. On the second day of April of 1916, Pershing received word of what was supposed to be Villa's hiding place. Major Hank Tomkins, commander of the thirteenth cavalry was ordered to Parral, which is about 410 miles south of the U.S. border. This was the deepest penetration of U.S. troops into Mexico to look for Villa. The townspeople responded by saying that the Americans were invading them and Mexican families. When two tired American soldiers decided to bathe in a public fountain of the humble and conservative, town, the children began to throw stones at them. As the chaos grew into an uproar, the Mexican people began to retaliate and shots fired. Carranzista troops trying to stay away to avail battle, were not too far off and joined the retaliation. The American troops retreated sixteen miles way in a small village. With the death of a few Americans, Pershing was outraged and decided to counterstroke. In support, the American people demanded a full-scale invasion of Mexico. Within two months, more than 150,000 troops were on active duty from Texas to California; this was the largest military duty since World War I. After many weeks, Mexico began to pressure Carranza more decisively against the Punitive Expedition. Carranza, claiming Pancho Villa was no longer a dangerous threat, formally demanded the retreat of American troops. Wilson refused, which lead to a full-scale war between Mexico and the United States. On the morning of June 18th, 1916, the commander of the tenth cavalry arrived in a small town named Carrizal, saying they would have to pass through the town to reach their ordered destination. Carranza refused, proclaiming his uncertainty of the peoples reactions to such an event. The commander of the American troops refused to go around and began to march on through, firing at those who refuted. To the surprise of many Americans, the captain was killed along with about eighty men of the tenth cavalry, claiming fourteen Americans killed and twenty-four taken prisoners. As a result, Wilson prepared a letter to Congress demanding a full-scale war and an ultimatum was sent to Carranza, demanding the release of all American prisoners, which Mexico had already threatened to kill. Within days, all prisoners were released and all international bridges were seized. Although Carranza was finished, Pancho Villa was not ready to throw in the towel. Thus, he prepared for a series of attacks to come. General Pershing reported to Wilson of Villa's repeated violence, but Villa continued, capturing many towns held by Carranzista forces. On January 1917, Pancho Villa gathered his forces to capture Toreon. In the end, hundreds of his men were dead and his defeat was seized upon by Wilson as a convenient way out of the problems in Mexico. The U.S. would then prepare to withdraw, declaring the Punitive Expedition a success, although they failed to ever capture Villa. After the overthrow of Carranza in 1920, Villa formed a truce with the new government by laying down his arms in exchange for land and amnesty. He then retired to a ranch near Parral, Chihuahua, where he was assassinated by political enemies in 1923.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Paul Cezanne.TXT
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537
When most people think of Paul Cezanne, they think of two words genius and painting. For these two words he is consider by far to be the Father of modern painting. Cezanne was born in Aix-en-Provence in 1839. He was to die in the same town in 1906. His life and art work was greatly influenced by this small town in France. He was the son of a shrewd business man, Louis-Auguste Cezanne. As a boy growing up in Aix, Cezanne loved to study Greek and Latin literature. At the age of thirteen, Paul met Emile Zola at the College Bourbon. The friendship was very important for both of the young men and lasted until the publication of Zola's novel L'Oeuvre in 1886, in which the writer portrays an unsuccessful artist whose character based upon Paul. Deeply hurt, Cezanne broke forever with his longtime friend. At school, the boys were nearly inseparable. Both were interested in writing and literature. Emile and Paul would write letters and rhymed verse to each other for the next decade or so in which they expressed their most intimate feelings and emotions together with information about their everyday life. Paul's father disapproved of Zola and his family especially after Emile's father had died. In February 1858 Zola moved to Paris together with his mother. Which made Paul want to go to Paris to join up with Emile. When in 1861 he finally obtained his father's permission to study art in Paris, Cezanne's first attempt to settle down there failed. Disillusioned with the art world, he returned to his family after only six months and entered his father's bank as a clerk. The following year he went to Paris again, and this time he stayed. During this years he lead a rather frugal life due to his father's meager allowance. Every year he submitted canvases to the artists' Salons, but was regularly rejected. Cezanne did his first show with a group named the "Society of Painters, Draftsman, Sculptors, and Engravers" comprised of Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, Pissarro and Cezanne himself. The group's first show was in April in 1874, they received bad revise. Cezanne did one more show with that group, third for the group, in 1877. That show went better than the first one. "Unlike his artist friends, he generally avoided depiction's of modern life and instead painted landscapes and still-lives of more classical conception"(Lallemand 10). Cezanne had many different characteristics of his work enigmatic quality, the look of someone who were essentially a sculptor, no seasonal variance in his landscapes. In the painting The House of the Hanged Man ,painted in 1872-1873, there is an eerie feeling illuminating form the piece. It is achieved by the the dull shapes, cool colors, and thick granular patching. The look of someone who was essentially a sculptor in present in The Negro Scipion painted in 1867. Where you can easily see the definition of muscle and the curvature of the human body. In most of Paul Cezanne's landscapes you can not tell what season it is suppose to represent. Spring, fall or summer. In Mill on the Couleuvre near Pontoise the fields are green and lush but is it spring or summer? That is for the viewer to interpret what season it is. Paul Cezanne who influenced many, had a great impact on all that follow his lead. His life is represented in his work which shows us a great deal. The Father on Modern Painting is one of great accomplishments.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Personal Profile.TXT
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PURPOSE :	In this particular laboratory experiment, we are going to determine the molar mass of an unknown gas, from the gas density.  We are also going to use gas density, along with the kinetic molecular theory, to explain the behavior of gas filled balloons.  Finally, we are going to demonstrate the effects of temperature and pressure changes of gasses.
PROCEDURE :	We are using the experimental procedure as described in our laboratory manual.

	University of Wisconsin - River Falls
	Laboratory Manual
	Chemistry 116

				Experiment 116-8
				Molar Mass From Gas Densities
				Pages 81 & 82

	There are no changes to this laboratory or from the indicated laboratory procedure.
MATERIALS and APPARATUS :	
	Part A-1: In this part of the experiment, we are going to observe three balloons filled each with one of three different gasses.  So as part of our materials we need to have three balloons as well as the three gasses.  These balloons were already prepared for us and we kept underneath the fume hood for observation.

		Helium				Sulfur Exofluoride
		He				SF6
		4.002602 g.			146.06 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock

		
		Ammonia
		NH3
		17.031 g.
		Laboratory Stock

	Part A-2-5c:	During this part of the experiment, our materials and equipment consisted of one, clean, dry, 500mL plastic bottle with an airtight cover.  Along with the bottle we need an electronic balance, a thermometer set up to measure the air temperature, as well as a barometer with a chart on how to interpret the readings.  Finally we must have the six different gasses with which to do our experiment.

	
		
		Distilled Water			Helium
		H2O				He
		33.00674 g.			4.002602 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock
		
				
		Oxygen				Argon
		O2				Ar
		31.9988 g.			39.948 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock


		Carbon Dioxide			Propane
		CO2				CH3CH2CH3
		44.0098 g.			44.09652 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock


		Natural Gas
		CH4
		16.04276 g.
		Laboratory Stock
	Part A-6:	In this particular part of the experiment we made two different balloons.  Therefore we need the balloons themselves, as well as the two different gasses that are going to go into the balloons.  One of the balloons needed to be filled with Helium and then the other one with Carbon Dioxide.  Then the balloons were to be taken back to our place of residence for observation.

		Helium				Carbon Dioxide
		He				CO2
		4.002602 g.			44.0098 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock
	Part B-1:	For this part of the experiment we needed a balloon filled with air.  We also tried this part of the experiment when the balloon was filled with two other gasses.  A total of three more balloons will be needed for this lab then.  We also needed some liquid nitrogen for this experiment.  In addition to the liquid nitrogen, we need a pair of tongs to remove the gas filled balloon from the nitrogen.
		
		Helium				Carbon Dioxide
		He				CO2
		4.002602 g.			44.0098 g.
		Laboratory Stock			Laboratory Stock


		


		
		Nitrogen
		N2
		28.01348 g.
		Laboratory Stock*

		** Please note that Liquid Nitrogen is at an extreme temperature of
		     77 K.  This will burn skin as well as freeze most objects it comes
		      into contact with.  Take extreme caution.
	Part B-2:	For this part of the experiment, we needed a large water bath full of cold water.  Additionally we need to have brought an empty soda can with us to class. ( I prefer Coca-Cola myself ) Then, on a ring stand over the wire gauze, we heated up ten milliliters of water in the can over a Bunsen burner.  The goal was to turn all of the water to steam and keep as much as possible within the can.  After the water had all turned to steam, we used the lab tongs and inverted the can in to the cold water, very quickly.
		Distilled Water
		H2O
		33.00674 g.
		Laboratory Stock
	Part B-3:	This final part of the experiment was demonstrated by our instructor.  Our instructor used a bell jar and three different balloons filled with air, helium and one with water, to show the effects that the atmosphere around us has on different gasses and on water.  
OBSERVATION and DATA :
	Part A-1:	In the table below, there are recorded observations from the three different balloons that were placed under the hood for us to observe.  There were three different balloons, each filled a different gas.

	He		balloon feels light, the balloon rises in our atmosphere, there is a medium pressure
			consistency feeling to the outside of the balloon

	SF6		the balloon feels very full and tight, compared to the others this balloon feels very 
			heavy, this balloon feels like it would not float as easily as the rest of the balloons.
	
	NH3		of all the three, this appears to be the lightest and most thin pressure consistency,
			feels most light but does not respond to the atmosphere as well as the others
									TABLE-1
	
	

	Part A2-5a:	During this part of the experiment, all we did was measure the densities of the six gasses listed in the table below.  To do this however, we needed to find the masses of each of the gasses, as well as the volume of the 500mL bottle.  The bottle itself turned out to be 526mL, instead of 500mL.
			
The following table below, lists the mass of six different gasses.  We measured the gasses on an electronic balance.  Note, that the masses below include the mass of the bottle.
		Mass of Gasses
	
			O2		55.5811 g.
	
			He		55.0005 g.

			Ar		55.7398 g.

			CO2		55.8329 g.

			Natural Gas	55.2622 g.

			Propane		55.5986 g.
					TABLE-2
	
	Part A-6:	As I observed my two balloons, one filled with Helium and then the other filled with Carbon Dioxide for the 24hr. period, I noticed the both of the balloons leaked some of their gas.  However, I also noticed that the balloon filled with Helium lost more gas than the balloon filled with Carbon Dioxide.	
	Part B-1: 	During this part of the experiment, we placed a balloon filled with a gas into the pool of liquid nitrogen.  Our balloon was filled with CO2.  The balloon shrank rapidly when it was placed in the nitrogen, but then when it was removed, it expanded again.  While the balloon was expanding I noticed the formation of white condensation from inside the balloon.  To my knowledge, the observation I had stumbled upon, was the formation of dry ice, as it was created when the balloon was submerged in the nitrogen.
	Part B-2:	In this part of the experiment, we observed the contraction of a gas, when it is transformed from a gas to a liquid, very rapidly.  When we placed the heated can full of steam in the cold water bath, the can imploded trying to condense the whole structure into water again.
	Part B-3:	This final part of the experiment was demonstrated by our instructor.  Inside the bell jar, we observed the helium balloon as well as the air balloon get larger as the air that was surrounding the balloon was removed from the chamber.  As for the balloon filled with water, we did not notice as much of an extreme change, but it also seemed like it grew in size a small bit, but it also shrank while it was depressurizing too.  The helium balloon posed the most unique reaction, by not floating one the bulk of the air was removed from the bell jar.
RESULTS and CALCULATIONS : 
	Part A-1: From the observations listed in TABLE-1, and if we look at the molar mass in table three below, we can determine that Helium is the lightest of the three gasses in this part of the experiment.  My observations in TABLE-1 led me to believe that the ammonia (NH3) was lighter.  This just goes to show that the different chemical composition of a gas, can be difficult to tell by simple observation.  So, from the table below, we can see that ammonia is heavier than helium and that the sulfur exofluoride is heavier than both of the other gasses.
		He		4.002602 g.
		NH3		17.03056 g.
		SF6		146.0564 g.
					TABLE - 3
	Part A2-5a:	The data that we collected from this experiment is listed previously in TABLE-2.  Now we are going to examine the data and do some calculations because our goal is to find the density of the six different gasses.  To find the density of the gasses we first need to find the mass of each gas.  In order to find the mass of each gas, we need to find the mass of the bottle without any air in it.  In order to do this, we need to find the density of air, and then multiply it by the volume of the bottle.  We can find the density of the air by reading the barometer and thermometer, and then finding the table in the CRC Handbook, that will tell us what the correct density of air is.  The reading on the barometer was 731.3 torr and the thermometer read 22.3 degrees Celsius.  When we looked up in the CRC Handbook, it told us that the density of air is .00115.  Then we used this value and multiplied it by the volume of the bottle and we came up with the mass of the air in the bottle equaling .604g.  Therefore the bottle itself weighed 54.7244g.  Now the next step is to determine the mass of each gas.  After the mass of the gas is found, we then can divide the mass by the volume of the bottle to find the correct density of the gas also.  The table below (4) shows the mass as well as the density of each gas.  These principles are also shown on the following graph.
			Mass of Gas		Density of Gas
	O2		.8567			.00163
	He		.2761			.00052
	Ar		1.0154			.00193
	CO2		1.1085			.00211
	Natural Gas	.5378			.00102
	Propane		.8742			.00166
					TABLE-4
	Part A5b:	Using the graph that follows, you will also see, outlined in pink, a prediction of the density of ammonia.  We used the molar mass of ammonia an incorporated it with the rest of the gasses on the graph.  The density of SF6 is too large to fit on the graph that is given, but if you use the algebraic equation for slope (y-x) / (y-x), we can find out an approximate density for the gas.  To determine the slope you just use the values for any two points that you know for sure on the graph.  (We are omitting the possibility of propane as a choice for one of the points, see part A5c for explanation.)  The slope of the main line on the graph, indicated in yellow, is 1/2.  The slope is a nice proportional number so we can easily take the molar mass of SF6 and divide it by three, take that value and compare it to our graph to find a density, then multiply that density by three.  This will give us an approximate density for SF6 of .00858.
	Part A5c:	As indicated in the lab manual, propane does not fit in with the other values when we look at them on the graph.  Propane is sometimes sold with another lighter gas included in it.  We apparently have got some of the "cheap" propane.  If we assume that natural gas is the other component, we can then determine how much really is propane and how much is natural gas.  By doing a proportional calculation.  We determined that 36% of the propane was actually methane, and 64% was really propane.  To calculate this we needed to use the molar mass of propane as well as methane to do the conversion.	
 








































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	Published in 1968, Federalism and the French Canadians is an 

ideological anthology featuring a series of essays written by Pierre 

Elliot Trudeau during his time spent with the Federal Liberal party of 

Canada. The emphasis of the book deals with the problems and conflicts 

facing the country during the Duplessis regime in Quebec. While  

Trudeau stresses his adamant convictions on Anglophone/Francophone 

relations and struggles for equality in a confederated land, he also 

elaborates on his own ideological views pertaining to Federalism and 

Nationalism. The reader is introduced to several essays that discuss 

Provincial legislature and conflict (Quebec and the Constitutional 

Problem, A Constitutional Declaration of Rights) while other 

compositions deal with impending and contemporary Federal predicaments 

(Federal Grants to Universities, The Practice and Theory of 

Federalism, Separatist Counter-Revolutionaries). Throughout all these 

documented personal accounts and critiques, the reader learns that  

Trudeau is a sharp critic of contemporary Quebec nationalism and that 

his prime political conviction (or thesis) is sporadically reflected 

in each essay: Federalism is the only possible system of government 

that breeds and sustains equality in a multicultural country such as 

Canada. 





	Trudeau is fervent and stalwart in his opinions towards 

Federalism and its ramifications on Canadian citizenry. Born and 

raised in Quebec, he attended several prestigious institutions that 

educated him about the political spectrum of the country. After his 

time spent at the London School of Economics, Trudeau returned to 

Quebec at a time when the province was experiencing vast differences 

with its Federal overseer. The Union Nationale, a religious 

nationalist movement rooted deep in the heart of Quebec culture, had 

forced the Federal government to reconcile and mediate with them in 

order to avoid civil disorder or unrest. The Premier of Quebec at the 

time, Maurice Duplessis, found it almost impossible to appease the 

needs of each diverse interest group and faction rising within the 

province and ultimately buckled underneath the increasing pressure. 

Many Francophones believed that they were being discriminated and 

treated unfairly due to the British North American Act which failed to 

recognize the unique nature of the province in its list of provisions. 

Trudeau, with the aid of several colleagues, fought the imminent wave 

of social chaos in Quebec with anti-clerical and communist visions he 

obtained while in his adolescent years. However, as the nationalist 

movement gained momentum against the Provincial government, Trudeau 

came to the startling realization that Provincial autonomy would not 

solidify Quebec's future in the country (he believed that separatism 

would soon follow) and unless Duplessis could successfully negotiate 

(on the issue of a constitution) with the rest of Canada, the prospect 

of self-sovereignty for Quebec would transpire.





	His first essay (Quebec and the Constitutional Problem) explores 

the trials and tribulations which occurred between the Provincial and 

Federal governments during the ensuing constitutional problems in 

Canada. Trudeau candidly lambastes and ridicules the Federal 

Government's inability to recognize the economic and linguistic 

differences in Quebec. He defends the province by stating that

"The language provisions of the British North American Act are very 

limited" and therefore believes that they continue to divide the 

country and aid the nationalist movement in Quebec. Using an informal, 

first person writing approach, Trudeau makes it clear that his words 

are for reactionaries, not revolutionaries who are looking to destroy 

the political fabric of the country.  However, Trudeau considers 

possible alternatives and implications in the second essay (A 

Constitutional Declaration of Rights) and offers possible resolutions 

to the everlasting cultural dilemma plaguing both parties involved. 

One of his arguments is that the Federal government must take the 

initiative and begin the constitutional sequence to modify and adapt 

to the growing needs of all the provinces, not only Quebec. "One tends 

to forget that constitutions must also be made by men and not by force 

of brutal circumstance or blind disorder", was his response to the 

perpetual ignorance of the Federalist leaders who stalled and dodged 

on the issue of equality and compromise throughout the country. At 

this point in the essay, Trudeau relied on his central thesis for the 

book and used it to prove his application of constitutional reform 

using the Federal government as the catalyst. Trudeau had already 

formulated his visions of the perfect constitution and how it would 

include "A Bill of Rights that would guarantee the fundamental 

freedoms of the citizen from intolerance, whether federal or 

provincial".  Each and every one of his proposals demonstrated 

innovative thought and pragmatic resolve for a striving politician who 

believed in Democracy before Ideology. The emphasis he places on 

equality and individualism is a testimonial to his character and 

integrity as a politician. The next essay (The Practice and Theory of 

Federalism) is the opening composition for Trudeau's firm stance on 

Federalism and how it can be applied to the current Executive system 

of administration already in turmoil with its dominion. "Federalism is 

by its very essence a compromise and a pact" is his comment on why the 

Federal government of Canada has a responsibility to seek out the 

general consensus of the people when dealing with constitutional 

reform. This reinforces his central thesis for the book which is 

mentioned in the opening paragraph of this critique; however, their is 

a partial, obstructed observation made on Trudeau's part when he 

declines to mention the efforts of the contemporary Federal bureau 

which had made attempts to negotiate with Quebec (although in vain). 

Finally, the last essay (Federalism, Nationalism and Reason) is a 

creative piece of literature in which Trudeau exonerates the 

possibility of state manipulation and exploitation in dealing with the 

masses (the socialist tendencies of Trudeau are quite blatant through 

his immense historical knowledge and political shrewdness). Although 

he brings up the possible implications of a rejected Federalist state, 

he seems to scorn and laugh at the idea; "Separatism a revolution? My 

eye. A counter-revolution; the national socialist counter-revolution". 

Such passages are indicative of the attitude Trudeau held towards the 

political disorder of his own country and magnifies his disgust 

towards the sluggish and immobile Duplessis regime. Throughout all 

these radical and riveting compositions, the reader is faced with an 

extremely unorthodox writing style which consists of both formal and 

informal essay techniques.





	Federalism and the French Canadians presents the reader with a 

superlative ideological perspective of "how" and "why" the executive 

branch of the country should be functioning in the eyes of Pierre 

Trudeau. Although recognized as nothing more than a political activist 

at the time of the ongoing political/social crisis in Canada, Trudeau 

served as an adviser to the Privy Council Office in 1950 and 

subsequently became a professor of Law at the University of Montreal 

in 1960. His inauguration into the Federal Liberal Party in 1965 as 

well as his future involvement with the Federal government 

(Constitutional Lawyer, Minister of Justice, Prime Minister of Canada)  

would bolster his credibility in this book. Not only does he stress 

the importance and validity of the Canadian political scope when 

dealing with his theories, but his historical and economical 

evaluation of the world in general serves as a competent and impartial 

method of comparing analogies. Trudeau had always been labelled as a 

radical or socialist, but upon reading his anthology, the reader 

accepts the notion that he was an advocate of liberalism and 

democracy. I would consider his interpretations of Federalism and 

Quebec heritage as being substantially valid even in the acrimonious 

way in which Trudeau addresses the issues; "Without equality, one has 

a dictatorship" (such indiscriminate assessments of the Canadian 

government magnify the strength AND weaknesses of each essay) . The 

only visible weakness in his analysis would be the position in which 

he views the Provincial government under Duplessis (weak, subordinate, 

naive) and this perhaps taints most of his bi-partisan observations 

towards how the Federal government would treat Francophones under a 

unilateral constitution. Otherwise, each and every proposition 

presented to the reader is heavily supported and reinforced by the 

central theme in the book which, in effect, could be viewed as a 

strength; he supports the majority of his Federalist arguments with 

quotes from noted dignitaries and political leaders from the past and 

present such as Lord Acton (while defending Federalism in Canada), Mao 

Tse-Tung (when referring to Quebec's hostile and intolerance with 

Canada), Aristotle (when discussing the perfect democratic union with 

Quebec) and Nikita Khrushchev (in support of constitutional reform and 

the possible effects of Dictatorships). Several of his essays had also 

been published in Montreal and Toronto during the late 1960's and his 

address to the Canadian Bar Association on September 4th, 1967 is 

featured in its entirety in his book (Trudeau used these facts to 

strengthen and reinforce his expertise and experience in the field).





	The material featured in Federalism and the French Canadians is 

excessively difficult to digest and should be read by a student who is 

familiar with the historical and political dilemmas presented in the 

compositions. Although efficiently organized (dealing with Quebec and 

social bedlam followed by solutions offered by Federalism), the book 

is a challenge to understand in respects to how Trudeau plunges into 

each scenario and issue with enormous furor and enthusiasm. He 

generally expects the reader to have a large degree of background 

knowledge on the subject of Federalism and Quebec. Without being 

informed beforehand on the domestic difficulties of the country, this 

particular reader surely would have been drowned in a sea of political 

jargon and complex narrative insight. Nevertheless, Pierre Trudeau 

captivated my imagination with his perspective of life in Canada and 

the future of the country without a stable government. "My political 

action; or my theory - insomuch as I can be said to have one - can be 

expressed very simply: create counter-weights", is how Trudeau 

described the rationale behind his ideological thinking and how he 

downplayed the stagnant political situation in Canada that suppressed 

its greatest strength; representation and unity by a multicultural 

society...a government that enshrined the rights and liberties of its 

people and distributed the freedom and respect accordingly regardless 

of ethnic or cultural discrepancies. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this 

complex and unprecedented book; it provided a concise and insightful 

portrait of the role that Federalism plays in Quebec's backyard

during the middle of the 20th century. For a student who finds 

himself caught up in 21st century politics, it is both a shock and a 

pleasant surprise to climb back into history and discover the 

productive and ideological perspective of a man who would eventually 

rise to the occasion and become Prime Minister of Canada. Material 

such as this should be featured on the curriculum for all students to 

gaze upon, let alone only be recommended by critics who have studied 

the works of Trudeau. Such monumental beliefs embodied into one man is 

reason enough for a student in University or High School to open 

Federalism and the French Canadians and learn more about Pierre Elliot 

Trudeau.

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f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Pierre Elliot Trudeau 3.TXT
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	Pierre Trudeau, former Prime Minister of Canada, was once described as 

"A French Canadian proud of his identity and culture, yet a biting critic 

of French-Canadian society, determined to destroy its mythology and 

illusions". He has also been identified as "A staunch, upholder of 

provincial autonomy holding the justice portfolio in the federal 

government".  Such cumulative appraisal and observation made by past fellow 

bureaucrat provides high testimonial for the ex-Democratic Socialist. This 

critique will establish and dispute the prime directives that Trudeau had 

advocated in his own book written during the years 1965 to 1967. The 

compilation of political essays featured in his book deal with the diverse 

complexities of social, cultural and economical issues that were 

predominant in Canadian politics during the mid 1960's. However, throughout 

my readings I was also able to discover the fundamental principles that  

Trudeau would advocate in order to establish a strong and productive 

influence in Canadian politics. 





	Born in 1921, Trudeau entered the world in a bilingual/bicultural home

located in the heart of Montreal, Quebec. His acceptance into the 

University of Montreal would mark the beginning of his adventures into the 

Canadian political spectrum. Early in his life, Trudeau had become somewhat 

anti-clerical and possessed communist ideologies which were considered 

radical at the time. Graduating from prestigious institutions such as 

Harvard and The School of Economics in England, Turdeau returned to Canada 

in 1949 and resumed his social science endeavors. At this time in Quebec, 

the province was experiencing tremendous cultural and political differences 

with the rest of the country. The Union Nationale had taken possession of 

political matters in Quebec and was steadily dismantling the socialist 

essence imposed on the province by the Federal government. The current 

Prime Minister, Maurice Duplessis, found himself battling a religious 

nationalist movement that corrupted the very fabric of political stability 

in Quebec. The Duplessis faction maintained their conservative approach 

towards political reform but failed to sway the majority of the population 

into alleviating with the demands of the Canadian government. The citizens 

of Quebec revered their clerical sector as holding 'utmost importance' 

towards preserving French cultural values and this did not correlate with 

the Federal government's policies and ideals. Francophones were under the 

impression that their own Federal government had set out to crush and 

assimilate what had remained of their illustrious heritage in order to 

accommodate economic and political tranquility. Trudeau himself had decided 

to join the nationalist uprising with his advocation of provincial 

autonomy. Ultimately, he and other skilled social scientists attempted to 

bring down the Duplessis party in 1949, but failed miserably in their 

efforts. Duplessis buckled underneath the continuous pressure of French 

patriotism and was rewarded for his inept idleness by winning his fourth 

consecutive election in 1956. Although nothing of significance had been 

accomplished, Quebec has solidified its temporary presence in confederation 

at such a time. This prompted Trudeau to involve himself in provincial 

diplomacy as he would engage in several media projects that would voice his 

displeasure and disapproval with the ongoing cultural predicament in Canada 

(this included a syndicated newspaper firm, live radio programs). "If, in 

the last analysis, we continually identify Catholicism with conservatism 

and patriotism with immobility, we will lose by default that which is in 

play between all cultures...". By literally encouraging a liberal, left-

wing revolution in his province, Trudeau believed that Democracy must come 

before Ideology. Gradually, his disposition would attract many politicians 

and advocates of Socialism, and thus it allowed him to radiate his ideology 

onto the populace of Quebec. Trudeau makes it clear in his book that during 

the early years of the Duplessis government, he was a staunch admirer of 

provincial autonomy, but with the archaic sequence of events following the 

conflicts that arouse between Federal and Provincial matters in Quebec, he 

had taken a stance on Federalism that involved security, economic 

prosperity and centralized authority. It wasn't until 1963 when the newly 

appointed Premier of Quebec, Rene Levesque, warned that there must be a new 

Canada within five years or Quebec will quit confederation. It was not 

until 1965 that a man named Pierre Trudeau entered politics. 





	It is at this point in his anthology that I was able to surmise the 

radical and unorthodox political convictions that the soon-to-be Prime 

Minister would incorporate into Canada. His thesis is focused around 

pertinent issues which demanded attention at the time. After he elaborates 

on the importance of Federalism and how it is associated with Quebec, the 

reader begins to interpret the resolutions he offers and then finds himself 

comprehending the dilemma that French Canadians face in Canada. In the wake 

of a constitutional referendum, such knowledge can be viewed as ironically 

significant. A defender of civil rights and freedoms, Trudeau, even as a 

teenager, was adamantly opposed to supporting any political theory based on 

ethnic tendencies; he makes this clear on an essay in the book entitled: 

"Quebec and the Constitutional Problem". He was convinced that not only the 

divided jurisdiction of a federal state helped protect the liberty of its 

citizens but also that in fact the economic, social and cultural goods of 

Quebec can best be achieved with a Canadian federal state. It seemed that 

an archetypal Trudeau Federal infrastructure would be one where each level 

of government would function on its own jurisdiction. In doing so, Trudeau 

would voice his admiration for the Bill of Rights and how he would 

concentrate on developing a Federal government for the individual. It was 

not until 1962 that Trudeau actually began defending Federalism for what it 

represented to the average labourer, but the fact that Quebec seemed to 

convert provincial autonomy into an absolute forced him to reconsider his 

political stance. Joining the struggling Liberal party in 1965, his only 

coinciding proposition with that of his party was the advocation of an open 

Federal system. Nonetheless, it marked the beginning of a political career 

that would take him to the heights of power in his dominion.





	"My political action, or my theory - insomuch as I can be said to have 

one - can be expressed very simply: create counter-weights". The measure of 

a man can be traced to his ideological convictions, and in doing so, I have 

only started to realize the prominent role that Trudeau has played in 

Canadian politics. He was heralded as a radical, somewhat of a usurper and 

definitely a socialist mogul, but what was clear about Trudeau was his 

respect and admiration for liberties of the common man and how they were 

preserved from the clutches of Federal policies. This respect would not be 

replaced at any cost during his tenure and as he forecasted the ensuing 

constitutional dilemma with a very impartial, non-partisan outlook, he 

would primarily concentrate on two factors (economic and linguistic) which 

offered practical conclusions without chaotic implications. Trudeau 

envisioned himself in power, speculating two choices he would offer to 

Quebec; full sovereignty or maximized integration into the American 

continent. But what Trudeau avoided treading upon was the infringement of 

state policies on the individual's rights and freedoms. Many members of the 

Federal government believed that Trudeau did not speak on behalf of French 

Canadians but that he substituted their cultural plight with his own 

theories. This generated the following response: "If the party does not 

agree with my opponents, it can repudiate me; if my constituents do not, 

they can elect someone else". Trudeau maintains that he dedicated his 

anthology in order for others to understand the problems that French 

Canadians faced in terms of cultural progress, and I am compelled to 

conclude that his involvement with the Federal regime may have saved the 

country for twenty years...unfortunately, he was unable to complete the 

affirmation of his ideology into the French Canadian scope and thus Canada 

today is contemplating the outcome of another constitutional referendum.


His failure to absolve the constitution of any future repercussions with 

the masses should not be viewed as a political error, but as an ideological 

truth which he exhibited since 1965 (the addition of the "notwithstanding" 

clause).





	Trudeau's book covers an immense amount of historical and idealistic 

content. Published in 1965, it is fascinating to read and discover how 

intently and closely he would follow his ideologies as he would eventually 

ascend to the position of Prime Minister. His reliability would be 

questionable at the time (based on limited experience as a politician) but 

the fact that he had submerged himself into a field which required 

innovative and pragmatic thought led me to believe that his Federalist 

stance would eventually be justified in Canadian history. With a 

superlative writing style, his use of vocabulary and terminology aided the 

reader in understanding his convictions. Not even this reader expected such 

a barrage of political jargon.





	Recent events in Canada have somewhat curtailed the ambience dealing 

with this critique in respects to the opinions exhibited on behalf of the 

author and reviewer. Trudeau takes obvious pride in his ideological 

perspective of multicultural Canada, and in doing so one might expect a 

partisan, biased array of resolutions. This, however, is not the case. This 

book leaves room for educational prowess without any noticeable weaknesses. 

Federalism and the French Canadians is an insightful, ideological anthology 

that could be found especially useful to other politics students who wish 

to examine the importance of cultural and social values in a country 

missing a stable political doctrine (and perhaps a leader, no less).
 

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f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Pierre Elliot Trudeau.TXT
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Pierre Elliot Trudeau


	Published in 1968, Federalism and the French Canadians is an
ideological anthology featuring a series of essays written by Pierre
Elliot Trudeau during his time spent with the Federal Liberal party of
Canada. The emphasis of the book deals with the problems and conflicts
facing the country during the Duplessis regime in Quebec. While
Trudeau stresses his adamant convictions on Anglophone/Francophone
relations and struggles for equality in a confederated land, he also
elaborates on his own ideological views pertaining to Federalism and
Nationalism. The reader is introduced to several essays that discuss
Provincial legislature and conflict (Quebec and the Constitutional
Problem, A Constitutional Declaration of Rights) while other
compositions deal with impending and contemporary Federal predicaments
(Federal Grants to Universities, The Practice and Theory of
Federalism, Separatist Counter-Revolutionaries). Throughout all these
documented personal accounts and critiques, the reader learns that
Trudeau is a sharp critic of contemporary Quebec nationalism and that
his prime political conviction (or thesis) is sporadically reflected
in each essay: Federalism is the only possible system of government
that breeds and sustains equality in a multicultural country such as
Canada.

	Trudeau is fervent and stalwart in his opinions towards
Federalism and its ramifications on Canadian citizenry. Born and
raised in Quebec, he attended several prestigious institutions that
educated him about the political spectrum of the country. After his
time spent at the London School of Economics, Trudeau returned to
Quebec at a time when the province was experiencing vast differences
with its Federal overseer. The Union Nationale, a religious
nationalist movement rooted deep in the heart of Quebec culture, had
forced the Federal government to reconcile and mediate with them in
order to avoid civil disorder or unrest. The Premier of Quebec at the
time, Maurice Duplessis, found it almost impossible to appease the
needs of each diverse interest group and faction rising within the
province and ultimately buckled underneath the increasing pressure.
Many Francophones believed that they were being discriminated and
treated unfairly due to the British North American Act which failed to
recognize the unique nature of the province in its list of provisions.
Trudeau, with the aid of several colleagues, fought the imminent wave
of social chaos in Quebec with anti-clerical and communist visions he
obtained while in his adolescent years. However, as the nationalist
movement gained momentum against the Provincial government, Trudeau
came to the startling realization that Provincial autonomy would not
solidify Quebec's future in the country (he believed that separatism
would soon follow) and unless Duplessis could successfully negotiate
(on the issue of a constitution) with the rest of Canada, the prospect
of self-sovereignty for Quebec would transpire.

	His first essay (Quebec and the Constitutional Problem) explores
the trials and tribulations which occurred between the Provincial and
Federal governments during the ensuing constitutional problems in
Canada. Trudeau candidly lambastes and ridicules the Federal
Government's inability to recognize the economic and linguistic
differences in Quebec. He defends the province by stating that
"The language provisions of the British North American Act are very
limited" and therefore believes that they continue to divide the
country and aid the nationalist movement in Quebec. Using an informal,
first person writing approach, Trudeau makes it clear that his words
are for reactionaries, not revolutionaries who are looking to destroy
the political fabric of the country.  However, Trudeau considers
possible alternatives and implications in the second essay (A
Constitutional Declaration of Rights) and offers possible resolutions
to the everlasting cultural dilemma plaguing both parties involved.
One of his arguments is that the Federal government must take the
initiative and begin the constitutional sequence to modify and adapt
to the growing needs of all the provinces, not only Quebec. "One tends
to forget that constitutions must also be made by men and not by force
of brutal circumstance or blind disorder", was his response to the
perpetual ignorance of the Federalist leaders who stalled and dodged
on the issue of equality and compromise throughout the country. At
this point in the essay, Trudeau relied on his central thesis for the
book and used it to prove his application of constitutional reform
using the Federal government as the catalyst. Trudeau had already
formulated his visions of the perfect constitution and how it would
include "A Bill of Rights that would guarantee the fundamental
freedoms of the citizen from intolerance, whether federal or
provincial".  Each and every one of his proposals demonstrated
innovative thought and pragmatic resolve for a striving politician who
believed in Democracy before Ideology. The emphasis he places on
equality and individualism is a testimonial to his character and
integrity as a politician. The next essay (The Practice and Theory of
Federalism) is the opening composition for Trudeau's firm stance on
Federalism and how it can be applied to the current Executive system
of administration already in turmoil with its dominion. "Federalism is
by its very essence a compromise and a pact" is his comment on why the
Federal government of Canada has a responsibility to seek out the
general consensus of the people when dealing with constitutional
reform. This reinforces his central thesis for the book which is
mentioned in the opening paragraph of this critique; however, their is
a partial, obstructed observation made on Trudeau's part when he
declines to mention the efforts of the contemporary Federal bureau
which had made attempts to negotiate with Quebec (although in vain).
Finally, the last essay (Federalism, Nationalism and Reason) is a
creative piece of literature in which Trudeau exonerates the
possibility of state manipulation and exploitation in dealing with the
masses (the socialist tendencies of Trudeau are quite blatant through
his immense historical knowledge and political shrewdness). Although
he brings up the possible implications of a rejected Federalist state,
he seems to scorn and laugh at the idea; "Separatism a revolution? My
eye. A counter-revolution; the national socialist counter-revolution".
Such passages are indicative of the attitude Trudeau held towards the
political disorder of his own country and magnifies his disgust
towards the sluggish and immobile Duplessis regime. Throughout all
these radical and riveting compositions, the reader is faced with an
extremely unorthodox writing style which consists of both formal and
informal essay techniques.

	Federalism and the French Canadians presents the reader with a
superlative ideological perspective of "how" and "why" the executive
branch of the country should be functioning in the eyes of Pierre
Trudeau. Although recognized as nothing more than a political activist
at the time of the ongoing political/social crisis in Canada, Trudeau
served as an adviser to the Privy Council Office in 1950 and
subsequently became a professor of Law at the University of Montreal
in 1960. His inauguration into the Federal Liberal Party in 1965 as
well as his future involvement with the Federal government
(Constitutional Lawyer, Minister of Justice, Prime Minister of Canada)
would bolster his credibility in this book. Not only does he stress
the importance and validity of the Canadian political scope when
dealing with his theories, but his historical and economical
evaluation of the world in general serves as a competent and impartial
method of comparing analogies. Trudeau had always been labelled as a
radical or socialist, but upon reading his anthology, the reader
accepts the notion that he was an advocate of liberalism and
democracy. I would consider his interpretations of Federalism and
Quebec heritage as being substantially valid even in the acrimonious
way in which Trudeau addresses the issues; "Without equality, one has
a dictatorship" (such indiscriminate assessments of the Canadian
government magnify the strength AND weaknesses of each essay) . The
only visible weakness in his analysis would be the position in which
he views the Provincial government under Duplessis (weak, subordinate,
naive) and this perhaps taints most of his bi-partisan observations
towards how the Federal government would treat Francophones under a
unilateral constitution. Otherwise, each and every proposition
presented to the reader is heavily supported and reinforced by the
central theme in the book which, in effect, could be viewed as a
strength; he supports the majority of his Federalist arguments with
quotes from noted dignitaries and political leaders from the past and
present such as Lord Acton (while defending Federalism in Canada), Mao
Tse-Tung (when referring to Quebec's hostile and intolerance with
Canada), Aristotle (when discussing the perfect democratic union with
Quebec) and Nikita Khrushchev (in support of constitutional reform and
the possible effects of Dictatorships). Several of his essays had also
been published in Montreal and Toronto during the late 1960's and his
address to the Canadian Bar Association on September 4th, 1967 is
featured in its entirety in his book (Trudeau used these facts to
strengthen and reinforce his expertise and experience in the field).

	The material featured in Federalism and the French Canadians is
excessively difficult to digest and should be read by a student who is
familiar with the historical and political dilemmas presented in the
compositions. Although efficiently organized (dealing with Quebec and
social bedlam followed by solutions offered by Federalism), the book
is a challenge to understand in respects to how Trudeau plunges into
each scenario and issue with enormous furor and enthusiasm. He
generally expects the reader to have a large degree of background
knowledge on the subject of Federalism and Quebec. Without being
informed beforehand on the domestic difficulties of the country, this
particular reader surely would have been drowned in a sea of political
jargon and complex narrative insight. Nevertheless, Pierre Trudeau
captivated my imagination with his perspective of life in Canada and
the future of the country without a stable government. "My political
action; or my theory - insomuch as I can be said to have one - can be
expressed very simply: create counter-weights", is how Trudeau
described the rationale behind his ideological thinking and how he
downplayed the stagnant political situation in Canada that suppressed
its greatest strength; representation and unity by a multicultural
society...a government that enshrined the rights and liberties of its
people and distributed the freedom and respect accordingly regardless
of ethnic or cultural discrepancies. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this
complex and unprecedented book; it provided a concise and insightful
portrait of the role that Federalism plays in Quebec's backyard
during the middle of the 20th century. For a student who finds
himself caught up in 21st century politics, it is both a shock and a
pleasant surprise to climb back into history and discover the
productive and ideological perspective of a man who would eventually
rise to the occasion and become Prime Minister of Canada. Material
such as this should be featured on the curriculum for all students to
gaze upon, let alone only be recommended by critics who have studied
the works of Trudeau. Such monumental beliefs embodied into one man is
reason enough for a student in University or High School to open
Federalism and the French Canadians and learn more about Pierre Elliot
Trudeau.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Pierre Trudeau.TXT
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Pierre Trudeau


	Pierre Trudeau, former Prime Minister of Canada, was once described as
"A French Canadian proud of his identity and culture, yet a biting critic
of French-Canadian society, determined to destroy its mythology and
illusions". He has also been identified as "A staunch, upholder of
provincial autonomy holding the justice portfolio in the federal
government".  Such cumulative appraisal and observation made by past fellow
bureaucrat provides high testimonial for the ex-Democratic Socialist. This
critique will establish and dispute the prime directives that Trudeau had
advocated in his own book written during the years 1965 to 1967. The
compilation of political essays featured in his book deal with the diverse
complexities of social, cultural and economical issues that were
predominant in Canadian politics during the mid 1960's. However, throughout
my readings I was also able to discover the fundamental principles that
Trudeau would advocate in order to establish a strong and productive
influence in Canadian politics.

	Born in 1921, Trudeau entered the world in a bilingual/bicultural home
located in the heart of Montreal, Quebec. His acceptance into the
University of Montreal would mark the beginning of his adventures into the
Canadian political spectrum. Early in his life, Trudeau had become somewhat
anti-clerical and possessed communist ideologies which were considered
radical at the time. Graduating from prestigious institutions such as
Harvard and The School of Economics in England, Turdeau returned to Canada
in 1949 and resumed his social science endeavors. At this time in Quebec,
the province was experiencing tremendous cultural and political differences
with the rest of the country. The Union Nationale had taken possession of
political matters in Quebec and was steadily dismantling the socialist
essence imposed on the province by the Federal government. The current
Prime Minister, Maurice Duplessis, found himself battling a religious
nationalist movement that corrupted the very fabric of political stability
in Quebec. The Duplessis faction maintained their conservative approach
towards political reform but failed to sway the majority of the population
into alleviating with the demands of the Canadian government. The citizens
of Quebec revered their clerical sector as holding 'utmost importance'
towards preserving French cultural values and this did not correlate with
the Federal government's policies and ideals. Francophones were under the
impression that their own Federal government had set out to crush and
assimilate what had remained of their illustrious heritage in order to
accommodate economic and political tranquility. Trudeau himself had decided
to join the nationalist uprising with his advocation of provincial
autonomy. Ultimately, he and other skilled social scientists attempted to
bring down the Duplessis party in 1949, but failed miserably in their
efforts. Duplessis buckled underneath the continuous pressure of French
patriotism and was rewarded for his inept idleness by winning his fourth
consecutive election in 1956. Although nothing of significance had been
accomplished, Quebec has solidified its temporary presence in confederation
at such a time. This prompted Trudeau to involve himself in provincial
diplomacy as he would engage in several media projects that would voice his
displeasure and disapproval with the ongoing cultural predicament in Canada
(this included a syndicated newspaper firm, live radio programs). "If, in
the last analysis, we continually identify Catholicism with conservatism
and patriotism with immobility, we will lose by default that which is in
play between all cultures...". By literally encouraging a liberal, left-
wing revolution in his province, Trudeau believed that Democracy must come
before Ideology. Gradually, his disposition would attract many politicians
and advocates of Socialism, and thus it allowed him to radiate his ideology
onto the populace of Quebec. Trudeau makes it clear in his book that during
the early years of the Duplessis government, he was a staunch admirer of
provincial autonomy, but with the archaic sequence of events following the
conflicts that arouse between Federal and Provincial matters in Quebec, he
had taken a stance on Federalism that involved security, economic
prosperity and centralized authority. It wasn't until 1963 when the newly
appointed Premier of Quebec, Rene Levesque, warned that there must be a new
Canada within five years or Quebec will quit confederation. It was not
until 1965 that a man named Pierre Trudeau entered politics.

	It is at this point in his anthology that I was able to surmise the
radical and unorthodox political convictions that the soon-to-be Prime
Minister would incorporate into Canada. His thesis is focused around
pertinent issues which demanded attention at the time. After he elaborates
on the importance of Federalism and how it is associated with Quebec, the
reader begins to interpret the resolutions he offers and then finds himself
comprehending the dilemma that French Canadians face in Canada. In the wake
of a constitutional referendum, such knowledge can be viewed as ironically
significant. A defender of civil rights and freedoms, Trudeau, even as a
teenager, was adamantly opposed to supporting any political theory based on
ethnic tendencies; he makes this clear on an essay in the book entitled:
"Quebec and the Constitutional Problem". He was convinced that not only the
divided jurisdiction of a federal state helped protect the liberty of its
citizens but also that in fact the economic, social and cultural goods of
Quebec can best be achieved with a Canadian federal state. It seemed that
an archetypal Trudeau Federal infrastructure would be one where each level
of government would function on its own jurisdiction. In doing so, Trudeau
would voice his admiration for the Bill of Rights and how he would
concentrate on developing a Federal government for the individual. It was
not until 1962 that Trudeau actually began defending Federalism for what it
represented to the average labourer, but the fact that Quebec seemed to
convert provincial autonomy into an absolute forced him to reconsider his
political stance. Joining the struggling Liberal party in 1965, his only
coinciding proposition with that of his party was the advocation of an open
Federal system. Nonetheless, it marked the beginning of a political career
that would take him to the heights of power in his dominion.

	"My political action, or my theory - insomuch as I can be said to have
one - can be expressed very simply: create counter-weights". The measure of
a man can be traced to his ideological convictions, and in doing so, I have
only started to realize the prominent role that Trudeau has played in
Canadian politics. He was heralded as a radical, somewhat of a usurper and
definitely a socialist mogul, but what was clear about Trudeau was his
respect and admiration for liberties of the common man and how they were
preserved from the clutches of Federal policies. This respect would not be
replaced at any cost during his tenure and as he forecasted the ensuing
constitutional dilemma with a very impartial, non-partisan outlook, he
would primarily concentrate on two factors (economic and linguistic) which
offered practical conclusions without chaotic implications. Trudeau
envisioned himself in power, speculating two choices he would offer to
Quebec; full sovereignty or maximized integration into the American
continent. But what Trudeau avoided treading upon was the infringement of
state policies on the individual's rights and freedoms. Many members of the
Federal government believed that Trudeau did not speak on behalf of French
Canadians but that he substituted their cultural plight with his own
theories. This generated the following response: "If the party does not
agree with my opponents, it can repudiate me; if my constituents do not,
they can elect someone else". Trudeau maintains that he dedicated his
anthology in order for others to understand the problems that French
Canadians faced in terms of cultural progress, and I am compelled to
conclude that his involvement with the Federal regime may have saved the
country for twenty years...unfortunately, he was unable to complete the
affirmation of his ideology into the French Canadian scope and thus Canada
today is contemplating the outcome of another constitutional referendum.
His failure to absolve the constitution of any future repercussions with
the masses should not be viewed as a political error, but as an ideological
truth which he exhibited since 1965 (the addition of the "notwithstanding"
clause).

     Trudeau's book covers an immense amount of historical and idealistic
content. Published in 1965, it is fascinating to read and discover how
intently and closely he would follow his ideologies as he would eventually
ascend to the position of Prime Minister. His reliability would be
questionable at the time (based on limited experience as a politician) but
the fact that he had submerged himself into a field which required
innovative and pragmatic thought led me to believe that his Federalist
stance would eventually be justified in Canadian history. With a
superlative writing style, his use of vocabulary and terminology aided the
reader in understanding his convictions. Not even this reader expected such
a barrage of political jargon.

	Recent events in Canada have somewhat curtailed the ambience dealing
with this critique in respects to the opinions exhibited on behalf of the
author and reviewer. Trudeau takes obvious pride in his ideological
perspective of multicultural Canada, and in doing so one might expect a
partisan, biased array of resolutions. This, however, is not the case. This
book leaves room for educational prowess without any noticeable weaknesses.
Federalism and the French Canadians is an insightful, ideological anthology
that could be found especially useful to other politics students who wish
to examine the importance of cultural and social values in a country
missing a stable political doctrine (and perhaps a leader, no less).



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ponce de Leon.TXT
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Ponce de Leon
Ponce de Leon's Search for the Elusive Fountain
Ponce de Leon's quest for the fountain of youth led to the discovery of Florida
and many other unexpected yet significant discoveries. His discoveries helped him to
become a rich man and a brave conquistador.
On March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon sailed from the island of Puerto Rico with
three ships. After asking King Ferdinand of Spain permission to conquer and settle the
island of Bimini, Ponce de Leon set sail on a quest for a mythical fountain of youth. The
thought of a mythical fountain that was said to give eternal youth to whomever drank
from it, allured the king. Perhaps this was one of the ways Ponce de Leon persuaded the
king into letting him sail on this voyage. Maybe by alluring the king into thinking the
fountain existed, Ponce was able to explore North America. It is very hard to believe for
many people that such an incredible fountain existed. King Ferdinand and Ponce believed
in such a fountain. There are many versions of the legend that refer to this mystical spring,
pool, stream, or river. If one bathed in this water, one's youth was restored. If a whole
new world could be revealed, why not a fountain of youth? After Christopher Columbus
had sailed to many undiscovered places, it is very easy to see why many Europeans
believed that there were places that held unknown phenomenons like the fountain out
there somewhere. This was a European tale that neither Ponce de Leon nor King
Ferdinand could resist.1
2.
The first specific indication that Ponce aimed on exploring the Bahamas was a
letter about the fountain of youth. It was a 1514 letter from Pictro Martire d'Anghiera to
Pope Leo X. D'Angheria was a diplomat who represented the Pope in the Spanish royal
court. The letter that d'Angheria wrote provided Pope Leo with a brief account of
Ponce's amazing explorations in the Bahamas, which had taken place in the previous
year.2
 
d' Anghiera wrote: Ponce explored and investigated among the farthest countries
an island called /by us [Bimini] ; there is a fountain continuing throughout the year that is
so remarkable, that the water of this fountain being drunk makes old men young," Still, it
is not certain whether this fountain was originally one of the objects of Ponce's search and
thus a reason for his expedition, or whether he heard of the phenomenon in the course of
his voyage and reported its purposed existence afterward to his king.3
Juan Ponce de Leon was born in San Campos, Leon, in the year of 1460. His
mother was a daughter of Don Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, one of the heroes of the wars to
expel the Moors. Ponce de Leon is said to have resembled his grandfather in both
appearance and courage.4
Ponce de Leon was the first explorer to claim a part of North America's mainland
for Spain. On his first voyage to the New World, he was accompanied by Christopher
Columbus. Ponce de Leon soon became a soldier in the Spanish settlement of Hispaniola
in the West Indies. From approximately 1502-1504, he led Spanish forces against the
brutal Indians in Higuey, the eastern province of Hispaniola. After they conquered them,
Juan Ponce de Leon was appointed governor as his reward. He left the island of
Hispaniola in 1508 to explore Puerto Rico and found gold on the island; furthermore, he
conquered the island within a year. Ponce de Leon became governor in 1509 and then
rose to be a very wealthy and powerful man. He governed Puerto Rico for about three
years. Political rivals removed him from office in 1512. This is when he received
permission from King Ferdinand to colonize the island of Bimini. In 1513, he led an
3.
expedition to the various different areas of the Bahamas and other several unknown
islands. In April of 1513, Ponce de Leon found Florida. He claimed Florida part of Spain
and continued to explore the coast and the tip of Florida. This is where he searched for
the fountain of youth. On the west coast of Florida, he looked for the fountain only to
come to the disappointment that it didn't exist.5
Along the southeast coast of Florida near the Indian River, Ponce de Leon and his
crew encountered a group of Indians. This group of Indians were the Ais Indians. They
called out to Ponce de Leon, so he went ashore. They tried to steal a boat from the
Spanish, but Ponce was not going to retreat so easily. They then fought the Indians in a
ferocious battle; an Indian clubbed a Spaniard in the head. They then captured an Indian
and took him aboard their ship. From a captured Indian, the crew learned that the land
was called Cautio by the Ais. Of course, the Indian told stories of an elusive fountain, and
Ponce believed the man and spared his life.6
The ships set a course through the Bahamas. One day, less than a month after
visiting the island of Cautio, the fleet of three ships anchored in eight fathoms of water off
a previously uncharted coast. The next day, Ponce rowed ashore to take possession of
this land for Spain. When Ponce went on this land, he discovered the true beauty of this
country. Lush groves of gray cypress, tulip, ash and magnolia trees, backed by tall palms
and broom pines, exuded a delightful surprise. It was an unexpected surprise by Ponce
and his crew, and they were struck in awe by this new land. Many plants such as azaleas,
oranges, and jasmines were in bloom, and the woods were alive with insects and the calls
of hummingbirds, loons, and wild turkeys. Ponce de Leon had made his discovery during
the season of Easter, which the Spanish called Pascua Florida, or Feast of Flowers. He
called this new land Florida. In the event of his landing, Ponce became the first European
to set foot on the continent of North America. Ponce de Leon believed that this peninsula,
Florida, was an island.7
4.
On April 8, the three ships set sail once again. They originally ventured north but
altered their direction and traveled south along the coast. The men maintained an
adequate supply of food and water. They had killed many animals on this newly
discovered land called Florida. Two weeks later, the Spaniards spotted some huts which
was the first sign they had seen of Indians. An important discovery, unrecognized by
Ponce de Leon, was the existence of a river called the Gulf Stream. Although Ponce's
men had wind on their side, the powerful Gulf Stream pushed them back. The two ships
anchored, but one was carried away. When the two ships closest to shore dropped anchor,
the sailors noticed that they were defenseless against the current. They drifted off and
were lost to their sister vessel for two days. The pilot, Anton de Alaminos, proved his
theory by bringing treasure from Mexico to the King of Spain using the Gulf Stream. This
became an important route that allowed many future treasure ships to carry back gold
from the nearby islands. Although Ponce had no way of knowing at the time this current
was the Gulf Stream, it was an extremely significant discovery. The stream passed
through the Straits of Florida and shot up the southeastern coast of the United States until
it meets a cold current by North Carolina. The stream then flowed northeastward into the
Atlantic Ocean.8
The Calusa Indians that Ponce met on this island were even more interesting than
the land they had discovered. The Spaniards were very interested in the Indians who had
appeared and were motioning them ashore. When Ponce complied with the Indians, they
wounded two of his men with bone-tipped arrows and tried to seize his longboat. The
Spaniards retreated and sailed south to a river that was probably somewhere near Jupiter
Inlet. While the Spaniards gathered wood and water and waited for another party, the
Indians attacked. This time, the explorers fared a little better in the fight, and Ponce
captured one of the attackers to train as an interpreter and guide.9
 
5.
Then, the expedition sailed south around the Florida keys and traveled up the west
coast of Florida to an area near the present-day Sanibel Island. The crew navigated
carefully to avoid scraping the coast with their huge ships. Ponce de Leon posted a
lookout for changes in water color and heaved the anchor over to check for depth. At
night, careful navigation was impossible, and the ships were forced to anchor. While they
were there, Calusa Indians wearing palm-leaf loincloths canoed across the inlet to trade
with the men on the ship. The Indians had many items to trade, such as animal pelts and
guanin, a low-grade gold. There they encountered yet another battle with the Calusa
Indians, led by their chief, Cacigue Carlos. Again, there was an all day fight which led to
the Spaniards retreat. Turning southward across the Gulf of Mexico, the ship was losing
many supplies. There was a shortage of food and water. When the explorers came across
a group of islands, they replenished their food supply with nearly two-hundred sea turtles
that inhabited the islands. They also killed numerous seals and manatees along with
thousands of gannets and pelicans. They named them the islands Tortugas, after the
turtles.10
Although the explorers drank sweet water from the different islands of the north,
Ponce had not succeeded in locating the fountain of youth. He continued south, and
Ponce de Leon's ships reached Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. From there, Ponce de Leon
was carried through the Florida Straits and out to the Bahamas. One of his lieutenants
took a ship and located an island that may have been Bimini. The lieutenant encountered a
spring, but neither bathing in it nor drinking from it revealed any physical effect on the
men of the expedition. From there, they returned to the Island of Cuba, then again back to
the Bahamas and Puerto Rico seven months later. Ponce de Leon arrived back in Puerto
Rico on September 21, 1573.11
Despite the first unsuccessful search for the fountain, Ponce de Leon did make a
second voyage. He felt that his efforts were not appreciated by the colonial authorities;
6.
therefore, he reported to King Ferdinand. He brought five thousand gold pesos which
made King Ferdinand more agreeable with his proposals. The king treated Ponce very
courteously. The king gave Ponce the rights to colonize his discoveries if he did it at his
own cost. Ponce de Leon then secured his claims to the lands he had discovered, and now
he had the authority to colonize them and add to his fortune. He could be the governor of
Puerto Rico but only under a certain conditions. Under King Ferdinand's terms, Ponce
was to attempt to convert the natives to Catholicism, but if they resisted, "he may make
war on them, capture them, and take them for slaves."12 Ponce would then have sole
rights to profit from the slave trade and other money made from the island. In order to
achieve these goals, Ponce de Leon would have to defeat the brutal Caribs of Guadeloupe,
south of Puerto Rico. The expedition against the Caribs was a failure; many of Ponce's
men were ambushed and slaughtered.13
Ponce de Leon's second voyage was a very hasty voyage. It almost immediately
followed his first Florida expedition. He was very eager to explore even deeper into the
land he had discovered. Events popped up, though, that prevented him from acting on his
settlement plan. There were many Carib raids on Ponce's men which had been trying to
colonize the land. Ponce was asked to put an end to these raids, so he served as
commander. He had some success, but he was hardly making progress. He was even
further delayed when King Ferdinand died in early 1516. As a result of this, Ponce felt
expected to return to Spain and make sure his plans weren't ruined.14
Ponce de Leon spent at least 18 months in Spain between 1516 and 1518.
According to some sources, he then married a woman named Juana Pineda. Supposedly
Ponce's first wife, Leonor, died sometime before the second trip to Spain.15
Ponce de Leon's two ships, which left Puerto Rico on February 1521, carried
somewhere around eighty and two hundred people. They were stocked well with seeds,
horses, livestock, and other equipment and supplies to establish a colony.16
7.
His route was unknown, but Ponce made land somewhere on Florida's west coast
on Sanibel Island. Here he constructed a settlement, but disease and Indian attacks quickly
made the group smaller. Although later European settlers in the region reported the
Indians to be friendly, they were not anywhere near as peaceful as Ponce, now a veteran
conquistador.17
The Indians usually responded in battles against these men over their land. Ponce
was seriously wounded by an arrow in the thigh. Infection quickly set in his entire
body. Ponce de Leon's men shipped him off for treatment to the nearby island of Cuba,
where the nearest Spanish settlement was located. The wound was so bad by this point,
and only so little could be done. Juan Ponce de Leon, a great and brave conquistador,
died in July of 1521. 18
The poet, Juan de Castellanos, wrote his opinion of Ponce de Leon on the
explorers tombstone: "Here rest the bones of a Lion/ mightier in deeds than in name."19
Ponce's quest for the elusive fountain of youth had come to an end, but the objects
of his discoveries continue to inspire travelers. Many questions are still asked today about
whether the fountain of youth exists or not. His quest he made long ago led to the
discovery of Florida and many unpredicted, yet significant discoveries. Although Ponce
de Leon didn't find the fountain he was looking for, he accomplished so many things
which are deemed as brave, courageous, and heroic. The legend of the fountain of youth
is usually associated with the great explorer Juan Ponce de Leon, but in reality, the
fountain of youth was Juan Ponce de Leon himself.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Porsche world history .TXT
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FERDINAND PORSCHE
LIFE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PIONEER


      German engineer Ferdinand Porsche is certainly one of the most important figures - if not the most imporant and influent-in the history of automobile making. This outstanding Teuton was born on September 3rd, 1875 in Mafferdorf, Germany. One of the most remarkable accomplishments of his carrer was that his work was not limited to one factory, but instead he worked in many of the most renowned car-making factories of the time. 

        His life as an engineer started early, at the age of 22, when he designed an electric engine. In 1900 he was hired by a carmaker of the time, Lohner. He installed one of his engines on a Lohner and showed it in the Paris World Fair. The car was the show-stopper of the event, and later obtained positive results in several races. 

       Other less important events happened between 1900 and 1923, when he was hired by the most important carmaker of the time, Daimler Motoren A.G. (Which in 1926 would join Benz to form Daimler-Benz A.G.) During this time, first with Daimler and then with Daimler-Benz, he became member of the board of directors, and designed the famed S (Sportlich) and SS (Super Sportlich). Prizes and university degrees did not take long to appear, and in the same year he joined Daimler, 1923, he was named Sir Ferdinand Porsche by the Italian government and recieved an Honoris Causa from the Stuttgart Technical Institute.

        Porsche worked in the design of Mercedes-Benz cars until 1928, when he left because of disagreements the other other chief engineer of the factory, Hans Nibel. But his last development in the factory was probably one of the most important: The curious, exotic and fast SSKL.

        After Porsche left Mercedes, he was soon hired to design the now extint Austria cars, and later joined another very important German auto maker, Auto Union. In this factory he designed the famous and complex 16-cylinder race cars. While working in Auto Union, he formed with his son "Ferry" an independent factory that had their last name, Porsche, as name. Ferry worked as design head.




       In another example of versatility and excellence, he won the contract for building the Volkswagen, a car that, according to the beliefs of Adolf Hitler, was going to put every German citizen on wheels. And it did. With help form the Nazi government, he started building the Volkswagen plant. Finally, the car hit showrooms on 1939, but the war postponed it's full production until 1945.The Volkswagen became more then a car, it became a symbol of easy, reliable engineering and design, and broke every mass production record for a car. It is still produced today, after almost 60 years in countries like Mexico.

        After building cars for almost everyone interested in hiring him, Ferdinand Porsche finally put all his concentration in his own factory, located in Zuffenhausen. In 1948 and 1949 he works with his son Ferry in the design and production of his first model, the famed 356.

        In 1950, at the age of seventy-five and after living one of the most prolific lives (in the automotive sense), Ferdinand Porsche dies. His legacy in the automotive world is invaluable. His cars and his work with them, flawless. He is one of those people who rarely put foot on this planet. He is one of those people who have crossed the barrier that separates leyends form immortals, who will be remembered for many generations to come as a pioneer of the most important invention of the century, and maybe the millenium. Ferdinand Porsche had to be born with a car on his mind. Porsche. There is no substitute.




















 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\President Kennedy.TXT
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President Kennedy 
Kennedy's Assassination
November 22, 1963. Another shot heard around the world. The
assassination of Kennedy is the one of the most trivial
events in the history of the United States. Many different
people have various opinions to who actually assassinated
President John F. Kennedy. Two authors who have written
books on the trivial subject of Kennedy's assassination are:
Jim Garrison who wrote A Heritage of Stone, and Anthony
Summers who authored Conspiracy. They both share the idea
that Oswald was part of a conspiracy, and similarly they
think the assassination was carried out by a powerful group
of people. President Lyndon B. Johnson was appointed to
president after the death of J.F.K. and a commission was
set-up by him to investigate the assassination. The Warren
Commission, after analyzing the events for ten months,
reported that Lee Harvey Oswald was not part of any
conspiracy, domestic or foreign, to assassinate President
Kennedy. The findings of the Warren Commission are
questioned in both books and are written about as though the
commission was lying about what actually happened. In
Anthony Summers book, Conspiracy, he presents to the reader
many possible organizations that could be linked to the
Kennedy assassination. Summers does not come out and say
whom he thinks killed Kennedy, rather he offers different
possibilities and allows the reader to decide. Not even one
of his possibilities agrees with the conclusion of the
Warren Commission of Oswald not being part of any
conspiracy. The organizations he presents, as ones
associated with the assassination are the Mafia, the
government intelligence agencies and Fidel Castro.
Similarly, to the conclusions of the Warren Commission, the
writings in the Conspiracy give no definite answer to who
actually murdered Kennedy. Primarily, Summers associates the
Kennedy assassination to have been carried out by the Mafia
leaders who were affected by the policies of Kennedy. His
interviews with mobsters show that it was a probable
organization connected with the Kennedy assassination.
Summers interviewed Jose Aleman to get information on the
feelings of the Florida Mafia boss, Santo Trafficante.
During the course of the interview, Aleman spoke about
Trafficante's disgust with the Kennedy's and their crack
down on organized crime. Trafficante was quoted as saying;
"Kennedy's not going to make it to the election. He is going
to be hit."(p.284) The "hit" the Mafia boss referred to is a
word that the Mafia uses when they are going to kill someone
and the hit could have been when Kennedy was shot to death.
Summers also found Ed Becker, a mobster who had testified
for the Assassinations Committee and said that Carlos
Marcello, the New Orleans Mafia boss, had taken out
"insurance" for President Kennedy's death. Becker also
testified that the "insurance" could have been to, "Set-up a
nut to take the blame."(p. 290). One of the people on the
committee said after hearing testifiers, "I am now firmly of
the opinion that the mob did it. It is a historical
truth."(p. 290). Another organization possibly linked to the
assassination, according to Summers in his book is the
government agency called the Senate Select Committee on
Intelligence. In this possibility, he connects Oswald to the
government agencies when he interviewed Senator Schweiker, a
committee member, who said that he strongly believed that
Oswald was related to the assassination. Summers also found
another person who stated that he "firmly believes President
Kennedy was killed as the direct result of a plot by an
element of American intelligence."(p. 296) A third theory,
also presented in the Conspiracy, is that of Castro plotting
a plan to kill Kennedy. This theory is possible because
Kennedy was an enemy of Castro due to Kennedy's
"theoretical" plot to kill Castro. Castro discovered this
plan and in retaliation he sent out troops to kill Kennedy
before he could kill him. John Roselli who said "I was a
good friend of Castro and he told me that he had sent troops
to the United States" confirmed the troops that were sent by
Castro. (p. 121). All three theories were well supported by
Summers and the decision of what is true he has left up to
the reader. His interviews and his researching show that all
his theories have substance to them. Similar to the book
Conspiracy, A Heritage of Stone by Jim Garrison also
denounces the conclusions made by the Warren Commission and
he states that they gave the people "unbelievable lies." (p.
19). "I believe that the Kennedy assassination was carried
out by the force inside the United States government and the
assassination is a conspiracy." According to Garrison the
inside forces are the only groups that could have done this.
He presents a one sided point of view on the Kennedy
assassination and gives no other possibilities for the
reader to consider. Undoubtedly, Garrison takes a great
amount of time to show the contradictions and faults of the
conclusion of the Warren Commission. Through the entirety of
the novel, A Heritage of Stone, Garrison discover many
secret about the Commission and the information they
destroyed or hid away somewhere. He is so specific that he
even lists the actual file names that were that were missing
from the conclusion of the Commission. Garrison states "
There was information given to the Secret Service about
Oswald and his past history which was not presented to the
Commission to analyze." (p.93). The main theory, presented
by Garrison is that President Kennedy's was assassinated by
"the real power, the CIA." (p.73) He states that Kennedy's
plan to abandon military troops in Vietnam and his attempt
to end the Cold War put him on a collision course with the
CIA. According to Garrison, Kennedy took on a foreign policy
that would end the spending of billions of dollars on the
military technology that the CIA wanted to advance. Garrison
also used interviews with members in the Warren Commission
to support his theory that the Kennedy incident was a
government set-up conspiracy. Garrison seems to have
believed in his theory greatly and he would do anything to
prove this. He did not care about anything else and he
thought what he said was true and nothing else. These were
one of the flaws in the writing of Garrison in the book A
Heritage of Stone. In the above two books, there are many
ideas shared by the authors, but there are more that differ
in their opinion and writing style. The both have the theme
of "Who assassinated President Kennedy and why?" however
they express this by unique methods. Garrison and Summers
also share the idea that the conclusion made by the Warren
Commission were flat out lies and there was no substance to
what they declared. Both, Garrison and Summers investigated
the Kennedy assassination by interviewing people and going
to the true sources just in order to find the truth which
was not found by the Warren Commission. The two authors also
look at the government with suspicions finding evidence of a
cover up especially with the CIA and Oswald's real identity.
The primary goals of the authors were to discover the truth
and present it to the people. They did not want the
government to get away with something by covering it up and
create a "credibility gap". Clearly, there are many
differences to what Garrison writes about and what Summers
writes about. On one hand there is Garrison who knows for
sure that the CIA planed and did assassinate Kennedy.
Whereon the other hand Summers, suggest this as only a
possibility with many other theories along with it. Both
authors do put their investigations in their books, but only
Garrison shows his stand on what really happened. He only
shows one possible theory and tries to drill it into the
reader, whereas Summers presents multiple ideas and lets the
reader decide. For example, Garrison presents his opinion in
his book when he states, "I know that the government has
their hand behind any big event that goes on in the United
States, and I do not want the citizens of this nation to be
lied to." (p.27). Whereas, for example, Summers presents an
idea and gives to the reader an interpretation of what it
is. This is one of the greatest differences between
Garrison, a strong opinion writer, and Summers, a powerful
factual writer. The theories of Summers are more spread
apart and are linked from in the Mafia to Fidel Castro.
Garrison views the Kennedy assassination as government
conspiracy that is trying to be covered up. Anthony Summers
sees the cover-up as a possible idea and also presents the
theory of Fidel Castro and the Mafia. Jim Garrison is very
single minded and does not want to perceive any other
possibilities even if their as possible as the Mafia
connection to the assassination. Garrison's fault to not
include the Mafia possibility shows that does not believe in
anything else than what he stated. It is extremely clear
that Garrison has a total different approach to the Kennedy
assassination than Summers that is strong in its own way.
After analyzing the two books, I would say that Conspiracy
written by Summers is more powerful than Garrison's A
Heritage of Stone. Although Garrison's book is very
insightful due to his opinions that were made throughout the
course of the book, his claims were not as easy to believe.
He was very honest in his writing, which is strength, but
his weaknesses were the inability to fully support his
theory and one-sided perception of the assassination.
However Summers had great strengths that Garrison did not
possess. His momentous amount of quotations was believable
because it came from a first hand account. The variety of
theories presented allowed me to make my own decisions on
what I believed. His research and presentation of many
possibilities made his book more of an impact on me than did
the other by Garrison.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\President Nixon.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Richard Milhous Nixon was the thirty-seventh president of the United States and the only 

president to have resigned from office. He was on his was to success after receiving his law 

degree from Duke University Law School in 1937. 
	
	California Republicans persuaded Nixon in 1946 to be their candidate to challenge Jerry 

Voorhis, the popular Democratic Congressman, for his seat in the United States House of 

Representatives. He accuses Voorhis of being "soft" on Communism. This was damaging to him 

because the Cold War rivalry between the United States and USSR was just beginning. Voorhis 

was forced into a defensive position after the two men confronted each other in a series of 

debates. Nixon's campaign was an example of the vigorous and aggressive style characteristic of 

his political career that led him to win the election. 

	Nixon gained valuable experience in international affairs as a new member of the United 

States Congress. He helped establish a program known as the Marshall Plan, in which the US 

assisted Europe rebuild itself following the war. He also served on the House Education and  

Labor Committee to develop the National Labor Relations Act. 

	In 1948, writer and editor Whittaker Chambers accused Alger Hiss, a high State 

Department official, of being a Communist. Nixon, a member of the Un-American Activities 

Committee, personally pressed the investigation. Hiss denied further charges that he had turned 

classified documents over to Chambers to be sent to the USSR. Alger Hiss was later convicted 

and indicted for perjury after sufficient evidence was discovered. Nixon was reelected to 

Congress after winning both the Republican and Democratic nominations as a result of gaining a 

national reputation as a dedicated enemy of Communism.	

	In 1950, Nixon was chosen as candidate for the US Senate from California by the   


Republicans. Again, he won this election by linking his opponent to being pro-Communist.

	Nixon was selected to be the running mate of the Republican presidential nomination, 

General Eisenhower, in 1952. Many of Eisenhower's advisors wanted Nixon to resign his 

candidacy shortly after his vice-presidential nomination because of accusations that he misused 

his senator expenses fund. No evidence was found to prove this, and, in response, Nixon replied 

on national television with the "Checkers" speech, which contained sentimental reference to 

Nixon's dog, Checkers. The speech was his attempt to prove his innocence.

	In the following campaign, Nixon once again attacked the Democratic presidential 

candidate as being soft on Communism. 

	Nixon and Eisenhower's victory led them both to being reelected in 1956, after surviving 

Republican attempts to replace Nixon. 

	As vice-president, much of Nixon's time was spent representing the president before 

Congress and on trips abroad as a goodwill ambassador, where he was occasionally the target of 

anti-US feelings.

	As Eisenhower neared the end of his second term as president, he endorsed Nixon, who 

received an impressive vote in party primaries and all but ten of the delegates votes on the first 

ballot at the Republican National Convention. An unusual feature of the campaign was a series of 

face-to-face discussions between Nixon and his Democratic opponent, Senator John F. Kennedy, 

who was widely regarded as the winner of the debates, which helped him win the election. 
	
	In 1962, Nixon returned to California after losing the presidential election and became 

Republican candidate for governor. It was another bitter campaign, revolving around 

Communism and law enforcement, but this time his strategy did not work. Most political 

observers believed Nixon's political career had ended by the was he handled the loss. 

	
	Nixon moved and joined a large law firm in New York City after his defeat, and remained 

in close relations with national Republican leaders and campaigned for Republican candidates in 

two elections. By 1968, he had sufficiently recovered his political standing to announce his 

candidacy for president.

	He had two major problems in seeking nomination in 1968. He had not won an election 

in eighteen years and he had no state in which to base his candidacy. He also could count on few 

Republican governors for support, though he did have support in Congress and other politicians 

whom he helped campaigned.

	He easily won the nomination on the first ballot at the convention and chose the governor 

of Maryland as his running mate. Vice-president Humphrey, his Democratic opponent, was 

placed under stress by Nixon from the unsuccessful war in Vietnam's effects. Nearly thirty-two 

million votes gave him a clear majority in the electoral college. 

	The most important issue Nixon faced when he became president was the Vietnam war. 

The conflict between North Vietnam and South Vietnam began in 1959, and in 1964 there were 

reports that North Vietnam had attacked US vessels. Congress and President Johnson authorized 

the bombing of North Vietnam and to increase US military involvement.

	Nixon campaigned against the war, and brought US soldiers back home. He developed 

the Nixon doctrine, stating that the United States would continue helping Asian nations combat 

Communism, but would no longer commit US troops to land wars in Asia.
 
	However, in 1970, Nixon expanded the war by allowing an invasion and several bombing 

missions.

	Into the second half of 1972, secret peace meetings were held between the assistant to the 

president for national security affairs and a North Vietnamese delegate. A breakthrough was 


achieved when a peace plan was agreed on, but abruptly collapsed when Nixon ordered further 

massive bombing. 

	Nixon was more successful in other foreign policy areas, such as improving relations with 

China and USSR. Both countries signed trade agreements and treaties.

	He adopted conservative domestic policies by appointing appeals judge Burger to the 

Supreme Court in 1969, federal judge Blackmun, Virginia lawyer Powell, and Assistant Attorney 

General Rehnquist in 1971; to shift the Supreme Court toward more conservative positions.

	Also, Nixon tried to slow the pace of integration of black students into white schools. In 

1957, the Supreme Court declared the practice illegal. Nixon then opposed the use of public 

buses to transport students to integrated schools. 

	Other problems arose, such as inflation and high unemployment. His tactic to slow 

inflation with high interest rates failed, so he began wage and price controls. He also devalued 

the dollar to promote US exports and discourage imports.

	Nixon won easily over his Democratic opponent in the election of 1972 due to improved 

economy and temporary peace between the US and Vietnam.

	During the campaign, five men connected with Nixon's reelection committee were 

discreetly arrested for breaking into the Democratic Party's national headquarters in the 

Watergate apartment complex in Washington D.C., attempting to steal documents and place 

wiretaps on the telephones.

	Secret peace meetings continued between the Untied States and Vietnam. Once an 

agreement was met, Nixon announced an official cease-fire over national television. At this time 

Nixon's popularity was at it's peak, but not for long.
  
       Severe inflation once again affected the economy, so Nixon devalued the dollar a second 

time. In addition to this he cut government spending on domestic social programs, such as 

education, urban renewal, and antipoverty programs, while resisting attempts by the Congress to 

reduce military spending. 

	Nixon's prestige crumbled as a result of the Watergate scandal. Persistent questioning led 

to an investigation. In the trial of the Watergate burglars had shown that a cover-up had 

concealed their activities and their connections with high government officials and the 

president's closest aids. A Senate committee on Watergate and the Justice Department revealed 

that this was one of many scandals involving Nixon and his loyalists. The actions of Watergate 

has been directed against the Democrats, and all but one of Nixon's aids and officials were 

forced to resign. These discoveries raised questions about Nixon's knowledge and participation 

in their cover-up. He issued inconsistent statements claiming the importance of presidency 

allowed him to withhold documents even if they were demanded by the courts.
    
      The public was outraged that Nixon fired special investigator Cox over the question of 

access to his records. This ordered the House Judiciary committee to look into possible 

impeachment. Nixon then agreed to produce the withheld documents as a result of the threat, but 

soon after it was revealed that some tapes were missing. 

	All of this caused other investigations to begin focusing on Nixon, such as possible 

income tax evasion and misuse of government funds. Nixon's top two aids and two other men 

were indicted in connection with the Watergate cover-up in 1974, and Nixon refused to hand 

over additional tapes that were demanded

	The tapes supplied to the courts would be made public in the trials, so Nixon released 

edited transcripts that concealed any evidence of his involvement. In early 1974, the Court ruled 

against Nixon's claims of executive privilege in an eight to zero decision. He was also accused of 

obstructing justice, abusing presidential power, and refusing to comply with the House's 

demands. This caused the Judiciary committee to introduce three impeachment articles.

       His supporters in Congress felt betrayed when he released tapes that year that showed he 

had participated in the Watergate cover-up as early as 1972. It was clear that he would be 

impeached by the House and convicted in the Senate, so on August 8, 1974, Nixon announced - 

without admitting guilt - that his resignation would take effect the following day and Vice -

President Ford would take his place as president.

     One month later, President Ford issued a pardon for all federal crimes Nixon may have 

committed while president. Through traveling and writing, he gradually regained his public 

respect. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Presidential Biography of JFK.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 


Blaize Hite

Mr. Nelson

Modern American Studies, Period 1

5 Novermber 1996


					Theodore C. Sorensen.

					Kennedy.

					New York:  Harper & Row, 1965.  783 pp.


	John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in the Boston suburb of
Brookline.  Kennedy was the son of Joseph P. Kennedy a formerambassador to Great
Britain.  Kennedy was much like his father, possesing a delightful sense of humor, a strong
family loyalty, a concern for the state of the nation, endless vitality and a constant air of
confidence no matter how dire the situation (Kennedy, Sorensen, Harper & Row, New
York 1965, Page 18).  
Growing up in a priviliged household and graduating with honors from Harvard.  He
served as an assistant to his father (1938), naval officer (1941-1945), journalist (1941 and
1945) and Congressman (1947-1953), he had traveled to every major continent and talked
with the presidents and prime ministers, of some thirty-seven countries.  In 1952 he was
elected to the United States Senate and in 1953 he married Jaqueline Bouvier.  However
one year later a spinal operation brought him to the edge of death's door, causing him to
deeply reflect on his character (Sorensen 28).  After his dangerous operation he
researched and wrote a book, about democracy.  The next year narrowly missing the Vice
Presidential nomination of his party, Kennedy emerged as a national figure in large
demand.

	"John Kennedy was not one of the Senate's great leaders" (Sorensen 43).  Very
few laws of great  importance bear his name.  Even after his initial "traditionally' inactive
freshman year in the Senate, his chances for major contributions to the Senate excluding
his stances on fair labor reform and against rackets, were constantly diminished of his
Presidential campaign.  His voting record reflects his open minded views, and strengthed
beliefs.    He was well liked and respected by many Senators.  Kennedy was regarded for
his eagerness and cool logic in debate situations  His only real "enemy" was Senator
Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin (Sorensen 45).McCarthy's rough and wide-ranging hunts
for Red, "pinks" and headlines had stomped on the freedoms of people who had not
committed a crime, and Kennedy was too rational and reasonable a man to remain
indiferent to the extremism known as Mcarthyism.  Kennedy often was a thorn in
McCarthy's side obstructing many of McCarthy's personal choices for various offices and 
by serving on certain committies of which McCarthy was chairman, such as the
Government Operations Committee (Sorensen 46).  	

	Kennedy's political philosophy revoloved around the idea that one could not allow
the  pressures of party responisbility to cloud ones personal responsibility. Meaning after
all was said and done that the decision falls upon yourself to make the choice regardless of
what your party platform was.  Of course the platfrom had significant merit, nevertheless
it still came down to the individual.  "Democrats, he said, generally had more heart, more
foresight and 
more energy.  They were not satisfied with things as they were and believed they could
make them better"  (Sorensen 71).

	"John F. Kennedy wanted someday to be President of the United States"
(Sorensen 95).  Not becuase he was dissatisfied with his life as a Senator nor because he
possessed some grand scheme for the future of America.  He merely felt that it was the
center of action of the American System.  "at least you have an opportunity to do
something about all the probelms which. . . I would be concerned about [anyway] as a
father or as a citizen. . . and if what you do is useful and succesful, then . . . that is a great
satisfaction" (Sorensen 95).  Before the election of 1960 Kennedy used the result of his
newfound celebrity status to do a bit of travelling across the country.  Convering more
than thirty thousand miles in twenty-four states, he made over 150 speeches and
appearances in the course of six weeks.  He spoke to various conventions, varying from
civic to labor, farmer to youth.  However his senatorial duties enabled him to accept less
than 4 percent of the hundreds of invitations that poured into his office, mainly consisting
of important Democratic canidates or fund-raising dinner chairmen.  As the years
progressed the fact materialized that his hard work had finally begun to pay off.  His
audiences had became larger and even more 
enthusiastic.  Therefore at 12:30 P.M., on Saturday, January 2, Senator John Fitzgerald
Kennedy walked into a crowded press conference and read a one-page declaration of his
candidacy for the Presidency (Sorensen 122).  					
	"I am announcing today my candidacy for the Presidency of the United States. . . .
In the past forty months, I have toured every state in the Union and I have talked to
Democrats in all walks of life.  My candidacy is therefore based on the conviction that I
can win both the nomination and the election" (Sorensen 122).
	Kennedy's campaign opened on a low note, polls showed that Nixon was far better
known than Kennedy on the basis of his national office and four nationwide campaigns;
that Nixon was looked upon as more experienced; and that Kennedy was known primarily
as a wealthy, inexperienced, youthful Catholic.  The Democrats were in a state of division,
while Nixon had successfully rallied the Republicans.  Kennedy took the this time to
organized himself and manifest support for his campaign run, through a steady onlslaught
of speeches, and meetings Kennedy seemed almost to thrive (Sorensen 178).  Focusingnot
on singular issues but instead Kennedy expressed his discontent with America's current
situation, he insisted that we could do better.
	
	Kennedy indeed won the election by a very narrow margin, so narrow that the
victory could almost be attributed to any list of decisive factors.  However there are seven
that prominantly stick out.  The Television Debates.  At this point in American history this
was the most televised campaign ever and Kennedy's vitality and knowledge appealed to
millions of voters who probably would have simply acknowledged him as too
inexperienced and young.  One survey showed that four million voters made up their
minds simply by the debates, giving Kennedy a three-to-one margin (Sorensen 213). 
Campaign Tactics.  Kennedy's vigorous, intensified campaign style was aggressive from
the start instilling a feeling of unreached potential.  His tactics enabled him to swing many
undecided voters and probably even more if time had permitted (Sorensen 214).  Party
Identification.  Kennedy appealed frequently and aggressively to party unity, loyalty, and
history.  His party was the majority party in terms of Senators, Congressmen, governors,
and mayors, this allowed for heavy organization and heavy registration of voters. Nearly
seven million more people that the amount that voted four years earlier.  Black Relations. 
Kennedy's concerned call to the wife of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was hailed throughout
the black community, which thenproceeded to vote overwhelmingly for Kennedy.  

	Do to length constraints the paper will jump ahead to focus on one example of the
President's  response to a domestic issue and the President's view on foreign policy.       

	"The Fight For Equal Rights" (Sorensen 470).  In 1953 John Kennedy was
adamantly in favor of civil rights legislation as a political neccessity and simply recognized
that this legislation was morally correct.  However in 1963 Kennedy was deeply
committed to human rights.  His convictions on this subject were not converted, but
instead reached by his characteristic gradualness, logic, and cool mentality.  He
immediately began to implement programs that would incorporate a stronger black
prescence in the legislative and judical branches of government.  However an element that
was seriously lacking were civil rights measures.  No amount of Presidential pressure
could put through the Eighty-seventh Congress a meaningful legislative package on civil
rights (Sorensen 476).  Kennedy responded to his situation at a press conference by
saying, "when I feel that there is a necessity for Congressional action, with a chance of
getting that Congressional action, then I will recommend it" (Sorensen 476).  Nevertheless
Kennedy pushed and pushed first through legislation aimed at massive registration to
massive desegregation.  Executive orders barred segregation or descrimination in the
armed forces Reserves, in the training of civil defense workers, in the off-base treatment of
military personnel, in Federally aided libraries and in the summer college training institutes
of the National Science Foundation and National Defense Education Act.

	






"The Olive Branch" (Sorensen 509).  John Kennedy's approach to foreign affairs was very
different from his approach to domestic problems, this was because foreign affairs had
always appealed to him far more than domestic.  They took up a great deal more of his
time and energy as President.  They severely tested his abilities of execution and
judgement, and his ability to react to consistent unforeseeable events.  The following two
quotes are one of  many that sum up his opinion on foreign policy, "Let us never negotiate
out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate" and "We must face up to the chance of war,
if we are to maintain the peace. . . . Diplomacy and defense are not substitutes for one
another. . . . A willingness to resist force, unaccompained by a willing to 
talk, could prevoke belligerence--while a willingness to talk, unaccompanied by a
willingness to resist force, could invite disaster. . . .  While we shall negotiate  freely, we
shall not  negotiate freedom. . . .  In short, we are neither "warmongers" nor "appeasers,"
neither "hard" nor "soft." We are Americans" (Sorensen 511)
											
	The President faced many crisises whether domestic or foreign.  He was forced to
deal with the escalating Cold War, the Cuban Missle Crisis, Civil Rights, Recession and
Inflation.  With each issue he faced he responded with dilligence, careful thought and
decisive action.  Throught every scenario he faced from election to the Senate to the
Presidential campaign he was able to expand his ideas and maintain a healthy open
attitude.  That was the shock of November, 1963.  Jack Kennedy was living at his peak. 
Almost everything seemed to be moving in his direction.  He was healthy, respected, and
looking forward to the comepletion of his first term and start of his second term.  To
suddenly be "cut off"  is not simply a loss, but a loss of what could have been.  In less than
three years he presided over a new era in American race relations, a new era in our a
Latin-American relations, a new era in fiscal and economic policy and a new era in the
exploration of space.  His Presidency helped launch the longest and strongest period of
economic expansion for that period of time, and new and enlarged roles for the Federal
Government in higher education, mental affliction, civil rights, and the conservation of
human and natural resources.  If I was to rate the president I would conclude that since he
was the first Executive power to back the civil rights movement and such that he was
indeed a great president.  A man far greater than the legend he left us who truly believed
that one man could make a difference.  I feel that what makes him such a great president is
what he stood for, hope in an era of doubt, public service ahead of private interests, for
reconciliation between black and white, labor and management.  His sole defense for such
a rating are his actions and his beliefs.  I have to admit that before this report I really knew
nothing of J. F. K.  Of course I knew of his assassination but of his legislative and
executive work I knew absolutely nothing except for the work he did for civil rights which
my father informed me of at an early age.  However now I feel a great deal more informed
and I found his life rather interesting.  If he had not of died he would be around 86 this
year and most likely still very active in the Senate or some form of political office. 
Interesting to note the effect his wisdom and advice could have affected the way the
United States is now today.  


































































      
 
	  

























 

Blaize Hite

Mr. Nelson

Modern American Studies, Period 1

5 Novermber 1996


					Theodore C. Sorensen.

					Kennedy.

					New York:  Harper & Row, 1965.  783 pp.


	John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in the Boston suburb of
Brookline.  Kennedy was the son of Joseph P. Kennedy a formerambassador to Great
Britain.  Kennedy was much like his father, possesing a delightful sense of humor, a strong
family loyalty, a concern for the state of the nation, endless vitality and a constant air of
confidence no matter how dire the situation (Kennedy, Sorensen, Harper & Row, New
York 1965, Page 18).  
Growing up in a priviliged household and graduating with honors from Harvard.  He
served as an assistant to his father (1938), naval officer (1941-1945), journalist (1941 and
1945) and Congressman (1947-1953), he had traveled to every major continent and talked
with the presidents and prime ministers, of some thirty-seven countries.  In 1952 he was
elected to the United States Senate and in 1953 he married Jaqueline Bouvier.  However
one year later a spinal operation brought him to the edge of death's door, causing him to
deeply reflect on his character (Sorensen 28).  After his dangerous operation he
researched and wrote a book, about democracy.  The next year narrowly missing the Vice
Presidential nomination of his party, Kennedy emerged as a national figure in large
demand.

	"John Kennedy was not one of the Senate's great leaders" (Sorensen 43).  Very
few laws of great  importance bear his name.  Even after his initial "traditionally' inactive
freshman year in the Senate, his chances for major contributions to the Senate excluding
his stances on fair labor reform and against rackets, were constantly diminished of his
Presidential campaign.  His voting record reflects his open minded views, and strengthed
beliefs.    He was well liked and respected by many Senators.  Kennedy was regarded for
his eagerness and cool logic in debate situations  His only real "enemy" was Senator
Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin (Sorensen 45).McCarthy's rough and wide-ranging hunts
for Red, "pinks" and headlines had stomped on the freedoms of people who had not
committed a crime, and Kennedy was too rational and reasonable a man to remain
indiferent to the extremism known as Mcarthyism.  Kennedy often was a thorn in
McCarthy's side obstructing many of McCarthy's personal choices for various offices and 
by serving on certain committies of which McCarthy was chairman, such as the
Government Operations Committee (Sorensen 46).  	

	Kennedy's political philosophy revoloved around the idea that one could not allow
the  pressures of party responisbility to cloud ones personal responsibility. Meaning after
all was said and done that the decision falls upon yourself to make the choice regardless of
what your party platform was.  Of course the platfrom had significant merit, nevertheless
it still came down to the individual.  "Democrats, he said, generally had more heart, more
foresight and 
more energy.  They were not satisfied with things as they were and believed they could
make them better"  (Sorensen 71).

	"John F. Kennedy wanted someday to be President of the United States"
(Sorensen 95).  Not becuase he was dissatisfied with his life as a Senator nor because he
possessed some grand scheme for the future of America.  He merely felt that it was the
center of action of the American System.  "at least you have an opportunity to do
something about all the probelms which. . . I would be concerned about [anyway] as a
father or as a citizen. . . and if what you do is useful and succesful, then . . . that is a great
satisfaction" (Sorensen 95).  Before the election of 1960 Kennedy used the result of his
newfound celebrity status to do a bit of travelling across the country.  Convering more
than thirty thousand miles in twenty-four states, he made over 150 speeches and
appearances in the course of six weeks.  He spoke to various conventions, varying from
civic to labor, farmer to youth.  However his senatorial duties enabled him to accept less
than 4 percent of the hundreds of invitations that poured into his office, mainly consisting
of important Democratic canidates or fund-raising dinner chairmen.  As the years
progressed the fact materialized that his hard work had finally begun to pay off.  His
audiences had became larger and even more 
enthusiastic.  Therefore at 12:30 P.M., on Saturday, January 2, Senator John Fitzgerald
Kennedy walked into a crowded press conference and read a one-page declaration of his
candidacy for the Presidency (Sorensen 122).  					
	"I am announcing today my candidacy for the Presidency of the United States. . . .
In the past forty months, I have toured every state in the Union and I have talked to
Democrats in all walks of life.  My candidacy is therefore based on the conviction that I
can win both the nomination and the election" (Sorensen 122).
	Kennedy's campaign opened on a low note, polls showed that Nixon was far better
known than Kennedy on the basis of his national office and four nationwide campaigns;
that Nixon was looked upon as more experienced; and that Kennedy was known primarily
as a wealthy, inexperienced, youthful Catholic.  The Democrats were in a state of division,
while Nixon had successfully rallied the Republicans.  Kennedy took the this time to
organized himself and manifest support for his campaign run, through a steady onlslaught
of speeches, and meetings Kennedy seemed almost to thrive (Sorensen 178).  Focusingnot
on singular issues but instead Kennedy expressed his discontent with America's current
situation, he insisted that we could do better.
	
	Kennedy indeed won the election by a very narrow margin, so narrow that the
victory could almost be attributed to any list of decisive factors.  However there are seven
that prominantly stick out.  The Television Debates.  At this point in American history this
was the most televised campaign ever and Kennedy's vitality and knowledge appealed to
millions of voters who probably would have simply acknowledged him as too
inexperienced and young.  One survey showed that four million voters made up their
minds simply by the debates, giving Kennedy a three-to-one margin (Sorensen 213). 
Campaign Tactics.  Kennedy's vigorous, intensified campaign style was aggressive from
the start instilling a feeling of unreached potential.  His tactics enabled him to swing many
undecided voters and probably even more if time had permitted (Sorensen 214).  Party
Identification.  Kennedy appealed frequently and aggressively to party unity, loyalty, and
history.  His party was the majority party in terms of Senators, Congressmen, governors,
and mayors, this allowed for heavy organization and heavy registration of voters. Nearly
seven million more people that the amount that voted four years earlier.  Black Relations. 
Kennedy's concerned call to the wife of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was hailed throughout
the black community, which thenproceeded to vote overwhelmingly for Kennedy.  

	Do to length constraints the paper will jump ahead to focus on one example of the
President's  response to a domestic issue and the President's view on foreign policy.       

	"The Fight For Equal Rights" (Sorensen 470).  In 1953 John Kennedy was
adamantly in favor of civil rights legislation as a political neccessity and simply recognized
that this legislation was morally correct.  However in 1963 Kennedy was deeply
committed to human rights.  His convictions on this subject were not converted, but
instead reached by his characteristic gradualness, logic, and cool mentality.  He
immediately began to implement programs that would incorporate a stronger black
prescence in the legislative and judical branches of government.  However an element that
was seriously lacking were civil rights measures.  No amount of Presidential pressure
could put through the Eighty-seventh Congress a meaningful legislative package on civil
rights (Sorensen 476).  Kennedy responded to his situation at a press conference by
saying, "when I feel that there is a necessity for Congressional action, with a chance of
getting that Congressional action, then I will recommend it" (Sorensen 476).  Nevertheless
Kennedy pushed and pushed first through legislation aimed at massive registration to
massive desegregation.  Executive orders barred segregation or descrimination in the
armed forces Reserves, in the training of civil defense workers, in the off-base treatment of
military personnel, in Federally aided libraries and in the summer college training institutes
of the National Science Foundation and National Defense Education Act.

	






"The Olive Branch" (Sorensen 509).  John Kennedy's approach to foreign affairs was very
different from his approach to domestic problems, this was because foreign affairs had
always appealed to him far more than domestic.  They took up a great deal more of his
time and energy as President.  They severely tested his abilities of execution and
judgement, and his ability to react to consistent unforeseeable events.  The following two
quotes are one of  many that sum up his opinion on foreign policy, "Let us never negotiate
out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate" and "We must face up to the chance of war,
if we are to maintain the peace. . . . Diplomacy and defense are not substitutes for one
another. . . . A willingness to resist force, unaccompained by a willing to 
talk, could prevoke belligerence--while a willingness to talk, unaccompanied by a
willingness to resist force, could invite disaster. . . .  While we shall negotiate  freely, we
shall not  negotiate freedom. . . .  In short, we are neither "warmongers" nor "appeasers,"
neither "hard" nor "soft." We are Americans" (Sorensen 511)
											
	The President faced many crisises whether domestic or foreign.  He was forced to
deal with the escalating Cold War, the Cuban Missle Crisis, Civil Rights, Recession and
Inflation.  With each issue he faced he responded with dilligence, careful thought and
decisive action.  Throught every scenario he faced from election to the Senate to the
Presidential campaign he was able to expand his ideas and maintain a healthy open
attitude.  That was the shock of November, 1963.  Jack Kennedy was living at his peak. 
Almost everything seemed to be moving in his direction.  He was healthy, respected, and
looking forward to the comepletion of his first term and start of his second term.  To
suddenly be "cut off"  is not simply a loss, but a loss of what could have been.  In less than
three years he presided over a new era in American race relations, a new era in our a
Latin-American relations, a new era in fiscal and economic policy and a new era in the
exploration of space.  His Presidency helped launch the longest and strongest period of
economic expansion for that period of time, and new and enlarged roles for the Federal
Government in higher education, mental affliction, civil rights, and the conservation of
human and natural resources.  If I was to rate the president I would conclude that since he
was the first Executive power to back the civil rights movement and such that he was
indeed a great president.  A man far greater than the legend he left us who truly believed
that one man could make a difference.  I feel that what makes him such a great president is
what he stood for, hope in an era of doubt, public service ahead of private interests, for
reconciliation between black and white, labor and management.  His sole defense for such
a rating are his actions and his beliefs.  I have to admit that before this report I really knew
nothing of J. F. K.  Of course I knew of his assassination but of his legislative and
executive work I knew absolutely nothing except for the work he did for civil rights which
my father informed me of at an early age.  However now I feel a great deal more informed
and I found his life rather interesting.  If he had not of died he would be around 86 this
year and most likely still very active in the Senate or some form of political office. 
Interesting to note the effect his wisdom and advice could have affected the way the
United States is now today.  


































































      
 
	  

























 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Prince Klemens von Metternich.TXT
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1182
Prince Klemens von Metternich: His Ideology, his Role in History, and the Stories we Tell. Metternich was an extremely intelligent man who turned his conservative beliefs into international policy. Metternich was a confident leader who put little faith in popular opinion or sentiment because he believed that the common man was too fickle in his loyalties and too inept to understand the magnitude of foreign policy. He was a loyal "servant" to the Austrian Emperor, even though Metternich was the true head of the Empire's government. Prince Klemens von Metternich was a complex individual that embodied the principles of 19th century conservatism and, through his Congress of Vienna, led the major European powers to a period of long-lasting peace and a strong balance of power. Metternich is well known for the Metternich System, which was put into practice during his most notable success, the Congress of Vienna of 1815. Metternich, additionally, was the guiding spirit of the international congresses, Aachen, Carlsbad, Troppau, Laibach, and Verona and was the chief statesman of the Holy Alliance. The Congress of Vienna, though, and the agreements that followed were the basis for, "no war involving several powers until the Crimean conflicts of the 1850's and no major war embroiling the whole of Europe until 1914." Metternich's goal, however, was not a peaceful Europe for the sake of peace, but for the preservation of the Austrian Empire who was threatened by possible aggressors on all sides, as well as, his personal loathing for liberalism and revolutionary behavior. Moreover, the Congress of Vienna gave Metternich the opportunity to instill his values of conservatism into the other leaders of Europe in a time when liberalism and revolution were the predominant political trends. Even though Metternich was a firm believer in the conservative values of his time, he worked to spread those ideas in 1815 for the more pragmatic reason of balancing power in the European Concert rather than for abstract ideologies. In the time following the Congress of Vienna, Metternich's amazing negotiations balanced the tendencies of an expanding Russia, with the isolationist mentality of Great Britain, as well as dealing with Prussian supremacy in the German confederation and maintaining Bourbon satisfaction with the status quo. The fact that he was able to do all this gave justification to the fact that, "Metternich remarked near the end of his life that historians would judge him more fairly than his contemporaries, and his prophecy has proven uncannily accurate." This shows that even though others may not have revered him in the 19th century (even though he revered himself) he was a leader whose attributes have stood the test of time and whose abilities have received praise in the history books. Metternich embodied leadership that surpassed his colleagues and was more prevalent than the most powerful leaders that came after him. Moreover, history remembers Metternich's ability to put personal differences aside for the common good, a lesson often forgotten in the aftermath of war. "There was a kind of immovable certainty about his own intentions, but he was never so foolish as to think that his acts were infallible. Nor did he display any sort of vindictiveness for his enemies and opponents-he was too much the politician for that." Because of these abilities to see beyond his own mortality, Metternich's leadership is manifested through his system of appeasement over harsh reparation. For example, his attitudes towards Talleyrand-treating him like an equal at Vienna-the group was able to come up with a compromised, fair, and balanced settlement. These leadership characteristics would be absent from the Versailles talks at the end of the First World War, but would reappear almost a century and a half later at the end of the Second. The Metternich System came with a price, however; it relied on, "political and religious censorship, espionage, and the suppression of revolutionary and nationalist movements." Nevertheless, the ability for Metternich to see beyond his time, combined with his willingness to be an example of his rhetoric, made him a world leader whose abilities were evident by the hundred years of wide scale peace after his Congress of Vienna. The stories that are told of Metternich are usually those of a harsh ruler who believed in a strong balance of power above most things, including personal freedoms and enlightened ideals. This persona has come under criticism in recent years, though, because, "the commonly received image of Metternich as a benighted reactionary is largely a product of late-nineteenth-century German nationalist historiography; which could barely conceal its disgust toward his attachment to European federalism rather than the cause of national self-determination." The new view of Metternich that has shone through is that of a man faced with the amazingly difficult task of reshaping Europe after the Napoleonic Wars and a man who had self confidence great enough to believe that he could do it. That, in short, is Metternich's story. Metternich's ego would have agreed with that view, but would have added that his extraordinary actions were a result of him being, "a kind of titular professor of fundamental truths" and he never wavered from doing what he believed was right. In this respect, much as modern historians give praise to President Reagan and Henry Kissinger for that attribute, Metternich's story is one of action, conviction, and the stability of nations above all. Prince Klemens von Metternich descended from the aristocracy, as did most men in the Royal courts of the nineteenth century. Through his marriage to Eleonora von Kaunitz he was brought into social circles of enormous wealth and influence. He began his career in diplomacy in 1797 at the Congress of Rastatt and from 1801 to 1809 served in some of the most prominent Ambassadorships of his time. He then succeeded Johann Philipp von Stadion as Austrian Foreign Minister in 1809. In that role he was more of a Prime Minister, rather than just a chief diplomat. He died in 1859 but it is said about him that: between 1815 and 1848 central Europe was dominated by a single personality, Prince Klemens von Metternich, the actual political leader of Austria. The 'coachman of Europe,' as he was called by those who respected his far-flung power, dominated the first half of the century, like Prince Otto von Bismarck dominated the second half. In the role of Foreign Minister, Metternich was almost single handedly responsible for the redrawing of the European and imperial maps in order to create the most successful balance of power Europe had ever seen. His impact in world politics was undoubtedly one of the most profound. For all of his professional life he was preparing himself to influence world affairs with the philosophy he believed in so deeply. As the leader of international affairs for the Austrian Empire, he would not be spreading the conservative ideology for philosophical reasons, but for the survival of his nation state.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Princess Diana.TXT
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Princess Diana
One of the most loved and remembered women leaders of this century was Diana, Princess of Wales. After she came into the public's life by marrying into the British Royal family, and leaving it ten years later, she decided her life to helping the unfortunate victims of land mines, AIDS, cancer, cerebral palsy and many others. These are the things she will be mostly remembered for.
By looking at the story of Diana's life, you can see it is a somewhat tragic ending. Diana was born on July 1, 1961 in Sandringham, England. There, she lived a happy first of her life. Later, she met Prince Charles of the Royal Family, and in 1981, she married him. Throughout their marriage, they had problems, and though Diana loved Charles, some of the other British royals disapproved of her lifestyle, saying she acted more like a movie star than a princess. She and Charles bore two sons. Soon, they realized their marriage wouldn't last, so they broke it off. Even though she was not a British Royal any longer, she still had a celebrity's image, and she used that to her advantage. For the rest of her short life, she fought for aid in helping the sick and injured, and people noticed what she was doing because of her popularity.
I believe that Princess Diana was a very important person in our history, because of what she did. She could have decided to just become a celebrity and stay in the limelight, but instead she focused her time on helping others, which is not something every celebrity would do. Someone else might say that Princess Diana shouldn't be considered a role model or anyone important from this century; because she was just a poor girl who's marriage didn't work out and was followed by the Paparazzi until the day she died. To that, I say that maybe she was someone whose marriage brought her fame, and when it ended, the media did follow her, but she used her fame to promote giving aid to those in need. She was a true leader because she was devoted to helping others, a respected individual, she inspired others to help too, she was confident and courageous in her ways, and all she lived for was to serve others. Diana's one wish for everyone was to serve the common good so that everyone working together would help the whole community to be better in the end. This was her whole purpose.
In mine and many others's eyes, Diana is seen as a true modern-day angel of her own kind. And even though her life ended tragically in a car crash on August 31, 1997, before she died she had made it her life's commitment to serve others. Precisely that, more than anything else, is what she will be forever remembered for, and that is why she will be known as a great leader.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Queen Victoria.TXT
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811
Queen Victoria was born in 1819 and she died in 1901. She was queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1837-1901) and empress of India (1876-1901). Queen Victoria was born Alexandrina Victoria on May 24, 1819, in Kensington Palace, London. Victoria's mother was Victoria Mary Louisa, daughter of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Her father was Edward Augustus, duke of Kent and Strathern, the fourth son of George III and youngest brother of George IV and William IV, they were kings of Great Britain. Because William IV had no legal children, his niece Victoria became inheritor apparent to the British crown upon his accession in 1830. On June 20, 1837, with the expiration of William IV. Victoria became queen at the age of 18. Early in her power Victoria developed a serious concern with goings on of state, guided by her first prime minister, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. Melbourne was leader of that wing of the Whig Party that later became known as the Liberal Party. He exercised a immovably progressive command on the political thinking of the sovereign. Marriage In 1840 Victoria married her first cousin, Albert, ruler of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who she had known for about four years. Although this was a wedlock of state, it was a highly extravagant and prosperous one, and Victoria was devoted to her family responsibilities. The first of their nine children was Victoria Adelaide Mary Louise, later queen of Germany. Their first son, Albert Edward, prince of Wales and later monarch of Great Britain as Edward VII, was born in 1841. When the cautious Prince Albert persuaded her that Liberal policy jeopardized the coming of the Crown, the queen began to lose her eagerness for the party. After 1841, when the Melbourne government fell and Sir Robert Peel became prime minister, Victoria was an enthusiastic supporter of the Conservative Party. Also under Albert's influence, she began to interrogation the tradition that restricted the British ruling to an advisory part. In 1850 she challenged the command of Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, alien secretary in the Whig government that had been in command since 1846. Her post was that the sovereign should at least be consulted on different policy. Palmerston, independent and self-assertive, disregarded the request. Their conflict reached a crucial period in 1851, when the prime minister, Lord John Russell, who was also unhappy with Palmerston's elective methods, removed him from the foreign office. Their altercations with Palmerston, one of the most liked political leaders in the country, caused Victoria and Albert to lose some of the regard of their subjects. Their popularity dwindled even more in 1854, when they tried to avert the Crimean War. After the war had started, however, they gave it their sincere support. In 1856, shortly before the end of the war, the queen established the Victoria Cross, the highest British award for wartime courage. In 1857, Victoria had the title of prince associate granted on Albert. Four years later he died, and she remained in implied grieving for much of the rest of her life. She avoided common appearances, letting the prince of Wales accomplish most of the royal ritualistic duties. Her detailed personal interest in the affairs of state protracted, however. Reign After 1861 Several prime ministers served during the latter part of Victoria's reign, but only the Conservative Party leader Benjamin Disraeli, who held office in 1868 and from 1874 to 1880, gained her confidence. He ingratiated himself with the queen by his skillful personal advance and his gift for compliments. He also allowed her a free hand in the awarding of church, army, and some political appointments. She fully affirmed his policy of strengthening and roaming the British Empire, and in 1876 Disraeli attained for her the title of empress of India. She seldom agreed with the brilliant leader of the Liberal Party, William E. Gladstone, who served as prime minister four times betwixt 1868 and 1894. Victoria unaccepted of the democratic reforms he distinct, such as abolishing the purchase of military commissions and legalizing trade unions, and his powerful intellectualized procedure of argument. She was also solidly opposed to his policy of home law for Ireland. The Conservative pilot Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, who served as prime minister three times between 1885 and 1902, more often found favor with the queen. Like Disraeli, he advocated protecting British interests and increasing British authority abroad. British Idol Victoria's popularity among all classes in British society reached its prominence in the last two decades of her reign. Her golden gala in 1887 and her diamond jubilee in 1897 were occasions for great public rejoicing. Her subjects were then enjoying an unprecedented period of prosperous complacency, and her eager execution of the Boer War increased her appeal at home and abroad. Victoria died on January 22, 1901. Her 63-year reign was the longest in the archives of England. Her offspring, including 40 grandchildren, married into almost every royal family of Europe. With her personal example of honesty, nationalism, and devotion to family life, Victoria became a living symbol of the solidity of the British Empire. The many years of her reign, often referred to as the Victorian age, witnessed the rise of the middle class and were marked by a deeply conservative morality and intense nationalism. Victoria's correspondence was published in three series, Letters, 1837-61 (3 vol., 1907), Letters, 1862-85 (3 vol., 1926-1928), and Letters, 1886-1901 (3 vol., 1930-32).
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ralph Waldo Emerson Properly Acknowledged.TXT
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Ralph Waldo Emerson Properly Acknowledged
by <Somebody>
	Ralph Waldo Emerson certainly took his place in the history of American Literature .  He lived in a time when romanticism was becoming a way of thinking and beginning to bloom in America, the time period known as The Romantic Age.  Romantic thinking stressed on human imagination and emotion rather than on basic facts and reason.  Ralph Waldo Emerson not only provided plenty of that, but he also nourished it and inspired many other writers of that time.  "His influence can be found in the works of Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, Henry James, and Robert Frost.".  No doubt, Ralph Waldo Emerson was an astute and intellectual man who influenced American Literature and has rightly received the credit that he deserves from historians.  He has been depicted as a leading figure in American thought and literature, or at least ranks up there with the very best.  But there is so much more to Ralph Waldo Emerson when we consider the personal hardships that he had to endure during the course of his life and when we see the type of man that he becomes. He certainly was a man of inspiration who knew how to express himself by writing the best of poems and philosophical ideas with inspiration.

	To get an idea of how Ralph Waldo Emerson might have become such an inspiration to the people, some background on his life is essential.  Can you imagine living a life with all your loved ones passing away one by one?  A persons life could collapse into severe depression, lose hope, and lose meaning.  He can build a morbid outlook on life.  Ralph Waldo Emerson suffered these things.  He was born on May 25, 1803 and entered into a new world, a new nation just beginning.  Just about eight years later, his father would no longer be with him, as William Emerson died in 1811.  The Emerson family was left to a life marked by poverty.  Ralph's mother, Ruth, was left as a widow having to take care of five sons.  However, Ralph's life seemed to carry on smoothly.  He would end up attending Harvard College and persue a job of teaching full time.  While teaching as a junior pastor of Boston's Second Church, his life gained more meaning when he married Ellen Louisa Tucker.  Journal entries and love letters he wrote at that time expressed lots of feelings and emotions that he had.  But after two short years of marriage, Ellen died of tuberculosis.  Suddenly, the one true person he had in his life was gone.  Life was losing it's meaning, and Ralph Waldo Emerson was in need of some answers.  This dark period drove him to question his beliefs.  Emerson resigned from the Second Church and his profession as a pastor in search for vital truth and hope.  But his father and wife were not the only deaths that he had to deal with.  His strength and endurance would be put to the test much further with a perennial line of loved ones dying.  His brother Edward, died in 1834, Charles in 1836, and his son Waldo (from his second wife Lydia Jackson) in 1842.  After such a traumatic life, you might expect that Emerson, like any other person,would collapse into severe depression, lose hope, and lose meaning to his life.  But Emerson was different.  He found the answers within himself and rebounded into a mature man.
	After surviving a mentally hard life, Ralph Waldo Emerson seemed to gain more discernment toward life.  Wisdom is gained through experience.  By 1835, Emerson's rare and extravagant spirit was ready to be unleashed.  All his deep feelings, emotions, and thoughts fabricated truth the way he arrived at truth, within himself.  "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men- that is genius.  Speak your latent conviction and it shall be the universal sense; for always the inmost becomes the outmost-and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets of the last judgment."  Emerson fully believed this and supported it by taking part in a new philosophical movement called Transcendentalism.  In 1836, his first boot, Nature, was published.  Nature expressed the main points of Transcendentalism.  With this, Ralph Waldo Emerson started the Transcendental Club the same year.  This club published a magazine called The Dial, fully promulgating philosophy, literature, and Emerson's truth fearlessly.  He was starting to gain recognition.  The young were opening their minds, and the old were impressed.  Harvard was so impressed of him that ther asked him to give several addresses.  In 1837, he gave a well-known address called "The American Scholar" in which he outlined his philosophy of humanism.  A year later, he gave another address, called "The Divinity School Address."  This argued about Christianity at that time for being too traditional and ritualistic in its ways.  These methods didn't fill the people's spiritual need.  Emerson showed his liking under a new religion founded by nature.  Truly, by the crowds that he drew, Emerson refreshed the minds, of people who were thirsting for some truth.  And who better to provide this than Emerson himself, who, through many distresses, searched within himself and became a man with life again.
	This man, of inspiration, full of truth, goodness, and beauty became a part of classic American literature.  His expressions were absorbed into some of the most exceptional essays, poems, and philosophical ideas ever created.  His famous essays are "History," "Art," "The Poet," and the famous "Self-Reliance."  He gathered his essays into two volumes.  The first was released in 1841, and the second was released in 1844.  Poems however, also made Emerson's reputation as a erudite man.  His poems were enjoyable as well as thought provoking to many.  "Each and All," was a poem that supported his beliefs.  "The Rhodora," as well as "The Humble Bee," and "The Snow Storm," touched on the greatness of nature.  Emerson also expressed himself through poems such as "Uriel," "The Problem," "The Sphinx," and the well-known "Days."  Many of these works of Emerson have taken there place in the history of American literature.
	Thus, we now see what truly a great man Emerson was.  We gain a deep respect for him when we consider the hardships that he had to face, how he endured those problems, and the minds that he opened and touched by his wonderful works.  In conclusion, we can truly say that Emerson is well deserving of the credit he received from historians.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ralph Waldo Emerson.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Ralph Waldo Emerson


Properly Acknowledged by 

	Ralph Waldo Emerson certainly took his place in the history of American
Literature .  He lived in a time when romanticism was becoming a way of thinking
and beginning to bloom in America, the time period known as The Romantic Age.
Romantic thinking stressed on human imagination and emotion rather than on basic
facts and reason.  Ralph Waldo Emerson not only provided plenty of that, but he
also nourished it and inspired many other writers of that time.  "His influence
can be found in the works of Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman,
Emily Dickinson, Henry James, and Robert Frost.".  No doubt, Ralph Waldo Emerson
was an astute and intellectual man who influenced American Literature and has
rightly received the credit that he deserves from historians.  He has been
depicted as a leading figure in American thought and literature, or at least
ranks up there with the very best.  But there is so much more to Ralph Waldo
Emerson when we consider the personal hardships that he had to endure during the
course of his life and when we see the type of man that he becomes. He certainly
was a man of inspiration who knew how to express himself by writing the best of
poems and philosophical ideas with inspiration.

	To get an idea of how Ralph Waldo Emerson might have become such an
inspiration to the people, some background on his life is essential.  Can you
imagine living a life with all your loved ones passing away one by one?  A
persons life could collapse into severe depression, lose hope, and lose meaning.
He can build a morbid outlook on life.  Ralph Waldo Emerson suffered these
things.  He was born on May 25, 1803 and entered into a new world, a new nation
just beginning.  Just about eight years later, his father would no longer be
with him, as William Emerson died in 1811.  The Emerson family was left to a
life marked by poverty.  Ralph's mother, Ruth, was left as a widow having to
take care of five sons.  However, Ralph's life seemed to carry on smoothly.  He
would end up attending Harvard College and persue a job of teaching full time.
While teaching as a junior pastor of Boston's Second Church, his life gained
more meaning when he married Ellen Louisa Tucker.  Journal entries and love
letters he wrote at that time expressed lots of feelings and emotions that he
had.  But after two short years of marriage, Ellen died of tuberculosis.
Suddenly, the one true person he had in his life was gone.  Life was losing it's
meaning, and Ralph Waldo Emerson was in need of some answers.  This dark period
drove him to question his beliefs.  Emerson resigned from the Second Church and
his profession as a pastor in search for vital truth and hope.  But his father
and wife were not the only deaths that he had to deal with.  His strength and
endurance would be put to the test much further with a perennial line of loved
ones dying.  His brother Edward, died in 1834, Charles in 1836, and his son
Waldo (from his second wife Lydia Jackson) in 1842.  After such a traumatic life,
you might expect that Emerson, like any other person,would collapse into severe
depression, lose hope, and lose meaning to his life.  But Emerson was different.
He found the answers within himself and rebounded into a mature man.

	After surviving a mentally hard life, Ralph Waldo Emerson seemed to gain
more discernment toward life.  Wisdom is gained through experience.  By 1835,
Emerson's rare and extravagant spirit was ready to be unleashed.  All his deep
feelings, emotions, and thoughts fabricated truth the way he arrived at truth,
within himself.  "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for
you in your private heart is true for all men- that is genius.  Speak your
latent conviction and it shall be the universal sense; for always the inmost
becomes the outmost-and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets
of the last judgment."  Emerson fully believed this and supported it by taking
part in a new philosophical movement called Transcendentalism.  In 1836, his
first boot, Nature, was published.  Nature expressed the main points of
Transcendentalism.  With this, Ralph Waldo Emerson started the Transcendental
Club the same year.  This club published a magazine called The Dial, fully
promulgating philosophy, literature, and Emerson's truth fearlessly.  He was
starting to gain recognition.  The young were opening their minds, and the old
were impressed.  Harvard was so impressed of him that ther asked him to give
several addresses.  In 1837, he gave a well-known address called "The American
Scholar" in which he outlined his philosophy of humanism.  A year later, he gave
another address, called "The Divinity School Address."  This argued about
Christianity at that time for being too traditional and ritualistic in its ways.
These methods didn't fill the people's spiritual need.  Emerson showed his
liking under a new religion founded by nature.  Truly, by the crowds that he
drew, Emerson refreshed the minds, of people who were thirsting for some truth.
And who better to provide this than Emerson himself, who, through many
distresses, searched within himself and became a man with life again.

	This man, of inspiration, full of truth, goodness, and beauty became a
part of classic American literature.  His expressions were absorbed into some of
the most exceptional essays, poems, and philosophical ideas ever created.  His
famous essays are "History," "Art," "The Poet," and the famous "Self-Reliance."
He gathered his essays into two volumes.  The first was released in 1841, and
the second was released in 1844.  Poems however, also made Emerson's reputation
as a erudite man.  His poems were enjoyable as well as thought provoking to many.
"Each and All," was a poem that supported his beliefs.  "The Rhodora," as well
as "The Humble Bee," and "The Snow Storm," touched on the greatness of nature.
Emerson also expressed himself through poems such as "Uriel," "The Problem,"
"The Sphinx," and the well-known "Days."  Many of these works of Emerson have
taken there place in the history of American literature.

	Thus, we now see what truly a great man Emerson was.  We gain a deep
respect for him when we consider the hardships that he had to face, how he
endured those problems, and the minds that he opened and touched by his
wonderful works.  In conclusion, we can truly say that Emerson is well deserving
of the credit he received from historians.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ray Bradbury 2.TXT
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971
No name typifies science fiction to the American public more than the name Ray Bradbury. For over forty years, he has been writing novels, short stories, poems, plays, and movie scripts that have long since kept him in the forefront of American literature. His stories become standard reading for many high school and college students. His literary style can best be described as "enchantment;" the way he captivates his readers with charm, bewitchment, and stunning verbal evocations. His visions of the past, future, and the present delight his readers. His books are virtually long-time bestsellers and have been translated into over twenty languages. He is quite popular in the former Soviet Union. However, success did not come easily for Bradbury. He inched away at his writing career, crafting story after story, until he was selling and occasional short story for half a cent per word. Much of his childhood, and a little of his adulthood, inspired his writings. In this paper, these influences as well as his method of drawing the reader into a story will be discussed. Perhaps the most important influence in Bradbury's youth was his discovery of magic. The famous Blackstone the Magician once included Bradbury in his act, and it enchanted him. The most influential magician on Bradbury was Mr. Electrico. Bradbury wrote about his experience with Mr. Electrico and stated that Mr. Electrico would sit every night in his electric chair, brushing his Excalibur sword over the audience, sparking them with lightning, and crying, "Live forever!" A few weeks after Bradbury encountered Mr. Electrico, he began writing his first short stories. In July of 1941, Bradbury sold his first story to Super Science Stories. Although he only made $13.75 on the sale, he rejoiced. Within a year from that sale, he was a full-time writer. The Martian Chronicles, his first novel, was published within a decade and he soon found himself famous. Fahrenheit 451 marked a new point in Bradbury's writing style - the pessimistic side of life, where he discussed a future where mankind is slowly destroying itself. The sense of what is best in America and what is best for the American people and humanity as a whole, is another thing that fuels his literature. He writes on topics relevant to what is happening in society. Mars and book burning are a couple of them. The burning of books would be related not directly to book burning, but rather is one of the most powerful anti -censorship writings of its time. The optimism expressed in his writings inspires the human race to reach new limits. The Martian Chronicles speak of a journey to Mars. Today, people are striving to go to Mars. The Final Frontier, according to Bradbury, is "the wilderness of space." Therefore, he likes to focus on stories based outside the atmosphere of Earth. One story, "The Fire Balloons," talks about two priests that debate whether or not native blue-fire balls have souls. In a story called "The Man" Jesus leaves a distant planet the day before an Earth rocket lands. In his poem "Christus Apollo," he states that "Christ wanders in the Universe/ A flesh of stars." It is evident from these examples that he brings the familiar world of the church into the unfamiliar environment of distant planets and the rest of outer space. This effect gives the reader some familiarity with the story, and allows him to be drawn deeper into it. Bradbury's writings about space inspired one Apollo astronaut to name a crater on the moon, the Dandelion Crater, after his novel Dandelion Wine. The most influential factor to Bradbury's writings, as well as those of any author, is the expanse of his or her imagination. Evidently, limits have not yet been found in Bradbury's. His imagination transports his readers through time and space to amazing worlds that we are unfamiliar with. Through his stories, we become familiarized with them. The Martian Chronicles and Fahrenheit 451 depend on complex interrelationships between time, setting, place, character, and dialogue. Each of these elements is pulled from the depths of Bradbury's imagination and given to the reader to imagine. Much of Bradbury's famous novel writing develops from short story ideas. Fahrenheit 451 was originally a short story titled "The Fireman," published in 1951 in Galaxy Science Fiction. Quite often Bradbury composes large novels from short stories in 20 days of high-speed writing. However, his drafts require little line editing. He is very careful in choosing words, and his vocabulary paints a picture of his novel so that the reader can become more involved with the story. Bradbury's use of metaphors - which, according to him, are a method used for comprehending one reality and expressing it in terms of another - is a vital part of his literary style. He uses metaphors to permit the reader to view what the author is saying. Bradbury's writings in general can be described as a metaphor of generalized nostalgia; that is, he writes not merely for the past but also for the future. Today, after forty years of writing and countless poems, novels, stories, plays, and scripts, Ray Bradbury remains one of the most popular American writers. He is a very common sight in the lecture circuit. Bradbury has captured the past, present, and future of our society, in amazing and intricate stories that perhaps no other writer will ever be able to duplicate. His writings will continue to enchant the people of the future as much as it has enchanted people for the past forty years.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ray Bradbury 4.TXT
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Ray Bradbury







































Ray Bradbury


	Ray Bradbury was a dreamer. Bradbury had a skill at putting his dreams onto paper, and 

into books. He dreams dreams of magic and transformation, good and evil, small-town America 

and the canals of Mars. His dreams are not only popular, but durable. His work consists of short 

stories, which are not hard to publish, and keep in the public eye. His stories have stayed in print 

for nearly three decades.






	Ray Bradbury was born on August 22, 1920, in a small town of Waukegan, Illinois. His 

parents were Leonard Spaulding and Esther Moberg Bradbury. His mother, Esther Moberg loved 

films, she gave her son the middle name Douglas because of Douglas Fairbanks, and she passed 

her love of films to her son. "My mother took me to see everything....." Bradbury explains, "I'm a 

child of motion pictures." Prophetically, the first film he saw, at the age of three, was the horror 

classic "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", staring Lon Chanley. His teenage Aunt Neva gave the 

boy his appreciation of fantasy, by reading him the Oz books, when he was six. When Bradbury 

was a child he was encouraged to read the classic, Norse, Roman, and Greek Myths. When he was 

old enough to choose his own reading materials, he chose books by Edger Rice Burroughs and the 

comic book heroes Flash Gordon, Buck Rogers, and Prince Valiant. When Bradbury was in 

Waukegan he developed his interest in acting and Drama. After seeing a magician, known as 

Blackstone, he became fascinated with magic also. 

	
	In 1932, his family moved to Tucson Arizona. With his talents he learned in Waukegan 

(amateur magician) he got a job at the local radio station. "I was on the radio every Saturday night 

reading comic strips to the kiddies and being paid in free tickets, to the local cinema, where I saw 

'The Mummy', 'The Murders in the Wax Museum', 'Dracula', .....and 'King Kong'." His family only 

stayed in Tuscan for a year, but Bradbury feels: "It was one of the greatest years of my life 

because I was acting and singing in operettas and writing, my first short stories."


	In 1934 his family moved to Los Angeles, where Bradbury has remained. He attended Los 

Angeles High School, where he wrote and took part in many dramatic productions. His literary 

tastes were broadened to include Thomas Wolfe and Ernest Hemingway when he took a creative 

writing course. In 1938 Los Angeles High School yearbook, the following prediction appeared 

beneath his picture:


Likes to write stories
Admired as a thespian
Headed for literary distinction


	After graduation Bradbury sold newspapers until he saved up enough money to buy a 

typewriter and rent a small office. In the early 1940's his stories appeared regularly in Weird 

Tales. "I sold a story every month there for three or four years when I was (in my early twenties). 

Made the magnificent sum of twenty dollars for each story." Bradbury sold his first stories in 1945

to "slick" magazines - Collier's, Charm, and Mademoiselle.

	
	Shortly after his marriage to Marguerite Susan McClure in 1947, Bradbury's first book, 

Dark Carnival, was published by Arkham House. About this time, the idea for an important book 

about Mars, a collection of loosely connected stories, came to Bradbury.


	The subjects that engage Bradbury's pen are many: magic, horror, and monsters; rockets, 

robots, time and space travel; growing up in the Midwest town in the 1920's, and growing old in 

an abandoned Earth colony on another planet. Despite their themes, his stories contain a sense of 

wonder, often a sense of joy, and a lyrical and rhythimic touch that sets his work apart.


	Using an analytical approach to such stories is to do a kind of violence to them, but 

between the dream and the finished story is a considerable amount of craftsmanship. The illustration 

of that craftsmanship, along with some clarification of the writer's themes, hopefully will enrich the 

reader's understanding and appreciation of one of the major artists in his feild.


	The approach here is topical: the various collections of Bradbury's stories have been "taken 

apart", and the stories regrouped and compared with another in terms of elements and common 

themes.


	Generally speaking, Bradbury's handling of a given theme in am early story is essentially 

the same. That is, his themes do not display a growth in emotional depth or logical complexity as 

time goes on. Instead, Bradbury treats his themes in what might be called a Baroque manner - 

changing the orientation, emotional tone, or relative prominence of the theme from story to story.

In a way, this is like the variations on a theme in music. For example, "The Next Line" and "The 

Life Work of Jaun Diaz" both center around the mummies in the cemetery at Guanajauto in 

Mexico. The former is a horror story as well as a psychological study of a marital relationship. The 

latter describes a very different marital relationship and concludes on a note of whimsical irony. 

Both stories may be compared in terms of the mummies or in larger context of Bradbury's visit to 

Mexico in 1945. But little understanding is added from a critical standpoint in knowing that "The 

Next in Line" was published in 1947 and "The Life Work of Jaun Diaz" in 1963. For the purpose 


of this study, then, the order in which the stories were written or published has been largely 

ignored. Readers wishing to pursue a chronological study of a given topic or topics will want 

to consult the helpful chronolgy complied by William F. Nolan for the 1973 Doubleday & Co., 

Inc. education of The Martian Chronicles.

	
	As a partical matter, consideration here is limited primarily to fiction available to the 

general reader. Though this qualification includes the vast bulk of Bradbury's output, certain 

stories not included in the major collections, as well as Bradbury's nonfiction, are either not 

mentioned at all or briefly mentioned where relevant. Bradbury's poetry, screenplays, plays, and 

children's books are touched upon elsewhere.


	I have referred above to Bradbury being one of the major artists in his feild. It should be 

understood at the outset that there is a considerable amount of confusion as to just what this feild 

is. The demands of the commercial marketplace and the need to confine a popular writer and his 

within an easy recognizable image have resulted in Bradbury's being jammed uncomfortably into 

a box labeled "Science Fiction". No definition of science fiction exists that pleases everybody, and 

even if it did, to apply it casually to the work of Ray Brabdbury would be inaccurate and unfair. 

H.G. Wells, whom many regard as a classical science fiction writer, had this to say about his own 

novels "They are all fantasies; they do not aim to project a serious possibility; they aim indeed only 

at the amount of conviction as one gets in a good gripping dream. They have to hold the reader to 

the end by art and illusion and not by proof and argument, and the moment he closes the cover 

the reflects he wakes up to their impossibility." Wells here is contrasting his stories with those of 

Jules Verne, wich he calls,  'anticipatory inventions." Viewed this way, virtually all of Bradbury's 

stories are fantasies, with Wells's concept of the "good gripping dream" coming closest to 

describing their effect. Even today Ray Bradbury's place in literature is not clear.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ray Bradbury.TXT
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Ray Bradbury







































Ray Bradbury


	Ray Bradbury was a dreamer. Bradbury had a skill at putting his dreams onto paper, and 

into books. He dreams dreams of magic and transformation, good and evil, small-town America 

and the canals of Mars. His dreams are not only popular, but durable. His work consists of short 

stories, which are not hard to publish, and keep in the public eye. His stories have stayed in print 

for nearly three decades.






	Ray Bradbury was born on August 22, 1920, in a small town of Waukegan, Illinois. His 

parents were Leonard Spaulding and Esther Moberg Bradbury. His mother, Esther Moberg loved 

films, she gave her son the middle name Douglas because of Douglas Fairbanks, and she passed 

her love of films to her son. "My mother took me to see everything....." Bradbury explains, "I'm a 

child of motion pictures." Prophetically, the first film he saw, at the age of three, was the horror 

classic "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", staring Lon Chanley. His teenage Aunt Neva gave the 

boy his appreciation of fantasy, by reading him the Oz books, when he was six. When Bradbury 

was a child he was encouraged to read the classic, Norse, Roman, and Greek Myths. When he was 

old enough to choose his own reading materials, he chose books by Edger Rice Burroughs and the 

comic book heroes Flash Gordon, Buck Rogers, and Prince Valiant. When Bradbury was in 

Waukegan he developed his interest in acting and Drama. After seeing a magician, known as 

Blackstone, he became fascinated with magic also. 

	
	In 1932, his family moved to Tucson Arizona. With his talents he learned in Waukegan 

(amateur magician) he got a job at the local radio station. "I was on the radio every Saturday night 

reading comic strips to the kiddies and being paid in free tickets, to the local cinema, where I saw 

'The Mummy', 'The Murders in the Wax Museum', 'Dracula', .....and 'King Kong'." His family only 

stayed in Tuscan for a year, but Bradbury feels: "It was one of the greatest years of my life 

because I was acting and singing in operettas and writing, my first short stories."


	In 1934 his family moved to Los Angeles, where Bradbury has remained. He attended Los 

Angeles High School, where he wrote and took part in many dramatic productions. His literary 

tastes were broadened to include Thomas Wolfe and Ernest Hemingway when he took a creative 

writing course. In 1938 Los Angeles High School yearbook, the following prediction appeared 

beneath his picture:


Likes to write stories
Admired as a thespian
Headed for literary distinction


	After graduation Bradbury sold newspapers until he saved up enough money to buy a 

typewriter and rent a small office. In the early 1940's his stories appeared regularly in Weird 

Tales. "I sold a story every month there for three or four years when I was (in my early twenties). 

Made the magnificent sum of twenty dollars for each story." Bradbury sold his first stories in 1945

to "slick" magazines - Collier's, Charm, and Mademoiselle.

	
	Shortly after his marriage to Marguerite Susan McClure in 1947, Bradbury's first book, 

Dark Carnival, was published by Arkham House. About this time, the idea for an important book 

about Mars, a collection of loosely connected stories, came to Bradbury.


	The subjects that engage Bradbury's pen are many: magic, horror, and monsters; rockets, 

robots, time and space travel; growing up in the Midwest town in the 1920's, and growing old in 

an abandoned Earth colony on another planet. Despite their themes, his stories contain a sense of 

wonder, often a sense of joy, and a lyrical and rhythimic touch that sets his work apart.


	Using an analytical approach to such stories is to do a kind of violence to them, but 

between the dream and the finished story is a considerable amount of craftsmanship. The illustration 

of that craftsmanship, along with some clarification of the writer's themes, hopefully will enrich the 

reader's understanding and appreciation of one of the major artists in his feild.


	The approach here is topical: the various collections of Bradbury's stories have been "taken 

apart", and the stories regrouped and compared with another in terms of elements and common 

themes.


	Generally speaking, Bradbury's handling of a given theme in am early story is essentially 

the same. That is, his themes do not display a growth in emotional depth or logical complexity as 

time goes on. Instead, Bradbury treats his themes in what might be called a Baroque manner - 

changing the orientation, emotional tone, or relative prominence of the theme from story to story.

In a way, this is like the variations on a theme in music. For example, "The Next Line" and "The 

Life Work of Jaun Diaz" both center around the mummies in the cemetery at Guanajauto in 

Mexico. The former is a horror story as well as a psychological study of a marital relationship. The 

latter describes a very different marital relationship and concludes on a note of whimsical irony. 

Both stories may be compared in terms of the mummies or in larger context of Bradbury's visit to 

Mexico in 1945. But little understanding is added from a critical standpoint in knowing that "The 

Next in Line" was published in 1947 and "The Life Work of Jaun Diaz" in 1963. For the purpose 


of this study, then, the order in which the stories were written or published has been largely 

ignored. Readers wishing to pursue a chronological study of a given topic or topics will want 

to consult the helpful chronolgy complied by William F. Nolan for the 1973 Doubleday & Co., 

Inc. education of The Martian Chronicles.

	
	As a partical matter, consideration here is limited primarily to fiction available to the 

general reader. Though this qualification includes the vast bulk of Bradbury's output, certain 

stories not included in the major collections, as well as Bradbury's nonfiction, are either not 

mentioned at all or briefly mentioned where relevant. Bradbury's poetry, screenplays, plays, and 

children's books are touched upon elsewhere.


	I have referred above to Bradbury being one of the major artists in his feild. It should be 

understood at the outset that there is a considerable amount of confusion as to just what this feild 

is. The demands of the commercial marketplace and the need to confine a popular writer and his 

within an easy recognizable image have resulted in Bradbury's being jammed uncomfortably into 

a box labeled "Science Fiction". No definition of science fiction exists that pleases everybody, and 

even if it did, to apply it casually to the work of Ray Brabdbury would be inaccurate and unfair. 

H.G. Wells, whom many regard as a classical science fiction writer, had this to say about his own 

novels "They are all fantasies; they do not aim to project a serious possibility; they aim indeed only 

at the amount of conviction as one gets in a good gripping dream. They have to hold the reader to 

the end by art and illusion and not by proof and argument, and the moment he closes the cover 

the reflects he wakes up to their impossibility." Wells here is contrasting his stories with those of 

Jules Verne, wich he calls,  'anticipatory inventions." Viewed this way, virtually all of Bradbury's 

stories are fantasies, with Wells's concept of the "good gripping dream" coming closest to 

describing their effect. Even today Ray Bradbury's place in literature is not clear.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Rene Descartes 4.TXT
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Rene Descartes

Rene Descartes was born March 31, 1596 in La Haye, Touraine.  Descartes was the son of a minor nobleman and belonged to a family that had produced a number of learned men.  At the age of eight, he was enrolled in the Jesuit school of La Fleche in Anjou, where he remained for eight years.  Besides the usual classical studies, he received instruction in math and in Scholastic philosophy.  Roman Catholicism exerted a strong influence on Descartes throughout his life.  Upon graduation from school, he studied law at the University of Poitiers, graduating in 1616.  He never practiced law, however--in 1618 he entered the service of Prince Maurice of Nassau at Breda, Netherlands, with the intention of following a military career.  In succeeding years Descartes served in other armies, but his attention had already been attracted to the problems of mathematics and philosophy to which he was to devote the rest of his life.  He made a pilgrimage to Italy in 1623-24, and spent the years from 1624 to 1628 in France.  While in France, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and also experimented in optics.  In 1628, having sold his properties in France, he moved to the Netherlands, where he spent most of the rest of his life.  He lived for varying periods in a number of different cities in the Netherlands, including Amsterdam, Deventer, Utrecht, and Leiden.
	It was probably during the first years of his residence in the Netherlands that Descartes wrote his first major work, Essais philosophiques, published in 1637.  The work contained four parts:  an essay on geometry, another on optics, a third on meteors, and Discours de la methode (Discourse on Method), which described his philosophical theories.  This was followed by other philosophical works, among them Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (Meditations on First Philosophy, 1641) and  Principia Philosophiae (The Principles of Philosophy, 1644).  The latter volume was dedicated to Princess Elizabeth Stuart of Bohemia, who lived in the Netherlands and with whom Descartes had formed a deep friendship.  In 1649, Descartes was invited to the court of Queen Christina of Sweden in Stockholm to give the queen instruction in philosophy.  The rigors of the northern winter brought on the pneumonia that caused his death on February 1, 1650.
	The most notable contribution that Descartes made to mathematics was the systematization of analytic geometry.  He was the first mathematician to attempt to classify curves according to the types of equations that produce them.  He also made contributions to the theory of equations and succeeded in proving the impossibility of trisecting the angle and doubling the cube.  Descartes was the first to use the last letters of the alphabet to designate unknown quantities and the first letters to represent the known ones.  He also invented the "method of indices" to express the powers of numbers.  In addition, he formulated the rule, which is known as Descartes' rule of signs, for finding the number of positive and negative roots for any algebraic equation.
	Descartes' philosophy, sometimes called Cartesians, carried him into elaborate and erroneous explanations of a number of physical phenomena.  These explanations, however, had value, because he substituted a system of mechanical interpretations of physical phenomena for the vague spiritual concepts of most earlier writers.  Although he had at first been inclined to accept the theory proposed by Copernicus regarding the universe as a heliocentric one, he abandoned this theory when it was pronounced heretical by the Roman Catholic church.  In its place he devised a theory of vortices in which space was entirely filled with matter, in various states, whirling about the sun.  In the field of physiology, Descartes held that part of the blood was a "subtle fluid," which he called animal spirits.  He believed the animal spirits came into contact with "thinking substances" in the brain and flowed out along the channels of the nerves to animate the muscles and other parts of the body.  His study of optics led him to the independent discovery of the fundamental law of reflection:  that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.  His essay on optics was the first published statement of this law.  Descartes' treatment of light as a type of pressure in a solid medium paved the way for the "undulatory theory of light."
	Descartes attempted to apply the rational inductive methods of science, and particularly of mathematics, to philosophy.  Before his time, philosophy had been dominated by the method of Scholasticism, which was entirely based on comparing and contrasting the view of recognized authorities.  Rejecting this method, Descartes stated, "In our search for the direct road to truth, we should busy ourselves with no object about which we cannot attain a certitude equal to that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry."  He therefore determined to hold nothing true until he had established grounds for believing it true.  The single sure fact from which his investigations began was expressed by him in the famous words Cogito, ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am."  In saying that a clear consciousness of his thinking proved his own existence, he argued the existence of God.  God, according to Descartes' philosophy, created two classes of substance that make up the whole of reality.  One class was thinking substances or minds, and the other was extended substances or bodies.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Rene Descartes.TXT
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Rene Descartes

Rene Descartes was born March 31, 1596 in La Haye, Touraine.  Descartes was the son of a minor nobleman and belonged to a family that had produced a number of learned men.  At the age of eight, he was enrolled in the Jesuit school of La Fleche in Anjou, where he remained for eight years.  Besides the usual classical studies, he received instruction in math and in Scholastic philosophy.  Roman Catholicism exerted a strong influence on Descartes throughout his life.  Upon graduation from school, he studied law at the University of Poitiers, graduating in 1616.  He never practiced law, however--in 1618 he entered the service of Prince Maurice of Nassau at Breda, Netherlands, with the intention of following a military career.  In succeeding years Descartes served in other armies, but his attention had already been attracted to the problems of mathematics and philosophy to which he was to devote the rest of his life.  He made a pilgrimage to Italy in 1623-24, and spent the years from 1624 to 1628 in France.  While in France, he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and also experimented in optics.  In 1628, having sold his properties in France, he moved to the Netherlands, where he spent most of the rest of his life.  He lived for varying periods in a number of different cities in the Netherlands, including Amsterdam, Deventer, Utrecht, and Leiden.
	It was probably during the first years of his residence in the Netherlands that Descartes wrote his first major work, Essais philosophiques, published in 1637.  The work contained four parts:  an essay on geometry, another on optics, a third on meteors, and Discours de la methode (Discourse on Method), which described his philosophical theories.  This was followed by other philosophical works, among them Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (Meditations on First Philosophy, 1641) and  Principia Philosophiae (The Principles of Philosophy, 1644).  The latter volume was dedicated to Princess Elizabeth Stuart of Bohemia, who lived in the Netherlands and with whom Descartes had formed a deep friendship.  In 1649, Descartes was invited to the court of Queen Christina of Sweden in Stockholm to give the queen instruction in philosophy.  The rigors of the northern winter brought on the pneumonia that caused his death on February 1, 1650.
	The most notable contribution that Descartes made to mathematics was the systematization of analytic geometry.  He was the first mathematician to attempt to classify curves according to the types of equations that produce them.  He also made contributions to the theory of equations and succeeded in proving the impossibility of trisecting the angle and doubling the cube.  Descartes was the first to use the last letters of the alphabet to designate unknown quantities and the first letters to represent the known ones.  He also invented the "method of indices" to express the powers of numbers.  In addition, he formulated the rule, which is known as Descartes' rule of signs, for finding the number of positive and negative roots for any algebraic equation.
	Descartes' philosophy, sometimes called Cartesians, carried him into elaborate and erroneous explanations of a number of physical phenomena.  These explanations, however, had value, because he substituted a system of mechanical interpretations of physical phenomena for the vague spiritual concepts of most earlier writers.  Although he had at first been inclined to accept the theory proposed by Copernicus regarding the universe as a heliocentric one, he abandoned this theory when it was pronounced heretical by the Roman Catholic church.  In its place he devised a theory of vortices in which space was entirely filled with matter, in various states, whirling about the sun.  In the field of physiology, Descartes held that part of the blood was a "subtle fluid," which he called animal spirits.  He believed the animal spirits came into contact with "thinking substances" in the brain and flowed out along the channels of the nerves to animate the muscles and other parts of the body.  His study of optics led him to the independent discovery of the fundamental law of reflection:  that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.  His essay on optics was the first published statement of this law.  Descartes' treatment of light as a type of pressure in a solid medium paved the way for the "undulatory theory of light."
	Descartes attempted to apply the rational inductive methods of science, and particularly of mathematics, to philosophy.  Before his time, philosophy had been dominated by the method of Scholasticism, which was entirely based on comparing and contrasting the view of recognized authorities.  Rejecting this method, Descartes stated, "In our search for the direct road to truth, we should busy ourselves with no object about which we cannot attain a certitude equal to that of the demonstration of arithmetic and geometry."  He therefore determined to hold nothing true until he had established grounds for believing it true.  The single sure fact from which his investigations began was expressed by him in the famous words Cogito, ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am."  In saying that a clear consciousness of his thinking proved his own existence, he argued the existence of God.  God, according to Descartes' philosophy, created two classes of substance that make up the whole of reality.  One class was thinking substances or minds, and the other was extended substances or bodies.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Report On Alexander The Great.TXT
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1903
Alexander the Great was one of the greatest ruler's and conquerors of all time. He conquered the mighty Persian Empire and most of the known world at that time. Alexander was born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia. He was the son of an excellent general and organizer, named Philip II King of Macedon. His mother was Olympias, princess of Epirus. She was brilliant and hot-tempered. Alexander inherited the best qualities of both his parents. But he was even more ambitious than his father. He wept bitterly when he heard of Philip's conquests and said, " My father will get ahead of me in everything, and will leave nothing great for me to do." Alexander's mother taught him that Achilles was his ancestor, and that his father was descended from Hercules. Alexander learned by heart the Iliad, a story about the deeds of Achilles. He carried a copy of the Iliad with him, and Achilles became Alexander's hero. Even as a boy Alexander was fearless and strong. He tamed the beautiful and spirited Bucephalus, a horse that no one else dared to touch or ride. Later, this famous steed carried him as far as India, where it died. Alexander then built the city of Bucephalus on the Hyphasis River in memory of his beloved horse. Philip was so proud of Alexander's power over the horse that he said, "O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee." Philip and Olympias saw the potential for greatness in the boy and arranged for his education. His first teacher was the harsh Leonidas, a relative of Olympias, perhaps her uncle. Leonidas was a strict disciplinarian who instilled in Alexander his ascetic nature. This nature became famous during his Persian and Indian expeditions, where he would live simply, very much like his troops. Leonidas was replaced with Lysimachus, who curried the favor of the king by calling him Peleus, Alexander Achilles, and himself Phoinix, the name of Achilles' tutor. Lysimachus taught Alexander to play the lyre, and taught him an appreciation for the fin e arts of music, poetry, and drama. Philip and Olympias wanted nothing less than the best for their son, so when he was 13, his parents hired Aristotle from Athens to be his personal tutor. The two of them spent time at Mieza, a temple about 20 miles from the palace at Pella. Under Aristotle, Alexander learned philosophy, ethics, politics, and healing. Aristotle inspired the talented youth with a great love for literature. He took part in sports and daily exercise to develop a strong body. Aristotle also inspired in Alexander a keen interest in other countries and races of people, and in animals and plants. Alexander's education was not all from books. He talked with ambassadors from many foreign countries, and with other noted persons at his father's court. When he was only 18, he commanded part of Philip's cavalry at the battle of Chaeronea. Alexander also acted as his father's ambassador to Athens. In 336 B.C. Phillip II was assassinated, and at the age of twenty Alex ascended to the Macedonian throne. As soon as he received that position he found that there were many people plotting against him. So he disposed of the conspirators quickly by execution. Then he descended on Thessaly and restored Macedonian rule. Before the end of the year 336 Alex reestablished his position in Greece. He was also elected to the congress of states at Corinth. In 335 as general of the Greeks he carried out a successful campaign against the Persians, penetrating to the Danube River. On the way back Alex crushed the Illyrians in a single week. On his way back Alex learned that the people in the city of Thebes revolted and called upon the people of Athens to join them. Alexander soon appeared before Thebes with his army and Alex took over the city, destroyed everything except for the temples of the gods and the house of Pindar, a Greek lyric poet. The surviving inhabitants who numbered around eight thousand were sold into slavery. With this siege over Thebes all of the other Greek states went in to submission to Alex. In the spring of 334 Alex began his war against the Persians by crossing the Hellespont with an army of thirty-five thousand Macedonian and Greek troops. This army included chief officers, and Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. At Granicus, a river near the ancient city of Troy, Alex attacked and army of Persians and Greek Hoplites (mercenaries) exacting about forty thousand. Alex's forces defeated them and Alex only lost 110 men. All of the states in Asia Minor submitted to Alex after that defeat. Also while passing through Phrygia Alex cut the Gordian knot with his sword. The Gordian knot is a knot that was tied by Gordius ancient king of Phrygia. The prophecy of the knot said that the Knot was to be undone by the person who was to rule Asia. Going southward Alex and his troops came upon the main Persian army led by King Darius III, at Issus in northeastern Syria. Intelligence on both sides was imprecise, and the two armies had in fact been advancing randomly. Alex was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern Iskenderun, Turkey) when he found out that Darius was along his line of communications at Issus. Alex came head to head with King Darius during the Battle of Issus on the northeast Mediterranean coast. Although Alexander was advancing south he was surprised to find Darius approaching from his north! Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Piraeus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory in 333 BC, and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander's hands. Alex treated Darius' family like any other royalty of the day. After a siege of seven months in 332, Alex took control of the heavily fortified seaport, Tyre. Next Alex seized Gaza, and then went into Egypt. In Egypt he was greeted as a deliverer. By the previous victories Alex secured his hold of the eastern Mediterranean coast. At the mouth of the Nile River, Alex founded Alexandria in the later part of 332. Later Alexandria became the commercial, literary, and scientific center of the Greek world. Soon after Alexandria was founded Cyrene submitted to Alex extending his dominion to the Carthaginian territory. In the spring of 331 Alex went to the temple and oracle of Amon-Ra (the Egyptian god of sun), Alex wanted to be accepted as ruler of Egypt. It is said that the trip was successful and it helped his belief in his own divine origin. Going north again Alex re-gathered his forces and headed for Babylon. The new army consisted of forty thousand infantry and seven thousand Calvary. After crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, Alex came across Darius III again. This is where the battle of Guagamela took place. There were an unknown number of soldiers in Darius' army, and once again Alex completely obliterated them on October 1, 331. Also again Darius fled and was later killed by two of his own guards. Because of the Guagamela battle Babylon surrendered to Alex. Later Alex took over the city of Susa and all of its plentiful treasure. In mid-winter Alex went to Persepolis and he plundered the Persian treasuries and all of their rich booty. Then in a drunken rage he burned down Persepolis, thus completing the destruction of the Persian Empire. Alex's domain expanded now to the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, Including Afghanistan, Balochistan and north into Bactria, Sogdiana, and modern Russia Turkestan. This area is pretty much known as central Asia. It only took Alex three years to master this area from 330 BC - 327 BC. To complete his quest to conquer the remnants of the Persian Empire, Alex had to cross the Indus River in 326 BC, and invade the Punjab all the way to the river Hyphasis (modern Beas). When this happened the Macedonians rebelled and refused to go any farther. So then he made up a group of soldiers and passed down the Indus, reaching its mouth in September 325 BC. The group then sailed to the Persian Gulf. With his army, he returned home across the desert to Media. Severe losses were the result of shortages of food and water and other hardships among his troops. Alex spent about a year organizing his dominions and completing a survey of the Persian Gulf in preparation for further conquests. Alexander had vast plans, including his governmental reorganization and an expedition to Arabia. But he was taken seriously ill with malaria at Babylon. The simple remedies of the day did not help him. He died on June 13, 323 B.C. His body was placed in a gold coffin and taken to Memphis, in Egypt. Later it was carried to Alexandria, and placed in a beautiful tomb. Alexander left no choice for a successor. His only son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander's death. He left his empire, in his own words, "to the strongest" which meant his leading generals, who became governors of various areas and fought among themselves for control of the Empire. But no single leader emerged, and by 311 B.C. the empire split into independent states or monarchies. Alex was one of the greatest generals of all time, noted for his brilliance as a tactician and troop leader and for the rapidity with which he could traverse great expanses of territory. He was usually brave and generous, but could be cruel and ruthless when politics demanded. As a statesman and ruler he had grand plans; according to many modern historians he cherished a scheme for uniting the East and the West in a world empire, a new, enlightened "world brotherhood of all men." He trained thousands of Persian youths in Macedonian tactics and enrolled them in his army. He himself adopted Persian manners and married Eastern wives, namely, Roxana (died about 311 BC), the elder daughter of Darius; and he encouraged and bribed his officers to take Persian wives. Shortly before he died, Alexander ordered the Greek cities to worship him as a god. Although he probably gave the order for political reasons, he was, in his own view and that of his contemporaries, of divine birth. The order was largely dismissed by his death shortly after he issued it. To bind his conquests together, Alexander founded a number of cities, most of them named Alexandria, along his line of march; these cities were well located, well paved, and provided with good water supplies. Greek veterans from his army settled in them; young men, traders, merchants, and scholars were attracted to them; Greek culture was introduced; and the Greek language became widely known. Thus, Alexander vastly extended the influence of Greek civilization and prepared the way for the kingdoms of the Hellenistic period and the conquests of the Roman Empire.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Report on the History of Rock and Roll.TXT
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Book Report: The Art of Rock and Roll
	The book "The Art of Rock and Roll" by Charles T. Brown basically proposes
methods for analyzing music and anyone who reads the books should be able to develop
techniques for listening to music and making legitimate statements about it.  It treats rock
and roll as a serious art form and traces it cultural roots throughout the book.
	Chapter one discusses the elements of rock and makes four assumptions. 
Assumption one states that  rock is a legitimate art form.  An art form is defined as a
creative act that springs from the artist's experience as it reflects or reacts against society. 
It then states that acculturation, a process by which a certain people are influenced by a
foreign culture, changed the Afro-Americans from their original culture to one that was a
mixture of U.S. influences and African roots which played a large part in the way rock and
roll sounds today.  Brown proves rock is a legitimate art form by talking about its
audience and  its lasting power.  
	Assumption  two states that  rocks roots are in folk, jazz, and pop music. 
Musicians who first started rock and roll must have had something to base their music on
which turned out to be primarily folk, jazz, and pop.  They simple changed the pattern and
style of that music and started forming rock.
	  Assumption three states that it is just as valid to study rock and roll as European
classical music.  Rock will prove to be a valid means of producing competent musicians
and that it demands the same type of performance as in any musical form.  Since it is a
valid way in which to study music in general it is just as valid to start with rock as starting
anywhere else. 
	 Assumption four states that simple musical analysis of selected compositions is a
primary tool for understanding musical evolution.  Through musical analysis we are able to
generalize and say that rock from a certain era has common characteristics.  By doing this
we are able to see what influences lead rock to where it is today.  
	The chapter then goes on to discuss the elements of music which are nonverbal
communication, melody, rhythm, harmony, lyrics, and performance.  Music is nonverbal in
that it communicates through organized sound and is difficult to translate, the other
elements are what make the sound organized and meaningful.  Melody is an organized set
of notes consisting of different pitches.  It is basically the up and down motion of the lead
singer.  Rhythm is those beat of patterns that underlie most forms of communications.  It
is made up of pulsations that follow a consistent pattern.  It will sometimes show us the
emotional feel of a song.  Harmony is the simultaneous sounding of two or more notes at
the same time.  It provides a texture for the total song.  Lyrics are the words used in the
song and usually tell us what the song and mood of the song is about.  Performance tells
us the purpose, function, and impact of a certain song. 
	Music generally reflects the value of society.  By using the elements of music you
can begin to make assumptions about how rock and roll reflects its society.  It quickly
took on an attitude of rebellion and eventually became a symbol of independence for
youths
	Chapter two discusses the listening skill needed to better understand music. 
Through listening we can define the social impact of a rock group and its musical style. 
This purpose of this chapter is to outline ways in which the individual can create his or her
own system of analysis.  The chapter then goes on describing what you need to do while
listening to music to better analyze it.  First you need concentration, you need to change
your attitude towards the music you hear everyday and block out any interference, we
must treat it seriously and analyze it fairly even if we we don't like it.  Then you need to
dissect what your hearing.  You have to decide what to use for a reference point and listen
to the song more than once.  Your first time listening to it you should get a general idea of
what the song is like, what its about, and what it has.  After that you add more information
by listening to each part of the music individually.  Lyrics are the easiest to analyze.  You
must write all the lyrics down and figure out if there is a verse structure.
	The chapter then goes into the different types of Melody.  First there is the
Soprano- lead melody.  The lead melody is sometimes called the soprano melody which
means the highest melody.  Then there is the bass melody, which is normally played by  an
instrument rather then sung.  It is halfway between melody and rhythm, or beat.  It is
usually low sounding, repetitive and continuos. It is the foundation for the instrumental
ensemble.   Instruments are another part of melody.  It is the instruments that give rock
and roll its character and beat.  The drums provide the beat, the guitars provide continous
rhythm, and the bass guitar plays the bass melody.  When analyzing you must also
recognize the Rhythm and Harmony.  They both determine the complexity of the
composition and we must become aware of changes in rhythm or harmony because they
indicate changes in the song.
	Chapter three discusses the sources of Rock.  Slave music was important because
when they were brought to the United states they also brought with them their music
which was blues and later on early jazz.  Acculturation began as soon as their were
American-born slaves.  They would sing work songs which were basically chants which
later on formed to become blues.  As blues developed so did early forms of Jazz.  One of
these forms was the cakewalk was the cakewalk which was a danced step used to make
fun of how stiff the white man walked and later on became the first truly Afro-American
dance step.  Another form was Ragtime which was a piano style which has four main
themes.  Then came along other piano styles such as stride, dixieland, and the
boogie-woogie which was the first obvious influence for rock and roll.
	In the 1930's blues took on a different character because of changes in society,
black musicians developed big bands  and blues singers continued to have great
importance which eventually fostered rhythm and blues.  Rock and roll started to develop
in the last part of the 1930's mainly because of the start of the removal of the color line
between musicians.  
	Chapter four discusses early rock.  They started to somewhat define the rock
category by saying that rock uses certain rhythmic devices, its lyrics and jargon came from
the jump blues, rhythm and blues, country, or some combination, many pieces use a blues
progression, and the basic style of performance is continuos shouting by the singer and
continuos playing by the instrumentalists.  There were different types of songs that started
to show the development of rock.  Shouting, songs in which lyrics were shouted over the
band background, was a predominant style of early rock and the foundation for the careers
of famous rock musicians.  Ballad singing is also an important part of early rock and roll,
it is a big band tune from rhythm and blues tradition.   Then there was novelties , which
were a third kind of rock song.  It was a song with some gimmick that makes it catchy.  
	During the 1950's most Americans felt secure, we started to see ourselves as a
world power.  We were involved in the cold war and blacks had started their movements. 
Because of the cultural situation rock and roll became a focal point for rebellion.  The
marketing techniques were very primitive, but started to turn rock and roll into a
multimillion dollar business.
	Chapter  five discusses Bill Haley and the Comets and how they set a model for
rock and roll.  There  is not much to be said about this chapter because Haley wasn't  a
great musician and others would come after him and do a better job at music then he did,
but he was essentially one of the first groups to use the elements of music just right to be
labeled a rock and roll musician.
	Chapter six talks about a person who was far more important in giving rock and
roll its lasting power then Bill Haley and that person was Elvis Presley.  Presley had
Musical and personal qualities that far surpassed Haley.  Presley opened up markets for
other musicians and served as a symbol for the development of marketing techniques.  He
influenced a tremendous number of musicians.  
	There were other musicians who came from Memphis  and were labeled the
Memphis Mafia.  They produced a more marketable combination of records using ballads
and novelties.  Country was also influenced by this wave of new rock musicians and
created the Nashville sound.  Some rockabilly musicians include Johnny Cash, who was
more influential in folk music as he developed his style, Buddy Holly, who could have
contributed to rock just as much as Presley did if he had lived longer, Jerry Lee Lewis,
who was one of the first rock and roll piano players, and Carl Perkins.
	Chapter seven talks about the broadening of the music style and the performers
who came out of this period.  During this time, 1950's,  rock had become legitimized as a
category all on its own.  By this time there were four different types of rock and roll:
Rhythm and Blues/shouting, crooning, specialty songs, and novelty/monster songs.  Free
acculturation also came into play around this time.  Ray Charles is the musician who
legitimized this position.
	Urbanization  of rock and roll from rural to urban blues led to the circumstances in
which rock and roll could be marketed.   Rock and Roll began as a rough form of music.
became urban blues form, and then eventually took in other forms in order to expand its
market.  Ballads became significant in the 1950's because they expanded the listening
audience and in turn gained acceptance by the public.  The first ballads predate the
invention of the term rock an roll.  
	Chapter eight focuses on soul/mowtown music.  This music had great influence
around the 1960's which were times of tumult and confusion.  Rock music had new
messages and new means to communicate.  Rock around this time relied heavily on the
rhythm section because the style was vocally dominated.  Also around this time Memphis
played a more important part because it became a center for studio recording.  Because of
the popularity of gospel and soul along with rhythm and blues, billboard combined the
categories into one called soul.  Mowtown was formed by doowop groups and did fairly
well.  Sixty-seven percent of the singles that came out of mowtown music hit the top of
the charts.
	Chapter nine talks about one of the greatest influences on Rock and Roll which
were the Beatles.  Their musical style is defined in three periods which are early beatle,
1962-1964, middle beatles,1965-1966, and late beatles 1967-1969.  The early beatles had
the following characteristics: Simple lyrics, Simple background accompaniment, Rock
sound from the 1950's, Simple drumbeat and rhythmic patters, Simple bass lines, and
domination by lead singer or unison singing.  In their early era they just sang songs for that
had little or no meaning and did not have any relationship with each other.  The rhythmic
patterns were simple with little riff orientation.  The Middle beatles had different style of
singing which can be characterized as poetically more complex lyrics, Symbolic lyrics,
More creative music, Universal point of view, sometimes critical words, growing
dissension among group members, more guitar oriented and less percussive, folklike, more
complicated guitar sounds and electronics, more subjects in musical lyrics, and better
background accompaniment.  The beatles came into their own during this period.  The
technical era was more complex.  The albums began to show some continuity and there
was logic in which the way the songs were placed.  The late beatles music can be
characterized by electronic music, studio music, technically precise music, mystical
allusions, and total communication.  The music during this time was both diverse and
homogenous.  They were able to make each song and each album tie into each other
successfully.  The musical style was interwoven with the message of  the singing.
	Chapter ten talks about California and what it gave to rock and roll.  California
was seen as a kind of utopia around the 1960's so people wanted to go there, especially
southern California.  They were really into surfing music, which created such groups as
The Beach Boys, and some were more into nonsurfing groups, which were such groups as
The Doors.  Both of these major groups came out of California around this time.  In
northern California, cities such as San Francisco developed themselves as the center of
movement, and musically, folk music turned into a particular kind of rock.  The sound that
it turned into can be defined as acid rock or psychedelic rock, which means that it is
associated with LSD, or acid.  It became associated with very loud music and use of
electronic amplification.  This new development was important to rock because it united
rocks identification with rebellion, something it had lost for a while.
	Chapter eleven discusses Folk-rock and how it came about.  Folk music is usually
defined as the music of the people, it usually expresses the feelings of one particular area
or group.  It has many different aspects.  Rock, jazz, country, and other musical textures
were added experimentally, leading to fusion.  Bob Dylan is a musician who played great
folk music, he is responsible for raising the sophistication level of the lyrics.  Around this
time, 1970's, it gets harder to generalize about attitudes.  This shift in attitudes was
partially caused by the technological explosion.  Communications systems became much
more sophisticated, and information was available instantly.
	From here on the book goes on to discuss the different forms of rock that came
about.  Chapter twelve focuses towards English Rock.  English rock has a distinctive
sound for several reasons: Depending on their upbringing, the musicians sing with a
distinctive accent; There is a slight influence of skiffle in the beginning stages of music
from the 1960's; The technology of the amplified sound is different in that the amplifiers
are set to amplify the harmonic spectrum differently; Musical symbolism tends to be
different and draws from the literary tradition of Europe; The blending of voices tends to
be less emotional.  Three groups who popularized English rock in America  after the
Beatles were The Rolling Stones, The Who, and Elton John.  They capitalized on the
attitudes of the times which were sometimes tasteless and antiestablishment.  The Rolling
Stones and The Who eventually have an impact on punk and new wave.  Elton John
proves the lasting impact of a pianist and a vocalist.
	Chapter thirteen goes onto art and eclectic rock.  Art rock is a term that defines
music that either has higher pretentions than standard rock or imitates another style that
has been recognized as art.  Eclectic rock is a term applied to anything considered to be
unusual.  The chapter presents a mixture of styles tied together by the experimental quality
of the music  All of it was generally a fusion of rock and roll with western or nonwestern
art music.  Some musicians that represent this period are The Kinks, Frank Zappa, and
Rush just to name a few.
	Chapter fourteen moves on to Country rock.  It is analogous to rock music after
the middle Beatles period in that it uses elements of different kinds of music.  Country
rock is a combination of pop, folk, jazz, rock, and country music.  Country rock has a a
few distinct elements.  A band normally uses heavy amplification of the guitar instruments,
the lyrics are most uncharacteristic of straight country music, and the musicians look
different from traditional country musicians.  One of the most important characteristics of
country rock was the emergence of the songwriter as the narrator and the expression of
southern pride.  Some bands that represent country rock are Alabama, Charlie Daniels
Band, the Eagles, the Grateful Dead,  and Lynyrd Skynyrd.
	Chapter fifteen moves onto Jazz-rock, funk, and disco.  Because there were many
attitudes at the same time in the 1970's, the idea of art forms merging into something
called fusion makes sense.  The fusion music of the 70's has had an enormous commercial
impact, and all three types of music were financially successful.  All three movements have
strong jazz roots.  Jazz-rock had some significance, it had some very competent musicians
and began to make contributions to the rock technique, rock became more complicated as
a result, the commercial value of rock was made broader, many electronic devices became
commonplace in both jazz and rock, and jazz influences began to further legitimize rock as
a serious form of communication.  Funk is a way of defining the music as having various
sexual and social meanings.  Funk evolved from soul and became a way of life within the
black community.  Funk can be aggressive and its musical structure combines both
softness and harshness.  Disco was important because it provided a central focus for the
return of dancing.  It is simply good-time music that is optimistic and without social
comment.
	Chapter sixteen talks about the emergence of heavy metal.  Heavy Metal is
commonly described as being loud music.  The elements of heavy metal consist of heavy
use of electronic devices, high volume, a thick cluttered sound where all musical elements
combine to establish the sense of power, and a sound mix where the vocals are buried
within the texture.  Classical metal was a period in which there was a definitive split
between British and American styles occurred and it was at this time that heavy metal
became a separate style of rock and roll.  Mainstream metal is a style that is fully
developed, evolves into equal strength in all instruments and vocal aspects of the band
unit, and settles into a very acceptable level of musical competence.  Heavy metal became
more mainstream in the 1980's.  The terms Thrash/Speed/Death came later on in the
heavy metal period.  Thrash was heavy metal instrumental style with neo-punk lyrics. 
Speed metal is the evolution of mainstream American heavy metal, incorporating long
melodic phrases and fast tempos.  Death metal is a particular style which is defined by its
lyrics with words like death, hell, blood, etc.  
	Chapter seventeen moves onto punk, new wave, and alternative music.  Punk is a
term applied to a child or teenager who acts in a antisocial way.  Punk was a form of
rebellion, it turned against all other musical forms of the 1970's.  It is considered the third
rock evolution following the formation of rock and roll and the Beatles.  The music was as
much cultural as it was musical.  It was anarchic, against society, and against everything in
the established order.  New wave refers to new music, sometimes meaning contemporary
music.  New wave was generally the philosophy of life that manifested itself in certain
kinds of music.  Alternative music is music that represents another option to what is
already commercially viable or has been classified.  Alternative groups have a short term
following because they either become more mainstream or get other jobs.  It has little
lasting impact on rock and roll, but occasionally will have real impact.
	Chapter eighteen is the final chapter and discusses Techno-funk/pop, Rap, MTV,
Dance music, and the future.  Techno-funk was the standard way of defining what was
happening.  The technology of the time created the means to market rock which was
through videotapes.  Techno-funk/pop was more dominant in 1985 than any other time. 
Rap is a form of music that features a strong rhythm section, with the slap bass so
important to funk, soul, and reggae.  The rapper tells his message in a punctuated style. 
Other aspects of rap that  are important are the scratching style, dance steps, mouth beat
box, and breaking.   Pop rock was generally called dance music.  In terms of  attitude it
represents a growing commercial period in rock.  MTV had an impact on the relative
success of the various kinds of music as well as the buying habits of younger viewers.  
Charle T. Brown concludes the book by stating the basic premises he established
throughout the book which are the following:
1.Rock is a legitimate are form, with its own technique and its own complexity.
2.Like any art form, it has its highs and lows.
3.We can trace cycles in rock, which seem to correlate with social views.
4.Rock has had a major influence on society and other art forms.
5.Although it began as a way for youth to rebel against their parents, rock in now a
universal art form and a means of communication, spanning the gamut of generations all
over the world.
















 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Richard Marcinko.TXT
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Richard Marcinko


     A brilliant virtuoso of violence, Richard Marcinko rose through the Navy
ranks to create and command one of America's most elite and classified
counterterrorist units, Seal Team Six. Then Marcinko was given orders to create
Red Cell, a team of the best counterterrorists, whose job was to check the
security of the military's top installations. Richard Marcinko was the ultimate
rogue warrior.

	First, born Thanksgiving Day, 1940, Marcinko was from a poor, broken
home. He was always very independent, having a paper route at five and cutting
school classes regularly. At the age of fifteen, he got a job at a local
restaurant. At the age of seventeen, he quit school and joined the Navy. After
two years as a teletype clerk, he convinced his Commanding Officer to send him
to UDT, Underwater Demolition Team, training.

	Later, in June 1966, he joined Seal Team Two and went to Vietnam. He
served two tours there and came back a decorated war hero. After his return to
the United States, he  became Commanding Officer of Seal Team Two, where he
served for eight years. Then, he came up with the idea of the Navy's first
counterterrorist unit, Seal Team Six.

	Now, the most important contribution Richard Marcinko made was his idea
of Seal Team Six. Seal Team Six was created as part of the CounterTerrorist
Joint Task Force, a group which includes one elite unit each from the Navy, the
Army, and the FBI. Marcinko was given permission and unlimited expenses from the
Pentagon to create this highly elite group. He was then named Commanding Officer
of Seal Team Six, which he served as for three years. This elite unit has went
on classified missions from Central America to the Middle East, the North Sea,
Africa, and beyond. Then Marcinko was given orders to create Red Cell. Red
Cell's job was to check the security of the military's top facilities and
installations. It was made up of the twelve best counterterrorists in the world.
After going to several facilities and proving the security was terrible,
Marcinko was forced to retire from the Navy. Charges of conspiracy and theft
were brought against him and he served one year in prison.

	Finally, Richard Marcinko was probably one of America's most
controversial warriors. He was a hero to the men he lead and he was a decorated
warrior. He was a mean, profane, reprehensible person who was loyal only to his
men; not to the Navy. Richard Marcinko was the ultimate Rogue Warrior. 


 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Richard Nixon.TXT
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Richard Nixon


     Richard Milhous Nixon was the thirty-seventh president of the United States
and the only president to have resigned from office. He was on his was to
success after receiving his law degree from Duke University Law School in 1937.

	California Republicans persuaded Nixon in 1946 to be their candidate to
challenge Jerry Voorhis, the popular Democratic Congressman, for his seat in the
United States House of Representatives. He accuses Voorhis of being "soft" on
Communism. This was damaging to him because the Cold War rivalry between the
United States and USSR was just beginning. Voorhis was forced into a defensive
position after the two men confronted each other in a series of debates. Nixon's
campaign was an example of the vigorous and aggressive style characteristic of
his political career that led him to win the election.

	Nixon gained valuable experience in international affairs as a new
member of the United States Congress. He helped establish a program known as the
Marshall Plan, in which the US assisted Europe rebuild itself following the war.
He also served on the House Education and Labor Committee to develop the
National Labor Relations Act.

	In 1948, writer and editor Whittaker Chambers accused Alger Hiss, a high
State Department official, of being a Communist. Nixon, a member of the Un-
American Activities Committee, personally pressed the investigation. Hiss denied
further charges that he had turned classified documents over to Chambers to be
sent to the USSR. Alger Hiss was later convicted and indicted for perjury after
sufficient evidence was discovered. Nixon was reelected to Congress after
winning both the Republican and Democratic nominations as a result of gaining a
national reputation as a dedicated enemy of Communism.

	In 1950, Nixon was chosen as candidate for the US Senate from California
by the Republicans. Again, he won this election by linking his opponent to being
pro-Communist.

	Nixon was selected to be the running mate of the Republican presidential
nomination, General Eisenhower, in 1952. Many of Eisenhower's advisors wanted
Nixon to resign his candidacy shortly after his vice-presidential nomination
because of accusations that he misused his senator expenses fund. No evidence
was found to prove this, and, in response, Nixon replied on national television
with the "Checkers" speech, which contained sentimental reference to Nixon's dog,
Checkers. The speech was his attempt to prove his innocence.

	In the following campaign, Nixon once again attacked the Democratic
presidential candidate as being soft on Communism.

     Nixon and Eisenhower's victory led them both to being reelected in 1956,
after surviving Republican attempts to replace Nixon.

     As vice-president, much of Nixon's time was spent representing the
president before Congress and on trips abroad as a goodwill ambassador, where he
was occasionally the target of anti-US feelings.

	As Eisenhower neared the end of his second term as president, he
endorsed Nixon, who received an impressive vote in party primaries and all but
ten of the delegates votes on the first ballot at the Republican National
Convention. An unusual feature of the campaign was a series of face-to-face
discussions between Nixon and his Democratic opponent, Senator John F. Kennedy,
who was widely regarded as the winner of the debates, which helped him win the
election.

	In 1962, Nixon returned to California after losing the presidential
election and became Republican candidate for governor. It was another bitter
campaign, revolving around Communism and law enforcement, but this time his
strategy did not work. Most political observers believed Nixon's political
career had ended by the was he handled the loss.

	Nixon moved and joined a large law firm in New York City after his
defeat, and remained in close relations with national Republican leaders and
campaigned for Republican candidates in two elections. By 1968, he had
sufficiently recovered his political standing to announce his candidacy for
president.

	He had two major problems in seeking nomination in 1968. He had not won
an election in eighteen years and he had no state in which to base his candidacy.
He also could count on few Republican governors for support, though he did have
support in Congress and other politicians whom he helped campaigned.

	He easily won the nomination on the first ballot at the convention and
chose the governor of Maryland as his running mate. Vice-president Humphrey, his
Democratic opponent, was placed under stress by Nixon from the unsuccessful war
in Vietnam's effects. Nearly thirty-two million votes gave him a clear majority
in the electoral college.

	The most important issue Nixon faced when he became president was the
Vietnam war. The conflict between North Vietnam and South Vietnam began in 1959,
and in 1964 there were reports that North Vietnam had attacked US vessels.
Congress and President Johnson authorized the bombing of North Vietnam and to
increase US military involvement.

	Nixon campaigned against the war, and brought US soldiers back home. He
developed the Nixon doctrine, stating that the United States would continue
helping Asian nations combat Communism, but would no longer commit US troops to
land wars in Asia.

	However, in 1970, Nixon expanded the war by allowing an invasion and
several bombing missions.

	Into the second half of 1972, secret peace meetings were held between
the assistant to the president for national security affairs and a North
Vietnamese delegate. A breakthrough was achieved when a peace plan was agreed on,
but abruptly collapsed when Nixon ordered further massive bombing.

	Nixon was more successful in other foreign policy areas, such as
improving relations with China and USSR. Both countries signed trade agreements
and treaties.

	He adopted conservative domestic policies by appointing appeals judge
Burger to the Supreme Court in 1969, federal judge Blackmun, Virginia lawyer
Powell, and Assistant Attorney General Rehnquist in 1971; to shift the Supreme
Court toward more conservative positions.

	Also, Nixon tried to slow the pace of integration of black students into
white schools. In 1957, the Supreme Court declared the practice illegal. Nixon
then opposed the use of public buses to transport students to integrated schools.


	Other problems arose, such as inflation and high unemployment. His
tactic to slow inflation with high interest rates failed, so he began wage and
price controls. He also devalued the dollar to promote US exports and discourage
imports.

	Nixon won easily over his Democratic opponent in the election of 1972
due to improved economy and temporary peace between the US and Vietnam.

     During the campaign, five men connected with Nixon's reelection committee
were discreetly arrested for breaking into the Democratic Party's national
headquarters in the Watergate apartment complex in Washington D.C., attempting
to steal documents and place wiretaps on the telephones.

	Secret peace meetings continued between the Untied States and Vietnam.
Once an agreement was met, Nixon announced an official cease-fire over national
television. At this time Nixon's popularity was at it's peak, but not for long.

       Severe inflation once again affected the economy, so Nixon devalued the
dollar a second time. In addition to this he cut government spending on domestic
social programs, such as education, urban renewal, and antipoverty programs,
while resisting attempts by the Congress to reduce military spending.

     Nixon's prestige crumbled as a result of the Watergate scandal. Persistent
questioning led to an investigation. In the trial of the Watergate burglars had
shown that a cover-up had concealed their activities and their connections with
high government officials and the president's closest aids. A Senate committee
on Watergate and the Justice Department revealed that this was one of many
scandals involving Nixon and his loyalists. The actions of Watergate has been
directed against the Democrats, and all but one of Nixon's aids and officials
were forced to resign. These discoveries raised questions about Nixon's
knowledge and participation in their cover-up. He issued inconsistent statements
claiming the importance of presidency allowed him to withhold documents even if
they were demanded by the courts.

      The public was outraged that Nixon fired special investigator Cox over the
question of access to his records. This ordered the House Judiciary committee to
look into possible impeachment. Nixon then agreed to produce the withheld
documents as a result of the threat, but soon after it was revealed that some
tapes were missing.

	All of this caused other investigations to begin focusing on Nixon, such
as possible income tax evasion and misuse of government funds. Nixon's top two
aids and two other men were indicted in connection with the Watergate cover-up
in 1974, and Nixon refused to hand over additional tapes that were demanded

	The tapes supplied to the courts would be made public in the trials, so
Nixon released edited transcripts that concealed any evidence of his involvement.
In early 1974, the Court ruled against Nixon's claims of executive privilege in
an eight to zero decision. He was also accused of obstructing justice, abusing
presidential power, and refusing to comply with the House's demands. This caused
the Judiciary committee to introduce three impeachment articles.

       His supporters in Congress felt betrayed when he released tapes that year
that showed he had participated in the Watergate cover-up as early as 1972. It
was clear that he would be impeached by the House and convicted in the Senate,
so on August 8, 1974, Nixon announced - without admitting guilt - that his
resignation would take effect the following day and Vice - President Ford would
take his place as president.

     One month later, President Ford issued a pardon for all federal crimes
Nixon may have committed while president. Through traveling and writing, he
gradually regained his public respect.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Richard W Sears and Sears Roebuck & Company.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
         Richard Warren Sears and Sears, Roebuck, & Company

     Richard Warren Sears was born on December 7, 1863, in Stewartville, Minnesota. He was the son of James Warren and 
Eliza A. Sears, both of English ancestory. His father led anything but a happy life. He had failed in his quest for gold during the California Gold Rush of 1849 and was a bitter soldier in the Civil War, which he blamed on politicians. He had earned a sizable sum of money working as a blacksmith and a wagonmaker, but he lost it all in a stock-farm venture. Richard's father gave up soon afterwards, leaving Richard to be the family breadwinner at the age of 16.
     Richard worked in the general offices of the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway in Minneapolis to support his family. He then decided to move Redwood Falls, Minnesota, where he thought that he could earn more money because of the small town setting. There he worked as a station attendant, doing chores for his board and sleeping in the loft of the railroad station. In his spare time, he learned how the mail-order business worked.
     Richard got his opportunity to get into the mail-order business in 1886 when a shipment of watches from a Chicago wholesaler was refused by a town jeweler. Therefore, the shipment sat in the railroad station until Richard contacted the wholesaler, who offered him the watches for twelve dollars each. He bought the watches and sold them by sending letters to other station attendants describing the watches and offering them at the discount price of fourteen dollars each. He sold those watches and ordered more to sell. To sell these he advertised in a small way in St. Paul newspapers. He made a large profit from this operation.
     In a few months Richard made such a profit that he abandoned the railroad business entirely and started his own mail-order business under the name of the R.W. Sears Watch Company. In one year he made so much money that he was able to begin advertising in magazines with a national circulation and move the business to Chicago. 
     On March 1, 1887, he set up a shop on Dearborn Street in Chicago with a staff of three people, one to handle bookkeeping and 
correspondence and two stenographers. Soon after the opening of his new shop, he found a need for a watchmaker to repair watches returned by customers. This watchmaker was a young man by the name of Alvah Curtis Roebuck from Hammond, Indiana. 
     Richard Sears became even more successful by opening up the huge rural market. His advertising was aimed at the farmer, who was independent and stayed away from big companies. He portrayed himself to them as a fellow independent businessman, and was able to prove it by his low prices and his willingness to send watches on approval for just the payment of a deposit. 
     He was also able to succeed with farmers because he remembered life in small towns with great affection. Although he enjoyed his commercial success, he longed for the laid-back, small town way of life. In 1889, Richard sold the R.W. Sears Watch Company for $72,000 and moved to Iowa to enjoy the small town life.
     Richard Sears would soon bore of his new life and decided to start a new company with his old business partner A.C. Roebuck. This new business was about the same as the previous one. It was a mail-order operation selling watches and jewelry under the name of A.C. Roebuck and Company. This new business was even more successful than the first, mostly because of its low prices and guarantee of satisfaction. 
     In September 1893, A.C. Roebuck and Company changed its name to Sears, Roebuck, and Company, the same name it carries today. Soon after, they moved the company to Chicago, where they could fill orders more easily to their major markets in Pennsylvania, Georgia, Texas, and Iowa.
     Later that year the first of the Sears catalogs that have become so familiar was made. The catalog was the key to the success of Sears. It used simple, direct language that spoke to the nation's farmers. The catolog would claim that the goods featured inside were "the best in the world".
     The stress of this rapidly growing business was too much for Alvah Roebuck. Richard Sears would take several financial gambles that would eventually make the company prosper but would cause Roebuck to become uncomfortable. In August 1895 Roebuck sold his 
one-third interest to Sears for $25,000. 
     Although Roebuck decided to seek a quieter life, Sears had no intention of doing any such thing. He married Anna Lydia Meckstroth that year. She later gave Sears two sons and two daughters. His marriage and his growing family were all he needed to drive him to keep building his company.
     Soon after the departure of Roebuck, Sears sold seven hundred shares of his company. Julius Rosenwald, a successful merchant of men's suits who had done business with Sears in the past, and Aaron Nausbaum, who had been in business selling pneumatic tube systems, each purchased 350 shares. Sears would later sell 150 more shares of his company to each, giving the three each 500 shares.
     Although the introduction of Rosenwald and Nausbaum did bring badly needed managerial skills to the company, it caused some problems. Nausbaum lacked the human touch which was so important to Sears. He was rough on the people who worked for the company, not hesitating to furlough them when he needed their paychecks to meet overdue bills. There was an obvious personality clash between the two which led to Sears and Rosenwald buying out Nausbaum's interest in the company for $1.25 million. 
     Sears continued to prosper in rural markets, including the rapidly growing western frontier. This is because farmers in the West found the prices of merchandise too high at their local general store, whose prices were inflated due to several middlemen each taking a share as the goods moved from the manufacturer. Sears, on the other hand, was able to offer its goods at a lower price because he was the only middleman taking a share. 
     This utterly amazing growth caused problems for the company. The company would need more space and more markets to continue its growth. This also meant that the company would need more capital. This led to Rosenwald offering its stock to the public as a way to raise capital. In August 1906 some $9 million in preferred stock was offered. With the booming stock market, the public bought the stock eagerly.
     While Rosenwald was putting their financial house in order, Sears had opened the company's first branch mail-order plant. This plant was built in Dallas. The branch mail-order plant meant that the company could save money by ordering from local suppliers and avoiding considerable freight cost. 
     Sears and Rosenwald began to disagree on the path the company should take. This disagreement became even bigger during the depression of 1907, when the companies profits dropped by nearly a half million dollars, the first such drop in company history. Sears wanted to increase advertising in order to increase sales while Rosenwald wished to trim expenses to weather the financial woes. Because Sears was in Europe at the time, Rosenwald's approach to the depression was taken. 
     After the depression was over, Rosenwald's approach had proven to be best. Sales remained steady and profits grew. This was enough to make Sears relize that times had changed since he started his company. Shortly afterwards, Sears resigned as president of the company and gave the position to Rosenwald. He then assumed the position of chairman of the board, but resigned that position too soon afterwards. 
     Richard Warren Sears died on September 28, 1914, in Waukesha, 
Wisconsin, at the age of 50. During his life, Sears succeeded in a big way, having built a company which has become an American institution. 
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Richard Warren Sears and Sears.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Richard Warren Sears and Sears, Roebuck, & Company


     Richard Warren Sears was born on December 7, 1863, in Stewartville,
Minnesota. He was the son of James Warren and Eliza A. Sears, both of English
ancestory. His father led anything but a happy life. He had failed in his quest
for gold during the California Gold Rush of 1849 and was a bitter soldier in the
Civil War, which he blamed on politicians. He had earned a sizable sum of money
working as a blacksmith and a wagonmaker, but he lost it all in a stock-farm
venture. Richard's father gave up soon afterwards, leaving Richard to be the
family breadwinner at the age of 16.
     Richard worked in the general offices of the Minneapolis and St. Louis
Railway in Minneapolis to support his family. He then decided to move Redwood
Falls, Minnesota, where he thought that he could earn more money because of the
small town setting. There he worked as a station attendant, doing chores for his
board and sleeping in the loft of the railroad station. In his spare time, he
learned how the mail-order business worked.
     Richard got his opportunity to get into the mail-order business in 1886
when a shipment of watches from a Chicago wholesaler was refused by a town
jeweler. Therefore, the shipment sat in the railroad station until Richard
contacted the wholesaler, who offered him the watches for twelve dollars each.
He bought the watches and sold them by sending letters to other station
attendants describing the watches and offering them at the discount price of
fourteen dollars each. He sold those watches and ordered more to sell. To sell
these he advertised in a small way in St. Paul newspapers. He made a large
profit from this operation.
     In a few months Richard made such a profit that he abandoned the railroad
business entirely and started his own mail-order business under the name of the
R.W. Sears Watch Company. In one year he made so much money that he was able to
begin advertising in magazines with a national circulation and move the business
to Chicago.
     On March 1, 1887, he set up a shop on Dearborn Street in Chicago with a
staff of three people, one to handle bookkeeping and correspondence and two
stenographers. Soon after the opening of his new shop, he found a need for a
watchmaker to repair watches returned by customers. This watchmaker was a young
man by the name of Alvah Curtis Roebuck from Hammond, Indiana.
     Richard Sears became even more successful by opening up the huge rural
market. His advertising was aimed at the farmer, who was independent and stayed
away from big companies. He portrayed himself to them as a fellow independent
businessman, and was able to prove it by his low prices and his willingness to
send watches on approval for just the payment of a deposit.
     He was also able to succeed with farmers because he remembered life in
small towns with great affection. Although he enjoyed his commercial success, he
longed for the laid-back, small town way of life. In 1889, Richard sold the R.W.
Sears Watch Company for $72,000 and moved to Iowa to enjoy the small town life.
     Richard Sears would soon bore of his new life and decided to start a new
company with his old business partner A.C. Roebuck. This new business was about
the same as the previous one. It was a mail-order operation selling watches and
jewelry under the name of A.C. Roebuck and Company. This new business was even
more successful than the first, mostly because of its low prices and guarantee
of satisfaction.
     In September 1893, A.C. Roebuck and Company changed its name to Sears,
Roebuck, and Company, the same name it carries today. Soon after, they moved the
company to Chicago, where they could fill orders more easily to their major
markets in Pennsylvania, Georgia, Texas, and Iowa.
     Later that year the first of the Sears catalogs that have become so
familiar was made. The catalog was the key to the success of Sears. It used
simple, direct language that spoke to the nation's farmers. The catolog would
claim that the goods featured inside were "the best in the world".
     The stress of this rapidly growing business was too much for Alvah Roebuck.
Richard Sears would take several financial gambles that would eventually make
the company prosper but would cause Roebuck to become uncomfortable. In August
1895 Roebuck sold his one-third interest to Sears for $25,000.
     Although Roebuck decided to seek a quieter life, Sears had no intention of
doing any such thing. He married Anna Lydia Meckstroth that year. She later gave
Sears two sons and two daughters. His marriage and his growing family were all
he needed to drive him to keep building his company.
     Soon after the departure of Roebuck, Sears sold seven hundred shares of his
company. Julius Rosenwald, a successful merchant of men's suits who had done
business with Sears in the past, and Aaron Nausbaum, who had been in business
selling pneumatic tube systems, each purchased 350 shares. Sears would later
sell 150 more shares of his company to each, giving the three each 500 shares.
     Although the introduction of Rosenwald and Nausbaum did bring badly needed
managerial skills to the company, it caused some problems. Nausbaum lacked the
human touch which was so important to Sears. He was rough on the people who
worked for the company, not hesitating to furlough them when he needed their
paychecks to meet overdue bills. There was an obvious personality clash between
the two which led to Sears and Rosenwald buying out Nausbaum's interest in the
company for $1.25 million.
     Sears continued to prosper in rural markets, including the rapidly growing
western frontier. This is because farmers in the West found the prices of
merchandise too high at their local general store, whose prices were inflated
due to several middlemen each taking a share as the goods moved from the
manufacturer. Sears, on the other hand, was able to offer its goods at a lower
price because he was the only middleman taking a share.
     This utterly amazing growth caused problems for the company. The company
would need more space and more markets to continue its growth. This also meant
that the company would need more capital. This led to Rosenwald offering its
stock to the public as a way to raise capital. In August 1906 some $9 million in
preferred stock was offered. With the booming stock market, the public bought
the stock eagerly.
     While Rosenwald was putting their financial house in order, Sears had
opened the company's first branch mail-order plant. This plant was built in
Dallas. The branch mail-order plant meant that the company could save money by
ordering from local suppliers and avoiding considerable freight cost.
     Sears and Rosenwald began to disagree on the path the company should take.
This disagreement became even bigger during the depression of 1907, when the
companies profits dropped by nearly a half million dollars, the first such drop
in company history. Sears wanted to increase advertising in order to increase
sales while Rosenwald wished to trim expenses to weather the financial woes.
Because Sears was in Europe at the time, Rosenwald's approach to the depression
was taken.
     After the depression was over, Rosenwald's approach had proven to be best.
Sales remained steady and profits grew. This was enough to make Sears relize
that times had changed since he started his company. Shortly afterwards, Sears
resigned as president of the company and gave the position to Rosenwald. He then
assumed the position of chairman of the board, but resigned that position too
soon afterwards.
     Richard Warren Sears died on September 28, 1914, in Waukesha, Wisconsin, at
the age of 50. During his life, Sears succeeded in a big way, having built a
company which has become an American institution.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Rigoberta Menchu.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Rigoberta Menchu
An Indian Woman In Guatemala: Without A Trace Of Bitterness In Her Voice
Stacye Rothbard
Transcultural perspectives
November 11, 1996
Guatemala is the land of Eternal Springs and the home of the richly cultured and
historic Mayan people. It it also the country of Rigoberta Menchu, an
illeterite farm worker, turned voice of oppressed people everywhere. Guatemala
also has the sad distinction of being home to Latin America's oldest civil war.
"For more than three decades, left-wing guerrillas have fought a series of
rightist governments in Guatemala. The war has killed an estimated 140,000 in
the country, which has 11 million people." (N.Y. Times June 14, 1996 pA4 col 2)
This is a story of a people in crisis, and one woman's struggle to use truth, as
a means of setting her people free.
The majority of the population are Indians, and much of the struggles arise out
of the ashes of the past. Spain conquered Guatemala in 1524, which was the
start of the oppression of the native people of Guatemala. Since this time the
native people have been ruled by the Spanish speaking minority, the Ladinos,
many of which are descended from the Spanish colonists.
Beginning in 1954, when Guatemala's elected government was overthrown by the
army, the military began a brutal war against the Indian people. This type of
torture and oppression continued, and during the 1970's the repression was
especially harsh; during this time more and more Indians began to resist. It
was during this time that Rigoberta Menchu's family became involved in the
resistance.
The situation in Guatemala is similar to South Africa, where the black majority
are ruled with absolute power by the white minority. Like South Africa, the
Indians in Guatemala are lacking in even the most basic of human rights.
"Indeed the so-called forest Indians are being systematically exterminated in
the name of progress. But unlike the Indian rebels of the past, who wanted to
go back to pre-Columbian times, Rigoberta Menchu is not fighting in the name of
an idealized or mythical past." (Menchu xiii) Rigoberta is working toward
drawing attention to the plight of native people around the globe.
Once an illiterate farm worker, she has taught herself to read and write Spanish,
the language of her oppressor, as a means of relating her story to the world.
She tells the story of her life with honesty and integrity in hopes of
impressing upon the world the indignation of the oppressed. In addition to the
Spanish language, Rigoberta borrows such things as the bible and trade union
organization in order to use them against their original owners. There is
nothing like the bible in her culture. She says, "The Bible is written, and
that gives us one more weapon." ( Menchu xviii ) Her people need to base their
actions on the laws that come down from the past, on prophecy.
Her own history and the history of her family is told with great detail in the
book I, Rigoberta Menchu. Not only does one learn about the culture of her
people and about the community in which she lives, but an understanding is
gained as to impetus to react against ones oppressor. Born the sixth child to
an already impoverished but well respected family, Rigoberta remembers growing
up in the mountains on land that no one else wanted, spending months at a time
going with her family to work on the fincas (plantations).
A lorry owned by the finca would come to their village, and the workers, along
with their children and animals, would ride together, in filthy and overcrowded
conditions. Each lorry would hold approximately forty people, and the trip to
the finca took two nights and one day, with no stops allowed for the bathroom,
it is easy to imagine the unsanitary condition that resulted. Each worker would
take with them a cup and a plate and a bottle for water when they worked in the
fields. The youngest of the children that were not yet able to work had no need
for their own cup and plate since, if they did not work, they would not be fed
by the finca. These children's mothers would share with them their own ration
of tortilla and beans, though many of the children were severely malnourished,
and two of Rigoberta's own brothers died while on the finca.
At the tender age of eight Rigoberta was earning money to help her family, and
as proof of her own personal fortitude, by age ten she was picking the quotas of
an adult and was paid as such. Her first experience in the city was at twelve
years old in the capital of Guatemala where she worked as a maid. She retells
the story of how when she met the lady of the house, she was told that she
needed new clothes, since hers were so worn and dirty from working on the finca,
and how she was given a salary advance of two months pay which was to be used
for the new clothes.
Remembering back, Rigoberta describes how she was treated, "The mistress used to
watch me all the time and was very nasty to me. She treated me like... I don't
know what... not like a dog because she treated the dog well. She used to hug
the dog." (Menchu 94) The first night she recalls being given her dinner the
same time that the dog had been fed, she was given a hard tortilla and some
beans, while the dog was given "bits of meat, rice, things that the family ate."
(Menchu 92) It hurt her to see that in the eyes of this family she was lower
than a dog. She left her job when one of her brothers came to tell her that her
father was in prison.
This was the beginning of her father's involvement with the unions, and the
beginning of the awakening for her family, but also, the beginning of their
troubles with the government. Three months after getting out of prison, her
father was "tortured and abandoned-They had torn off the hair on his head on one
side. His skin was cut all over and they'd broken so many of his bones that he
couldn't walk, lift himself or move a single finger." (Menchu 112)
When her father was arrested the second time, he was considered a political
prisoner. This prompted
Rigoberta to begin to learn to speak Spanish as a means of helping her father.
After spending fifteen days in prison and meeting a man who was being held for
helping the peasants, her father found his calling and continued to fight
against the government. He had to leave his family in order to protect them
and as of 1977 went into hiding.
The village began to study the bible as text to educate the people. "Many
relationships in the bible are like those we have with our ancestors, our
ancestors whose lives were very much like our own." (Menchu 131) They learned
about revenge and fashioned weapons based on the descriptions in the bible.
There were many attacks on the village and many of her friends and family
members were killed
In September 1979, when she was 19, her younger brother was kidnapped by the
Guatemalan army and accused of trying to help the peasants win the right to own
land. They cut off his finger-nails, then his fingers, then the skin on his
face, then the soles of his feet. He was then marched to the village square
where, in front of his family, he was doused with gasoline and set aflame.
A few months later her father was also burned to death. Several weeks after
that the army arrested, tortured, and killed her mother, then left her body
hanging from a tree to be eaten by dogs.
Menchu fled to Mexico, but continued her struggle to help her people. as a
result of her work on the rights of indigenous people around the world, she was
awarded the honor of receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992. She still remains
a controversial figure in Guatemala, where government officials criticized her
selection for the prize. She has been accused of supporting the country's
leftist actions and harming Guatemala's image abroad.
In awarding the prize, the Nobel committee wanted to draw attention to the
plight of Guatemala's Indians in the hope that it would lead to improved
conditions. Recently, Guatemalans have found cause for that hope, as a peace
accord is due to be signed in January 1997, ending the fighting between the
rebels and the government. In addition, a truth commission has been formed to
help families of disappeared members find answers relating to their deaths, by
uncovering the country's many unmarked mass graves. Rigoberta Menchu continues
to live in exile under death threghts upon her return to Guatemala. She is well
adapted to the life which has been handed down to her, by generations of poor
and oppressed Indians. Yet when she speaks, she speaks of her beautiful culture,
and of the many joys that her family had over the years, all without a trace of
bitterness in her voice.
Works Cited
Menchu, Rigoberta. I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman In Guatemala. London:
Verso, 1984.
"Guatemalans Take New Step Toward Peace." The New York Times 14 June 1996,
pA4 col 2
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Roald Dahl.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

Roald som ung

Roalds föräldrar var bägge norrmän. Hans mamma hette Sofie Hesselberg, d v s innan hon gifte sig, och hans far, Harald Dahl. Harald var nästan 15 år äldre än Sofie, och hade varit gift en gång tidigare. Under det giftermålet hade han fått två barn, Ellen och Louis, men hans första fru, Marie, dog efter födseln av det andra.
Harald var delägare i en framgångsrik skeppmäklararfirma, och mycket förmögen. Han hade en villa i Llandaff i Wales, Villa Marie, som han och Sofie flyttade in i (de träffades i Norge...) efter giftermålet 1911. Det dröjde inte länge förrän Sofie fick sitt första egna barn, Astrid (1912), som följdes av Alfhild (1914). Två år senare, 1916, fick hon sin första son, Roald. Norrmännen uttalar det "Roo-al", utan "d". Ännu en dotter kom till 1917, Else.
De fyra barnen hade blivit födda medan de bodde i Villa Marie, eller Ty Gwyn som det nu heter, men 1918 flyttade de till en större villa, Ty Mynydd, som låg i en by som hette Radyr.
1920 dog Astrid i blindtarmsinflammation, vilket gjorde Harald helt förkrossad. Han insjuknade bara en månad senare i lunginflammation, och dog. Sofie födde några månader senare en dotter till, som fick namnet Asta. 
Eftersom huset i Radyr hade blivit något tommare efter döden av Harald och Astrid flyttade Sofie med sina barn tillbaka till Llandaff, där hon köpte huset Cumberland Lodge. 
Roald började sin skolgång i Elm Tree House kindergarten när han var sex. Han gick dock bara där i ett år, och fick sedan gå i Llandaff Katedralskola, där han stannade till han var nio. Många av Roalds minnen från skoltiden handlar om pryglingar utförda av rektorn, och första gången det hände var i Llandaff Katedralskola. 

" 'Ett tomtebrus, tack', sa Thwaites till Mrs. Pratchett och höll fram sin slant. Jag höll mig lite bakom de andra, och när jag såg Mrs. Pratchett vända bort huvudet en stund för att fiska upp ett tomtebrus ur kartongen, lyfte jag på det tunga glaslocket till burken med trollkarameller och stoppade ner musen. Sedan lade jag på locket igen så tyst jag kunde. Hjärtat dunkade i bröstet på mig och jag var alldeles svettig om händerna."
	- Ur "Mitt liv som pojk"
Roald och fyra av hans vänner hade smugglat ner en död mus i en glasburk i den lilla godisbutiken som låg vid skolan. Innehavaren, Mrs Pratchett gick direkt till rektorn och såg till att pojkarna fick sig en rejäl reprimand. När Sofie fick reda på det tog hon Roald ur den skolan och lät honom flytta till en internatskola i England, St: Peter's.
På St: Peter's var styrelseskicket en total diktatur. Husmor och rektorn bestämde allt, och kom husmor på någon med att göra något som inte var tillåtet, blev den nerskickad till rektorn för prygling.
Roald hade en förfärlig hemlängtan i början, och låtsades till och med att han fått blindtarmsinflammation för att få åka hem.
Även på St: Peter's fick Roald smaka på rottingen, efter att skolans mest sadistiska och prygelfixerade lärare kommit på honom med, vad läraren trodde var, fusk under läxläsningen. 
Efter St: Peter's, Roald var då tretton, hamnade han på Repton, som låg tjugo mil från Kent, dit familjen hade flyttat. På Repton hade de ett så kallat "fagging"-system, d v s de yngsta på skolan fick vara pass-oppar åt de äldre s k boazers (eg. beausieurs), och de som gjorde någonting boazern inte tyckte om, fick stryk .
Roald blandade ihop rektorn på skolan, J. T. Christie, med Geoffrey Fisher, som senare blev ärkebiskop av Canterbury, och Roalds skildring av Fisher i "Mitt liv som pojk", har fått många att bli upprörda. I boken beskriver han rektorn som en man som på de mest sadistiska sätt pryglade eleverna. Det var dock Christie som var sadisten Roald beskrev i boken, inte Fisher.
Roald var mycket duktig i sport och fotografering. På Repton var han lagkapten för både "fives" och squash-laget, och var också med i skolans fotbollslag. Förutom dessa sporter sysslade han på fritiden med landhockey, golf och cricket. Hans fotografier hängde i många utställningar på skolan, och han fick utmärkelser av Kungliga Fotografiska Sällskapet i London.


Afrika

"Inom en vecka kallades jag återigen till Mr. Gobbers kontor. 'Ni skall åka till Östafrika', sa han.
'Hurrraaaa!' skrek jag och började hoppa jämfota. 'Det är underbart, sir! Fantastiskt! Det är toppen!'
Den viktige mannen log. 'Det är ganska dammigt där också', sa han.
'Lejon!' hojtade jag. 'Och elefanter och giraffer och kokosnötter överallt!'"
	- Ur "Mitt liv som pojk"
När Roald hade gått ut Repton fick han välja om han ville studera vidare på t ex Cambridge eller Oxford, eller om han ville ta ett jobb. Roald ville jobba, men bara i ett företag som skulle skicka honom till någon avlägsen plats, t ex Kina eller Afrika. Egentligen spelade valet ingen större roll, Roald hade för dåliga betyg för att komma in på någon av de mer kända skolorna. Underligt nog fick Roald jobb på Shell, vilket oftast krävde skyhöga betyg. Shell utbildade honom först på huvudkontoret i London, och skickade honom sedan till Tanganyika (numera Tanzania), till Roalds förtjusning, och Sofies besvikelse.
I Tanganyika bodde Roald tillsammans med två andra Shell-anställda, och de tre hade ansvaret för ett område som omfattade ungefär fyra gånger Storbritanniens landyta, vilket fick Roald att känna sig fri och obunden. De hade många tjänare, och i ett brev till sin mor skrev Roald att han kände sig "som en djävla kung".
Efter andra världskrigets utbrott under slutet av 30-talet gick Roald med i RAF, med motiveringen att det verkade "rätt spännande och intressant och fan så mycket bättre än att gå in i armén här ute och trampa omkring i hettan från den ena platsen till den andra och inte syssla med någonting speciellt". Roald fick lära sig flyga, skjuta, bomba och navigera, men på ett av sina första uppdrag kraschlandade han i öknen, och fick stora delar av ansiktet krossat. Roald fick ligga på sjukhuset i Alexandria i nästan sju månader. Efter det var Roald fortfarande fast besluten om att fortsätta flyga, och han blev omplacerad till Grekland, där tyskarna invaderat. Roald skrev senare ett par noveller om den tiden, bl a Soloflygning, Shot down over Libya och A piece of cake. I vissa utmärkte han sig själv som en heroisk och orädd flygare, som förföljde och sköt ner överlägsna fiendestyrkor, men enligt hans kollegor under den tiden, var Roald ofta långt över gränsen för överdrift. "Han kunde få en spindel på middagsbordet att bli en jättegrej". Efter några veckor skickades Roald hem, p g a huvudvärk och "blackouts" till följd av hans tidigare skador.


Författarskap

Efter RAF-karriären återvände Roald till London. Där började han intressera sig för konst, och kom att lära känna konstnären Matthew Smith. Matthew tog med honom till en nattklubb där Roald mötte diverse högt uppsatta män ur den brittiska militären. De upptäckte Roalds sinne för att kunna diskutera vad som helst, och skickade honom till USA som flygattaché. I USA publicerades hans novell Shot down over Libya, vilket gav honom en karriär som författare. Anledningen till att Roald skrivit den var att en känd författare, C. S. Forester, bad honom berätta om sina erfarenheter i RAF. Roald valde dock att själv skriva om sina upptåg.
Några år senare, när Roald återvände till Storbritannien, hade han bestämt sig för att inte återvända till Shell, han skulle livnära sig på sitt författarskap. Roald tillbringade långa perioder tillsammans med Claude Taylor, som hjälpte Roald att föda upp hundar. Under den tiden skrev Roald mycket, mest skräcknoveller, som fick mycket bra kritik.
Roalds första barnbok köptes av Disney. Den hette The Gremlins, och handlade om små pysslingar som hoppade på RAFs flygplan, som de saboterade i luften. (Boken ska inte förväxlas med de Gremlins som gick på bio för några år sedan.)
1951 var Roald tillbaka i staterna, och träffade där Patricia Neal, som han bjöd ut på restaurang. Patricia spelade i De oskyldiga på Broadway, och hon och Roald träffades efter nästan varje föreställning. Under samma tid fick Roald ett kontrakt med bokförläggaren Alfred Knopf, som hade läst hans novell Vinkännaren. Genom Knopf kunde han publicera många noveller i tidningar. Noveller som tidigare refuserats av The New Yorker.

Giftermål

1953 stod det klart att Patricia och Roald skulle gifta sig. Mässan ägde rum  i Trinity Church i New York. De åkte på smekmånad i Europa, för att sedan köra till Roalds familj i England. Sofie var väldigt intresserad av att se vilken typ av kvinna hennes son hade gift sig med.
Efter den korta visiten i England åkte paret tillbaka till New York, och hyrde där en lägenhet vid Central Park, till dess de hittade någon annan stans att bo. Inte länge efter sitt giftermål fick Roald sin novell Någon som du publicerad. Recensenterna formligen öste lovord över honom. New York Times recensent sade följande:
"Det är sorgligt långt mellan varven, men ibland händer det att den fulländade historieberättaren dyker upp.
...
Namnet i föreliggande fall är Roald Dahl"
Under sommaren 1954 blev Patricia med barn, och ungefär samtidigt hittade Sofie ett utomordentligt fint hus i utkanten av Great Missenden. Huset, som då hette Little Whitefield, fick namnet Gipsy House. Roald och Patricia flyttade dit. I april föddes Olivia, och Roald var mycket stolt över sin dotter. Pat, som Patricia kom att kallas, hade efter en roll i teatern Katt på hett plåttak, fått erbjudande om filmkontrakt, och nappade direkt. Roald bodde med Olivia i Gipsy House, medan Pat spelade in Ett ansikte i mängden i New York.
I Gipsy House hade Roald en egen vrå där han satt med sovsäck runt benen i en stor länsstol och skrev sina noveller. "Det är en underbar vrå att sitta och arbeta i" sade han till en intervjuande journalist. Hans noveller hade dock på nytt börjat bli refuserade, och Roald var rädd att han började få slut på idéer. Hans redan publicerade böcker sålde inte heller, och Pat fick stå till största del för deras uppehälle. 1957 fick Roald och Pat en andra dotter, som egentligen hette Chantal, men som kallades Tessa.

Katastrofer

På sommaren 1960 fick Roald sin förste son, Theo. Familjen flyttade då till New York igen, där Roald gav ut en novellsamling, Puss Puss, som sålde mycket bra. Kritikerna var som vanligt missnöjda, och påstod att Roald började bli mer och mer förutsägbar, och alldeles för barnslig. Det var början till Roalds karriär som barnboksförfattare. 1961 kom Roald ut med boken James and the giant peach, vilken var hans andra barnbok.
Den första katastrofen i Roalds liv var då hans fyra månader gamla son blev påkörd av en taxi då han låg i sin barnvagn. Läkarna var inte säkra på om Theo skulle överleva, och Roald var mycket rädd för att förlora sin son. Theo överlevde, men med vissa hjärnskador. Han lever än idag, och bor hos sin mor.
Efter olyckan flyttade Roald med familj tillbaka till England och Gipsy House., vilket visade sig vara ett passande namn, eftersom Roald och Pat reste runt väldigt mycket, (Gipsy = Zigenare).
Den andra katastrofen kom 1962, då Roalds dotter Olivia dog i mässlingen. Efteråt sa Roald till sin förläggare:
"Just nu känns det som om jag aldrig kommer att skriva något mer i mitt liv."
Dahl fortsatte ändå att skriva, och 1964 fick de ännu en dotter, Ophelia. 
Hans stora genombrott kom just 1964, då Kalle och chokladfabriken släpptes. Alla barn älskade den, men kritikerna var inte riktigt lika gillande. I boken beskriver Roald en fattig familj, vars son, Kalle, vinner en livstids mängd godis, och en guidad tur runt fabriken där godiset tillverkas. Tillsammans med fyra andra barn lotsas han runt fabriken, och ett efter ett försvinner de andra barnen. Till slut är bara Kalle kvar, och ägaren till fabriken, Willy Wonka, utnämner honom till arvinge.
Pat hade vunnit en Oscar för sin roll i Vildast av dem alla, och jobbade nu mindre. Hon var mycket selektiv när det gällde manus, vilket gjorde att Roald var tvingad att håva in litet pengar på sina böcker. Han skrev ett par nya vuxennoveller som han hoppades tjäna på. Något som störde Roald mycket var att inget förlag i England ville ta sig an Kalle och chokladfabriken. När han 1965 åkte till Los Angeles hade han fortfarande inget napp, och Pat var gravid igen.
Under inspelningen av en film drabbades Pat av ett stroke, vilket gjorde att hon fick svårt att tala i framtiden, och hon var oförmögen att spela in filmer för en tid framåt. 
Pat födde sitt barn den 4 augusti. Det var en flicka, som fick namnet Lucy Neal.

Filmmanus

Efter Pats stroke insåg Roald att han måste tjäna ordentligt med pengar själv, och han gick tillbaka till att skriva filmmanus, något han inte gjort sedan The Gremlins. Det fanns planer på att göra en film av Kalle och chokladfabriken, något Roald inte var särskilt glad över, men som han insåg var nödvändigt för hans uppehälle.
Två år tidigare hade Roald mött Ian Fleming, och var mycket intresserad av Bondprojektet. Eftersom Ian hade dött skrev Roald ett nytt manus baserat på Ians Man lever bara två gånger. På det manuset tjänade han mer än på något annat arbete han gjort. Under tiden han skrev manuset kom en Rolls-Royce och hämtade honom eller hans färdigskrivna manus varje morgon. Roald uppskattade verkligen den uppmärksamhet han fick, och även om kritikerna tyckte att hans goda författarsidor gått förlorade, var han nöjd, eftersom filmen gick mycket bra.
1967 fick Roald stora problem med sin rygg, en skada han hade från sin flygkrasch i RAF. Hans diskbråck opererades, men förvärrades, och medan han själv låg på sjukhus dog Sofie, åttiotvå år gammal, den 17 november, samma dag som både Olivia och Alfhild hade dött.
1968 gjorde Pat comeback i filmen The subject was roses. Hon gjorde mycket bra ifrån sig, och filmen belönades med en Oscar. Roald fortsatte att skriva, och färdigställde manuset till Kalle och chokladfabriken.
När Kalle och chokladfabriken dök upp på biodukarna 1971, var Roald inte särskilt nöjd med resultatet, men när filmen gick bra mildrades hans åsikter. Boken hade äntligen fått fäste i Storbritannien, och James and the giant pear sålde också bra. Innan året var slut var Roalds förlag skyldiga honom nästan en miljon dollar i royalties. Kritikernas referat började också mjukas upp, kritiker som förut kallade honom barnslig och förutsägbar sade nu saker som:
"Den roligaste bok jag läst på många år!"
Det skulle dröja ända till 1977 innan Roald gav ut sin nästa bok, Den underbara historien om Henry Sugar. 


Skilsmässa

1983 skildes Roald och Pat. De hade varit gifta i trettio år, han var sextiosex, hon var femtiosex. Pat fick inte ut särskilt mycket pengar vid skilsmässan, med motiveringen att hon tjänade tillräckligt på sitt skådespeleri, och Roald fick vårdnaden om barnen. Roald gifte sig igen, denna gången med en kvinna som hette Felicity. Pat talar fortfarande gott om hur vänlig Felicity var, och hur väl hon tog hand om sina styvbarn.
Under 80-talet skrev Roald några av sina mest kända böcker. Några exempel är: SVJ (Stora Vänliga Jätten), Häxorna, Matilda, Mitt liv som pojk, och Soloflygning. 
En av Roalds egenheter var att han krävde att få skriva med blyertspennor av märket Dixon Ticanderoga 1388 - 2 - 5/10, och då hans förläggare tog detta som ett skämt blev han mycket irriterad. Han bytte helt enkelt förlag (dock inte helt av denna anledning, men delvis), och hittade ett nytt i New York.
Under sina sista år beskrev Roald sig själv som en gammal, tunnhårig man som rökte massor av cigaretter, och drack ohälsosamt mycket whisky, samt proppade i sig stora mängder choklad, något som satt kvar i honom sedan skoltiden, då ett Canterburys godisfabrik skickade något hekto choklad till varje elev på skolan varje månad för avsmakning och betygssättning.
Roald dog den 23 november 1990 och ligger begravd i en slänt mittemot Gipsy House. 

Recensioner:


Mitt liv som pojk:

I Mitt liv som pojk berättar Roald om sin uppväxt, alltifrån hans första minnen i Lladaff Katedralskola till hur han fick jobb på Shell och på så sätt fick åka till Afrika. Han berättar om sina sommarlov i Norge då han höll på att förgifta sin styvsysters fästman med getlortar, men också om hur livet var på de engelska internatskolorna.
Roald säger själv att allt han skriver är sant, men jag misstänkte, och har senare fått det bekräftat, att han "tänjde" lite på sanningen ibland, mest för att göra boken mer läsvärd och spännande. Jag tycker själv att boken var hemskt trevlig att läsa, mycket roande. Man kan nästan leva sig in i hur fruktansvärda alla lärare var, och hur rektorn pryglade barnen till lydnad. 

	MMMMM

Pojken som talade med djur:

Detta är en kort novell om hur en man under sin semester upplever en mycket underlig företeelse. En sköldpadda har blivit fångad av ett gäng fiskare, och de ska just sälja den till hotellet som sedan ska göra sköldpaddssoppa på den. Men ett litet barn vågar sig nära den livsfarliga sköldpaddan och flyr ut till havs med den.
Novellen är bra berättad, kort och koncist, utan för långa utdrag om miljöer etc. Helt okej novell.

	MMMMM

Liftaren:

Liftaren är också en kort novell som ingår i samma samling som Pojken som talade med djur, och handlar om en man som plockar upp en liftare på väg hem till London. Liftaren visar sig vara en, som liftaren själv kallar det, fingersmed. Med andra ord är han en ficktjuv av högsta klass. Under bilfärden lyckas liftaren ta två bötesblock ur en polis ficka, förarens bälte, nycklar och skosnören. Novellen är mycket rolig, och man skrattar en hel del. Liksom P.s.t.m.d. är den skriven i "jag"-perspektiv, vilket gör att man lätt lever sig med i berättarens historia.

	MMMMM




Källor:

	Mitt liv som pojk								av Roald Dahl

	Roald Dahl - En biografi						av Jeremy Treglown

	Lusten att bli skrämd - Ur Abrakadabra 1987:1	av Lena Kjersén Edman

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert Alexander Schumann.TXT
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Robert Alexander Schumann was born in the small riverside town of Zwickau, Saxony, in 1810.The youngest of five children, Robert Schumann was brought up in comfortable, middle-class respectability. As a child, he apparently exhibited no remarkable abilities. At the age of six, Robert was sent to the local preparatory school, run by Archdeacon Dohner. He had in fact already begun his education, with the young tutor who gave lessons in exchange for board and lodging at the Schumann home. At the age of seven Robert received his first piano lessons, from Johann Gottfried Kuntzsch, organist at St. Mary's Church, and schoolmaster at the Zwickau Lyceum. Kuntzsch was a kindly, conservative musician of limited abilities; his knowledge stemmed from leisure-time study. Nevertheless, Robert was soon improvising, and even composing a set of dances for the piano. Robert's musical talent was recognized by his father. He bought an expensive Streicher grand piano for his son, and soon four-handed arrangements of the classics were heard in the Schumann home. With a friend named Friedrich Piltzing, another pupil of Kuntzch's, Robert started to explore Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. As a child, Schumann took part in several concerts at the Zwickau Lyceum. He once played Moscheles' Alexander March variations, which demanded considerable dexterity. At the public Lyceum Robert was active as both pianist and public speaker. When he was fourteen, Kuntzsch decided that his pupil had progressed beyond the point where he could give further help, and declined to teach him anymore. Shortly before leaving the Lyceum, Schumann collaborated with his brother Karl in preparing a new edition of Forcellini's Latin dictionary, Lexicon Totius Latinatinis. Although now very busy as a composer, Robert yearned for affection. He soon fell for seventeen-year-old Ernestine von Fricken, who came to Leipzig in April 1834 to live in at the Wiecks', and to study with Clara's father. She had grown up in the little town of Asch with her father, Baron von Fricken, and was the illegitimate daughter of Countess Zedtwitz. At the beginning of September 1835 Robert and Ernestine were secretly engaged. Within days, Baron von Fricken heard that something was afoot, arrived in Leipzig, and took Ernestine back to Asch. After secret discussions, the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement. Possibly Robert had been kept in the dark about Ernestine's origins. In any event, the affair had a catalytic effect on Robert's music. He had the idea of writing a series of piano pieces based on the letters ASCH; these he later turned into Carnival. He also composed some piano variations on a theme provided by Baron von Fricken. But Robert's friend Schunke had fallen seriously ill. Unable to bear the sight, Robert went back to Zwickau again, only returning to Leipzig in December to negotiate a change of publisher for the Zeitschrift. From the beginning of 1835 the journal was published by the Leipzig firm of JA Barth. Late in 1835 Mendelsson arrived in Leipzig to take over as music director of the Gewandhaus. Still only twenty-six, Mendelsson was the director of the age, and Schumann felt an immediate attraction when they met at Wieck's house. Following the newcomer's debut in Leipzig, Schumann wrote praising him in the "Letters of an Enthusiast" column of his Zeitzcrift. Schumann did however venture to criticise Mendelssohn's use of the baton; he believed that an orchestra should function as a "republic" and that ridgity should be avoided. At about this time, too, Robert met both Chopin and Ignaz Moscheles at the Wieck's. Throughout the autumn of 1835 Schumann was a regular visitor at the Wieck's home, seeing much of Clara, who was now sixteen. He had been following her career as a virtuoso closely since she was nine.when he was depressed, she cheered him up. Their talent affection was now becoming increasingly evident. Robert had now finished his first piano sonata, dedicated "The evening Clara set out on an important concert tour, Robert came to wish her well, and kissed her good-bye. They saw each other again in Zwickau, and kissed again. In the new year Robert traveled to Dresden, where he knew Clara was spending a holiday without her father, and made his declaration of love. Schumann seems to have thought Clara's father would welcome him as his son-in-law. He was wrong. Hearing that Robert and Clara had been meeting behind his back, Wieck was enraged, and wrote to Robert insisting that all relations be severed. At the same time he distracted Clara's attention by flaunting her a new singing teacher, Karl Banck. Clara, only just sixteen, was regarded by her father as a mere child. Wieck had nurtured her talents, and now saw her on the threshold of an outstanding career. He was not going to stand by and watch her marry Schumann, who he knew, to his own irritation, had neglected his training and squandered his resources. Naturally Robert was desperate. Extravagant spending sprees led to pleas to his brothers for money. He started drinking heavily, and his generally impolite habits led to a noisy argument with his landlady. Finally he wrote to her. To understand Wieck's attitude, we need to examine his feelings about Clara. She represented his special creation, his life's work. He had labored with her for long years at the keyboard. She had finally emerged as his best pupil, the star exemplar of his techniques. At the same time she now represented a valuable commercial asset. She simultaneously fed Wieck's wallet and his ego. In May 1837, after another long tour, Clara arrived back in Leipzig. Not long afterwards banck, like Schumann before him, was rejected by Wieck as a suitor for Clara. At this time Schumann's disappointment seems to have turned to malice. He declared himself ready to avenge himself on Clara. But this was only a temporary mood; in a letter to her in August, with words "cold and serious, yet so beautiful", Robert protested she remained "the dearest in the world". His feelings were echoed by his beloved. On August 14 they became sacredly engaged. On Clara's eighteenth birth day, Robert Wrote to Wieck asking for his consent to their marriage. He argued that his prospects were greatly improved, and his stability enchanced; "You owe it to my position, my talent and my character". The wedding finally took place on 12 September, the day before Clara's twenty-first birthday. After that she would in any case free of her father's will. Possibly Robert chose the day as a final signal of defiance to his new father-in-law. Very later in their marriage Robert started to have a mental illness. He heard a solitary note beating in Robert's ears, giving him no peace. On 26 February 1854 Robert begged Clara to have him committed to an asylum, but was finally persuaded by the doctor to go to bed. Later Clara discovered that Robert had thrown himself into the River Rhine, and fisherman had rescued him. On March 4 Robert was taken to Dr. Richarz's private asylum at Endenich, near Bonn. At intervals his mind cleared a little. On June 8 1856, Robert's birthday, Brahams found him thin, oblivious of every thing outside, picking names out of an atlas and putting them into alphabetical order. On Thursday 29 July Robert was finally released from his suffering. At four in the afternoon he fell asleep. He passed away without anyone noticing. Clara did not see him until half an hour later. Schumann was buried at seven o'clock on the morning of 31 July 1856 in Bonn. Brahms and Joachin walked in front of the coffin which was carried by some of the Dusseldorf choir. Clara asked that a few friends be there. That was the life and death of Robert Schumann.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert Burns.TXT
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Robert Burns is a man of the most impassioned temper; with passions not strong only, but noble, and of the sort in which great virtues and great poems take their rise. It is his love towards his country, people, and nature that inspires him. That opens his eyes to its beauty, leading his heart and voice to praise them with his passion. Robert Burns was born January 25, 1759, in a straw-thatched cottage, to William and Agnes Burns. His mother had a great store of folklore songs and ballads, and his father tried at all costs to surround his children with good reading and conversation. At the age of seven, his father moved the family to Mt.Otiphant from Alloway. In 1773, at the age of only 15, Robert composed his first song, Handsome Nell, in honor of the village blacksmith's daughter. In 1777, that family moved to Lochlea. In 1778, Robert was fortunate enough to have a summer term of schooling at Kirkoswald. " It is said he ate his meals with Fergusson's poems in one hand and his spoon in the other." (Essay on Burns, 24) Returning to the farm, he composed Poor Mailie's Elegy, Winter, and other early pieces, under a blooming interest to become a poet of the people, or as he put it, "a Scottish bard." In 1784 his father died, and Robert, with his brother Gilbert, moved to Mossgiel, in Mauchline. Most of Robert's best work was accomplished here. At the age of 26, Robert helped his brother out on the farm. Every chance he got, during the day, he would pull his book out of his pocket and begin to read, and think out themes. At night, he would climb up into his attic room, where he would write his thoughts down before going to bed. He wrote ballads, epistles, epitaphs, satires, and dedications. He wrote of winter, spring, and summer, of rivers, braes, and uplands. He wrote of anything, and of everything, that could have ever passed his mind working through those hard days on his farm. One thing that inspired Robert with great esteem is nature, this opens his eyes to great beauty, making his heart and voice express his praises. "There is a true old saying, 'Love furthers knowledge:' but above all, it is the living essence of that knowledge which makes poets; the first principle of its existence, increase, activity. Not man only, but all that environs man in the material and moral universe, is lovely in his sight: 'the hoary hawthorn,' the 'troop of gray plover,' the 'solitary curlew,' all are dear to him; all live in this Earth along with him, and to all he is knit as in mysterious brotherhood. How touching is it, for instance, that, amidst the gloom of personal misery, brooding over wintry desolation without him and within him, he thinks of the 'ourie cattle' and 'silly sheep,' and their suffering in the pitiless." (Essay on Burns, 74) I thought me in the ourie cattle, Or silly sheep, wha bide this brattle O' wintry war, Or thro' the drift deep-lairing, sprattle, Beneath a scaur. Ilk happing bird, wee helpless thing, That in the merry months o' spring Delighted me to hear thee sing, What comes o' thee? Where wilt thou cow'r thy chittering wing, And close thy ee? Robert Burns took these simple everyday joys; that simple civilians would merely overlook through their normal everyday day; and looked at them in a new light. He expressed the joy he felt of the coming spring; of the sounds and sights he enthusiastically describes he can't wait to witness. He sees life, and nature, deeper than the ordinary eye. In the poem above, Burns describes his excitement for the spring. How he seems to wait with anticipation for the winter to "sprattle," and the music of the spring to play its symphony. Under a lighter disguise, is the principle of love, which is of a great characteristic of Burns, occasionally manifests itself in the shape of humor. " Everywhere, indeed, in his sunny moods, a full buoyant flood of mirth rolls through the mind of Burns; he rises to the high, and stoops to the low, and is brother and playmate to all Nature. Comes forth here and there, in evanescent and beautiful touches; as in Address to the Mouse, or the Farmer's Mare, or the Elegy on the poor Mailie, which last may be reckoned his happiest effort of this kind. (Essay On Burns, 78) His humor came forth here and there, with beautiful touches, in such works as Address to the Mouse, Farmer's Mare, or in his Elegy on Poor Mailie, which can be assumed his happiest effort of this kind. Thro' a' the town she trotted by him; A lang half-miled she could descry him; Wi' kindly bleat, when she did spy him, She ran wi' speed: A friend mair faithfu' ne'er cam nigh him, Than Mailie dead. This piece from Elegy on Poor Mailie shows how Burns uses light humor to remember Mailie. Burns describes Mailie's sly way of spying on, one can assume, her husband or lover. Burns uses the happy and gleeful times to describe Mailie's small, but meaningful, life. He has the gift of taking small and innocent events, that no one would ever ponder on, and makes them into much more. Burns career and life is most recognized by his songs. During the last ten years of his life he became increasingly preoccupied with the collecting of traditional songs and folklore. Burns songs were by far the most finished and truly inspired pieces of Burns. It is believed that it is of his songs that Burns chief influence as an author is found to depend. "Let me make the songs of a people," said Burns, " and you shall make it laws." Burns songs are a simple perfection; they contain only pure poetic feeling, and genuine music of heart. His songs hit in another honest point, in spirit. They do not seem to be set to music; they have come to life, and dance in our mind and soul to harmony. " With what tenderness he sings, yet with what vehemence and entireness! There is a piercing wail in his sorrow, the purest rapture in his joy; he burns with the sternest ire, or laughs with the loudest or slyest mirth; and yet he is sweet and soft, 'sweet as the smile when fond lovers meet, and soft as their parting tear.' If we farther take into account the immense variety of his subjects; how, from the loud flowing revel in 'Willie brew'd a Peck o' Maut,' to the still, rapt enthusiasm of sadness for Mary in Heaven; from the glad kind greeting of Auld Langsyne, or the comic archness of Duncan Gray, to the fire-eyed fury of 'Scots wha hae wi' Wallace bied,' he has found a tone and words for every mood of man's heart, -it will seem small praise if we rank him as first of all our Song-writers; for we know not where to find one worthy of being second to him." (Essay on Burns, 84) His songs not only sing of his heart, but also of the hearts of ever man and woman with feeling. Burns songs spoke of the true feelings of the people. If they could not express their own feelings, Burns would do it for them. The songs became apart of the people's lives, they told the true story of theirs lives. In his song I Dream'D I Lay, Burns reveals a simple wish of every man; to have peace. But, the song also exposes the truth of reality. The realization of man that peace only exist in eternity, if even there. I Dream'D I lay where flowers were springing Gaily in the sunny beam; List'ning to the wild birds singing, By a falling crystal stream: Straight the sky grew black and daring; Thro' the woods the whirlwinds rave; Trees with aged arms were warring, O'er the swelling drumlie wave. Such was my life's deceitful morning, Such the pleasure I enjoyed: But land or noon, loud tempest storming A' my flowery bliss destroy'd. Tho' fickle fortune has deceiv'd me- She promis'd fair, and perform'd but ill, Of mony a joy and hope bereav'd me- I bear a heart shall support me still. Robert Burns truly was a man of all forms. He could touch living souls with his heart relating songs. He had the power to control the mortal heart. He knew how to touch the soul, and how to move its feelings. His passion, his soul, is alive in his work, and in those who are inspired by it. Wherever his song echoes through Scotland, Burns passions still lives, and will always live.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert E Lee 2.TXT
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Robert E. Lee


Introduction

	Few episodes in history are more painful to Americans than the Civil War,
fought between the North and the South.  This biography, Great American Generals
- Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, takes the reader through the life of one of the
greatest heroes of that war, Robert E. Lee.  It is a thorough, in depth record
of the life of Lee and begins with a detailed account of his  family history and
his birth, through his college years, military experience and his work in later
life to his death on October 12, 1870.  The first few pages set the scene by
listing a substantial amount of  facts about the names and backgrounds of his
parents Harry and Ann and Lee's wife, Mary Custis, with some reference to his
father's army career and political life.  After Lee's early years, the reader
will learn of his schooling at the Military Academy, West Point, followed by his
life in the Army before and after the Civil War.  The biography ends in the
latter pages with an account of his work after his military career came to an
end, and finally, with his death after a prolonged period of ill-health, thought
to be stress induced.
	Author Ian Hogg is a prolific writer in the field of defense and
military technology. He is a weapons expert, having written many books on all
types of rifles, shotguns and small arms, such as Modern Rifles, Shotguns and
Pistols, and Modern Small Arms.  He is an acknowledged expert on infantry
weapons and is thought to be the world's leading expert on this and artillery
strategies.  He is a well known author of military history, and works as a
weapons evaluator in addition to his writing.
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807.  His
father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as "Lighthorse
Harry,"and it was a fame that rested not only on his cavalry exploits but upon
sound strategic and tactical ability.  A significant portion of his fame was
credited to him for beating off a surprise British attack at Spread Eagle Tavern
in January, 1778. Unfortunately Harry  was egotistical and had a high opinion of
his own abilities. Although he  achieved the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he felt
that he deserved more.  When the war ended and he had not advanced in rank he
resigned from the army to pursue a career in politics. Henry decided to run for
the position of governor. He was elected Governor of Virginia for three terms.
Retiring, as was then customary in Virginia, on the expiration of his third term,
Henry Lee was enough in the public eye to be considered as a possible successor
to Washington.  He was, however, a poor manager of his affairs, and was
constantly dodging his creditors, providing very little of substance for his
family.  He was a waster, with no thought for their welfare.  A man with no
sense of responsibility to his affairs, Henry Lee eventually ended up in jail
for a year for non-payment of his debts.  Upon his release, he spent every
waking moment writing his memoirs, with no regard for his family at all.
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter. She was an
invalid, but possessed a strong and beautiful character, and Robert grew up with
a keen sense of honor and responsibility.  Robert was named after his mother's
brothers, Edward and Robert Carter.
	Lee's father, Henry, was separated from the family when Robert was only
four years old.  Lee's mother left Henry due to his lack of provision for them,
and Lee assumed the responsibility of the household at a very early age.  Henry
subsequently died when Lee was only eleven, but Lee's struggle to maintain the
household without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught him
valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in his
military career.
	Since there was no money for college, Robert entered the U.S. Military
Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in the military.  He was fortunate in
becoming a Cadet at the Institution at a time when the Superintendent was Major
Sylvanus Thayer, the man who started West Point on its way to fame as a military
training school.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46.  Upon
graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering Corps,
a division of the Army which at that time received only the best Cadets.
Unfortunately his pleasure and success diminished when he returned home to
Arlington to find his mother in the last stages of her illness, and he
diligently nursed her there until she died in July of 1829.
	 Soon after Lee received orders saying that he was to report to Cockspur
Island to help with the construction of Fort Pulaski.  While there he
corresponded with Mary Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington's grandson.
She was also daughter of the wealthy George Washington Parke Custus, who upon
his death left her two beautiful Virginia estates, Arlington and Whitehouse.  In
1831, although against Mr. Custis's wishes,  he married Mary Custus.
	The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe.
Mary Custis despised Fort Monroe.  During a Christmas visit back to Arlington,
she made the decision to remain there. In the Spring, Robert rode back to ask
her to return, which she did.  By this time she was pregnant and gave birth to
their first child, George Washington Parke Custis Lee.  The Lees had four
daughters and three sons.  All three of their sons served in the Confederate
Army.  Lee's wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts and she and the
children lived at Arlington until the war between the states, when their home
fell into the hands of federal forces.  Arlington was taken by the U.S.
Government and was never restored to the Lee family, although one time the
family had sued to get it back and was granted an indemnity.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  He proceeded to Brazos on January 16,
1847.  The General was deep in preparations for the battle at Vera Cruz.  This
was to be Lee's first experience under actual fire.  Because of his brilliant
leadership and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott.  Scott
called Lee "the greatest military genius in America", and "the best soldier I
ever saw in the field." Lee was there to see the surrender of the Mexicans on
March 29th.  He survived many more encounters with the enemy in the war with
Mexico.  He arrived back in Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for
one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the rank of
Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the construction of
Fort Carroll.  This was to be his last engineering project because his next stop,
in August 1852, was The United States Military Academy.  He became
Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three years of service there, Lee
established some highly successful procedures which contributed to the
reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take command
of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the next six
years in Texas.  In 1859, while visiting Arlington, he received a note from
Colonel Drinkard ordering him to report to the Secretary of War immediately.  At
Harper's Ferry trains had been stopped; firing had been heard; rumor had it that
many strangers had arrived and were inciting slaves to rioting.  It was reported
to Lee that the leader of the gang was called John Brown, a notorious
antislavery fanatic from Kansas, who had been unable to rally the slaves to
rebellion and was finally besieged in a fire-house.  Lee was to lead the United
States Marines, to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. He asked Brown
for his surrender, anticipating that this would not happen.  When Brown refused
to surrender, Lee ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band had
taken refuge, to be battered down.  The troops had strict orders to attack only
with bayonets, not to fire a single shot, in case any of the hostages would be
wounded.  The whole operation was over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself facing
the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln asked
him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee replied that he
could not take part in an invasion of his native state.  He offered his
resignation and within a few days, he was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of all
Confederate Armies.
	The history of Lee's conduct in the Confederate campaign is a story of a
heroic struggle against overwhelming odds.  In the first two years of the war,
the South made considerable headway, successfully resisting General McClellan's
attempt to take Richmond.  But there were never enough men, food, or guns. The
transportation problem became progressively worse, and the Armies were
continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the superior forces of
the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier and he was able to
deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All
of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg.
This was to be the turning point of the whole war. On July 1st, Lee rode towards
Gettysburg, hearing the sound of gunfire in the distance.  A few days later,
having sustained tremendous casualties, Lee was planning his retreat.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863, the
tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain an
offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, realizing that further resistance was a
waste of time, he surrendered his near starving, depleted army to General
Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at Appomattox Court House,
Virginia.  He penned a farewell address to his men and set off the next day to
Richmond, where his family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.
	His home confiscated, his family impoverished, and his heart heavy, with
the burden of defeated South, Lee turned to the task of reconciliation.  He
applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that this
example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every way to
heal the breach between the North and the South.
	Positions of great honor and remuneration were offered to Lee, both in
his own country and abroad, but he had no desire to enter into politically
controversial activities. In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency of
Washington College (renamed Washington & Lee University after his death), in
Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee accepted the position
after he was ensured his connection with the college would not injure it in any
way.  Lee's friends and relatives were shocked at the idea that Lee would accept
a position at such a small school.  He had received offers from many bigger and
wealthier places.   Lee, on the other hand, saw far beyond the title and looked
on this as an opportunity to help rebuild the South by educating it's youth.
Lee truly felt his great purpose in life was to help make a united country and
to this end he set about to educate Southern youth into a renewed spirit of
loyalty. Lee accepted the post and headed for the college campus in Lexington.
Once there, Lee found that as well as being President of the college, he was
also Dean, Bursar, Registrar, Head Gardener, and general factotum.  His salary
was $125 per month, and he had one secretary to assist him. Nonetheless, Lee set
to his task and began writing to other institutions begging for money.
	Once the President's house was ready, Lee's wife and daughters joined
him there. Lee's sons were busy attempting to salvage the family estates,
although Arlington was gone forever, forfeited for nonpayment of taxes during
the war, when Union authorities insisted that delinquent taxpayers had to make
payment in person, and it was by this time surrounded by a military cemetery -
as it still is (pg. 75).
	Under Lee's guidance, Washington College prospered.  The student body
increased to four-hundred.  The curriculum was widened, new buildings were
gradually added, and as the fame of the college spread, students came from all
over the United States.
	As the months went by, Lee's health began to fail.  He was treated fro
rheumatism, lumbago, and other complaints, but the plain fact was his heart was
wearing out.  In the Spring of 1869, Lee visited Baltimore in an effort to raise
money for a railroad project. From there he went on to Washington, where he
visited his old friend, General Grant, who was now President of the United
States.
	When Lee returned from Washington, he began to doubt his ability to
continue as President of the college.  He stated that the job needed a fitter
man than he.  His talk of resignation was dismissed, and the faculty, early in
1870, suggested that he should go south for a vacation to help regain his health.
 In the Summer of 1870, it was unusually hot, and Lee tired easily.  He was no
longer able to ride horse.  On September 28, it rained and Lee had to attend a
church vestryman's meeting, where he sat in his wet clothes and listened to the
minister complain about his wages.  When Lee finally returned home, he entered
his house, stood silent, and then collapsed in a chair.  His wife promptly sent
for a doctor.
	The doctors  conferred and sent Lee to bed.  For the next two days Lee
slept most of the time.  After that, he seemed to improve and began to eat.  But
when he was offered medicine, he refused saying "it was no use". For the next
two weeks he stayed in bed.  On October 10, Lee's pulse and breathing sped up
and he suffered shivering spells.  On the following day, Lee became delirious,
and his mind wandered to the past. He occasionally called out some long
forgotten names.  "Tell Hill he must come up," he cried.  His wife sat holding
his hand the whole night, until just after 9:00 am of October 12, 1870, Lee sat
up, cried out "strike the tent", fell back in bed and died.  He was buried
beneath the college chapel, and the entire nation mourned his passing.  By his
courage in war and dignity in defeat, he had won the admiration and esteem of
Northerners and Southerners alike.


Summary
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807.  His
father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as "Lighthorse
Harry."
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter.  She left
Henry when Robert was only four years old, and Lee assumed the responsibility of
the household at a very early age.  Lee's struggle to maintain the household
without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught him valuable
lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in his military
career.
	Robert entered the U.S. Military Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in
the military.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46.  Upon graduation,
he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering Corps.
	 In 1831, he married Mary Custus, Martha Washington's great-grandaughter.
 The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe.  They were
there for three years, moving on to Arlington in 1834. The Lees had four
daughters and three sons.  Lee's wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts
and she and the children lived at Arlington until the war between the states,
when their home fell into the hands of federal forces.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  Because of his brilliant leadership
and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott.  He survived many
more encounters with the enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in
Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the rank of
Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the construction of
Fort Carroll.  He became Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three
years of service there, Lee established some highly successful procedures which
contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take command
of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the next six
years in Texas.   Lee was then sent to lead the United States Marines to
suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. When Lee arrived at Harper's Ferry,
he ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band had taken refuge, to
be battered down.  The whole operation was over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself facing
the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln asked
him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee refused.  Lee
resigned from the Army a few days later.  He was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of all
Confederate Armies.
	In the first two years of the war, the South made considerable headway,
successfully resisting General McClellan's attempt to take Richmond.  But there
were never enough men, food, or guns. The transportation problem became
progressively worse, and the Armies were continually at the mercy of political
plunderers. Against the superior forces of the Union, Lee pitted all the
strategy of a master soldier and he was able to deliver shattering blows at Bull
Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All of this was to come to an end
with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg.  This was to be the turning point
of the whole war.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863, the
tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain an
offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, he surrendered his near starving,
depleted army to General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia. He set off the next day to Richmond, where his
family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.  After the war he
applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that this
example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every way to
heal the breach between the North and the South.
	In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency of Washington
College in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee accepted
the position after he was ensured his connection with the college would not
injure it in any way. Lee accepted the post and headed for the college campus in
Lexington.  	The strain of putting the poverty  stricken college back on its
feet and the problems of reconstruction took its toll, and Lee's health began to
fail.  He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried beneath the college chapel.







Analysis

	Great American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, is an in-depth
recounting of the life and death of Robert E. Lee, one of America's great heroes.
 It begins with an account of Lee's family history, that of his parents, and the
circumstances into which he was born on January 19, 1807, and ends with his
death on October 12, 1870.
	Hogg relates the intervening years in an extremely interesting fashion,
providing many fascinating and detailed pieces of information.  The story is
presented in a way that keeps the interest of the reader, and is not boring,
even when giving statistics of the various campaigns that Lee undertook.  The
book appeals not just to Lee fans, but to all history students.
	The pages are filled with numerous detailed maps, and colorful pictures
that enhance the view of Lee and his life.  Military students will delight in
the descriptions of the war, while students of Lee's character are rewarded by
fascinating facts of his and his parent's lives.
	Hogg presents this painful episode in America's history in a balanced,
non-judgemental way.  He portrays Lee as a man of great integrity and honor, a
true Southern gentleman, and casts no slurs concerning the fact that Lee was on
the losing side of a war in which there were no winners.
	This is an exciting and informative book and is one of the more
enjoyable books which are required reading for this course.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert E Lee 3.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Robert E. Lee


Introduction
	Few episodes in history are more painful to Americans than the Civil War,
fought between the North and the South.  This biography, Great American Generals
- Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, takes the reader through the life of one of the
greatest heroes of that war, Robert E. Lee.  It is a thorough, in depth record
of the life of Lee and begins with a detailed account of his  family history and
his birth, through his college years, military experience and his work in later
life to his death on October 12, 1870.  The first few pages set the scene by
listing a substantial amount of  facts about the names and backgrounds of his
parents Harry and Ann and Lee's wife, Mary Custis, with some reference to his
father's army career and political life. After Lee's early years, the reader
will learn of his schooling at the Military Academy, West Point, followed by his
life in the Army before and after the Civil War.  The biography ends in the
latter pages with an account of his work after his military career came to an
end, and finally, with his death after a prolonged period of ill-health, thought
to be stress induced.
	Author Ian Hogg is a prolific writer in the field of defense and
military technology.  He is a weapons expert, having written many books on all
types of rifles, shotguns and small arms, such as Modern Rifles, Shotguns and
Pistols, and Modern Small Arms.  He is an acknowledged expert on infantry
weapons and is thought to be the world's leading expert on this and artillery
strategies.  He is a well known author of military history, and works as a
weapons evaluator in addition to his writing.
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. His
father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as "Lighthorse
Harry,"and it was a fame that rested not only on his cavalry exploits but upon
sound strategic and tactical ability.  A significant portion of his fame was
credited to him for beating off a surprise British attack at Spread Eagle Tavern
in January, 1778. Unfortunately Harry  was egotistical and had a high opinion of
his own abilities. Although he  achieved the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he felt
that he deserved more.  When the war ended and he had not advanced in rank he
resigned from the army to pursue a career in politics. Henry decided to run for
the position of governor. He was elected Governor of Virginia for three terms.
Retiring, as was then customary in Virginia, on the expiration of his third term,
Henry Lee was enough in the public eye to be considered as a possible successor
to Washington.  He was, however, a poor manager of his affairs, and was
constantly dodging his creditors, providing very little of substance for his
family.  He was a waster, with no thought for their welfare.  A man with no
sense of responsibility to his affairs, Henry Lee eventually ended up in jail
for a year for non-payment of his debts.  Upon his release, he spent every
waking moment writing his memoirs, with no regard for his family at all.
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter. She was an
invalid, but possessed a strong and beautiful character, and Robert grew up with
a keen sense of honor and responsibility.  Robert was named after his mother's
brothers, Edward and Robert Carter.
	Lee's father, Henry, was separated from the family when Robert was only
four years old.  Lee's mother left Henry due to his lack of provision for them,
and Lee assumed the responsibility of the household at a very early age. Henry
subsequently died when Lee was only eleven, but Lee's struggle to maintain the
household without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught him
valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in his
military career.
	Since there was no money for college, Robert entered the U.S. Military
Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in the military.  He was fortunate in
becoming a Cadet at the Institution at a time when the Superintendent was Major
Sylvanus Thayer, the man who started West Point on its way to fame as a military
training school.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46. Upon
graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering Corps,
a division of the Army which at that time received only the best Cadets.
Unfortunately his pleasure and success diminished when he returned home to
Arlington to find his mother in the last stages of her illness, and he
diligently nursed her there until she died in July of 1829.
	 Soon after Lee received orders saying that he was to report to Cockspur
Island to help with the construction of Fort Pulaski.  While there he
corresponded with Mary Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington's grandson.
She was also daughter of the wealthy George Washington Parke Custus, who upon
his death left her two beautiful Virginia estates, Arlington and Whitehouse.  In
1831, although against Mr. Custis's wishes,  he married Mary Custus.
	The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe. Mary
Custis despised Fort Monroe.  During a Christmas visit back to Arlington, she
made the decision to remain there. In the Spring, Robert rode back to ask her to
return, which she did.  By this time she was pregnant and gave birth to their
first child, George Washington Parke Custis Lee.  The Lees had four daughters
and three sons.  All three of their sons served in the Confederate Army.  Lee's
wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts and she and the children lived
at Arlington until the war between the states, when their home fell into the
hands of federal forces.  Arlington was taken by the U.S. Government and was
never restored to the Lee family, although one time the family had sued to get
it back and was granted an indemnity.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  He proceeded to Brazos on January 16,
1847.  The General was deep in preparations for the battle at Vera Cruz. This
was to be Lee's first experience under actual fire.  Because of his brilliant
leadership and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott. Scott
called Lee "the greatest military genius in America", and "the best soldier I
ever saw in the field." Lee was there to see the surrender of the Mexicans on
March 29th.  He survived many more encounters with the enemy in the war with
Mexico.  He arrived back in Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for
one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the rank of
Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the construction of
Fort Carroll.  This was to be his last engineering project because his next stop,
in August 1852, was The United States Military Academy.  He became
Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three years of service there, Lee
established some highly successful procedures which contributed to the
reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take command
of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the next six
years in Texas.  In 1859, while visiting Arlington, he received a note from
Colonel Drinkard ordering him to report to the Secretary of War immediately.  At
Harper's Ferry trains had been stopped; firing had been heard; rumor had it that
many strangers had arrived and were inciting slaves to rioting.  It was reported
to Lee that the leader of the gang was called John Brown, a notorious
antislavery fanatic from Kansas, who had been unable to rally the slaves to
rebellion and was finally besieged in a fire-house.  Lee was to lead the United
States Marines, to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. He asked Brown
for his surrender, anticipating that this would not happen.  When Brown refused
to surrender, Lee ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band had
taken refuge, to be battered down.  The troops had strict orders to attack only
with bayonets, not to fire a single shot, in case any of the hostages would be
wounded.  The whole operation was over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself facing
the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln asked
him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee replied that he
could not take part in an invasion of his native state.  He offered his
resignation and within a few days, he was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of all
Confederate Armies.
	The history of Lee's conduct in the Confederate campaign is a story of a
heroic struggle against overwhelming odds.  In the first two years of the war,
the South made considerable headway, successfully resisting General McClellan's
attempt to take Richmond.  But there were never enough men, food, or guns. The
transportation problem became progressively worse, and the Armies were
continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the superior forces of
the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier and he was able to
deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All
of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg.
This was to be the turning point of the whole war. On July 1st, Lee rode towards
Gettysburg, hearing the sound of gunfire in the distance.  A few days later,
having sustained tremendous casualties, Lee was planning his retreat.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863, the
tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain an
offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, realizing that further resistance was a
waste of time, he surrendered his near starving, depleted army to General
Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at Appomattox Court House,
Virginia.  He penned a farewell address to his men and set off the next day to
Richmond, where his family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.
	His home confiscated, his family impoverished, and his heart heavy, with
the burden of defeated South, Lee turned to the task of reconciliation. He
applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that this
example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every way to
heal the breach between the North and the South.
	Positions of great honor and remuneration were offered to Lee, both in
his own country and abroad, but he had no desire to enter into politically
controversial activities.  In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency
of Washington College (renamed Washington & Lee University after his death), in
Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee accepted the position
after he was ensured his connection with the college would not injure it in any
way.  Lee's friends and relatives were shocked at the idea that Lee would accept
a position at such a small school.  He had received offers from many bigger and
wealthier places.   Lee, on the other hand, saw far beyond the title and looked
on this as an opportunity to help rebuild the South by educating it's youth.
Lee truly felt his great purpose in life was to help make a united country and
to this end he set about to educate Southern youth into a renewed spirit of
loyalty. Lee accepted the post and headed for the college campus in Lexington.
Once there, Lee found that as well as being President of the college, he was
also Dean, Bursar, Registrar, Head Gardener, and general factotum.  His salary
was $125 per month, and he had one secretary to assist him.  Nonetheless, Lee
set to his task and began writing to other institutions begging for money.
	Once the President's house was ready, Lee's wife and daughters joined
him there.  Lee's sons were busy attempting to salvage the family estates,
although Arlington was gone forever, forfeited for nonpayment of taxes during
the war, when Union authorities insisted that delinquent taxpayers had to make
payment in person, and it was by this time surrounded by a military cemetery -
as it still is (pg. 75).
	Under Lee's guidance, Washington College prospered.  The student body
increased to four-hundred.  The curriculum was widened, new buildings were
gradually added, and as the fame of the college spread, students came from all
over the United States.
	As the months went by, Lee's health began to fail.  He was treated fro
rheumatism, lumbago, and other complaints, but the plain fact was his heart was
wearing out.  In the Spring of 1869, Lee visited Baltimore in an effort to raise
money for a railroad project.  From there he went on to Washington, where he
visited his old friend, General Grant, who was now President of the United
States.
	When Lee returned from Washington, he began to doubt his ability to
continue as President of the college.  He stated that the job needed a fitter
man than he.  His talk of resignation was dismissed, and the faculty, early in
1870, suggested that he should go south for a vacation to help regain his health.
 In the Summer of 1870, it was unusually hot, and Lee tired easily.  He was no
longer able to ride horse.  On September 28, it rained and Lee had to attend a
church vestryman's meeting, where he sat in his wet clothes and listened to the
minister complain about his wages.  When Lee finally returned home, he entered
his house, stood silent, and then collapsed in a chair.  His wife promptly sent
for a doctor.
	The doctors  conferred and sent Lee to bed.  For the next two days Lee
slept most of the time.  After that, he seemed to improve and began to eat. But
when he was offered medicine, he refused saying "it was no use". For the next
two weeks he stayed in bed.  On October 10, Lee's pulse and breathing sped up
and he suffered shivering spells.  On the following day, Lee became delirious,
and his mind wandered to the past. He occasionally called out some long
forgotten names.  "Tell Hill he must come up," he cried.  His wife sat holding
his hand the whole night, until just after 9:00 am of October 12, 1870, Lee sat
up, cried out "strike the tent", fell back in bed and died.  He was buried
beneath the college chapel, and the entire nation mourned his passing. By his
courage in war and dignity in defeat, he had won the admiration and esteem of
Northerners and Southerners alike.


Summary
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. His
father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as "Lighthorse
Harry."
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter.  She left
Henry when Robert was only four years old, and Lee assumed the responsibility of
the household at a very early age.  Lee's struggle to maintain the household
without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught him valuable
lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in his military
career.
	Robert entered the U.S. Military Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in
the military.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46.  Upon graduation,
he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering Corps.
	 In 1831, he married Mary Custus, Martha Washington's great-grandaughter.
 The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe.  They were
there for three years, moving on to Arlington in 1834. The Lees had four
daughters and three sons.  Lee's wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts
and she and the children lived at Arlington until the war between the states,
when their home fell into the hands of federal forces.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  Because of his brilliant leadership
and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott.  He survived many
more encounters with the enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in
Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the rank of
Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the construction of
Fort Carroll.  He became Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three
years of service there, Lee established some highly successful procedures which
contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take command
of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the next six
years in Texas.   Lee was then sent to lead the United States Marines to
suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. When Lee arrived at Harper's Ferry,
he ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band had taken refuge, to
be battered down.  The whole operation was over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself facing
the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln asked
him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee refused. Lee
resigned from the Army a few days later.  He was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of all
Confederate Armies.
	In the first two years of the war, the South made considerable headway,
successfully resisting General McClellan's attempt to take Richmond.  But there
were never enough men, food, or guns. The transportation problem became
progressively worse, and the Armies were continually at the mercy of political
plunderers. Against the superior forces of the Union, Lee pitted all the
strategy of a master soldier and he was able to deliver shattering blows at Bull
Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All of this was to come to an end
with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg. This was to be the turning point
of the whole war.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863, the
tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain an
offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, he surrendered his near starving,
depleted army to General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia.  He set off the next day to Richmond, where
his family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.  After the war he
applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that this
example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every way to
heal the breach between the North and the South.
	In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency of Washington
College in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee accepted
the position after he was ensured his connection with the college would not
injure it in any way. Lee accepted the post and headed for the college campus in
Lexington.  	The strain of putting the poverty  stricken college back on its
feet and the problems of reconstruction took its toll, and Lee's health began to
fail.  He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried beneath the college chapel.


Analysis

	Great American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, is an in-depth
recounting of the life and death of Robert E. Lee, one of America's great heroes.
 It begins with an account of Lee's family history, that of his parents, and the
circumstances into which he was born on January 19, 1807, and ends with his
death on October 12, 1870.
	Hogg relates the intervening years in an extremely interesting fashion,
providing many fascinating and detailed pieces of information.  The story is
presented in a way that keeps the interest of the reader, and is not boring,
even when giving statistics of the various campaigns that Lee undertook.  The
book appeals not just to Lee fans, but to all history students.
	The pages are filled with numerous detailed maps, and colorful pictures
that enhance the view of Lee and his life.  Military students will delight in
the descriptions of the war, while students of Lee's character are rewarded by
fascinating facts of his and his parent's lives.
	Hogg presents this painful episode in America's history in a balanced,
non-judgemental way.  He portrays Lee as a man of great integrity and honor, a
true Southern gentleman, and casts no slurs concerning the fact that Lee was on
the losing side of a war in which there were no winners.
	This is an exciting and informative book and is one of the more
enjoyable books which are required reading for this course.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert E Lee 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Introduction
	Few episodes in history are more painful to Americans than the Civil
War, fought between the North and the South.  This biography, Great
American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, takes the reader through
the life of one of the greatest heroes of that war, Robert E. Lee.  It is a
thorough, in depth record of the life of Lee and begins with a detailed account
of his  family history and his birth, through his college years, military
experience and his work in later life to his death on October 12, 1870.  The
first few pages set the scene by listing a substantial amount of  facts about the
names and backgrounds of his parents Harry and Ann and Lee's wife, Mary
Custis, with some reference to his father's army career and political life. 
After Lee's early years, the reader will learn of his schooling at the Military
Academy, West Point, followed by his life in the Army before and after the
Civil War.  The biography ends in the latter pages with an account of his
work after his military career came to an end, and finally, with his death after
a prolonged period of ill-health, thought to be stress induced.
	Author Ian Hogg is a prolific writer in the field of defense and military
technology.  He is a weapons expert, having written many books on all types
of rifles, shotguns and small arms, such as Modern Rifles, Shotguns and
Pistols, and Modern Small Arms.  He is an acknowledged expert on infantry
weapons and is thought to be the world's leading expert on this and artillery
strategies.  He is a well known author of military history, and works as a
weapons evaluator in addition to his writing.


	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. 
His father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as
"Lighthorse Harry,"and it was a fame that rested not only on his cavalry
exploits but upon sound strategic and tactical ability.  A significant portion of
his fame was credited to him for beating off a surprise British attack at Spread
Eagle Tavern in January, 1778. Unfortunately Harry  was egotistical 
and had a high opinion of his own abilities. Although he  achieved the rank of
lieutenant-colonel, he felt that he deserved more.  When the war ended and he
had not advanced in rank he resigned from the army to pursue a career in
politics. Henry decided to run for the position of governor. He was elected
Governor of Virginia for three terms.  Retiring, as was then customary in
Virginia, on the expiration of his third term, Henry Lee was enough in the
public eye to be considered as a possible successor to Washington.  He was,
however, a poor manager of his affairs, and was constantly dodging his
creditors, providing very little of substance for his family.  He was a waster,
with no thought for their welfare.  A man with no sense of responsibility to
his affairs, Henry Lee eventually ended up in jail for a year for non-payment
of his debts.  Upon his release, he spent every waking moment writing his
memoirs, with no regard for his family at all.
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter. She was
an invalid, but possessed a strong and beautiful character, and Robert grew
up with a keen sense of honor and responsibility.  Robert was named after his
mother's brothers, Edward and Robert Carter.
	Lee's father, Henry, was separated from the family when Robert was
only four years old.  Lee's mother left Henry due to his lack of provision for
them, and Lee assumed the responsibility of the household at a very early age. 
Henry subsequently died when Lee was only eleven, but Lee's struggle to
maintain the household without the presence of a father, and with little
money, taught him valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which
supported him well in his military career.
	Since there was no money for college, Robert entered the U.S. Military
Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in the military.  He was fortunate in
becoming a Cadet at the Institution at a time when the Superintendent was
Major Sylvanus Thayer, the man who started West Point on its way to fame
as a military training school.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46. 
Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the
Engineering Corps, a division of the Army which at that time received only
the best Cadets.  Unfortunately his pleasure and success diminished when he
returned home to Arlington to find his mother in the last stages of her illness,
and he diligently nursed her there until she died in July of 1829.
	 Soon after Lee received orders saying that he was to report to
Cockspur Island to help with the construction of Fort Pulaski.  While there he
corresponded with Mary Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington's
grandson.  She was also daughter of the wealthy George Washington Parke
Custus, who upon his death left her two beautiful Virginia estates, Arlington
and Whitehouse.  In 1831, although against Mr. Custis's wishes,  he married
Mary Custus.  
	The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe. 
Mary Custis despised Fort Monroe.  During a Christmas visit back to
Arlington, she made the decision to remain there. In the Spring, Robert rode
back to ask her to return, which she did.  By this time she was pregnant and
gave birth to their first child, George Washington Parke Custis Lee.  The Lees
had four daughters and three sons.  All three of their sons served in the
Confederate Army.  Lee's wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts and
she and the children lived at Arlington until the war between the states, when
their home fell into the hands of federal forces.  Arlington was taken by the
U.S. Government and was never restored to the Lee family, although one time
the family had sued to get it back and was granted an indemnity.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  He proceeded to Brazos on January
16, 1847.  The General was deep in preparations for the battle at Vera Cruz. 
This was to be Lee's first experience under actual fire.  Because of his
brilliant leadership and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott. 
Scott called Lee "the greatest military genius in America", and "the best
soldier I ever saw in the field." Lee was there to see the surrender of the
Mexicans on March 29th.  He survived many more encounters with the
enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in Washington on June 29,
1848, having been away for one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the
rank of Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the
construction of Fort Carroll.  This was to be his last engineering project
because his next stop, in August 1852, was The United States Military
Academy.  He became Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three
years of service there, Lee established some highly successful procedures
which contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take
command of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the
next six years in Texas.  In 1859, while visiting Arlington, he received a note
from Colonel Drinkard ordering him to report to the Secretary of War
immediately.  At Harper's Ferry trains had been stopped; firing had been
heard; rumor had it that many strangers had arrived and were inciting slaves
to rioting.  It was reported to Lee that the leader of the gang was called John
Brown, a notorious antislavery fanatic from Kansas, who had been unable to
rally the slaves to rebellion and was finally besieged in a fire-house.  Lee was
to lead the United States Marines, to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's
Ferry. He asked Brown for his surrender, anticipating that this would not
happen.  When Brown refused to surrender, Lee ordered the door of the
firehouse, in which Brown's band had taken refuge, to be battered down.  The
troops had strict orders to attack only with bayonets, not to fire a single shot,
in case any of the hostages would be wounded.  The whole operation was
over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself
facing the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln
asked him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee replied that
he could not take part in an invasion of his native state.  He offered his
resignation and within a few days, he was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of
all Confederate Armies.
	The history of Lee's conduct in the Confederate campaign is a story of
a heroic struggle against overwhelming odds.  In the first two years of the
war, the South made considerable headway, successfully resisting General
McClellan's attempt to take Richmond.  But there were never enough men,
food, or guns. The transportation problem became progressively worse, and
the Armies were continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the
superior forces of the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier
and he was able to deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and
Chancellorville.  All of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the
battle at Gettysburg.  This was to be the turning point of the whole war. On
July 1st, Lee rode towards Gettysburg, hearing the sound of gunfire in the
distance.  A few days later, having sustained tremendous casualties, Lee was
planning his retreat.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863,
the tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain
an offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, realizing that further resistance was
a waste of time, he surrendered his near starving, depleted army to General
Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at Appomattox Court
House, Virginia.  He penned a farewell address to his men and set off the next
day to Richmond, where his family had been living since they had abandoned
Arlington.
	His home confiscated, his family impoverished, and his heart heavy,
with the burden of defeated South, Lee turned to the task of reconciliation. 
He applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that
this example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every
way to heal the breach between the North and the South.
	Positions of great honor and remuneration were offered to Lee, both in
his own country and abroad, but he had no desire to enter into politically
controversial activities.  In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the
Presidency of Washington College (renamed Washington & Lee University
after his death), in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee
accepted the position after he was ensured his connection with the college
would not injure it in any way.  Lee's friends and relatives were shocked at
the idea that Lee would accept a position at such a small school.  He had
received offers from many bigger and wealthier places.   Lee, on the other
hand, saw far beyond the title and looked on this as an opportunity to help
rebuild the South by educating it's youth.   Lee truly felt his great purpose in
life was to help make a united country and to this end he set about to educate
Southern youth into a renewed spirit of loyalty. Lee accepted the post and
headed for the college campus in Lexington.  Once there, Lee found that as
well as being President of the college, he was also Dean, Bursar, Registrar,
Head Gardener, and general factotum.  His salary was $125 per month, and
he had one secretary to assist him.  Nonetheless, Lee set to his task and began
writing to other institutions begging for money.   
	Once the President's house was ready, Lee's wife and daughters joined
him there.  Lee's sons were busy attempting to salvage the family estates,
although Arlington was gone forever, forfeited for nonpayment of taxes
during the war, when Union authorities insisted that delinquent taxpayers
had to make payment in person, and it was by this time surrounded by a
military cemetery - as it still is (pg. 75).    
	Under Lee's guidance, Washington College prospered.  The student
body increased to four-hundred.  The curriculum was widened, new buildings
were gradually added, and as the fame of the college spread, students came
from all over the United States.
	As the months went by, Lee's health began to fail.  He was treated fro
rheumatism, lumbago, and other complaints, but the plain fact was his heart
was wearing out.  In the Spring of 1869, Lee visited Baltimore in an effort to
raise money for a railroad project.  From there he went on to Washington,
where he visited his old friend, General Grant, who was now President of the
United States.  
	When Lee returned from Washington, he began to doubt his ability to
continue as President of the college.  He stated that the job needed a fitter
man than he.  His talk of resignation was dismissed, and the faculty, early in
1870, suggested that he should go south for a vacation to help regain his
health.  In the Summer of 1870, it was unusually hot, and Lee tired easily.  He
was no longer able to ride horse.  On September 28, it rained and Lee had to
attend a church vestryman's meeting, where he sat in his wet clothes and
listened to the minister complain about his wages.  When Lee finally returned
home, he entered his house, stood silent, and then collapsed in a chair.  His
wife promptly sent for a doctor.
	The doctors  conferred and sent Lee to bed.  For the next two days Lee
slept most of the time.  After that, he seemed to improve and began to eat. 
But when he was offered medicine, he refused saying "it was no use". For the
next two weeks he stayed in bed.  On October 10, Lee's pulse and breathing
sped up and he suffered shivering spells.  On the following day, Lee became
delirious, and his mind wandered to the past. He occasionally called out some
long forgotten names.  "Tell Hill he must come up," he cried.  His wife sat
holding his hand the whole night, until just after 9:00 am of October 12, 1870,
Lee sat up, cried out "strike the tent", fell back in bed and died.  He was
buried beneath the college chapel, and the entire nation mourned his passing. 
By his courage in war and dignity in defeat, he had won the admiration and
esteem of Northerners and Southerners alike. 





Summary
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. 
His father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as
"Lighthorse Harry."
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter.  She left
Henry when Robert was only four years old, and Lee assumed the
responsibility of the household at a very early age.  Lee's struggle to maintain
the household without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught
him valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in
his military career.
	Robert entered the U.S. Military Academy in 1825 to pursue a career
in the military.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46.  Upon
graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering
Corps.  
	 In 1831, he married Mary Custus, Martha Washington's
great-grandaughter.  The first place the Lees went after their marriage was
Fort Monroe.  They were there for three years, moving on to Arlington in
1834. The Lees had four daughters and three sons.  Lee's wife never adjusted
to the rigors of army posts and she and the children lived at Arlington until
the war between the states, when their home fell into the hands of federal
forces.  
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  Because of his brilliant leadership
and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott.  He survived many
more encounters with the enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in
Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for one year and ten
months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the
rank of Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the
construction of Fort Carroll.  He became Superintendent at West Point in
1852.  In his three years of service there, Lee established some highly
successful procedures which contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take
command of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the
next six years in Texas.   Lee was then sent to lead the United States Marines
to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. When Lee arrived at
Harper's Ferry, he ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band
had taken refuge, to be battered down.  The whole operation was over in
three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself
facing the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln
asked him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee refused. 
Lee resigned from the Army a few days later.  He was commissioned to
General in the Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson
Davis, as Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as
General-in-chief of all Confederate Armies.
	In the first two years of the war, the South made considerable
headway, successfully resisting General McClellan's attempt to take
Richmond.  But there were never enough men, food, or guns. The
transportation problem became progressively worse, and the Armies were
continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the superior forces of
the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier and he was able to
deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All
of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg. 
This was to be the turning point of the whole war. 
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863,
the tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain
an offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, he surrendered his near starving,
depleted army to General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia.  He set off the next day to Richmond,
where his family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.  After
the war he applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship,
feeling that this example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He
tried every way to heal the breach between the North and the South.
	In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency of Washington
College in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee
accepted the position after he was ensured his connection with the college
would not injure it in any way. Lee accepted the post and headed for the
college campus in Lexington.  	The strain of putting the poverty  stricken
college back on its feet and the problems of reconstruction took its toll, and
Lee's health began to fail.  He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried
beneath the college chapel.







Analysis

	Great American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, is an in-depth
recounting of the life and death of Robert E. Lee, one of America's great
heroes.  It begins with an account of Lee's family history, that of his parents,
and the circumstances into which he was born on January 19, 1807, and ends
with his death on October 12, 1870.  
	Hogg relates the intervening years in an extremely interesting fashion,
providing many fascinating and detailed pieces of information.  The story is
presented in a way that keeps the interest of the reader, and is not boring,
even when giving statistics of the various campaigns that Lee undertook.  The
book appeals not just to Lee fans, but to all history students.  
	The pages are filled with numerous detailed maps, and colorful pictures
that enhance the view of Lee and his life.  Military students will delight in the
descriptions of the war, while students of Lee's character are rewarded by
fascinating facts of his and his parent's lives.
	Hogg presents this painful episode in America's history in a balanced,
non-judgemental way.  He portrays Lee as a man of great integrity and honor,
a true Southern gentleman, and casts no slurs concerning the fact that Lee
was on the losing side of a war in which there were no winners.
	This is an exciting and informative book and is one of the more
enjoyable books which are required reading for this course. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Robert E Lee.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Introduction
	Few episodes in history are more painful to Americans than the Civil
War, fought between the North and the South.  This biography, Great
American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, takes the reader through
the life of one of the greatest heroes of that war, Robert E. Lee.  It is a
thorough, in depth record of the life of Lee and begins with a detailed account
of his  family history and his birth, through his college years, military
experience and his work in later life to his death on October 12, 1870.  The
first few pages set the scene by listing a substantial amount of  facts about the
names and backgrounds of his parents Harry and Ann and Lee's wife, Mary
Custis, with some reference to his father's army career and political life. 
After Lee's early years, the reader will learn of his schooling at the Military
Academy, West Point, followed by his life in the Army before and after the
Civil War.  The biography ends in the latter pages with an account of his
work after his military career came to an end, and finally, with his death after
a prolonged period of ill-health, thought to be stress induced.
	Author Ian Hogg is a prolific writer in the field of defense and military
technology.  He is a weapons expert, having written many books on all types
of rifles, shotguns and small arms, such as Modern Rifles, Shotguns and
Pistols, and Modern Small Arms.  He is an acknowledged expert on infantry
weapons and is thought to be the world's leading expert on this and artillery
strategies.  He is a well known author of military history, and works as a
weapons evaluator in addition to his writing.


	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. 
His father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as
"Lighthorse Harry,"and it was a fame that rested not only on his cavalry
exploits but upon sound strategic and tactical ability.  A significant portion of
his fame was credited to him for beating off a surprise British attack at Spread
Eagle Tavern in January, 1778. Unfortunately Harry  was egotistical 
and had a high opinion of his own abilities. Although he  achieved the rank of
lieutenant-colonel, he felt that he deserved more.  When the war ended and he
had not advanced in rank he resigned from the army to pursue a career in
politics. Henry decided to run for the position of governor. He was elected
Governor of Virginia for three terms.  Retiring, as was then customary in
Virginia, on the expiration of his third term, Henry Lee was enough in the
public eye to be considered as a possible successor to Washington.  He was,
however, a poor manager of his affairs, and was constantly dodging his
creditors, providing very little of substance for his family.  He was a waster,
with no thought for their welfare.  A man with no sense of responsibility to
his affairs, Henry Lee eventually ended up in jail for a year for non-payment
of his debts.  Upon his release, he spent every waking moment writing his
memoirs, with no regard for his family at all.
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter. She was
an invalid, but possessed a strong and beautiful character, and Robert grew
up with a keen sense of honor and responsibility.  Robert was named after his
mother's brothers, Edward and Robert Carter.
	Lee's father, Henry, was separated from the family when Robert was
only four years old.  Lee's mother left Henry due to his lack of provision for
them, and Lee assumed the responsibility of the household at a very early age. 
Henry subsequently died when Lee was only eleven, but Lee's struggle to
maintain the household without the presence of a father, and with little
money, taught him valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which
supported him well in his military career.
	Since there was no money for college, Robert entered the U.S. Military
Academy in 1825 to pursue a career in the military.  He was fortunate in
becoming a Cadet at the Institution at a time when the Superintendent was
Major Sylvanus Thayer, the man who started West Point on its way to fame
as a military training school.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46. 
Upon graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the
Engineering Corps, a division of the Army which at that time received only
the best Cadets.  Unfortunately his pleasure and success diminished when he
returned home to Arlington to find his mother in the last stages of her illness,
and he diligently nursed her there until she died in July of 1829.
	 Soon after Lee received orders saying that he was to report to
Cockspur Island to help with the construction of Fort Pulaski.  While there he
corresponded with Mary Custis, the daughter of Martha Washington's
grandson.  She was also daughter of the wealthy George Washington Parke
Custus, who upon his death left her two beautiful Virginia estates, Arlington
and Whitehouse.  In 1831, although against Mr. Custis's wishes,  he married
Mary Custus.  
	The first place the Lees went after their marriage was Fort Monroe. 
Mary Custis despised Fort Monroe.  During a Christmas visit back to
Arlington, she made the decision to remain there. In the Spring, Robert rode
back to ask her to return, which she did.  By this time she was pregnant and
gave birth to their first child, George Washington Parke Custis Lee.  The Lees
had four daughters and three sons.  All three of their sons served in the
Confederate Army.  Lee's wife never adjusted to the rigors of army posts and
she and the children lived at Arlington until the war between the states, when
their home fell into the hands of federal forces.  Arlington was taken by the
U.S. Government and was never restored to the Lee family, although one time
the family had sued to get it back and was granted an indemnity.
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  He proceeded to Brazos on January
16, 1847.  The General was deep in preparations for the battle at Vera Cruz. 
This was to be Lee's first experience under actual fire.  Because of his
brilliant leadership and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott. 
Scott called Lee "the greatest military genius in America", and "the best
soldier I ever saw in the field." Lee was there to see the surrender of the
Mexicans on March 29th.  He survived many more encounters with the
enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in Washington on June 29,
1848, having been away for one year and ten months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the
rank of Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the
construction of Fort Carroll.  This was to be his last engineering project
because his next stop, in August 1852, was The United States Military
Academy.  He became Superintendent at West Point in 1852.  In his three
years of service there, Lee established some highly successful procedures
which contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take
command of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the
next six years in Texas.  In 1859, while visiting Arlington, he received a note
from Colonel Drinkard ordering him to report to the Secretary of War
immediately.  At Harper's Ferry trains had been stopped; firing had been
heard; rumor had it that many strangers had arrived and were inciting slaves
to rioting.  It was reported to Lee that the leader of the gang was called John
Brown, a notorious antislavery fanatic from Kansas, who had been unable to
rally the slaves to rebellion and was finally besieged in a fire-house.  Lee was
to lead the United States Marines, to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's
Ferry. He asked Brown for his surrender, anticipating that this would not
happen.  When Brown refused to surrender, Lee ordered the door of the
firehouse, in which Brown's band had taken refuge, to be battered down.  The
troops had strict orders to attack only with bayonets, not to fire a single shot,
in case any of the hostages would be wounded.  The whole operation was
over in three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself
facing the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln
asked him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee replied that
he could not take part in an invasion of his native state.  He offered his
resignation and within a few days, he was commissioned to General in the
Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson Davis, as
Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as General-in-chief of
all Confederate Armies.
	The history of Lee's conduct in the Confederate campaign is a story of
a heroic struggle against overwhelming odds.  In the first two years of the
war, the South made considerable headway, successfully resisting General
McClellan's attempt to take Richmond.  But there were never enough men,
food, or guns. The transportation problem became progressively worse, and
the Armies were continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the
superior forces of the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier
and he was able to deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and
Chancellorville.  All of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the
battle at Gettysburg.  This was to be the turning point of the whole war. On
July 1st, Lee rode towards Gettysburg, hearing the sound of gunfire in the
distance.  A few days later, having sustained tremendous casualties, Lee was
planning his retreat.
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863,
the tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain
an offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, realizing that further resistance was
a waste of time, he surrendered his near starving, depleted army to General
Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at Appomattox Court
House, Virginia.  He penned a farewell address to his men and set off the next
day to Richmond, where his family had been living since they had abandoned
Arlington.
	His home confiscated, his family impoverished, and his heart heavy,
with the burden of defeated South, Lee turned to the task of reconciliation. 
He applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship, feeling that
this example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He tried every
way to heal the breach between the North and the South.
	Positions of great honor and remuneration were offered to Lee, both in
his own country and abroad, but he had no desire to enter into politically
controversial activities.  In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the
Presidency of Washington College (renamed Washington & Lee University
after his death), in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee
accepted the position after he was ensured his connection with the college
would not injure it in any way.  Lee's friends and relatives were shocked at
the idea that Lee would accept a position at such a small school.  He had
received offers from many bigger and wealthier places.   Lee, on the other
hand, saw far beyond the title and looked on this as an opportunity to help
rebuild the South by educating it's youth.   Lee truly felt his great purpose in
life was to help make a united country and to this end he set about to educate
Southern youth into a renewed spirit of loyalty. Lee accepted the post and
headed for the college campus in Lexington.  Once there, Lee found that as
well as being President of the college, he was also Dean, Bursar, Registrar,
Head Gardener, and general factotum.  His salary was $125 per month, and
he had one secretary to assist him.  Nonetheless, Lee set to his task and began
writing to other institutions begging for money.   
	Once the President's house was ready, Lee's wife and daughters joined
him there.  Lee's sons were busy attempting to salvage the family estates,
although Arlington was gone forever, forfeited for nonpayment of taxes
during the war, when Union authorities insisted that delinquent taxpayers
had to make payment in person, and it was by this time surrounded by a
military cemetery - as it still is (pg. 75).    
	Under Lee's guidance, Washington College prospered.  The student
body increased to four-hundred.  The curriculum was widened, new buildings
were gradually added, and as the fame of the college spread, students came
from all over the United States.
	As the months went by, Lee's health began to fail.  He was treated fro
rheumatism, lumbago, and other complaints, but the plain fact was his heart
was wearing out.  In the Spring of 1869, Lee visited Baltimore in an effort to
raise money for a railroad project.  From there he went on to Washington,
where he visited his old friend, General Grant, who was now President of the
United States.  
	When Lee returned from Washington, he began to doubt his ability to
continue as President of the college.  He stated that the job needed a fitter
man than he.  His talk of resignation was dismissed, and the faculty, early in
1870, suggested that he should go south for a vacation to help regain his
health.  In the Summer of 1870, it was unusually hot, and Lee tired easily.  He
was no longer able to ride horse.  On September 28, it rained and Lee had to
attend a church vestryman's meeting, where he sat in his wet clothes and
listened to the minister complain about his wages.  When Lee finally returned
home, he entered his house, stood silent, and then collapsed in a chair.  His
wife promptly sent for a doctor.
	The doctors  conferred and sent Lee to bed.  For the next two days Lee
slept most of the time.  After that, he seemed to improve and began to eat. 
But when he was offered medicine, he refused saying "it was no use". For the
next two weeks he stayed in bed.  On October 10, Lee's pulse and breathing
sped up and he suffered shivering spells.  On the following day, Lee became
delirious, and his mind wandered to the past. He occasionally called out some
long forgotten names.  "Tell Hill he must come up," he cried.  His wife sat
holding his hand the whole night, until just after 9:00 am of October 12, 1870,
Lee sat up, cried out "strike the tent", fell back in bed and died.  He was
buried beneath the college chapel, and the entire nation mourned his passing. 
By his courage in war and dignity in defeat, he had won the admiration and
esteem of Northerners and Southerners alike. 





Summary
	Robert E. Lee was born in Stratford, Virginia on January 19, 1807. 
His father, Henry Lee, had achieved fame with Washington's army as
"Lighthorse Harry."
	Lee's mother was Ann Carter Lee, daughter of Charles Carter.  She left
Henry when Robert was only four years old, and Lee assumed the
responsibility of the household at a very early age.  Lee's struggle to maintain
the household without the presence of a father, and with little money, taught
him valuable lessons in self-discipline, lessons which supported him well in
his military career.
	Robert entered the U.S. Military Academy in 1825 to pursue a career
in the military.  He was the second to graduate in a class of 46.  Upon
graduation, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Engineering
Corps.  
	 In 1831, he married Mary Custus, Martha Washington's
great-grandaughter.  The first place the Lees went after their marriage was
Fort Monroe.  They were there for three years, moving on to Arlington in
1834. The Lees had four daughters and three sons.  Lee's wife never adjusted
to the rigors of army posts and she and the children lived at Arlington until
the war between the states, when their home fell into the hands of federal
forces.  
	On the outbreak of the Mexican War, in 1846, Lee was appointed to
General Winfield Scott's personal staff.  Because of his brilliant leadership
and skill in strategy, he won the praise of General Scott.  He survived many
more encounters with the enemy in the war with Mexico.  He arrived back in
Washington on June 29, 1848, having been away for one year and ten
months.
	When Lee entered the war, he was a captain.  He emerged with the
rank of Colonel.  His next duty was in Baltimore where he supervised the
construction of Fort Carroll.  He became Superintendent at West Point in
1852.  In his three years of service there, Lee established some highly
successful procedures which contributed to the reputation of the Academy.
	On April 12, 1855, Lee was sent to Louisville, Kentucky to take
command of the 2nd. Cavalry.  As Colonel of Cavalry, Lee spent most of the
next six years in Texas.   Lee was then sent to lead the United States Marines
to suppress John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry. When Lee arrived at
Harper's Ferry, he ordered the door of the firehouse, in which Brown's band
had taken refuge, to be battered down.  The whole operation was over in
three minutes.
	In the beginning of the war between the states, Lee found himself
facing the most difficult decision of his life.  He believed in the abolition of
slavery, but not by force.  He believed in a united nation, but not one that
could be maintained only by swords and bayonets.  When President Lincoln
asked him to take command of the Federal troops in the field, Lee refused. 
Lee resigned from the Army a few days later.  He was commissioned to
General in the Confederate Army.  He served as military advisor to Jefferson
Davis, as Commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and then as
General-in-chief of all Confederate Armies.
	In the first two years of the war, the South made considerable
headway, successfully resisting General McClellan's attempt to take
Richmond.  But there were never enough men, food, or guns. The
transportation problem became progressively worse, and the Armies were
continually at the mercy of political plunderers. Against the superior forces of
the Union, Lee pitted all the strategy of a master soldier and he was able to
deliver shattering blows at Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorville.  All
of this was to come to an end with the arrival of the battle at Gettysburg. 
This was to be the turning point of the whole war. 
	With the defeat of Lee's army at Gettysburg, however, in July, 1863,
the tide turned against the south.  That was the last time Lee was able to gain
an offensive position.  On April 9, 1865, he surrendered his near starving,
depleted army to General Ulysses S. Grant, the Union commander in chief, at
Appomattox Court House, Virginia.  He set off the next day to Richmond,
where his family had been living since they had abandoned Arlington.  After
the war he applied immediately for pardon and restoration to citizenship,
feeling that this example might lead other Confederates to do the same.  He
tried every way to heal the breach between the North and the South.
	In the Summer of 1865 he was offered the Presidency of Washington
College in Lexington, VA. The college was virtually in ruins, but Lee
accepted the position after he was ensured his connection with the college
would not injure it in any way. Lee accepted the post and headed for the
college campus in Lexington.  	The strain of putting the poverty  stricken
college back on its feet and the problems of reconstruction took its toll, and
Lee's health began to fail.  He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried
beneath the college chapel.







Analysis

	Great American Generals - Robert E. Lee, by Ian Hogg, is an in-depth
recounting of the life and death of Robert E. Lee, one of America's great
heroes.  It begins with an account of Lee's family history, that of his parents,
and the circumstances into which he was born on January 19, 1807, and ends
with his death on October 12, 1870.  
	Hogg relates the intervening years in an extremely interesting fashion,
providing many fascinating and detailed pieces of information.  The story is
presented in a way that keeps the interest of the reader, and is not boring,
even when giving statistics of the various campaigns that Lee undertook.  The
book appeals not just to Lee fans, but to all history students.  
	The pages are filled with numerous detailed maps, and colorful pictures
that enhance the view of Lee and his life.  Military students will delight in the
descriptions of the war, while students of Lee's character are rewarded by
fascinating facts of his and his parent's lives.
	Hogg presents this painful episode in America's history in a balanced,
non-judgemental way.  He portrays Lee as a man of great integrity and honor,
a true Southern gentleman, and casts no slurs concerning the fact that Lee
was on the losing side of a war in which there were no winners.
	This is an exciting and informative book and is one of the more
enjoyable books which are required reading for this course. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Rodman Edward Serling.TXT
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Rodman Edward Serling
Rodman Edward Serling, in my opinion one of the most brilliant men of our time, was born in Syracuse, New York, on December 25, 1924, to a wholesale meat dealer, and grew up in Binghamton. By his own account, he had no early literary ambitions, though from an early age, he and his older brother, Robert, immersed themselves in movies and in shows like Astounding Stories and Weird Tales. Rod was best known from the intro where he was seen wearing a suit and most often dangling a cigarette, which was unfortunately the cause of his untimely demise. "There is a fifth dimension beyond that which is known to man. It is a dimension as vast as space and as timeless as infinity. It is the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and superstition, and it lies between the pit of man's fears, and the summit of his knowledge. This is the dimension of imagination. It is an area which we call... THE TWILIGHT ZONE," Serlings masterpiece would not come until later in his writing career. He began writing full-time in 1951, more than seventy of his television scripts were produced, garnering both critical and public acclaim. Full-scale success came early in 1955 with the production of a script called "Patterns," deemed a "creative triumph" by critics, and the winner of the first of Serling's six Emmy awards. Serling went to work on screenplays for MGM and as a writer for Playhouse 90, for which he crafted ninety-minute dramas. A critical and financial success, Serling shocked many of his fans in 1957 when he left Playhouse 90 to create a science fiction series he called The Twilight Zone. 156 episodes of Twilight Zone, ninety-two written by Serling, aired on CBS over the next five years. The show went on to be one of the most widely recognized and beloved series in television history, and achieved a permanent place in American pop culture with its instantly recognizable opening, theme song and charismatic host, Rod Serling. With appearances by personalities such as Robert Redford, Burt Reynolds, Dennis Hopper, and more, Twilight Zone became a launching pad for some of Hollywood's biggest stars. The show headed downhill in its fifth season chiefly due to the fact that Serling lost most creative control of the show. After production ended in January 1964, Serling continued to write for film and television series and movies, and often appeared in his own productions, such as Rod Serling's Night Gallery. He returned to Antioch College as a professor and lectured at college campuses across the country. Politically active, Serling spoke out against the Vietnam War in the late Sixties and early Seventies. I believe that this man is one of the most talented writers of all time. Everything he did was a masterpiece; from Twilight Zone to Night Gallery his work will go down in history and definitely live on as a part of pop culture. Unfortunately his life was cut short before mine was to begin, on June 28, 1975 in Rochester, New York; he passed away due to complications arising from a coronary bypass operation. He will be missed but still live on through his brilliant work.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Roger Maris.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
842
Roger Maris is probably one of baseball's most misunderstood baseball heroes. Still now after almost 40 years Maris has still not achieved his rightful place in baseball history, the Baseball Hall of Fame. Roger Maris has had a picture-perfect life starting in Hibbing, Minnesota to where he grew up in Fargo, North Dakota. His young life was marked with athleticism. He excelled at many sports not just baseball. Roger was affluent in football and track among others. His baseball career began with the Cleveland Indians in 1957 and he was traded to the Kansas City Athletics in 1958. In 1966, he was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals. Maris retired from baseball following the 1968 season. Roger Maris was born in the small town of Hibbing, Minnesota. He only lived there for a few years until he moved to Grand Forks, North Dakota, where he stayed until he was ten. Maris began to realize his talent for athletics during those years. His father remembered that Roger could always play sports better than all of the other kids. More specifically he recalls that no other kid in the neighborhood could begin to match the distance in which Roger could hit the baseball. He was one of the fastest members of the track team. He was also prominent on the basketball and football teams. He was a local champion of stickball, being the only one who could hit the ball nearly 200 yards. Rogers' family then moved to Fargo, North Dakota. His athletic skills were never used to their potential by the school so he changed high schools to Shanley high school where he was more appreciated. His football, track and basketball talents were used to the maximum potential and Roger gained a local fame. Like many other baseball stars, Roger Maris began his career in American Legion baseball. He played outfield and he also pitched. In this league he was named the Most Valuable Player on the North Dakota championship team in 1950. After graduation Roger had to choose between football and baseball. It was a hard choice for him and he could go far in either sport. Thank goodness for baseball he chose it. He briefly considered college but he turned down the University of Oklahoma and numerous other colleges that made him offers. A scout report that was made by Frank Fahey in 1950 resurfaced in 1961 and as a result of this the Cleveland Indians asked him to a tryout camp. Hank Greenburg, Cleveland's general manager, liked what he saw and said, "As soon as you get home, have your father call me." So his father called Greenberg and Roger Maris' future in baseball began. So he signed on with the Indians. Soon he was traded to the Kansas City Athletics and then to the New York Yankees where the big moment in his life began. He broke Babe Ruth's homerun record for a season by hitting 61 homers. The thing that haunts him is the fact that there were eight more games in the season that he played compared to Ruth's season. This is where Maris took it hard by baseball fans, reporters, and fellow baseball players. The press refused to acknowledge that Maris broke the record and this has haunted him the rest of his life and even after death. The public, mainly the Yankee fans, which idolized Babe Ruth, refused to let Roger have the new record. The baseball hall of fame never accredited Maris with membership. No matter what or who, nothing would change. A man by the name of Ford Frick, baseball's commissioner, ruled that if someone hit more than sixty homeruns during their teams first 154 games would be recognized as establishing a new record. However, if the player does not hit more than sixty until after his team had played 154 games there would be a distinctive mark in the record books to show that Babe Ruth's record was set under a 154 game schedule. Well, Maris never beat the Babe's record but he made a new one never the less. He made sixty-one homeruns in 162 games. And, as of now, he still has not been accepted into the hall of fame. Whether or not this destroyed Roger Maris is not known due to how he was. Having grown up on the prairie he was different in temperament than most of the day. Roger seemed nonchalant about the controversy that he left in his footprints. Many people argue that he should have the record in his name but there are also quite a few who say that the record should belong to Babe Ruth. No one will ever know exactly what he thought about the whole record ordeal. He took it to the grave when he died in 1985 of cancer.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Rogue Warrior.TXT
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     A brilliant virtuoso of violence, Richard Marcinko rose through the Navy ranks

to create and command one of America's most elite and classified counterterrorist units,

Seal Team Six. Then Marcinko was given orders to create Red Cell, a team of the best

counterterrorists, whose job was to check the security of the military's top installations.

Richard Marcinko was the ultimate rogue warrior. 

	First, born Thanksgiving Day, 1940, Marcinko was from a poor, broken home.
 
He was always very independent, having a paper route at five and cutting school 

classes regularly. At the age of fifteen, he got a job at a local restaurant. At the age of 

seventeen, he quit school and joined the Navy. After two years as a teletype clerk, he 

convinced his Commanding Officer to send him to UDT, Underwater Demolition Team,

training.

	Later, in June 1966, he joined Seal Team Two and went to Vietnam. He served

two tours there and came back a decorated war hero. After his return to the United

States, he  became Commanding Officer of Seal Team Two, where he served for eight 

years. Then, he came up with the idea of the Navy's first counterterrorist unit, Seal

Team Six.

	Now, the most important contribution Richard Marcinko made was his idea of 

Seal Team Six. Seal Team Six was created as part of the CounterTerrorist Joint Task

Force, a group which includes one elite unit each from the Navy, the Army, and the FBI.

Marcinko was given permission and unlimited expenses from the Pentagon to create

this highly elite group. He was then named Commanding Officer of Seal Team Six, which 

he served as for three years. This elite unit has went on classified missions from Central

America to the Middle East, the North Sea, Africa, and beyond. Then Marcinko was

given orders to create Red Cell. Red Cell's job was to check the security of the military's 

top facilities and installations. It was made up of the twelve best counterterrorists in the

world. After going to several facilities and proving the security was terrible, Marcinko

was forced to retire from the Navy. Charges of conspiracy and theft were brought 

against him and he served one year in prison.

	Finally, Richard Marcinko was probably one of America's most controversial 

warriors. He was a hero to the men he lead and he was a decorated warrior. He was a

mean, profane, reprehensible person who was loyal only to his men; not to the Navy.

Richard Marcinko was the ultimate Rogue Warrior.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Salvador Dali.TXT
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359
Salvador Dali was born on May 11, 1904. He was a leader in the new movement of art in the early 20th century called Surrealism. In 1921 Dali studied at the San Fernando Acadamy of Fine Arts in Madrid. Here he was able to associate and learn from such Spanish modernists as Fedrico Garcia Lorca, and Luis Bundel. He also was influenced by Italian futurists and the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico. In his early works, however, Dali gave credit to his own Catalan sense of fantasy and his megalomania as being his true motivating forces. Dali left the San Fernando Acadamy of Fine Arts in 1926, and move to Paris where he frequented the Cafe Cyrano, which was the ?headquartersÓ of the Parisan surrealists. In 1929 Cafe Cyrano featured an exhibit of Dali?s own surrealist paintings. Dali was also fascinated with the writings of psychologist Sigmund Freud. He was so moved by Frued?s theory that he subsequently vowed to his life?s ambition to ?systemize confusionÓ. Dali is best known for his surrealist works. Surrealism is an art style in which imagery is based on fantasy and the world of dreams. It is thought have grown out of the French literary movement in the 1920?s and has it?s roots in Dadaism. These painters developed a dreamlike, or hallucinatory, imagery that was all the more startling for its highly realistic rendering. Some of Dali?s better known paintings are: ?Persistence Of MemoryÓ also know popularly as ?Soft WatchesÓ (1931), and ?The Sacrament Of The Last SupperÓ (1955). These Paintings have become part of the definitive record of 20th Century art. Dali used many mediums to illustrate his inspirations. His most popular of course are his paintings, but he also used such media as jewelry, advertisements, beer-bottle designs, ballet sets, and costumes. Dali also experimented his talents in film as well. In 1928 he and childhood mentor Luis Bundel produced the famous surrealist film ?Un Chein AndalouÓ (An Andalusian Dog). He and Bundel teamed up once again in 1931 for ?L?Age d?orÓ (The Age Of Gold). Dali was easily recognized all over the world. He was know for eccentric yet styleish apparel always accompanied by a flowing cape, and a handlebar mustache, and popping eyes. Salvador Dali lead a long life in which he influenced people everywhere he went. In 1989 Dali died at age 86, a tremendous loss for the art community.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sam Bass.TXT
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1084
Spencer Nottingham 11/25/99 Language Arts Per 8 Sam Bass Two Column notes Location Guardians Biographical Information • Sam Bass was born in the town of Mitchell Indiana on July 21, 1851. • Later Bass Moved to the state of Texas where he took up the business of train robbing • Sam's parents died when he was a youth, his mom Jane, in 1861, Dad Daniel, in 1864. • Sam and his Twelve siblings moved in with relatives. Poor Sam was sent to his uncle David L Seeks whom deprived Sam of a proper education and made him work on the farm when he was old enough. • While working as a teamster at the age of eighteen he drove a herd of cattle to Denton Texas and stayed working for the local Sheriff, WF "dad" Eagan. • When Sam saved up enough money he bought a prize winning horse that won him enough money to quit working for Eagan. • With the money he had Sam started mixing with the "rowdies". • One day Sam And Underwood, one of the "rowdies" bought melons from the local store, and in an attempt to slice his Bass dropped the melon causing two blacks to turn around and stare at the men. Bass and Underwood started throwing stones at them and were chased out of town by the sheriff and from then on Bass was known as an outlaw. • As an outlaw Bass formed a gang made of four men Tom Nixon, Bill Heffridge, and Jim Berry. The Gang would rob stagecoaches but when the money got low they concentrated • on trains • The Bass gangs first big train strike was on a Union pacific carrying money from Wells Fargo going west. The gang boarded the train at a water stop in Big Springs Neb. On Sep. 19, 1877, taking more than $60,000 in newly minted twenty- dollar gold pieces, an additional $1,300 from passengers, and $450 from the mail car. Following the robbery Basses first gang split up and most of the gang was captured bu lawmen save Bass. • When the first Bass gang split Bass composed an new gang of Frank Jackson, Tom Spotswood, Henry Underwood, Tom Johnson, and the Traitor Jim Murphy who would later betray Bass and set Bass up for his, Jim Murhys own advantage. They started on stagecoaches too but when the take was only $43 dollars they swore to concentrate on trains. • There were many robberies before the one that would turn the gang upside-down. • The gang planed to rob the Round Rock bank with the "fat cash". • Now Murphy had been captured before for housing the criminal gang and made a bargain to capture the bandits if the charges against him were dropped. So being the man of his word Murphy tipped of the law that the Bass gang was going to strike the Round Rock bank on July 20th , 1878 Major Jones sent men out right away • Unexpectedly, the Bass gang rode into town to look things over about a week before to "look things over". Jackson thought that there were too many cowboys with guns that might be lawmen ready to jump on command but being the one setting them up Murphy suggested there was a cattle herd coming through and that explained all the cowboys with guns. • The day before the robbery, which was July 19th , 1878 they rode into town to make sure everything was safe. • In pursuit to separate himself from the others to tell the lawmen and rangers he told Bass, "I think I'll go look around here to see that things are safe, maybe buy some grub for the horses." Bass nodded. Once Murphy left Bass, Barnes, and Jackson went into Koppel's store to buy food and other supplies. • The local deputy and sheriff, Morris Moore and sheriff Grimes spotted them and not thinking twice about who they were saw them with long overcoats with suspicious bulges in them and followed them inside. Grimes still not thinking that they might be the criminals put a friendly hand on Barnes shoulder asked him if he was armed Barnes tore open his coat and shot two rounds into the startled Grimes, who died on his feet Bass and Jackson put four more shots through the sheriff before he hit the ground and two of those shots struck Deputy Moore in his lungs while falling to his knees the deputy got one shot off which ripped through Sam Bass's hand. The bandits ran for their horses and were followed by a surprised ranger Ware who was getting a haircut and ran out of the shop with a striped bib. He turned the alley he saw Barnes in one stirrup and twisting to shot him Ware shot deliberately hitting Barnes in the forehead and immediately killing Appearance • him. Bass was struggling on to his horse Ware fired the bullet went into his back and splattered out the front of his chest. Another ranger crouched down fired and shattered Bass's arm. Jackson helped the "bandit chief" back on his horse and they rode out of town When the lawmen found Bass he had told Jackson to take all the money and get out. They took Bass back to town were On the morning of July 21, 1878, his 27th b-day, he asked the doctor if he was going to make it and shortly after he said, "The world is bobbing around." These were the last words of Sam Bass and he was buried next to Seaborn Barnes in the little round rock graveyard. • Tall man with a curled up mustache and wore suits with and was always neat and clean.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Seeing The Blood Vessels In THe Back Of your Own Eye 4.TXT
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  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  




















  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  




















  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  









 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Seeing The Blood Vessels In THe Back Of your Own Eye.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  




















  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  




















  										Page 1

	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at all the vessels in the back of your eye.


HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.  

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.  I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.  I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they kept looking at the floor, not the light.


RESULTS	

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it
looked like a lot of dead tree.		



										Page 2

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.



CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without using the doctor's instrument.  

	I was glad to know that this is possible. 


                  









 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Seeing the Vessels of the Retina.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Seeing the Vessels of the Retina

  									
	Have you ever seen a doctor look into a patient's eye with an instrument
called an "ophthalmoscope"?  The instrument lights up the inside of the eye and
magnifies the vessels of the retina in the rear of the eye.

	This gives the doctor an idea about how healthy you are as he looks at
all the vessels in the back of your eye.

HYPOTHESIS


  	I wanted to know if a person could see the blood vessels in the back of
their own eye without using the instrument that the doctor uses in the eye exam.

	I am really interested in eyes because I have an uncle who got in a car
accident and now he is blind.   I hope someday doctors can help all those who
are blind to be able to see.

	I guessed that a person could not see the blood vessels in the back of
their own eyes.



EXPERIMENT

	My experiment was not about the tiny blood vessels that you can easily
see on the surface of the eye.  It's to do with the larger vessels

	All I had to do was take a person into a dark room with my flashlight.
I had them cover their left eye and look down at the floor with their right eye.
I held the flashlight up towards the ceiling under their right eye, but they
kept looking at the floor, not the light.

RESULTS

	I am writing down what everyone recorded for me.  I am first:

JOSH: I could see black blood vessels with orange in the background...it looked
like a lot of dead tree.

BRENDA: The blood vessels resembled jagged lighting bolts or trees in the winter
time.

LAURA: I saw crooked lines that didn't stand still, but kept changing.

DARWIN: The image appeared to be in front of the body and quite enlarged.  I
found that it takes practice to see this.

BRYAN: Sometimes your eye gets tired before you can successfully do this, so you
may have to use the other eye or take a rest and try it again.

MATT: I saw black lines that branched out and kept moving.  I also saw orange
and red colors along with the black lines.

JOSH (second time): Sometimes if you suddenly change the direction of your eyes
from left to right, you will see very bright blood vessels for just a second.


CONCLUSION:

	I found out that you can see the vessels in the back of the eye without
using the doctor's instrument.

	I was glad to know that this is possible.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Shirley Chisholm.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
  
Shirley Chisholm
A political leader for many years, and a co-founder of the National women's Political Caucus, Shirley Chisholm is the one of the most famous African - American woman in politics. She was the first black woman to be elected to congress, and also was the first black women to run for president (1972). She was even asked by bill Clinton to serve as American - ambassador to Jamaica. But this isn't her whole life, so in these further paragraphs I plan to tell you about her great and wonderful life.
In 1924 Shirley Chisholm was born by parents Charles St. Hill and ruby seale, who had immigrated to Brooklyn from Barbados in the early 1920's. Shirley was the oldest out of 4 girls, her other 3 sisters being Odessa, Muriel, and Selma.
When Shirley was 3 her parents sent her to live with her grandmother (on her mothers side) in Barbados where there was more room to run and play. At her grandmothers Shirley lived with her 4 cousins. There was no running water, or electricity here so the children had to do many chores like getting fresh water, cleaning the house, tending to the garden and feeding animals at the farm. However the reward was to go to the beach and swim, play, and run in the clear waters of the Caribbean.
Then in 1934, when Shirley was 10, an event happened that would change her life forever. Her parents, the St. Hills decided to take Shirley back to Brooklyn. Brooklyn was very different from her grandmothers farm and Shirley found herself getting very confused and getting lost in the streets and neighborhoods.
The St. Hills were the first blacks in a neighborhood of whites, Jewish immigrants, and 1st generation Americans. Shirley and her father often had long talks about politics and social issues. Also the St. Hills friends, West Indian immigrants , would have long late night discussions about debates and social politics. They often talked about the problems they faced because of their color. She would take these discussions in to mind and vowed to make a difference.
Although Shirley and her sisters were among the few blacks at her school, and among the few of their religion, Shirley was determined to be heard. Shirley was branded as a trouble maker because she was always willing to do whatever she needed to be heard. As this was happening she joined many committees and clubs like the Bedford Political league (Shirley moved to the Bedford neighborhood in 1936). The purpose of the Bedford Political league was to get blacks elected to every level of government. Shirley was also in the national Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the League of Women Voters. Then Shirley decided that it wasn't fare to judge people on the color of their skin , and that she wouldn't spend her whole life fighting racism.
Shirley excelled in highschool and graduated from Girls High in 1942. She then accepted a scholarship and attended Brooklyn College. After receiving her BA at Brooklyn college Shirley attended Columbia where she received her masters Degree. Then in 1949 while still in Columbia University she fell in love and married a quiet man named Conrad Chisholm.
Although she was becoming more and more famous she still had 2 main obstacles to overcome, she was black, and was a women. These 2 obstacles limited the fields she could go into. She then chooses politics remembering the decisions her and her father had talked about when she was a child. So in 1960 Mrs. Chisholm formed the Unity Democratic Club, which tried to get black leaders elected to the New York Assembly. This club was very popular and well-known, and by 1962 the club had their first victory. Tom Jones, an African - American man was elected to the New York Assembly. In 1964 Shirley Chisholm decided that she was tired of doing all the work for other people and decided to run for assembly. Then in 1964 she was victorious and was elected to the New York Assembly. When she arrived at the capital she was only 1 of 6 black assembly members, and she was the only black woman. One of the most important bills an Assembly woman Chisholm got passed was a program called SEEK. This program helped young men and women from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Shirley learned many things as an assembly women, and in 1968 she ran for the U.S. Congress. Shirley used strategies such as speaking Spanish in Spanish and Puerto Rican areas, and when her counterpart, James Farmer, said that government was a man's job in a district where women voters outnumbered men voters. These strategies and plain old hardwork paid off when in November of 1968 Shirley Chisholm Beat James Farmer by a two and one half to one margin. While in Congress Chisholm was placed in the Agriculture Committee, and was assigned the sub --committees forestry and rural development. She felt that these two sub - committees had nothing to do with the poor black, Hispanic and white people of the Bedford neighborhood. Shrilly was enraged, so she called the speaker of the house, John McCormick, and she explained her predicament. He agreed to see what he could do, but no more. Chisholm was not happy with his decision and decided to go to the floor and speak about her problem. She made a brief, but powerful speech, and was then assigned to the Veterans Affaires Committee. While in Congress Shirley choose two major themes, to be a leader for women and African - Americans across the country. Also, while in Congress Chisholm fought for jobs, education, enforcement for anti-discrimination laws, and other social issues, while opposing the Vietnam War and giving more money up for the war. She was in support of repealing anti-abortion laws, she wanted equal rights for women, more daycare centers and better working conditions for both men and women.
The 4 years Shirley Chisholm spent in congress was a good experience for her as she learned a lot about Congress and politics. She believed that she learned enough to run for president under a democratic nomination. But the experienced she lacked and the little money she had caused her defeat at the Democratic Convention to Goerge McGovern, who later lost to Richard Nixon. Like being the first black women to be in Congress, she was the first black women to run for president.With Shirley Chisholm now knowingthat she could probably never be president because she was a womenshe contiuned her career as a congresswomen until 1982, when she retired to return to an early childhood dream, teaching. She tought at Mt. Holyoke College, until she moved to Flordia.
Today Mrs. Chisholm keeps a low profile, but still remains active in politics and is now writing a book. She is still remembered for being the first black women in congress, and being the first black women to run for precedence . In my opinion, Shirley Chisholm was a great, very strong, smart, and has a lot of courage. Shirley Chisholm once said at a Spelman College speech "Success comes from doing to the best of your ability what you know in your heart are right things to do". I agree 100% with this quote because I think it is wrong to do things you don't believe in, and if you want something done you might as well do the best that you can. I also believe that Shirley Chisholm is a success and has done successful things for the nation that not many other people are cabable of doing.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Shopaholic 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Are you a shopaholic?

1.	
Shopaholics found their compulsion to spend by creating false identities to obtain more creditcards. They often hide bank statements from their spouses and try in any way possible to conceal their abuse. In some extreme cases shopaholics has even turned prostituted in order to finance their spending.

2.
The group Walletwatch was made by Lawrence Michaels who is a Shopaholic. He spends thou-sands of pounds on albums he don´t like and clothes which don´t fit him. The reason why he started the group was because he wanted to help other people who have the same tendencies as himself. Walletwatch  was started because shopaholics need to be under some kind of surveillance.

3.	
Richard Elliot wanted to proof that Britain was les consumption-minded than the US. But what he found out was quite different. He found many examples of consumption-crazy Britons who had ran up huge bills and driven their family into oppressive debt. Another thing he found out was that their shopping was used as a therapy to give their mood a lift. They got their support from shop assis-tants. This may be one way of buying social support.

Shopaholics

Shopaholics is becoming a more and more frequently known disease. It is not only found in the US, but all over the world including Denmark. In Britain a nation wide survey revealed that addicts will stop at nothing to found their desire to spend money. They will do anything from stealing to prosti-tution. One out of  20 adults is found to be obsessed by spending. But why do people become sho-paholics?
I think when you are being a shopaholic you often don´t realise it or  won´t admit it. At one time or another though will you find out that you spend too much money on things you don´t even need. Most people love spending money this is one cause of shopaholism, another could be that shopping is used as therapy to better ones mood and confidence.
Richards Elliots study of 63 shopaholics show that shopaholics are more likely to suffer from a lack of self-esteem or confidence. They use shopping as a form of social support, which they get from the shop-assistants. Afterwards they feel guilty of cause, risking both life and marriage, but this normally doesn't stop them.
I think we all have an urged to go crazy and start throwing money around. There is a shopaholic in every on of us, who haven´t tried buying thinks they dont really need. I see shopaholics as people who have trouble controlling themselves. It is the same way with alcoholics. Most people like a beer once in a while but alcoholics over do it. They have problems that I would determine to be self-control.
I feel sorry for shopaholics and therefore I think it is a great idea with these self-help groups. These groups may the only way out of shopaholism.
 

Walletwatch
61 Whitehouse Way
Souhgate London N14 7LX

Mr. Richard Elliott
The Management School
Lancaster University
Lancaster LA 4YX					4. July 1994

Dear Mr. Elliott

We have read the article concerning shopaholics in the Sunday Express, and we have become aware
of Your research on this subject.

Therefore our self-help group would like too invite you to London to give a lecture in this illness.

We are interested in knowing more about the results you have discovered during your research, and
we would also ask you to focus on the cause of this so-called shopping mania.

We are 20 shopaholics in the group. We meet 1 or 2 a week to talk about our abuse of consumption
and discuss in which way we can help each other best. We all need to bolster our self-esteem up, and
that is why we have used shopping as a kind of therapy.

The group represents different sort of work and all social classes: We have bank managers, techni-cians, and house wifes and people from both the middle- and working classes. But despite the dif-ferences we all agree about one thing: We want to get out of our abuse!

We hope that you can accept our invitation, and if you can, then please call us on phone no. 081-361 2411, so that we can arrange a time for your lecture.

Yours Sincerely

Lawrence Michaels





 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Shopaholic.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Are you a shopaholic?

1.	
Shopaholics found their compulsion to spend by creating false identities to obtain more creditcards. They often hide bank statements from their spouses and try in any way possible to conceal their abuse. In some extreme cases shopaholics has even turned prostituted in order to finance their spending.

2.
The group Walletwatch was made by Lawrence Michaels who is a Shopaholic. He spends thou-sands of pounds on albums he don´t like and clothes which don´t fit him. The reason why he started the group was because he wanted to help other people who have the same tendencies as himself. Walletwatch  was started because shopaholics need to be under some kind of surveillance.

3.	
Richard Elliot wanted to proof that Britain was les consumption-minded than the US. But what he found out was quite different. He found many examples of consumption-crazy Britons who had ran up huge bills and driven their family into oppressive debt. Another thing he found out was that their shopping was used as a therapy to give their mood a lift. They got their support from shop assis-tants. This may be one way of buying social support.

Shopaholics

Shopaholics is becoming a more and more frequently known disease. It is not only found in the US, but all over the world including Denmark. In Britain a nation wide survey revealed that addicts will stop at nothing to found their desire to spend money. They will do anything from stealing to prosti-tution. One out of  20 adults is found to be obsessed by spending. But why do people become sho-paholics?
I think when you are being a shopaholic you often don´t realise it or  won´t admit it. At one time or another though will you find out that you spend too much money on things you don´t even need. Most people love spending money this is one cause of shopaholism, another could be that shopping is used as therapy to better ones mood and confidence.
Richards Elliots study of 63 shopaholics show that shopaholics are more likely to suffer from a lack of self-esteem or confidence. They use shopping as a form of social support, which they get from the shop-assistants. Afterwards they feel guilty of cause, risking both life and marriage, but this normally doesn't stop them.
I think we all have an urged to go crazy and start throwing money around. There is a shopaholic in every on of us, who haven´t tried buying thinks they dont really need. I see shopaholics as people who have trouble controlling themselves. It is the same way with alcoholics. Most people like a beer once in a while but alcoholics over do it. They have problems that I would determine to be self-control.
I feel sorry for shopaholics and therefore I think it is a great idea with these self-help groups. These groups may the only way out of shopaholism.
 

Walletwatch
61 Whitehouse Way
Souhgate London N14 7LX

Mr. Richard Elliott
The Management School
Lancaster University
Lancaster LA 4YX					4. July 1994

Dear Mr. Elliott

We have read the article concerning shopaholics in the Sunday Express, and we have become aware
of Your research on this subject.

Therefore our self-help group would like too invite you to London to give a lecture in this illness.

We are interested in knowing more about the results you have discovered during your research, and
we would also ask you to focus on the cause of this so-called shopping mania.

We are 20 shopaholics in the group. We meet 1 or 2 a week to talk about our abuse of consumption
and discuss in which way we can help each other best. We all need to bolster our self-esteem up, and
that is why we have used shopping as a kind of therapy.

The group represents different sort of work and all social classes: We have bank managers, techni-cians, and house wifes and people from both the middle- and working classes. But despite the dif-ferences we all agree about one thing: We want to get out of our abuse!

We hope that you can accept our invitation, and if you can, then please call us on phone no. 081-361 2411, so that we can arrange a time for your lecture.

Yours Sincerely

Lawrence Michaels





 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Simon Bolivar.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
626
Throughout history there have been several leaders who used their cunning and sly intelligence to trick the general population into following them and their beliefs. Eventually, these leaders had so much support, they could no longer be called leaders, but absolute and dictatorial rulers. However, during the period of Enlightenment and of the French Revolution, non-maleficent ideas, created by Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and other Enlightenment Philosophes, were spread throughout the European population. They stated the opposition to absolute monarchies as well as a new main focus on people's innate rights and freedoms. Many leaders after this period of Enlightenment preached its ideas, while others simply used them to gain power. Simon Bolivar might have preached opinions that mainly reflected the ideas of the French Revolution. However, his actions contradicted these opinions, and revealed that his true intentions were selfish and illiberal. In several documents and speeches, Bolivar stated that he was very fond of freedom, liberty and equality. Clearly, it would seem that he desired democracy. This can be seen in his "Jamaican Letter", where he states "More than anyone I desire to see America fashioned into the greatest nation in the world, greatest not so much by virtue of her area and wealth as by her freedom and glory." However, he adds to this "love of freedom" in saying that it is "inconceivable" to set up such a government, simply because there is not enough political knowledge for a system such as that to run. Further, Bolivar says that he agrees with the ideas of Montesquieu, who played a very important role during the Enlightenment period, and states that he is against absolutism. In looking at the beliefs Bolivar spoke of, one could almost come to the conclusion that he directly lectured the ideas fought for in the French Revolution; opposition to absolute monarchies, natural rights and freedoms, ideas of Montesquieu, and ruling for the people's best interest. Interestingly, however, Bolivar never actually put any of his "glorious ideas" into action. Instead of setting up a democracy, ideas of which he praised, he arranged a system in which his total control was made known. He declared himself president until he died, created a weak legislative body with almost no power, and limited the right to vote to the Creoles, who were American-born Spaniards. Not only did this contradict his great "Love of freedom" that he originally spoke of, but also his hate of monarchy, a system of government not too far off from the "paternal constitution" he himself created. Furthermore, this government system doesn't reflect ideals fought for in the French Revolution, which he once agreed with. In a document written by Bolivar, he states that he fears Black and Indian "insurrections." Evidently, it can be seen that if Bolivar fears revolts of Black and Indian peoples, then these two groups are still being oppressed. Obviously, his original love of equality has faded if he is allowing the persecution of two very populous groups in Latin America, the Blacks and the Indians. And last, a passage from the diary of Louis Peru de la Croix suggests that Simon Bolivar was "not always tolerant." If Bolivar was intolerant, he wouldn't have supported free speech, which again goes against his previous support of Enlightenment thinkers and of the French Revolution. In analyzing whether or not Bolivar was in support of ideals of the Enlightenment period and the French Revolution, one must analyze the terms "Beliefs" and "Actions." It is true that Simon Bolivar talked of many beliefs which might have reflected these two periods of time. However, could it be possible that he was just looking to gain more power so that he could climb the political ladder and end up with total control? Once Bolivar did gain the power he needed, he seemed to reject all of his prior beliefs and take action resembling that of a dictator. It is true that actions speak louder than words, especially when the words gather power, then the actions abuse it. It can clearly be seen that although Bolivar preached several beliefs of the Enlightenment era, his true intentions of being in total control were represented by his cruel and unjust practices as president.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Francis Bacon 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

								
				Sir Francis Bacon				
			  

		Sir Francis Bacon was born January 22, 1561.  He died April 9,
1626. He was an English essayist, lawyer, statesman, and philosopher . He
had a major influence on the philosophy of science.  When he was 12 years
old, he began studies at Trinity College, Cambridge.  In 1576 he entered
Gray's Inn to pursue a career in law.  He was first elected in 1584.

	Bacon's opposition to royal tax measures would probably have brought
an end to his political advancement, but he had the support of the Earl of
Essex, whose prosecution for treason he later managed.  He was knighted in
1603 after the succession of James I. Bacon and he became solicitor-general
in 1609, attorney-general in 1613, lord keeper of the great seal in 1617, and
lord chancellor in 1618; he was also created Baron of Verulam I 1618, and
Viscount St.  Albans in 1621.  Bacon retained James's favor by steadfast
defense of royal prerogative, but in 1621 he was found guilty of accepting
bribes and was removed from his office.  Retiring to Gorhambury, he
devoted himself to writing and scientific work.
	
	Philosophically, Bacon wrote marks such as the Instauratio Magna
(Great Restoration), setting forth his concepts for the restoration of
humankind to mastery over nature.  It was intended to contain six parts: first
a classification of sciences; second a new inductive logic; third a gathering of
empirical and experimental facts; fourth examples to show the effectiveness
of his new approach; fifth generalization derivable from natural history; and a
new philosophy that would be a complete science of nature. 

	Bacon completed only two parts, however, the Advancement of
Learning in 1605, later expanded as De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum
(On the Dignity and Growth of Sciences, 1620);  and the Novum Organum 
(The New Organon, 1620), which was to replace Aristotle's Organon. 
Sciences were under the general headings of history, poetry, and philosophy. 
Their culmination was an inductive philosophy of nature, in which proposed
to find the natural laws, of bodily action.  To this end, he devised so-called
tables of induction designed to discover such forms with the goal of mastery
over nature.  

	Although Bacon was not a great scientist, he gave impetus to the
development of modern inductive science.  His works were held in esteem by
Robert Boyle, Robert Hook, Sir Isaac Newton, and Thomas Hobbes.  In the
eighteenth century, Voltaire and Diderot considered him the father of modern
sentence.  Other works of Bacon's include his essays from 1597-1625 and
the New Atlantis in 1627.  So nineteenth century writers suggested that
Bacon was the real author of Shakespeare's plays, but this theory is
discounted by most scholars.






Bibliography: 
	 World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational
Corporation, 1962. Volume B Pp. 18.
	Wegman, Richard J., Medical and Health Encyclopedia, New York:
Ferguson Publishing Company, 1992, Pp. 491-492.  








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Francis Bacon.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

								
				Sir Francis Bacon				
			  

		Sir Francis Bacon was born January 22, 1561.  He died April 9,
1626. He was an English essayist, lawyer, statesman, and philosopher . He
had a major influence on the philosophy of science.  When he was 12 years
old, he began studies at Trinity College, Cambridge.  In 1576 he entered
Gray's Inn to pursue a career in law.  He was first elected in 1584.

	Bacon's opposition to royal tax measures would probably have brought
an end to his political advancement, but he had the support of the Earl of
Essex, whose prosecution for treason he later managed.  He was knighted in
1603 after the succession of James I. Bacon and he became solicitor-general
in 1609, attorney-general in 1613, lord keeper of the great seal in 1617, and
lord chancellor in 1618; he was also created Baron of Verulam I 1618, and
Viscount St.  Albans in 1621.  Bacon retained James's favor by steadfast
defense of royal prerogative, but in 1621 he was found guilty of accepting
bribes and was removed from his office.  Retiring to Gorhambury, he
devoted himself to writing and scientific work.
	
	Philosophically, Bacon wrote marks such as the Instauratio Magna
(Great Restoration), setting forth his concepts for the restoration of
humankind to mastery over nature.  It was intended to contain six parts: first
a classification of sciences; second a new inductive logic; third a gathering of
empirical and experimental facts; fourth examples to show the effectiveness
of his new approach; fifth generalization derivable from natural history; and a
new philosophy that would be a complete science of nature. 

	Bacon completed only two parts, however, the Advancement of
Learning in 1605, later expanded as De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum
(On the Dignity and Growth of Sciences, 1620);  and the Novum Organum 
(The New Organon, 1620), which was to replace Aristotle's Organon. 
Sciences were under the general headings of history, poetry, and philosophy. 
Their culmination was an inductive philosophy of nature, in which proposed
to find the natural laws, of bodily action.  To this end, he devised so-called
tables of induction designed to discover such forms with the goal of mastery
over nature.  

	Although Bacon was not a great scientist, he gave impetus to the
development of modern inductive science.  His works were held in esteem by
Robert Boyle, Robert Hook, Sir Isaac Newton, and Thomas Hobbes.  In the
eighteenth century, Voltaire and Diderot considered him the father of modern
sentence.  Other works of Bacon's include his essays from 1597-1625 and
the New Atlantis in 1627.  So nineteenth century writers suggested that
Bacon was the real author of Shakespeare's plays, but this theory is
discounted by most scholars.






Bibliography: 
	 World Book Encyclopedia, Chicago: Field Enterprises Educational
Corporation, 1962. Volume B Pp. 18.
	Wegman, Richard J., Medical and Health Encyclopedia, New York:
Ferguson Publishing Company, 1992, Pp. 491-492.  








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\sir icaac newton.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
     SIR ISAAC NEWTON
	
	Newton was born on December 25,1642. He was an English 

mathematician and physicist, considered one of the greatest 

scientist in history, who made important contributions to many 

fields of science. His discoveries and theories laid the 

foundation for much of the progress in science since his time. 

Newton was one of the inventors of the branch of mathematics 

called Calculus. He also solved the mysteries of light and 

optics. Formulated the three laws of motions, and derived from 

them the law of universal gravitation. 

	Newton's birth place was at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in 

Linclonshire. Where he lived with his widowed mother, Until 

around his third birthday. At this time his mother remarried, 

leaving him in the care of his Grandmother and sent to grammar 

school in Grantham. Later, in the Summer of 1661, he was sent to 

Trinity Collage, at the University of Cambridge. Newton received 

his bachelors degree in 1665. After an intermission of nearly two 

years to avoid the plague, Newton returned to Trinity, Which 

elected him to a fellowship in 1667. He received his master 

degree in 1668. Newton ignored much of the established curriculum 

of the University to pursue his own interests: mathematics and 

natural philosophy.

	By joining them in what he called the Fluxional method, 

Newton developed in the autumn of 1666 a kind of mathematics that 

is now known as calculus.  Was a new and powerful method that
 
carried modern mathematics above the level of Greek geometry. 

Although Newton was its inventor, he did not introduce calculus 

into European Mathematics.

	Always Fearful of publication and Criticism. Newton kept his 

Discovery to himself. However, enough was known of his abilities 

to effect his appointment in 1669as a Luciasian Professor of 

Mathematics at the University of Cambbridge.

	Optics was another area of Newton's early interests. In 

trying at explain now colors occur, he arrived at the idea that 

sunlight is a heterogeneous blend of different rays each of,
which 

represents a different color-and that reflections and 

refraction cause colors to appear by separating the blend into 

its components. Newton demonstrated his theory of colors by 

passing the beam of sunlight through a type of prism, which split 

the beam into separate colors. 

	In 1672 Newton sent a brief exposition of his theory of 

colors to the Royal Society in London. In 1704 however, Newton 

published appliqués, which explained his theories in details.
During 

the following two and a half years, Newton established the modern 

science of dynamics by formulating his three laws of motion. 

Newton applied there laws to Kempler's law of orbital 

motion-formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kempler-and 

derived the law of Universal Gravitation. Newton is probably best 

known for discovering Universal Gravitation, which explains that 

all bodies in space and on earth are affected by the force of 

Gravity, and another thing he invented was the Reflecting 

Telescope. He published this theory in his book Philosophiae 

Natural is Principia Mathematica in 1687. This book marked a 

turning point in the history of science; it also ensured that its 

author could never regain his privacy.

	In the same year, 1687, Newton helped lead Cambridge's 

resistance to the efforts of King James II to make the University 

a Catholic institution, After the English Revolution in 1688, 

which drove James from England, the University elected Newton one 

of its representatives in a special convening of the county's 

Parliament.

	In the summer of 1693 Newton showed symptoms of a severe 

emotional disorder. Although he regained his health, his creative 

period had come to an end. Newton's connections with the leaders 

of the new regime in England led to his appointment as warden. 

And later master of Royal Mint in London, where he lived after 

1696. In 1703 the Royal Society elected him President, an office 

he held for the rest of his life. As President, he ordered the 

immediate Publication of the Astronomical Observations of the 

First Astronomer Royal of England, John Flamsteed. Newton needed 

these observations to perfect his Lunar theory.

	Newton also compiled the book of evidence that the society 

published. The effects of the quarrel lingered nearly until his 

death in 1727.



	In addition to science, Newton also showed an interest in 

Alchemy, Mysticism, and Theology. Many pages of his notes and 

writing-particularly from the later years of his career are 

devoted to these topics. However, historians have found little 

connection between these interests and Newton's scientific works.

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Issac Newton.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Sir Issac Newton


	Newton was born on December 25,1642. He was an English
mathematician and physicist, considered one of the greatest
scientist in history, who made important contributions to many
fields of science. His discoveries and theories laid the
foundation for much of the progress in science since his time.
Newton was one of the inventors of the branch of mathematics
called Calculus. He also solved the mysteries of light and
optics. Formulated the three laws of motions, and derived from
them the law of universal gravitation.

     Newton's birth place was at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in
Linclonshire. Where he lived with his widowed mother, Until
around his third birthday. At this time his mother remarried,
leaving him in the care of his Grandmother and sent to grammar
school in Grantham. Later, in the Summer of 1661, he was sent to
Trinity Collage, at the University of Cambridge. Newton received
his bachelors degree in 1665. After an intermission of nearly two
years to avoid the plague, Newton returned to Trinity, Which
elected him to a fellowship in 1667. He received his master
degree in 1668. Newton ignored much of the established curriculum
of the University to pursue his own interests: mathematics and
natural philosophy.

	By joining them in what he called the Fluxional method,
Newton developed in the autumn of 1666 a kind of mathematics that
is now known as calculus.  Was a new and powerful method that
carried modern mathematics above the level of Greek geometry.
Although Newton was its inventor, he did not introduce calculus
into European Mathematics.

	Always Fearful of publication and Criticism. Newton kept his
Discovery to himself. However, enough was known of his abilities
to effect his appointment in 1669as a Luciasian Professor of
Mathematics at the University of Cambbridge.

     Optics was another area of Newton's early interests. In
trying at explain now colors occur, he arrived at the idea that
sunlight is a heterogeneous blend of different rays each of, which
represents a different color-and that reflections and
refraction cause colors to appear by separating the blend into
its components. Newton demonstrated his theory of colors by
passing the beam of sunlight through a type of prism, which split
the beam into separate colors.

	In 1672 Newton sent a brief exposition of his theory of
colors to the Royal Society in London. In 1704 however, Newton
published appliqués, which explained his theories in details. During
the following two and a half years, Newton established the modern
science of dynamics by formulating his three laws of motion.
Newton applied there laws to Kempler's law of orbital
motion-formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kempler-and
derived the law of Universal Gravitation. Newton is probably best
known for discovering Universal Gravitation, which explains that
all bodies in space and on earth are affected by the force of
Gravity, and another thing he invented was the Reflecting
Telescope. He published this theory in his book Philosophiae
Natural is Principia Mathematica in 1687. This book marked a
turning point in the history of science; it also ensured that its
author could never regain his privacy.

     In the same year, 1687, Newton helped lead Cambridge's
resistance to the efforts of King James II to make the University
a Catholic institution, After the English Revolution in 1688,
which drove James from England, the University elected Newton one
of its representatives in a special convening of the county's
Parliament.

	In the summer of 1693 Newton showed symptoms of a severe
emotional disorder. Although he regained his health, his creative
period had come to an end. Newton's connections with the leaders
of the new regime in England led to his appointment as warden.
And later master of Royal Mint in London, where he lived after
1696. In 1703 the Royal Society elected him President, an office
he held for the rest of his life. As President, he ordered the
immediate Publication of the Astronomical Observations of the
First Astronomer Royal of England, John Flamsteed. Newton needed
these observations to perfect his Lunar theory.

	Newton also compiled the book of evidence that the society
published. The effects of the quarrel lingered nearly until his
death in 1727.

	In addition to science, Newton also showed an interest in
Alchemy, Mysticism, and Theology. Many pages of his notes and
writing-particularly from the later years of his career are
devoted to these topics. However, historians have found little
connection between these interests and Newton's scientific works.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Wilfrid Laurier Prime Minister of Canada 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier
By Ritchie Rocha 

The first French Canadian to become prime minister of Canada was Wilfrid Laurier. Although French was his native tongue, he became a master of the English language. This and his picturesque personality made him popular throughout Canada, and he led the young country in a 15-year period of great development. 
Wilfrid Laurier was born in St-Lin, Quebec, and studied law at McGill University. After three years in the Quebec legislature, he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1874. There he rose rapidly to leadership. Although he was a French Canadian and a Roman Catholic, he was chosen leader of the Liberal party in 1887. Nine years later he became prime minister. He was knighted in 1897. 
"Build up Canada" were the watchwords of Laurier's government. Laurier was loyal to Great Britain, sent Canadian volunteers to help in the Boer War, established a tariff favorable to British goods, and worked to strengthen the ties between the two countries. But he saw the British Empire as a worldwide alliance of free and equal nations, and he opposed every attempt to limit Canada's freedom. Laurier's liberal immigration policy brought hundreds of thousands of settlers to the western provinces. He reduced postal rates, promoted the building of railroads needed for national expansion, and appointed a commission to regulate railroad rates. After 15 years in office his government was defeated, presumably on the issue of reciprocal trade with the United States. Laurier believed, however, that his political defeat was caused primarily by opponents in Ontario who considered him too partial to Roman Catholic interests in Quebec. Prior to World War I, Laurier tried forcefully to support the formation of a Canadian navy. His own Liberal party defeated this measure, however, and Canada entered the war without a fleet of its own. During the early years of World War I, Laurier supported the war policy of Sir Robert Borden's Conservative government. In 1917 he refused to join a coalition government that was formed to uphold conscription. Laurier felt that he could not back a measure so unpopular in the province of Quebec.
Wilfrid Laurier's regime lasted 15 years. It was one of renewed growth and prosperity. The Manitoba School Question was promptly hushed up by new legislation enacted by the province in accordance with a compromise worked out with Ottawa. To his Cabinet Laurier drew some of the most capable leaders from every part of Canada. Business throughout the world was on an upswing, and the Laurier government was determined to get in on the action. The demand for Canadian wheat abroad encouraged immigration, and immigration in turn increased farm production and the value of national exports. "The 20th century belongs to Canada," cried Laurier; and the whole nation took confidence from his assurance. Two new transcontinental railways were begun. By 1905 the west had expanded in both population and economic strength to such an extent that two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, were carved out of the Northwest Territories. These encouraging developments were inadvertently assisted by an occurrence in the far northwest. Since the Fraser River gold strike of 1858, prospectors had been consistently combing the mountainous areas of British Columbia and to the north. In 1896 their persistence paid off with the discovery of gold nuggets on the Klondike River in the far western Yukon Territory. When the news spread, the gold rush of 1897 began; it was to become the most publicized gold rush in history, eventually to be celebrated in the works of such writers as Jack London and Robert Service. The gold strike had some beneficial side effects. As miners poured into western Canada from the United States and other parts of the world, the extent of the unpopulated prairie lands became known. By this time, of course, the supply of free land in the United States had become exhausted, and the frontier was closed. Very soon after the gold rush, settlers began pouring into the western prairies of Canada by the thousands, from Europe as well as the United States. With much of Canada being unpopulated, this would help to create the massive population increase that Laurier was waiting for. More Canadian citizens would of course mean more taxes. More taxes would mean more money for the government. More money for the government would mean that Laurier could use the new financial wealth of the country to slingshot Canada's status of being just a large cold country to the status of being a country where all were welcome and good land was available to people that were willing to put it to good use. They came from as far away as Russia to establish farms on the open wheatlands. It was not long before demands arose for the creation of at least one province between Manitoba and British Columbia. Thus, in 1905, the government in Ottawa formed two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan. Another benefit resulting, at least in part, from the gold rush was the discovery of other minerals in the Canadian wilds. As early as 1883, nickel had been found at Sudbury, Ont. In the early 1890s large deposits of base-metal ores were found in southern British Columbia. After 1900 a rich deposit of silver was discovered north of Lake Nipissing in Ontario. Canada soon became perceived around the world as a mineral-rich nation with great untapped potential. The new prime minister thus basked in an environment of progress and prosperity after a depression that had lasted more than 20 years. Laurier's only serious political difficulties stemmed from his inability to satisfy fully the imperialists among his followers. Great Britain received support in the Boer War of 1899-1902 from the other self-governing colonies, and Laurier reluctantly committed Canada as well (see Boer War). His decision, however, sharpened the controversy between the two nationality groups regarding Canada's proper responsibilities to Britain in the future. On the other hand, he continued to resist pressures to tie the bonds of empire still more tightly during the years after the victory in South Africa. Seeds of distrust concerning his policies were thus sown on both sides of the wall that was rising between Canadians of French and of English descent. Another foreign policy issue arose as naval competition increased between Germany and Britain in the years before World War I. Great Britain naturally desired to receive military help from the colonies, and again Laurier found a compromise that satisfied neither the pro-British faction nor the French partisans. He founded the Canadian Navy in 1910 with the provision that in time of war it be placed under British command. This quickly led to accusations that Canadian soldiers would be drafted into the British Army if war came. 
In 1911, when his opponents denounced his government's decision to implement a limited reciprocity pact with the United States, Laurier felt he was on firmer ground and called a general election. His defeat, which occurred largely on this issue, showed that the prospering nation's reservations regarding his policies were exceeded only by its lingering distrust of the United States. He believed that he was right, and that a lasting relationship with the United States would be beneficial and crucial to the development to both countries. People laughed at him and called him a fool for putting his trust in country such as the United States and Wilfrid Laurier died in Ottawa on Feb. 17, 1919 believing in his political ideas. He was right though; we need the United States to survive and they need us just as much as we need them. It was the people and politicians which followed in Laurier's footsteps which has led us to our current relationship with the United States and the rest of the world. Sir Wilfrid Laurier was truly an incredible citizen, politician, strategist, and may have been the best prime minister this country will ever know.

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Wilfrid Laurier Prime Minister of Canada.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Sir Wilfrid Laurier
By Ritchie Rocha 

The first French Canadian to become prime minister of Canada was Wilfrid Laurier. Although French was his native tongue, he became a master of the English language. This and his picturesque personality made him popular throughout Canada, and he led the young country in a 15-year period of great development. 
Wilfrid Laurier was born in St-Lin, Quebec, and studied law at McGill University. After three years in the Quebec legislature, he was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1874. There he rose rapidly to leadership. Although he was a French Canadian and a Roman Catholic, he was chosen leader of the Liberal party in 1887. Nine years later he became prime minister. He was knighted in 1897. 
"Build up Canada" were the watchwords of Laurier's government. Laurier was loyal to Great Britain, sent Canadian volunteers to help in the Boer War, established a tariff favorable to British goods, and worked to strengthen the ties between the two countries. But he saw the British Empire as a worldwide alliance of free and equal nations, and he opposed every attempt to limit Canada's freedom. Laurier's liberal immigration policy brought hundreds of thousands of settlers to the western provinces. He reduced postal rates, promoted the building of railroads needed for national expansion, and appointed a commission to regulate railroad rates. After 15 years in office his government was defeated, presumably on the issue of reciprocal trade with the United States. Laurier believed, however, that his political defeat was caused primarily by opponents in Ontario who considered him too partial to Roman Catholic interests in Quebec. Prior to World War I, Laurier tried forcefully to support the formation of a Canadian navy. His own Liberal party defeated this measure, however, and Canada entered the war without a fleet of its own. During the early years of World War I, Laurier supported the war policy of Sir Robert Borden's Conservative government. In 1917 he refused to join a coalition government that was formed to uphold conscription. Laurier felt that he could not back a measure so unpopular in the province of Quebec.
Wilfrid Laurier's regime lasted 15 years. It was one of renewed growth and prosperity. The Manitoba School Question was promptly hushed up by new legislation enacted by the province in accordance with a compromise worked out with Ottawa. To his Cabinet Laurier drew some of the most capable leaders from every part of Canada. Business throughout the world was on an upswing, and the Laurier government was determined to get in on the action. The demand for Canadian wheat abroad encouraged immigration, and immigration in turn increased farm production and the value of national exports. "The 20th century belongs to Canada," cried Laurier; and the whole nation took confidence from his assurance. Two new transcontinental railways were begun. By 1905 the west had expanded in both population and economic strength to such an extent that two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, were carved out of the Northwest Territories. These encouraging developments were inadvertently assisted by an occurrence in the far northwest. Since the Fraser River gold strike of 1858, prospectors had been consistently combing the mountainous areas of British Columbia and to the north. In 1896 their persistence paid off with the discovery of gold nuggets on the Klondike River in the far western Yukon Territory. When the news spread, the gold rush of 1897 began; it was to become the most publicized gold rush in history, eventually to be celebrated in the works of such writers as Jack London and Robert Service. The gold strike had some beneficial side effects. As miners poured into western Canada from the United States and other parts of the world, the extent of the unpopulated prairie lands became known. By this time, of course, the supply of free land in the United States had become exhausted, and the frontier was closed. Very soon after the gold rush, settlers began pouring into the western prairies of Canada by the thousands, from Europe as well as the United States. With much of Canada being unpopulated, this would help to create the massive population increase that Laurier was waiting for. More Canadian citizens would of course mean more taxes. More taxes would mean more money for the government. More money for the government would mean that Laurier could use the new financial wealth of the country to slingshot Canada's status of being just a large cold country to the status of being a country where all were welcome and good land was available to people that were willing to put it to good use. They came from as far away as Russia to establish farms on the open wheatlands. It was not long before demands arose for the creation of at least one province between Manitoba and British Columbia. Thus, in 1905, the government in Ottawa formed two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan. Another benefit resulting, at least in part, from the gold rush was the discovery of other minerals in the Canadian wilds. As early as 1883, nickel had been found at Sudbury, Ont. In the early 1890s large deposits of base-metal ores were found in southern British Columbia. After 1900 a rich deposit of silver was discovered north of Lake Nipissing in Ontario. Canada soon became perceived around the world as a mineral-rich nation with great untapped potential. The new prime minister thus basked in an environment of progress and prosperity after a depression that had lasted more than 20 years. Laurier's only serious political difficulties stemmed from his inability to satisfy fully the imperialists among his followers. Great Britain received support in the Boer War of 1899-1902 from the other self-governing colonies, and Laurier reluctantly committed Canada as well (see Boer War). His decision, however, sharpened the controversy between the two nationality groups regarding Canada's proper responsibilities to Britain in the future. On the other hand, he continued to resist pressures to tie the bonds of empire still more tightly during the years after the victory in South Africa. Seeds of distrust concerning his policies were thus sown on both sides of the wall that was rising between Canadians of French and of English descent. Another foreign policy issue arose as naval competition increased between Germany and Britain in the years before World War I. Great Britain naturally desired to receive military help from the colonies, and again Laurier found a compromise that satisfied neither the pro-British faction nor the French partisans. He founded the Canadian Navy in 1910 with the provision that in time of war it be placed under British command. This quickly led to accusations that Canadian soldiers would be drafted into the British Army if war came. 
In 1911, when his opponents denounced his government's decision to implement a limited reciprocity pact with the United States, Laurier felt he was on firmer ground and called a general election. His defeat, which occurred largely on this issue, showed that the prospering nation's reservations regarding his policies were exceeded only by its lingering distrust of the United States. He believed that he was right, and that a lasting relationship with the United States would be beneficial and crucial to the development to both countries. People laughed at him and called him a fool for putting his trust in country such as the United States and Wilfrid Laurier died in Ottawa on Feb. 17, 1919 believing in his political ideas. He was right though; we need the United States to survive and they need us just as much as we need them. It was the people and politicians which followed in Laurier's footsteps which has led us to our current relationship with the United States and the rest of the world. Sir Wilfrid Laurier was truly an incredible citizen, politician, strategist, and may have been the best prime minister this country will ever know.

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sir Wilfrid Laurier.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Sir Wilfrid Laurier


The first French Canadian to become prime minister of Canada was Wilfrid Laurier.
Although French was his native tongue, he became a master of the English
language. This and his picturesque personality made him popular throughout
Canada, and he led the young country in a 15-year period of great development.
Wilfrid Laurier was born in St-Lin, Quebec, and studied law at McGill University.
After three years in the Quebec legislature, he was elected to the Canadian
House of Commons in 1874. There he rose rapidly to leadership. Although he was a
French Canadian and a Roman Catholic, he was chosen leader of the Liberal party
in 1887. Nine years later he became prime minister. He was knighted in 1897.
"Build up Canada" were the watchwords of Laurier's government. Laurier was loyal
to Great Britain, sent Canadian volunteers to help in the Boer War, established
a tariff favorable to British goods, and worked to strengthen the ties between
the two countries. But he saw the British Empire as a worldwide alliance of free
and equal nations, and he opposed every attempt to limit Canada's freedom.
Laurier's liberal immigration policy brought hundreds of thousands of settlers
to the western provinces. He reduced postal rates, promoted the building of
railroads needed for national expansion, and appointed a commission to regulate
railroad rates. After 15 years in office his government was defeated, presumably
on the issue of reciprocal trade with the United States. Laurier believed,
however, that his political defeat was caused primarily by opponents in Ontario
who considered him too partial to Roman Catholic interests in Quebec. Prior to
World War I, Laurier tried forcefully to support the formation of a Canadian
navy. His own Liberal party defeated this measure, however, and Canada entered
the war without a fleet of its own. During the early years of World War I,
Laurier supported the war policy of Sir Robert Borden's Conservative government.
In 1917 he refused to join a coalition government that was formed to uphold
conscription. Laurier felt that he could not back a measure so unpopular in the
province of Quebec. Wilfrid Laurier's regime lasted 15 years. It was one of
renewed growth and prosperity. The Manitoba School Question was promptly hushed
up by new legislation enacted by the province in accordance with a compromise
worked out with Ottawa. To his Cabinet Laurier drew some of the most capable
leaders from every part of Canada. Business throughout the world was on an
upswing, and the Laurier government was determined to get in on the action. The
demand for Canadian wheat abroad encouraged immigration, and immigration in turn
increased farm production and the value of national exports. "The 20th century
belongs to Canada," cried Laurier; and the whole nation took confidence from his
assurance. Two new transcontinental railways were begun. By 1905 the west had
expanded in both population and economic strength to such an extent that two new
provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, were carved out of the Northwest
Territories. These encouraging developments were inadvertently assisted by an
occurrence in the far northwest. Since the Fraser River gold strike of 1858,
prospectors had been consistently combing the mountainous areas of British
Columbia and to the north. In 1896 their persistence paid off with the discovery
of gold nuggets on the Klondike River in the far western Yukon Territory. When
the news spread, the gold rush of 1897 began; it was to become the most
publicized gold rush in history, eventually to be celebrated in the works of
such writers as Jack London and Robert Service. The gold strike had some
beneficial side effects. As miners poured into western Canada from the United
States and other parts of the world, the extent of the unpopulated prairie lands
became known. By this time, of course, the supply of free land in the United
States had become exhausted, and the frontier was closed. Very soon after the
gold rush, settlers began pouring into the western prairies of Canada by the
thousands, from Europe as well as the United States. With much of Canada being
unpopulated, this would help to create the massive population increase that
Laurier was waiting for. More Canadian citizens would of course mean more taxes.
More taxes would mean more money for the government. More money for the
government would mean that Laurier could use the new financial wealth of the
country to slingshot Canada's status of being just a large cold country to the
status of being a country where all were welcome and good land was available to
people that were willing to put it to good use. They came from as far away as
Russia to establish farms on the open wheatlands. It was not long before demands
arose for the creation of at least one province between Manitoba and British
Columbia. Thus, in 1905, the government in Ottawa formed two new provinces,
Alberta and Saskatchewan. Another benefit resulting, at least in part, from the
gold rush was the discovery of other minerals in the Canadian wilds. As early as
1883, nickel had been found at Sudbury, Ont. In the early 1890s large deposits
of base-metal ores were found in southern British Columbia. After 1900 a rich
deposit of silver was discovered north of Lake Nipissing in Ontario. Canada soon
became perceived around the world as a mineral-rich nation with great untapped
potential. The new prime minister thus basked in an environment of progress and
prosperity after a depression that had lasted more than 20 years. Laurier's only
serious political difficulties stemmed from his inability to satisfy fully the
imperialists among his followers. Great Britain received support in the Boer War
of 1899-1902 from the other self-governing colonies, and Laurier reluctantly
committed Canada as well (see Boer War). His decision, however, sharpened the
controversy between the two nationality groups regarding Canada's proper
responsibilities to Britain in the future. On the other hand, he continued to
resist pressures to tie the bonds of empire still more tightly during the years
after the victory in South Africa. Seeds of distrust concerning his policies
were thus sown on both sides of the wall that was rising between Canadians of
French and of English descent. Another foreign policy issue arose as naval
competition increased between Germany and Britain in the years before World War
I. Great Britain naturally desired to receive military help from the colonies,
and again Laurier found a compromise that satisfied neither the pro-British
faction nor the French partisans. He founded the Canadian Navy in 1910 with the
provision that in time of war it be placed under British command. This quickly
led to accusations that Canadian soldiers would be drafted into the British Army
if war came. In 1911, when his opponents denounced his government's decision to
implement a limited reciprocity pact with the United States, Laurier felt he was
on firmer ground and called a general election. His defeat, which occurred
largely on this issue, showed that the prospering nation's reservations
regarding his policies were exceeded only by its lingering distrust of the
United States. He believed that he was right, and that a lasting relationship
with the United States would be beneficial and crucial to the development to
both countries. People laughed at him and called him a fool for putting his
trust in country such as the United States and Wilfrid Laurier died in Ottawa on
Feb. 17, 1919 believing in his political ideas. He was right though; we need the
United States to survive and they need us just as much as we need them. It was
the people and politicians which followed in Laurier's footsteps which has led
us to our current relationship with the United States and the rest of the world.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier was truly an incredible citizen, politician, strategist, and
may have been the best prime minister this country will ever know.






 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Slade Biography.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Michael Slade is a native of Southwest Virginia. He attended Virginia Tech in engineering and later received an MBA. His career experience is in the field of higher education where he has worked as both a faculty member and an administrator. He brings to MA Design his skills as a copywriter, business professional and idea consultant. Mike's favorite movies are Dr. Zhivago, Monty Python and the Holy Grail and The Fellowship of the Ring. His musical taste varies from Led Zeppelin to Willie Nelson to Handel. He loves college and professional football, being a fan of the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Miami Dolphins. He is always looking for the humor in every situation and is an all around fun guy.



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\state highway.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
                                               State Highway                                Andy Morgan
                                    
	It was a blistering hot July afternoon, with all the windows up and the air conditioning on maximum, the young boy questioned again why he was going to take college level courses when he had only recently finished his junior year in high school. He felt like it was a million degrees inside the red minivan. As he traveled in a South direction alone Arkansas State Highway 55, with the rhythmic beet of the tires on the road, he felt as thought he could feel each bump to its fullest, they were like waves on an ocean and symbolized everything he had over come and accomplished to make this journey. He not only over came his own self doubts about whether he can make it, but many who believed that he could not be successful in an environment with so many distractions.  As he sat in the back of the minivan fears over the future began to surface in his head. "Will I make friends?" "Will I be comfortable so many miles away from home?" As these thoughts raced through his mind he felt alone and a cold shiver was sent through his body. He was no afraid and cold in the hot summer air. He knew consciously and logically that he was not alone. For his mother and grandmother sat next to him in the minivan and would do whatever they could to help him. But yet he realized something had changed. They were there but would some be gone and that he must draw strength, self-confidence, and a sense of security from within himself and not rely on the people around him to fulfill these feelings because they could not provide this for him. He must venture into the unknown, alone and could only receive a limited type of security and support from home. Regardless of which way the journey took him he could always count on them being there in case he fell or got lost during his month away.
	As the red minivan crossed the state line passing from Arkansas into the mighty sate of Mississippi. The first image he saw was an eight foot by twelve foot flag of the state. He knew so little about their customs, beliefs and rituals. It was as if he were entering into a foreign country. As they drove up the main entrance he could see through the trees in the "Grove" the bright afternoon sun reflecting off the columns of the "Ole Miss" Lyceum. As his family helped him unload what seemed to not be enough possessions he checked into the dorms. As he opened the door he saw a blank white room that he could not imagine being used as anything but a prison cell. As the minivan pulled away the young boy felt mixed emotion, for he was truly on his own for a month.
	His first night on campus would be anything but lonely and boring. As he got dressed to got a baseball game that the school had organized to give the summer students a chance to meet each other. He felt as though he was alone and there was no one on the entire campus that new who he was or what he was about. He sat down and this guy came up and introduced himself as Scott and asked him where he was from and what he liked to do. The conversation was filled with "y'all's" and "fixin". As the conversation wrapped up Scott asked me if I wanted to go to a party after the baseball game, the young boy accepted. As the game ended the young boy ran into Scott with a group of high school kids. The group went with Scott and ended up at a fraternity house. As the group walked in each person was introduced to other guys. The beer was flowing and many of the high school kids were quite drunk as the new group arrived. It was the young boys first encounter with serious drinking and the peer pressure felt from older fraternity guys.
	As the first day of summer camp classes rolled around the young boy felt more and more confident that this would be the place for him in another year. He went to class and listened to the professor tell the class about what to expect and it all sounded quite complicated but he felt as though he were able to conquer anything. He fell into a routine and did not understand why everyone told him college was so hard. Then toward the end of the first week a test rolled around. He was not scared in the least bit. However he was slowly deflated as he sat in a History exam and looked at a page not knowing anything. After ninety minutes of realization, the professor looked at the young boy who had grown so much since the red minivan had dropped him off, and said with a distinct southern accent "well son, welcome to college courses 

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Stephan Grover Cleveland.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
1063
Grover Cleveland Stephan Grover Cleveland is the fifth of nine children born to Reverend Richard Falley Cleveland and Ann Neal Cleveland. He was born on March 18th of 1837 in Caldwell, New Jersey, although he was raised in Fayetteville, New York. The actual house in which he was born still stands today on 207 Bloomfield Avenue. He was named in honor of Stephan Grover, a minister at a local Presbyterian Church who Reverend Cleveland had recently taken over for. Life as the son of a minister was different than most boys. The Cleveland's spent every evening at home in prayer. Cleveland felt that this moral upbringing was his most valuable tool in life. Grover Cleveland visited an uncle in Buffalo, New York, and obtained a job in a law firm. While working there, he studied law and by May of 1859, the New York Supreme Court admitted him to the bar. Democratic politics had interested Cleveland since his arrival in Buffalo, so he became the county's assistant district attorney. In 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee had surrendered his army to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. The Confederacy had collapsed and the United States was reunited and slavery was abolished. As the nation returned to peace, twenty-eight-year-old Cleveland won the demanding position of sheriff. When his term ended in 1873, he returned to his infamous law practice. On January 1,1882, Grover Cleveland took an oath to honor the city of Buffalo as their mayor. Cleveland was tough and honest. He was known as the "Veto Mayor," because he continuously vetoed bills presented by corrupt politicians. In November of 1882, by a landslide margin of nearly 200,000 votes, Grover Cleveland became know as the "Veto Governor." He understood the tremendous challenge of being the Governor of the State of New York, but his principles and values remained as strong as ever. The door to his office was always open, and he kept no secrets. In two years' time, Cleveland's stubborn sense of fairness and honesty gave him the nickname "His Obstinacy." He passed bills to enlarge the state's water supply and established a 1.5 million-acre park at Niagara Falls. Due to his reputation, the Democratic Party convinced him to run for president. On the second ballot, Cleveland won the Democratic nomination. The Democrats chose Thomas Hendricks of Indiana, as his vice-president on the ballot. To oppose Cleveland for presidency, the Republicans picked former Maine Congressman, James G. Blaine. Blaine was highly respected as a brilliant politician and national leader. With both candidates the victims of scandals, in 1884 the United States had never witnessed such a nasty campaign. In the end, Cleveland won by a slim margin of less than 63,000 votes. In just three years, Americans had lifted Grover Cleveland from a city lawyer to the highest public office in our country. At the age of forty-seven, Grover Cleveland became the twenty-second President of the United States, on March 4, 1885. A bachelor, Cleveland was not familiar with the comforts of the White House. During this first term, he ran into trouble. He filled every federal office with Democrats, whether or not they were deserving and meritted the positions. In June of 1886, Cleveland married twenty-one-year-old Frances Folsom. He was the only president to be married in the White House and the first to have a child born in the White House, in 1893. Cleveland did not always make popular decisions, but based his treatment of injustices as the right thing to do. Over the years, unhappy trade workers banned together and formed the first trade unions. They were not pleased with their president. There was a huge gulf between the employer and employee. In December of 1888, he called on Congress to reduce high protective tariffs. The Democrats felt this would impact his re-election campaign, which he lost in 1888 to Benjamin Harrison. During his first term, Grover Cleveland was known as the "Veto President." He issued more than 300 veto messages. He vetoed many private pension bills to Civil War veterans, who submitted fraudulent claims, and vetoed a bill appropriating $10,000 to distribute grains to drought-stricken, Texas farmers, contending that aid would weaken the character of the nation. Another unpopular decision was ordering the investigation of the railroads. He forced them to return 81,000 acres of Government land, and enacted the Interstate Commerce Act, which was the first law passed regulating the railroads. During President Harrison's term, many issues angered Cleveland. The McKinley Tariff was passed, which taxed import items at the highest rates in history. The Congress also granted higher pensions for Civil War veterans. By the end of Harrison's term, Congress had spent so much money on wasteful projects, that the treasury was almost empty. Predicting a national disaster, Grover Cleveland agreed to run for a second term as president. He returned to the White House in 1893, as his wife had predicted. Four years of careless spending by the Republicans pushed the United States into an acute depression. He had to act drastically, and dealt directly with the Treasury crisis, instead of with business failures, farm foreclosures, and increasing unemployment. On October 30, 1893, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was repealed, and confidence was restored in the American dollar. In spite of Cleveland's efforts, the national depression worsened, and the Democratic Party was divided. When railroad strikers violated an injunction in Chicago, the President sent Federal troops to break up the strike against the Pullman Company. His blunt treatment of the railroad company was very unpopular. His party deserted him and nominated William Jennings Bryan for president, in 1896. At fifty-nine-years-old, Cleveland felt disgraced as he finished his term in the White House. He retired peacefully in Princeton, New Jersey, but continued pressing for government reforms. At the age of seventy-one, Grover Cleveland died on June 24, 1908. Americans were deeply saddened and mourned the passing of this heavy, robust. man, who was so famous for his tremendous strength and energy. Grover Cleveland will always be remembered as courageous, hardworking, and honest, in spite of the outcome. He was a man of his word, a man of honor.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Stephen King 3.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Stephen King


     Stephen King is a well-known and talented horror/fiction author who has
published over eleven books in the last two decades.  His great stories of
horror and fantasy have been enjoyed by kids and adults starting from his first
best-seller, Carrie.  King's wit and style of writing has made him one of the
most popular horror story authors today.
	Stephen King's life has not been an easy one.  he was born on September
21, 1947, in Portland Maine(Bleiler, 1038).  His father left when he was two and
gave him only a collection of supernatural fiction stories(Bleiler, 1038).  By
age twelve, he was submitting short stories into different magazines such as
"The Glass Floor", in 1967(Beacham, 747).  After his graduation from the
University of Maine with a B.A. in English teaching(Bleiler, 1038), King
published many best sellers that won these awards: The British Fantasy
Award(1982), The World Fantasy Award(1982), and the Hugo Award(1985)(Beacham,
748).
	Stephen King written many great books throughout his writing career.
Carrie, King's first best seller, is about a teenager who is ridiculed and
harassed throughout high school(Bleiler, 1031).  After she is finally pushed to
the limit, her true side is finally exposed. Cujo, involves a ferocious dog that
starts out so innocent and kind , and ends up a brutal man killer(Bleiler, 1031).
 The Shining, takes place in a motel that is haunted(Beacham, 748).  Jack
Torrence is a writer who is ridden by guilt and failure(Beacham, 749).  After
Torrence, his wife, and his five year old son are snowed in for the week, they
finally realize the evil that the motel actually possesses.  In Firestarter, a
little girl possesses the power to start fires with her mind. These powers were
givin to her as a test by the government(Bleiler, 1041).  Pet Semetary is about
a man name Louis Creed(Beacham, 754).  After his cat and son die, he buries them
in a nearby pet cemetery, which is actually an Indian burial ground.  After a
certain amount of time, the once dead become living(Beacham, 753).  The Eyes of
the Dragon is a limited book published in 1986-1987(Beacham, 747) , and Thinner
is a story about Billy Halleck, a  man cursed "thinner" by a gypsy for hitting
his nephew Thadius Lemke with his car.
	King believes that "A story must be paramount, because it defies the
entire work of fiction." and "Theme, mood, and language are secondary."
	King has written many enjoyable books throughout the years and if he
continues at the rate he is going , will be the  most popular horror/fiction
author of kids and adults.







o



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Stephen King The King of Terror.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Stephen King: The King of Terror


        Stephen Edwin King is one of today's most popular and best selling
writers. King combines the elements of psychological thrillers, science fiction,
the paranormal, and detective themes into his stories.  In addition to these
themes, King sticks to using great and vivid detail that is set in a realistic
everyday place.  Stephen King who is mainly known for his novels, has broadened
his horizons to different types of writings such as movie scripts, nonfiction,
autobiographies, children's books, and short stories.  While Stephen King might
be best known for his novels The Stand and It, some of his best work that has
been published are his short stories such as "The Body" and "Quitters Inc".
King's works are so powerful because he uses his experience and observations
from his everyday life and places them into  his unique  stories.
        Stephen Edwin King was born in Portland, Maine, on September 21, 1947,
at the Maine General Hospital.  Stephen, his mother Nellie, and his adopted
brother David were left to fend for themselves when Stephen's father Donald, a
Merchant Marine captain, left one day, to go the store to buy a pack of
cigarettes, and never returned.  His fathers leaving had a big indirect impact
on King's life.  In the autobiographical work Danse Macabre, Stephen King
recalls how his family life was altered:  "After my father took off, my mother,
struggled, and then landed on her feet."  My brother and I didn't see a great
deal of her over the next nine years.  She worked a succession of continuous low
paying jobs."  Stephen's first outlooks on life were influenced by his older
brother and what he figured out on his own.  While young Stephen and his family
moved around the North Eastern and Central United States.  When he was seven
years old, they moved to Stratford, Connecticut.  Here is where King got his
first exposure to horror.  One evening he listened to the radio adaptation of
Ray Bradbury's story "Mars Is Heaven!" That night King recalls he "slept in the
doorway, where the real and rational light of the bathroom bulb could shine on
my face" (Beaham  16).   Stephen King's exposure to oral storytelling on the
radio had a large impact on his later writings.  King tells his stories in
visual terms so that the reader would be able to "see" what was happening in
their own mind, somewhat in the same fashion the way it was done on the radio
(Beaham 17).  King's fascination with horror early on continued and was pushed
along only a couple weeks after Bradbury's story.  One day little Stephen was
looking through his mother's books and came across one named "The Strange Case
of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde."
 After his mother finished reading the book to him, Stephen was hooked.  He
immediately asked her  to read it again.  King recalls "that summer when I was
seven, [my mother] must have read it to me half a dozen times"(Beaham  17).
Ironically that same year, while Stephen was still seven years old, he went to
go see his first horror movie, The Creature from the Black Lagoon.  This is
important because Stephen says, " Since [the movie], I still see things
cinematically.  I write down everything I see.  What I see, it seems like a
movie to me"(Beaham  17). During this year the biggest event that probably had
the biggest impact on Stephen King's writing style was the discovery of the
author H. P. Lovecraft.  King would later write of Lovecraft, "He struck with
the most force, and I still think, for all his shortcomings, he is the best
writer of horror fiction that America has yet produced"(Beaham  22).  In many of
Lovecraft's writings he always used his present surroundings as the back drop of
his stories.  King has followed in his footsteps with the fictional town of
Castle Rock, Maine.  Castle Rock  is a combination of several towns that King
moved to and from with his family in his childhood. The main town that it
resembles is that of Durham, Maine.  It was after the exposure to H. P.
Lovecraft's stories that King first began to write.
        While growing up and moving around the way his family did, Stephen had
never been able to feel comfortable and settle down in one place and make
friends they way other kids his age did (Underwood  77).  Around the age of
twelve the King family finally settled in the town of Durham, Maine.  For
Stephen King, Durham was the place where his imagination began to shine.  It was
at this time that Stephen first began to make friends.  Along with his friends,
Stephen would go the movies a lot.  Stephen would use the movies as a
inspiration.  Although he enjoyed going out and having fun, whenever he would
come home, Stephen would immediately write down his experiences and observations.
 Frequently King would place his friends and family into childhood fantasy tales.
 And one would always know how Stephen felt about them because of how long they
lived in the story.    It was not until college that Stephen King received any
kind of real recognition for his writings.  In the Fall of 1967, King finished
his first novel, The Long Walk, and turned it into his  sophomore American
Literature professor for review.  After a couple of weeks and a couple rounds
around the department, the English professors were stunned.  They realized that
they had a real writer on their hands. >From then until he graduated with a
bachelors degree in English from University of Maine at Orono in the Spring of
1970, King concentrated on  rounding off the edges of his writing technique.
        One short story that best shows the type and technique of Stephen King's
writing is "The Body."  "The Body", which has been adapted into to a Hollywood
movie, was first published in the collection of short stories called Different
Seasons.  The story is a tale of four twelve year old friends who at the end of
one summer go out on a journey in into the woods to see a dead body.  While on
their journey  they learn about life, friendship, and are propelled from
innocent to experienced.  On the surface of the story it appears to be simple
journey with its occasional mishaps, but the true magnificence is that this
story has a strong autobiographical coincidence.  The main character, Gordie
Lachance,  is a boy growing up on his own through the memory of his dead older
brother.  Growing up, Gordie, an avid story teller,  dreamed of becoming a
writer. Before  his brothers accidental death, all his parents would ever care
about was his brother.  Since his death, Gordie's parents have presumably shut
themselves away from Gordie.  This, to a certain degree is true of King.
Because of his father leaving when Stephen was two, and his mother taking on
around the clock jobs, he never really had any parental guidance.
        The story itself is written with Gordie narrating in the present time
look back at the journey.  At the time of his flashback, Gordie is a best
selling author who has returned to his home town of Castle Rock to revisit his
past.  This is ironic because at the time Stephen wrote the story he himself had
just moved from Bolder, Colorado, back "home" to the town of Bangor.  King's
childhood home town of Durham is used in several different stories under the
fictional town name of Castle Rock.  It is also noticeable how in the story when
Gordie "looks" back to him and his brother, his brother is the only person who
cares for him.  He noticeably goes out of his way to look out for Gordie, and is
always encouraging his and asking him about his writing, while all his parents
seem to do is ignore Gordie.  This also can be related to King's past because
while growing up his brother while only two years older then him, always seemed
to be there for Stephen and look out for him.  Probably the deepest imagery of
the story is at the end of the novel.  Gordie is shown back at home and putting
the finishing touches on his latest work.  While finishing up,  Gordie is
interrupted by his son who is shown in a sense to be a good-natured and caring
boy.  Gordie experiences a deep love for his family at the time.  This setup is
presumably placed in the story as an escape for King.
 In his autobiography Danse Macabre, King tells of his fear of providing for and
caring for a family (Reino  112).  This shows King pushing away the fear, in a
sense saying that he is all right.  That he has now embraced the idea.
        One of King's best work is also one that does not fit in any category of
his usual writings.  For an author who usually writes horror, "Rita Hayworth and
Shawshank Redemption", is a story that is a refreshing sidestep.  The story
tells of  how Andy Dufresne,  who is falsely tried, convicted, and sentenced to
back to back life sentences for the double murder of his wife and her lover,
deals with being trapped within a dreadful situation that are out of his hands.
Throughout the nineteen years that he is in Shawshank prison, Andy has to endure
everything from a gang called the "Sisters", who go around raping and beating
their prey to being forced to create and run a money laundering  scheme for the
prison Warden.  If this story was written without the authors name on it, there
is none of Stephen King's characteristic style, except for maybe in one place in
the story.  The one possible place that even hints that it is from the mind of
King is at the end of the story where Red is off to keep his promise to Andy.
Andy asks Red, that when he get out of jail to travel to a southern Maine town
called Buxton and look for something he buried in a "hay field under a large oak
field."  The suspense of what was buried and the description of the field in
Buxton is what  is typical of Stephen King.  While the story is very
uncharacteristic of King it does deep down relate to himself.  The theme of hope
and of how Andy overcomes the situation is one that is tied closely to King.  It
runs a direct parallel with life as a child and how his life has turned out.
Just as Andy was thrown into predicament and later escapes and lives his life on
his own terms, Stephen, early on was forced to move from town to town with
mother and brother.  In the end Stephen escapes and now lives on his own terms.
        Stephen King's works are so powerful because he uses his experiences and
observations from his life and places them into his unique works.  What seems to
make Stephen King's stories almost magical is that the settings of his stories
are placed into common every day places.  Additionally, Stephen's writings are
true to life in peoples mind's because he draws upon common fears.  Just as King'
s writing style and genre  had been influenced by movies throughout  his life,
he is now influencing the same industry with his own vision and imagination.
King's writings are so widely appealing that over 42 of his works have been
based upon or turned into Hollywood movies  which have included stars like Jack
Nicholson (The Shining), John Travolta (Carrie), and Morgan Freeman (The
Shawshank Redemption).


 Works Cited

Beaham ,  George .  Stephen King Companion , The Kansas City :
     Universal Press Syndicate Company,  1995 .

Beaham ,  George .  Stephen King Story, The : A Literary Profile .
     Kansas City : Universal Press Syndicate Company , 1992 .

King ,  Stephen .  "Body ,  The in Different Seasons .  New York :
     Viking Penguin Inc .,  1982 .

King ,  Stephen .  "Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption" in Different        Seasons .  New York :  Viking Penguin
     Inc .,  1982 .

Reino ,  Joseph .  Stephen King :  The First Decade ,  Carrie to
     Pet Sematary . Boston :  Twayne Publishers ,  1988 .

Underwood ,  Tom . Conversations on Terror with Stephen King .  New York :
     Warner Books ,  1988 .




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Stephen King.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Stephen King


     Stephen King is a well-known and talented horror/fiction author who has
published over eleven books in the last two decades.  His great stories of
horror and fantasy have been enjoyed by kids and adults starting from his first
best-seller, Carrie.  King's wit and style of writing has made him one of the
most popular horror story authors today.
	Stephen King's life has not been an easy one.  he was born on September
21, 1947, in Portland Maine(Bleiler, 1038).  His father left when he was two and
gave him only a collection of supernatural fiction stories(Bleiler, 1038).  By
age twelve, he was submitting short stories into different magazines such as
"The Glass Floor", in 1967(Beacham, 747).  After his graduation from the
University of Maine with a B.A. in English teaching(Bleiler, 1038), King
published many best sellers that won these awards: The British Fantasy
Award(1982), The World Fantasy Award(1982), and the Hugo Award(1985)(Beacham,
748).
	Stephen King written many great books throughout his writing career.
Carrie, King's first best seller, is about a teenager who is ridiculed and
harassed throughout high school(Bleiler, 1031).  After she is finally pushed to
the limit, her true side is finally exposed. Cujo, involves a ferocious dog that
starts out so innocent and kind , and ends up a brutal man killer(Bleiler, 1031).
 The Shining, takes place in a motel that is haunted(Beacham, 748).  Jack
Torrence is a writer who is ridden by guilt and failure(Beacham, 749).  After
Torrence, his wife, and his five year old son are snowed in for the week, they
finally realize the evil that the motel actually possesses.  In Firestarter, a
little girl possesses the power to start fires with her mind. These powers were
givin to her as a test by the government(Bleiler, 1041).  Pet Semetary is about
a man name Louis Creed(Beacham, 754).  After his cat and son die, he buries them
in a nearby pet cemetery, which is actually an Indian burial ground.  After a
certain amount of time, the once dead become living(Beacham, 753).  The Eyes of
the Dragon is a limited book published in 1986-1987(Beacham, 747) , and Thinner
is a story about Billy Halleck, a  man cursed "thinner" by a gypsy for hitting
his nephew Thadius Lemke with his car.
	King believes that "A story must be paramount, because it defies the
entire work of fiction." and "Theme, mood, and language are secondary."
	King has written many enjoyable books throughout the years and if he
continues at the rate he is going , will be the  most popular horror/fiction
author of kids and adults.







o



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\stephen vincent benet an american author.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 

	Only in a time when the pressure of the world amounts to angst and the fight for freedom can a world advance in it's literary achievements. A writer, just like an artist, builds his creations from the mood and settings of the surrounding atmosphere. In the first half of the twentieth century, the atmosphere was filled with resources to stimulate literary creativity, such as the second World War and the Great Depression (Roache  102: 14). The social genre of the time gave way to the broad appeal to American life and the focus of freedom leading to original stories and historical themes (Folsom 3: 953). Of course, the past would remain a constant influence. Some common topics were the Civil War and the settlement of western U.S. frontier life (Magill 1: 174). Stephen Vincent Benet took all these factors into mind during his life as a twentieth century writer/poet. Keeping the times, the life, and the literature of Stephen Vincent Benet a major part of his influence and achievements, he helped push America towards a united cultural victory.
	Stephen Vincent Benet was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to James Walker Benet, a career military officer, and Francis Neill Rose Benet on the twenty-second of July 1898 (Roache 102: 11, 13). He described himself as a positive-thinking and modest man, who is thin, attractive, vivacious, whereas his wife and his mother-in-law would consider him a plain, tall, large biter-of-nails who carries a foolish expression, but whose intellect is too much for words (Parsekian 1).
	He couldn't have been too foolish of a person due to his positive upbringing. Benet's parents planned for him to be a success in whatever he chose to do. Their open-mindedness encouraged him to explore books and ideas in a professional state., as well as to appreciate and take literature and history very seriously (Roache 102: 13). Because of this upbringing, all three Benet children became poets and authors. (Stephen Vincent Benet was the youngest of them.) Much influence over the Benets came from love for the country because James' military work called for traveling between Georgia, California, Illinois, New York, and Pennsylvania (Griffith 11).
	Benet's education shows how successful he really was. He entered Yale University at 17 years old, when he published his first book. About that time, he became professional with New York writers (Roache 102: 13). Stephen Vincent Benet earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1919 and his Master of Arts degree in 1920 at Yale before accepting a fellowship to Paris where he could live cheaply and write his first novel and would later find his wife. One attempt to enlist in the army and follow in the footsteps of his father failed in 1918, leading him to a job working for the State Department in Washington, DC before re-entering Yale (Magill 1: 171). In 1929, Benet was entered into the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1938, which he stayed a member of until his death (Folsom 3: 954).
	While in Yale, Benet held many other jobs such as editor, contributor, and chairman of the Yale Literary Magazine, then editor and contributor of the undergraduate humor magazine Yale Record. These jobs gave way to him working on S4N, a New Haven magazine of poetry. In 1919, Benet published the play of Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlains the Great (1590) with Monty Wooley by Yale University Press. In 1920, he published Heavens and Earth as his thesis during his graduate study in England by Holt (Griffith 12). Other editorial jobs include reviewing for the New York Herald Tribune and the Saturday Review of Literature, and the Yale Series of Younger Poets competition in 1933 (Magill 1: 71). In 1945, Benet published a collection of radio scripts called We Stand United, and Other Radio Scripts as a propagandistic war effort that he felt was his destiny (Magill 1: 170).
	Another destiny was marriage. He married Rosemary Carr on November 26, 1921 through the fellowship to Paris in 1920. They started living in Chicago, then Paris, Hollywood, and New York (Roache 102: 13). She was an unpretentious only child who never said mean things to anyone (Parsekian 1). She gave him three children: Stephani Jane (1924), Thomas Carr (1925), and Rachel (1931) (Magill 1: 172).
	Benet has always been a popular person by large. He was more widely read than Frost, Eliot, and many classical writers. Every lecture hall and poetry workshop wanted him as a guest and his books sold tens of thousands (Griffith 11). In July 1929, John Brown's Body won the Pulitzer Prize and "The Devil and Daniel Webster" won the O. Henry Memorial Award (Roache 102: 14). "King David" got The Nation's poetry prize in 1923 when he was only 25 years old, the Theodore Roosevelt Medal for literary accomplishment was given to him in 1933, and he received the Gold Medal for Literature from the National Institute of Arts and Letters with another Pulitzer Prize for Western Star before his death. 
	Stephen Vincent Benet had a stoke of bad health between 1930 to 1943 with arthritis of the spine and other illnesses. Overwork caused hospitalization in 1939 by a nervous breakdown. At 44 on March 13, 1943, he was announced dead by a heart attack (Magill 1: 171-172). He was buried (later with his wife and older daughter) in Main Street cemetery in Stenington (Parsekian 1).
	The literature of Stephen Vincent Benet has and always will be seen as some of the greatest literary and artistic works ever created. His short stories turned people on due to the straight-forward manner they were presented in and the availability for significant relevance to self-revelation. His writings could enrapture a reader like no other (Folsom 3: 953). His short stories recognized "both bitter and the sweet" such as in "A Death In the County" where a man learns that his past can help his present (Roache 102: 17). His poems are popular because they portray traditions realistically and the patriotism of them is outstanding. Charles A. Fenton said Benet "wrote short stories for money and poetry for love" as a witness to the revelation his writings hold (Roache 102: 13, 18).
	The styles of Benet's short stories were showing lots of symbolism and humor to deepen the stories. He also used a historical base to portray realism and have a propagandistic overview. He individualizes the people through speaking without distracting the reader. He also paralleled bible stories and parables to symbolize slaves winning freedom in "Freedom's a Hard-Bought Thing." The content of his stories are mainly patriotic as well as what the common man of the present time wants and went only as far as his money needs went (Folsom 3: 956-957). In "Johnnie Pye and the Fool-Killer," Benet begins in direct voice as the narrator, then runs into a mass of dialect (34). The theme of that short story is the everlasting existence of youth and naïve predictions (Benet 34). Benet's themes ranged from ideological concerns in "Fantasies and Prophesies" to human reality in "The Devil and Daniel Webster" or tragicomic ironies in "A Story By Angela Poe" (Roache 102: 14). 
	Poetry was a completely other thing. Benet's style consisted of local humor and short phrases such as in "The Mountain Whippoorwill" (Griffith 13). In John Brown's Body, the content of poetry remains the same as in short stories. He was a historically brought up person who reflected his past in historical writing and poetry. The theme of Benet's poetry ranged widely. The most successful poem is the novel-length John Brown's Body, whose theme is American victory. Being paid for at such a high level, this poem had been well worth it's wait. He won a Pulitzer Prize for it and gave his personal version of history center stage (Magill 1: 170,174). 
	Stephen Vincent Benet wrote books as well as poems, radio scripts, and plays. His editing and contributions to American literature and his family of Americans may have been a bigger gift than anyone could ever receive. Knowledge is the power Benet used and it was the power that gave American literature the victory of achieving such high standards. So, if the times, the life, and the literature of Stephen Vincent Benet are as strong in leadership and knowledge as an American force, then the country has won a victory for it's poetry and prose.  








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Stephen Vincent Benet.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Stephen Vincent Benet


	Only in a time when the pressure of the world amounts to angst and the
fight for freedom can a world advance in it's literary achievements. A writer,
just like an artist, builds his creations from the mood and settings of the
surrounding atmosphere. In the first half of the twentieth century, the
atmosphere was filled with resources to stimulate literary creativity, such as
the second World War and the Great Depression (Roache  102: 14). The social
genre of the time gave way to the broad appeal to American life and the focus of
freedom leading to original stories and historical themes (Folsom 3: 953). Of
course, the past would remain a constant influence. Some common topics were the
Civil War and the settlement of western U.S. frontier life (Magill 1: 174).
Stephen Vincent Benet took all these factors into mind during his life as a
twentieth century writer/poet. Keeping the times, the life, and the literature
of Stephen Vincent Benet a major part of his influence and achievements, he
helped push America towards a united cultural victory.
	Stephen Vincent Benet was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania to James
Walker Benet, a career military officer, and Francis Neill Rose Benet on the
twenty-second of July 1898 (Roache 102: 11, 13). He described himself as a
positive-thinking and modest man, who is thin, attractive, vivacious, whereas
his wife and his mother-in-law would consider him a plain, tall, large biter-of-
nails who carries a foolish expression, but whose intellect is too much for
words (Parsekian 1).
	He couldn't have been too foolish of a person due to his positive
upbringing. Benet's parents planned for him to be a success in whatever he chose
to do. Their open-mindedness encouraged him to explore books and ideas in a
professional state., as well as to appreciate and take literature and history
very seriously (Roache 102: 13). Because of this upbringing, all three Benet
children became poets and authors. (Stephen Vincent Benet was the youngest of
them.) Much influence over the Benets came from love for the country because
James' military work called for traveling between Georgia, California, Illinois,
New York, and Pennsylvania (Griffith 11).
	Benet's education shows how successful he really was. He entered Yale
University at 17 years old, when he published his first book. About that time,
he became professional with New York writers (Roache 102: 13). Stephen Vincent
Benet earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1919 and his Master of Arts degree
in 1920 at Yale before accepting a fellowship to Paris where he could live
cheaply and write his first novel and would later find his wife. One attempt to
enlist in the army and follow in the footsteps of his father failed in 1918,
leading him to a job working for the State Department in Washington, DC before
re-entering Yale (Magill 1: 171). In 1929, Benet was entered into the National
Institute of Arts and Letters in 1938, which he stayed a member of until his
death (Folsom 3: 954).
	While in Yale, Benet held many other jobs such as editor, contributor,
and chairman of the Yale Literary Magazine, then editor and contributor of the
undergraduate humor magazine Yale Record. These jobs gave way to him working on
S4N, a New Haven magazine of poetry. In 1919, Benet published the play of
Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlains the Great (1590) with Monty Wooley by Yale
University Press. In 1920, he published Heavens and Earth as his thesis during
his graduate study in England by Holt (Griffith 12). Other editorial jobs
include reviewing for the New York Herald Tribune and the Saturday Review of
Literature, and the Yale Series of Younger Poets competition in 1933 (Magill 1:
71). In 1945, Benet published a collection of radio scripts called We Stand
United, and Other Radio Scripts as a propagandistic war effort that he felt was
his destiny (Magill 1: 170).
	Another destiny was marriage. He married Rosemary Carr on November 26,
1921 through the fellowship to Paris in 1920. They started living in Chicago,
then Paris, Hollywood, and New York (Roache 102: 13). She was an unpretentious
only child who never said mean things to anyone (Parsekian 1). She gave him
three children: Stephani Jane (1924), Thomas Carr (1925), and Rachel (1931)
(Magill 1: 172).
	Benet has always been a popular person by large. He was more widely read
than Frost, Eliot, and many classical writers. Every lecture hall and poetry
workshop wanted him as a guest and his books sold tens of thousands (Griffith
11). In July 1929, John Brown's Body won the Pulitzer Prize and "The Devil and
Daniel Webster" won the O. Henry Memorial Award (Roache 102: 14). "King David"
got The Nation's poetry prize in 1923 when he was only 25 years old, the
Theodore Roosevelt Medal for literary accomplishment was given to him in 1933,
and he received the Gold Medal for Literature from the National Institute of
Arts and Letters with another Pulitzer Prize for Western Star before his death.
	Stephen Vincent Benet had a stoke of bad health between 1930 to 1943
with arthritis of the spine and other illnesses. Overwork caused hospitalization
in 1939 by a nervous breakdown. At 44 on March 13, 1943, he was announced dead
by a heart attack (Magill 1: 171-172). He was buried (later with his wife and
older daughter) in Main Street cemetery in Stenington (Parsekian 1).
	The literature of Stephen Vincent Benet has and always will be seen as
some of the greatest literary and artistic works ever created. His short stories
turned people on due to the straight-forward manner they were presented in and
the availability for significant relevance to self-revelation. His writings
could enrapture a reader like no other (Folsom 3: 953). His short stories
recognized "both bitter and the sweet" such as in "A Death In the County" where
a man learns that his past can help his present (Roache 102: 17). His poems are
popular because they portray traditions realistically and the patriotism of them
is outstanding. Charles A. Fenton said Benet "wrote short stories for money and
poetry for love" as a witness to the revelation his writings hold (Roache 102:
13, 18).
	The styles of Benet's short stories were showing lots of symbolism and
humor to deepen the stories. He also used a historical base to portray realism
and have a propagandistic overview. He individualizes the people through
speaking without distracting the reader. He also paralleled bible stories and
parables to symbolize slaves winning freedom in "Freedom's a Hard-Bought Thing."
The content of his stories are mainly patriotic as well as what the common man
of the present time wants and went only as far as his money needs went (Folsom
3: 956-957). In "Johnnie Pye and the Fool-Killer," Benet begins in direct voice
as the narrator, then runs into a mass of dialect (34). The theme of that short
story is the everlasting existence of youth and naïve predictions (Benet 34).
Benet's themes ranged from ideological concerns in "Fantasies and Prophesies" to
human reality in "The Devil and Daniel Webster" or tragicomic ironies in "A
Story By Angela Poe" (Roache 102: 14).
	Poetry was a completely other thing. Benet's style consisted of local
humor and short phrases such as in "The Mountain Whippoorwill" (Griffith 13). In
John Brown's Body, the content of poetry remains the same as in short stories.
He was a historically brought up person who reflected his past in historical
writing and poetry. The theme of Benet's poetry ranged widely. The most
successful poem is the novel-length John Brown's Body, whose theme is American
victory. Being paid for at such a high level, this poem had been well worth it's
wait. He won a Pulitzer Prize for it and gave his personal version of history
center stage (Magill 1: 170,174).
	Stephen Vincent Benet wrote books as well as poems, radio scripts, and
plays. His editing and contributions to American literature and his family of
Americans may have been a bigger gift than anyone could ever receive. Knowledge
is the power Benet used and it was the power that gave American literature the
victory of achieving such high standards. So, if the times, the life, and the
literature of Stephen Vincent Benet are as strong in leadership and knowledge as
an American force, then the country has won a victory for it's poetry and prose.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Steve Prefontaine.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
1015
GO PRE Why keep writing all the books and essays about Americas greatest running legend, Prefontaine? Why can't we let Pre simply die? I would imagine these questions come up with many not associated with running. With this I hope to answer those questions. Many people have never heard of the person Steve Prefontaine. These people are not ignorant; they just have not followed America's distance running. In distance running Prefontaine, better known as just Pre, is truly a LEGEND. The people that knew Pre could see the passion and desire in everything that he did. Pre was born in Coos Bay, Oregon. When Pre was young he loved to play all sports. He was a gifted athlete from the beginning. His only problem was that he was smaller than the other kids his age. When he got into Junior High School he was directed towards running because of his size factor. Prefontaine loved the sport and decided to run cross-country at Marshfield High School in Coos Bay. When track season came around, Steve ran the distance races for his team. After losing one particular race he promised that he would not lose another in his high school career. Prefontaine did just that, he didn't lose a single cross country or track race including the state championships. Accomplishing this task allowed Pre to go to college. He earned himself a full scholarship to the University of Oregon. The University is located in Eugene, Oregon not far from Coos Bay where he grew up as a child. While at Oregon, Pre ran as their number one runner from freshman year all the way through his senior year. Pre set numerous National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) records. Ever since sixth grade I've been running long distance races but not until my freshman year did I learn about the legend of Pre. He has inspired my teammates and myself to give it all we have and to run a race not to see who's the fastest but to see who's got the most guts. Steve said a version of that in one of his great speeches. Any race he ran was better than I have ever done and better than I will ever do but I still strive toward his accomplishments and give everything I have. Every race that I have run, he is in my thoughts and I strive and strive until I give it all I've got and that is never enough. I can always run a good race but it is most likely not with all my strength and guts. Steve always gave everything he had, in every race he ever ran. An example of that is when he had an injury prior to the race on his leg. With the throbbing pain, he finished first and even got one of his better times. That is every runner's goal; to go all out every time, no matter what's trying to hold you back. As far as idols go, I suppose Pre is one of the greater ones, despite his drinking habits (that was the cause for his death.) On the other hand, there's only one thing I remember about Pre's high school times. It was when Pre was a sophomore in high school. He ran the 2-mile in 10:20, not at all unusual for a distance runner of that age -- in fact, something we could attain ourselves. When he was a senior in high school, he ran the same distance in 8:41.7, a national record. In college, his record was even more phenomenal, and at the time of his death he held every American record between 2,000 and 10,000 meters. Much is made of Steve Prefontaine's talent. There was no small amount of that. He had an incredible aerobic capacity. He had an incredible physical ability to train hard, recover -- and then race much, much harder. But there was more -- for talent alone cannot ensure success in any endeavor. He is the man who inspired Nike to develop athletic shoes, although I'm sure he wouldn't support their current slogan, "Just Do It." To merely do is not nearly enough; at least not enough for Steve Prefontaine. Pre was a ferocious competitor. He hated to not lead. He never let go. Many have described Pre after a race as a near-wreck. In trashing his competitors, it is said that he rarely failed to trash himself in the process -- it's just that everyone else dropped first. Off the track, Pre could be just as ferocious -- fighting for the rights of athletes, battling the AAU and excoriating the Willamette Valley field burners that he felt threatened for his health and the health of others. Pre's life came to a tragic end when he drank too much at a party celebrating his victory. He had tried to drive home while under the influence of the alcohol and flipped several times hitting a boulder. It was his only other loss and his worst defeat. He couldn't fight it out like he did on the track. He was dying and no one could save him. He lost his last race in life. Steve Prefontaine is America's Greatest Distance Runner. More than twenty years after his tragic death, he continues to inspire distance runners across the nation with his impressive times, great quotes, and unique running ability. Let Pre die? Still don't think he's that great? Check out some of his personal bests: 1 mile 3:54.6 2 miles 8:18.4 3 miles 12:51.4 6 miles 26:51.4 2000 meters 5:01.4 3000 meters 7:42.6 5000 meters 13:22.2 10000 meters 27:43.6 "To give anything less than your best is to sacrifice the gift." -Steve Prefontaine "Some people create with words, or with music, or with a brush and paints. I like to make something beautiful when I run. I like to make people stop and say, "I've never seen anyone run like that before." It's more then just a race; it's a style. It's doing something better then anyone else. It's being creative." -Steve Prefontaine
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Steve Wozniak.TXT
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Steve Wozniak
Steve Wozniak's childhood had a big effect on his revolutionary developments in the computer world. Wozniak grew up in Sunnyvale California. His family lived in a development built for Lockheed engineers like his father. (Rose, 26) As a teenager he w During his high school years, Wozniak was a prankster and was once suspended for placing a metronome disguised as a bomb in a friends locker. (Brodhagen, 1) The more serious side of Wozniak loved electronics and spent one day a week working at Sylvania Electronics, where Wozniak's love for computers grew. Wozniak was working with electronics from an early age. In 1962 Wozniak built a calculator using a few electronic components and entered it in a local science fair. (Brodhagen, 1) It won him a prize. In 1971 Wozniak and his friend Bill Fernandez built a computer in Fernandez?s garage. (Rose,25-26) They called it t Wozniak decided to go the University of California at Berkeley after he returned from C! olorado State. While he was there, his mother sent him an article about a mysterious person who called himself ?Captain Crunch.Ó (Rose, 27) Crunch would build electronic boxes, known as blue boxes, that mimicked the tones governing telephone company switching equipment. This allowed him to make free long distance phone calls. Apparently Crunch was the leader of an underground group who called themselves the ?phone phreaks.Ó They would use technology to get what they wanted, but they wope by staying one step ahead of the police. Wozniak was extremely interested and called his friend from high school, Steven Jobs. (Rose, 27) They decided to go into business selling them. Wozniak managed to make one which only used forty dollars worth of parts, instead of the 1,500 dollars it cost Captain Crunch. Wozniak and Jobs then went to college campuses and sold them to dorms for 150 dollars and up. Wozniak became obsessed with ?phreakingÓ and almost forgot about school. This is! the first example of Wozniak?s In 1975 personal computers became a reality. The Altair 8800 was released. (Rose, 31) It was a computer kit. It came with all the pieces that were needed to build it, and it was then assembled by the consumer who bought it. It was really designed for computer hobbyists, who loved the fact that they were able to build it. It had its down side though. Once it was assembled, there wasn?t much that it could do. The Altair 8800 inspired two men to start the ?Homebrew Computer Club.Ó (Rose, 32) Wozniak was among the thirty-two people who attended the first meeting. The club was for computer hobbyists who wanted to talk about computers. They would share any new information that they ?discoveredÓ and talk about computer designs, components, etc. Wozniak found t Wozniak was working for Hewlett Packard and Jobs was working for Atari. (Rose, 32) Sometimes Jobs would let Wozniak come in to Atari at night and play games. Once Jobs had an idea f! or a game, Breakout, and he convinced Wozniak to make it. It took Wozniak only four days to make it. This further evidence of Wozniak's early ability to manipulate computers, not just as a builder, but as a programmer. Something that came in very handy when he was designing the Apple I. From a very early age Wozniak wanted his own computer. (Rose, 26) This became possible when the Altair 8800 came out. Wozniak heard about it from members of the club, but he could not afford the 395 dollars it cost. (Rose, 32) In fact, he did not even have the money to buy the 179 dollar Intel 8080 microprocessor that ran it. This howe Instead of using the Intel chip, Wozniak bought a cheap microprocessor, the 6502, that a company called MOS Technology was selling for twenty-five dollars. (Rose, 32) Then Wozniak used his ingenuity and knowledge of computers to build his first working computer. Jobs fell in love with Wozniak?s design and persuaded him to go into business. Together the! y started Apple computers in early 1976. Jobs was the people person who would sell the computers and Wozniak was the engineer who would design and build the computers. (Rose, 32-33) The process for building the computer was very hard and very tedious. First Wozniak had to write a program, in hex, to monitor the keyboard. (Turly, 1-2) Then Wozniak revised his computer and Jobs was able to get him six sample RAM chips from Intel because they were the best RAM chips on the market. Then Wozniak wired the whole thing together. The building of the physical computer was not the only obstacle that Wozniak One man building a computer and writing all the code was uncommon, but it happened. What made Wozniak special was the fact that his computer worked. Many other companies came out with personal computers, but most of them went out of business. (Laureate, 1) Wozniak?s understanding of electronics helped him when he built his computer because it had ports so that it was expand! able. Big corporations thought the little computers that companies like Apple made were useless and that they would not succeed. (Rose, 34-36) It was no wonder that Hewlett Packard refused Wozniak's offer to sell them his computer. It was the young entrepreneurs like Wozniak that changed computer history for ev To get their company going, Wozniak sold his programmable calculator and Jobs his van and they raised a total of 1,300 dollars. (Rose,34) Then Jobs went searching for people to fund them. It took him a couple of months, but he finally found Mike Markkula who, like so many others, fell in love with Wozniak's computer and bought a third of the company?s shares for 341,000 dollars. Now Apple was a company. They started to sell the Apple I for 666.66 dollars with the slogan ?Newton...ÔA Mind Forever Voyaging Through Strange Seas of Thought...Alone.?Ó (Rose, 33) This slogan, as strange as it was, helped Apple sales. They had started the company in Jobs?s garage, b! ut now they were ready to move out and really get their business going. Wozniak slaved on to make the Apple computer better. Once Appl In 1981 Apple computer was doing pretty well and life was going great for Wozniak. His company was making the highest selling computer on the market. Then he took off in his single-engine Beechcraft airplane on February 7. (Rose, 52) The plane lifted off the ground, shuddered and crashed. When Wozniak woke up in the hospital he could not remember the crash or anything before it. He had amnesia for five weeks. After he recovered from the cras Apple became so great that it earned Wozniak and Jobs an award that had not been presented for over one hundred years. (Rose, 249-250) In May of 1984 President Reagan gave them the National Technology Award. Wozniak?s dream to own his own computer had turned into a multi-billion dollar company. Two weeks earlier Wozniak had left Apple to work on an universal remote control. Wozniak?s developments! in computers were revolutionary. Kenn Brodhagen said ?Steve Wozniak is probably one of the most influential hardware engineers in the field of computers...Ó (1) Dave Whiner described Apple this way: ?If Apple was the Beatles, Steve Jobs would have been Paul McCartney. The commercializer, pop icon. Steve Wozniak would have been a combination Starr -- a combination poet and teddy bear. It was Jobs?s garage that Apple started in, but it was Wozniak?s computer.Ó (1) I think that this is a good and accurate portrayal of Apple Computers. Wozniak was obsessed with making computers and Jobs was obsessed with selling them. Wozniak?s childhood was a big part of his success in his later life. As a child and young adult he spent all his free time either on pranks or tinkering with electronics. Then when he grew up and wanted a computer he put every thing that he learned as a child and young adult into use and did what he had to do. He built a computer that worked. The co! mputer he built, then became the first personal computer that the every day person could use. It was not just made for the computer hacker. That is why Wozniak was so successful. He made a computer that was expandable, fairly easy to use and something that the consumer would buy. Wozniak changed the computer industry because once he made his computer and Steve Wozniak?s prankster nature changed the world for ever. Since he tended not to listen to what people say, he didn?t get discouraged when people told him he was wrong or that he would fail. He just kept on working. The result of all his work was that the personal computer became a reality. He is one of the greatest men alive. His work effects tens-of-millions of people every In researching this paper I looked in a recent MacMall (a mail order catalog that specializes in selling Apple products) and there were twelve different computers made by Apple. Ranging in price from 499.99 dollars to 4,199 dollars and from ! one that will fit in your pocket to one that will cover your whole desk. Apple also had a wide range of printers, scanners, drives and monitors. In my phone interview with Jim Harper he summed it up this way: ?Since 1984 Apple has sold twenty-six million Macintoshes. The Macintosh in your home is more powerful and faster than the computer that put the man on the moon. It all started back in 1976 with Steve Wozniak?s Apple I.Ó Performa User $Ú &
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Steven Spielberg.TXT
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536
I'm Steven Spielberg and I was born in Cincinnati on December 18, 1947, but I was mainly raised in New Jersey and Arizona. When I was 12 years old I used my dads 8mm camcorder and made a movie. I continued to make films with the camcorder for five more years until I went on a trip to Universal Studios. I was 17 years old and I broke away from the main tourist group to see the sound stages. I bumped into the head of Universal's editorial department, Chuck Silvers. We talked for about an hour and he wanted to see some of my 8mm films. When I showed them to him he said they were good but he could only wish me luck. So the next day I put on a suit and borrowed my fathers suitcase and walked in the front gate of Universal Studio's like I did it every day. One reason I got away with this is because the guard thought I was the owners son. I bought some plastic name tags at a camera store and I found an empty office. Then I put my name in the building directory. Everyday that summer I hung out with directors, writers, and editors. After talking to all of these movie makers I found out that nobody really liked my movies. The next fall I asked some of the executives at Universal how I can get my films noticed. They said I should put my films on 16 or 35mm film. So I did. I made a 20 minute movie about a boy and a girl hitch-hiking from the dessert to the Pacific. The day after it was shown at Universal, Sidney Sheinberg, the head of Universal's T.V. production department, gave me a seven year contract to work on T.V. series. The first few years of the contract were fun, but after a while I didn't want to direct T.V. shows. In 1971 I got a chance to make my first real movie. It was Called Duel and it was about a salesman who was harassed by a truck driver. Even though the movie didn't make much money and wasn't popular, it was my first movie and I had a lot of fun. During the next 10 years I directed 4 of the top 10 movies ever made, including Jaws, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Raiders of the Lost Ark, and E.T. which is number one. E.T.- The Extra Terrestrial made $720 million dollars worldwide in the theaters and over a billion dollars total with video sales. Some other movies I directed were, Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Jurassic Park, Always, and The Sugarland Express. Even though my most famous movies I made I directed, I also produced quite a few movies, including Poltergeist, Gremlins 1 and 2, all 3 Back to the Futures, and The Goonies. After my success at the movie theaters, I wanted to do a program on television. I chose Amazing Stories which allowed me to put my childhood stories on T.V. The show didn't get very good reviews and people didn't watch it. So the series was canceled after 24 episodes, 20 short from what was planned. I've been very successful in my career. The films I've made in the past have been entertaining to both children and adults. I now plan to start making more adult films. I hope to continue to amuse and entertain my audiences for many years to come.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Summary 4.TXT
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Summary                                10-16-96
By Rick R. Lopez	



	The American family today, has the same problems that the American family of yesterday had. Daniel A. Sugarman, a psychologist in "Family Practice" introduces us to several case studies that seem to be the main nucleus of family problems today. He has put together a system called "Seven Ways to Keep the Peace at Home," in which he describes seven different problems within our American households today that can cause  daily emotional and physical pain within the family structure. The Seven case studies are based on children's values that are driven by their parents emotions. "Giving up the myth of the perfect Family," is the starting point. This is where the parents low self esteem is driven into their child. The next step, "Tell it like you feel It," describes how families should share their feelings and not hold them in. After that comes, "Don't play telephone", this is where a third person is used to communicate between two parties. Another step is, "Make your blueprints Flexible," you should not pre-plan your child's life for them. Then he goes into the next step, which is about Contracts called, "Learn to use contracts." With this step the family makes contracts with one another and then monitors and up dates them so often. This helps with everybody holding to their end of the deal when it comes to the family issues. One of the worst steps of all is, "Stop the "Good Guy-"Bad Guy, " routine. I feel that having someone to blame for every problem that arises can devastate a child. Parents need to think about what they are going to say before they say it. The last step is, "Get rid of old emotional Baggage," I have personal experience in this category. I had a hard time in letting go of the old when trying to start new. 
	These seven steps that Dr. Sugarman has came up with are great ideas in dealing with Family problems. Parents are the teachers and kids are the students. Students can only learn by observing and role playing. Parents have to incorporate the daily stresses of life and vent their emotions and adult matters outside of the classroom and learn that what they do and say will be the example they set for their children. This will eventually lead to a  happier household. Families have to work at being families everyday and always remember that, "Their is no perfect family." 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Summary.TXT
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Summary                                10-16-96
By Rick R. Lopez	



	The American family today, has the same problems that the American family of yesterday had. Daniel A. Sugarman, a psychologist in "Family Practice" introduces us to several case studies that seem to be the main nucleus of family problems today. He has put together a system called "Seven Ways to Keep the Peace at Home," in which he describes seven different problems within our American households today that can cause  daily emotional and physical pain within the family structure. The Seven case studies are based on children's values that are driven by their parents emotions. "Giving up the myth of the perfect Family," is the starting point. This is where the parents low self esteem is driven into their child. The next step, "Tell it like you feel It," describes how families should share their feelings and not hold them in. After that comes, "Don't play telephone", this is where a third person is used to communicate between two parties. Another step is, "Make your blueprints Flexible," you should not pre-plan your child's life for them. Then he goes into the next step, which is about Contracts called, "Learn to use contracts." With this step the family makes contracts with one another and then monitors and up dates them so often. This helps with everybody holding to their end of the deal when it comes to the family issues. One of the worst steps of all is, "Stop the "Good Guy-"Bad Guy, " routine. I feel that having someone to blame for every problem that arises can devastate a child. Parents need to think about what they are going to say before they say it. The last step is, "Get rid of old emotional Baggage," I have personal experience in this category. I had a hard time in letting go of the old when trying to start new. 
	These seven steps that Dr. Sugarman has came up with are great ideas in dealing with Family problems. Parents are the teachers and kids are the students. Students can only learn by observing and role playing. Parents have to incorporate the daily stresses of life and vent their emotions and adult matters outside of the classroom and learn that what they do and say will be the example they set for their children. This will eventually lead to a  happier household. Families have to work at being families everyday and always remember that, "Their is no perfect family." 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\swahili.TXT
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SWAHILI

	The name Swahili derives from an Arabic word Swahili, the plural of sahel, which means coast.  The Swahili are the descendants of the Arabs who came to the East African coast and intermarried with the Local Bantu-speakers.  Arab traders sailed down to the coast on the north-east monsoon winds, between November and April, and sailed back up to south-west on the reverse monsoon winds, between June and October, already in pre-Islamic times.
	The coast, the land of Zenj to the Arabs, was inhabited by peoples of undetermined origin-perhaps by Bushmanoid groups, by Bantu speakers, perhaps by Cushitic-speakers, perhaps even by people of Indonesian ancestry(who had settled in Madagascar as early as the first millennium A.D. and conceivably could have settled further north as well).  Initially Arab immigration was scarce, settlement was sparse and it was limited to the islands.  But it did occur, marriage with the women of the coast took place and the first seeds for the eventual emergence of a Swahili culture were sown.
	The shirazi are also descendants of interracial marriages but in this case it was the Persians who came to the coast.  Shirazi is derived from the Persian word Shiraz, the capital of faz in Persia.  The Swahili and Shirazi people have almost indistinguishable from each other.  They are mainly traders and small businessmen.  Trade was increasing.  The material attractions of East Africa were ivory, rhino horn, turtle shell, and slaves.
	The three most important dialects of Swahili are Kiunguja, spoken on Zanzibar and in other mainland areas of Tanzania; Kimvita, spoken in Mombasa and other areas of Kenya; and Kiamu, spoken on the island of Lamu and adjoining parts of the coast.  Standard Swahili is based on the Kinguja dialect.


						
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sylvia Plath 4.TXT
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The Life of Sylvia Plath 


	Sylvia Plath¹s life,  like her manic depression,  constantly jumped between Heaven and Hell.  Her seemingly perfect exterior hid a turbulent and deeply troubled spirit.  A closer look at  her childhood and personal experiences removes some element of mystery from her writings.
	One central character to Sylvia Plath¹s poems is her father, Professor Otto Emile Plath.   Otto Plath was diabetic and  refused to stay away from foods restricted by his doctor.  As a result ,  he developed a sore on his left foot.  Professor Plath ignored the sore,  and eventually the foot was overcome with gangrene.  The foot and then the entire left leg were amputated in an effort to save his life,  but he died in November of 1940, when Sylvia was just eight years old.
	The fact that her father could have prevented his death left Sylvia Plath with a feeling of deliberate betrayal.  Instead of reaching out to other people for comfort, she isolated herself with writing as her only expressive outlet, and remarkably had a poem published when she was only eight.
	Plath continued prolific writing through high school and won a scholarship to Smith College in 1950 where she met her friend Anne Sexton.  Sexton often joined Plath for martinis at the Ritz where they shared poetry and intellectualized discussions about death.  Although they were friends, there was also an element of competition between Sexton and Plath.  Sylvia Plath¹s poem ³Daddy² was possibly a response to Anne Sexton¹s ³My Friend, My Friend.²  It was as if Plath was commenting that her writing skills were just a bit better than Sexton¹s.  Sexton frequently would express to Robert Lowell in his poetry class her dissatisfaction with Plath¹s writing.  She said that Plath ³dodges the point in her poetry and hadn¹t yet found the form that belonged to her.²  The competitive nature of their relationship continued to the very end.
	  To all appearences, Plath appeared normal, her social life similar to other middle class coeds.Many were attracted to Plath¹s brilliant mind, but few  were aware of the inner torment that drove her to write,  alienating her  from the rest of society.
	Madamoiselle magazine awarded Plath a  position as guest editor the summer following her junior year at Smith.  Friends and family were stunned at her suicide attempt when she returned to college, most believing she had suffered a nervous breakdown due to the stress at the magazine.  Her treatment was considered the best the medical world could offer and included electro-shock and psychotherapies.  Plath tells her side of the story in  the  poem Lady Lazarus  where she likens her experience to a victim of the Holocaust.  But her  apparent recovery enabled her to return to graduate summa cum laude  the following year.
	Ted Hughes met and fell in love with the writer while she continued her studies at Cambridge on a Fulbright grant.  Hughes was also a student at Cambridge, and a fellow poet.  The couple married four years later, and after a short stay in the States, returned to England.  After returning to London, Plath¹s first book of poetry, Colossus, was published in 1960.  Plath¹s best known work, The Bell Jar was published following the birth of their second child.( Ted Hughes, 52-66)  The novel is semi-autobiographical, describing a young woman¹s tragic coming of age.  The central character, a schoolgirl prodigy, Esther Greenwood, makes her way to adulthood in spite of periodic mental breakdowns.  The Bell Jar is particularly poignant when Esther desrcibes her madness as ³ ...a bell jar, stifling and airless that descends without warning...²
	Not long after the publication of The Bell Jar in1963, Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath split up.  Plath was left caring for two children in a low-income area of London during one of the coldest Novembers in centuries.  She worked between four and eight in the morning.  Apparently being inspired by hardship, Plath sometimes finished a poem every day.  In her last poems, death is given a cruel and physical allure and pain becomes tangiible.  Leaving some food and milk at the kitchen table for her children, she gassed herself to death.  Ironically, the woman Ted Hughes left Sylvia Plath for another woman that would commit suicide by gas.
	Posthumous Publications include : Ariel, published in 1965, inspired a cult following.  The poems were less uniform and more emotional than those published in Colossus.  Other volumes are :Crossing the Water ( 1971) , Winter Trees (1971) , Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams (1977) , and The Collected Poems (1981) , which was edited by Ted Hughes.
	At the funeral of Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton said in a eulogy that she and Plath had ³ talked death with burned-up intensity, both of us drawn to it like moths to an electric light bulb.² 
	Ever since the 1700¹s, suicide has been thought of, in some circles, a romantic way to die ( i.e. Romeo and Juliet).  Some individuals also think that to take your own life will add to your artistic reputation.Johann Wolfgang von Goethe¹s novel The Sorrows of Weather  suggested that suicide is accepted from those with artistic temperament because artists are supposedly more prone to drug use, isolation, suicide, etc...
	Every trip to the triumphant high points of Sylvia Plath¹s life was followed by a long stay in the bowels of Hell.  Hell for Sylvia Plath was her own fantasy playground that was demolished at a young and tender age.  Maybe if her gift were better known when she was alive, her life would have been more fulfilling, but at least she is now at peace.
	






Works Cited
Hughes, Ted, and Fredrick McCullough. The Journals Of Sylvia Plath.  London: Simon and Schuster, 1983.
Butscher, Edward. Sylvia Plath : Method and Madness. New York: The Seabury Press, 1976.
³ The Bell Jar ³. Grolier¹s Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1995.
³ Suicide ³. Grolier¹s Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1995.
Gilson, William.Sylvia Plath Bio. http://home.interlynx.net/~hecate/pbio.html 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Sylvia Plath.TXT
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The Life of Sylvia Plath 


	Sylvia Plath¹s life,  like her manic depression,  constantly jumped between Heaven and Hell.  Her seemingly perfect exterior hid a turbulent and deeply troubled spirit.  A closer look at  her childhood and personal experiences removes some element of mystery from her writings.
	One central character to Sylvia Plath¹s poems is her father, Professor Otto Emile Plath.   Otto Plath was diabetic and  refused to stay away from foods restricted by his doctor.  As a result ,  he developed a sore on his left foot.  Professor Plath ignored the sore,  and eventually the foot was overcome with gangrene.  The foot and then the entire left leg were amputated in an effort to save his life,  but he died in November of 1940, when Sylvia was just eight years old.
	The fact that her father could have prevented his death left Sylvia Plath with a feeling of deliberate betrayal.  Instead of reaching out to other people for comfort, she isolated herself with writing as her only expressive outlet, and remarkably had a poem published when she was only eight.
	Plath continued prolific writing through high school and won a scholarship to Smith College in 1950 where she met her friend Anne Sexton.  Sexton often joined Plath for martinis at the Ritz where they shared poetry and intellectualized discussions about death.  Although they were friends, there was also an element of competition between Sexton and Plath.  Sylvia Plath¹s poem ³Daddy² was possibly a response to Anne Sexton¹s ³My Friend, My Friend.²  It was as if Plath was commenting that her writing skills were just a bit better than Sexton¹s.  Sexton frequently would express to Robert Lowell in his poetry class her dissatisfaction with Plath¹s writing.  She said that Plath ³dodges the point in her poetry and hadn¹t yet found the form that belonged to her.²  The competitive nature of their relationship continued to the very end.
	  To all appearences, Plath appeared normal, her social life similar to other middle class coeds.Many were attracted to Plath¹s brilliant mind, but few  were aware of the inner torment that drove her to write,  alienating her  from the rest of society.
	Madamoiselle magazine awarded Plath a  position as guest editor the summer following her junior year at Smith.  Friends and family were stunned at her suicide attempt when she returned to college, most believing she had suffered a nervous breakdown due to the stress at the magazine.  Her treatment was considered the best the medical world could offer and included electro-shock and psychotherapies.  Plath tells her side of the story in  the  poem Lady Lazarus  where she likens her experience to a victim of the Holocaust.  But her  apparent recovery enabled her to return to graduate summa cum laude  the following year.
	Ted Hughes met and fell in love with the writer while she continued her studies at Cambridge on a Fulbright grant.  Hughes was also a student at Cambridge, and a fellow poet.  The couple married four years later, and after a short stay in the States, returned to England.  After returning to London, Plath¹s first book of poetry, Colossus, was published in 1960.  Plath¹s best known work, The Bell Jar was published following the birth of their second child.( Ted Hughes, 52-66)  The novel is semi-autobiographical, describing a young woman¹s tragic coming of age.  The central character, a schoolgirl prodigy, Esther Greenwood, makes her way to adulthood in spite of periodic mental breakdowns.  The Bell Jar is particularly poignant when Esther desrcibes her madness as ³ ...a bell jar, stifling and airless that descends without warning...²
	Not long after the publication of The Bell Jar in1963, Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath split up.  Plath was left caring for two children in a low-income area of London during one of the coldest Novembers in centuries.  She worked between four and eight in the morning.  Apparently being inspired by hardship, Plath sometimes finished a poem every day.  In her last poems, death is given a cruel and physical allure and pain becomes tangiible.  Leaving some food and milk at the kitchen table for her children, she gassed herself to death.  Ironically, the woman Ted Hughes left Sylvia Plath for another woman that would commit suicide by gas.
	Posthumous Publications include : Ariel, published in 1965, inspired a cult following.  The poems were less uniform and more emotional than those published in Colossus.  Other volumes are :Crossing the Water ( 1971) , Winter Trees (1971) , Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams (1977) , and The Collected Poems (1981) , which was edited by Ted Hughes.
	At the funeral of Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton said in a eulogy that she and Plath had ³ talked death with burned-up intensity, both of us drawn to it like moths to an electric light bulb.² 
	Ever since the 1700¹s, suicide has been thought of, in some circles, a romantic way to die ( i.e. Romeo and Juliet).  Some individuals also think that to take your own life will add to your artistic reputation.Johann Wolfgang von Goethe¹s novel The Sorrows of Weather  suggested that suicide is accepted from those with artistic temperament because artists are supposedly more prone to drug use, isolation, suicide, etc...
	Every trip to the triumphant high points of Sylvia Plath¹s life was followed by a long stay in the bowels of Hell.  Hell for Sylvia Plath was her own fantasy playground that was demolished at a young and tender age.  Maybe if her gift were better known when she was alive, her life would have been more fulfilling, but at least she is now at peace.
	






Works Cited
Hughes, Ted, and Fredrick McCullough. The Journals Of Sylvia Plath.  London: Simon and Schuster, 1983.
Butscher, Edward. Sylvia Plath : Method and Madness. New York: The Seabury Press, 1976.
³ The Bell Jar ³. Grolier¹s Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1995.
³ Suicide ³. Grolier¹s Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic Publishing, 1995.
Gilson, William.Sylvia Plath Bio. http://home.interlynx.net/~hecate/pbio.html 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\T E Lawrence.TXT
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T.E. Lawrence 
Colonel T. E. Lawrence, known as Lawrence of Arabia, was a guerrilla leader in the Arab Revolt of 1916-18, which expelled the Turks from western Arabia and Syria during World War I. Lawrence was an aloof, complex, versatile, somewhat arrogant genius, and his exploits made him a popular, if enigmatic, hero in the Western world.
Thomas Edward Lawrence was born at Tremadoc, Wales, on Aug. 15, 1888. His father, Sir Thomas Robert Chapman, was an Anglo-Irish landholder who left his wife for his family's governess. Thomas was the second of five sons produced by this union. Adopting the name Lawrence, the family settled in Oxford, where Thomas eventually entered the university. Specializing in archaeology, architecture, and history, he began learning Arabic when he visited Syria and Palestine. After graduating in 1910, he worked as an archaeologist in the Middle East until early 1914.
After the outbreak of World War I, Lawrence returned to Egypt in December 1914 as an intelligence officer. In October 1916 he accompanied a British mission to aid Husayn ibn Ali of Mecca, who had launched the Arab Revolt against Ottoman Turkish rule. Shortly thereafter he joined Husayn's son and army commander, Faisal (later King Faisal I of Iraq), as an advisor. Together, Faisal and Lawrence proceeded to push back the Ottoman forces by raiding the Damascus-Medina railroad and overrunning Ottoman strongpoints. In October 1918 the Arabs took Damascus, and Lawrence returned to Britain.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\ted bundy 2.TXT
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Ted Bundy's Trail of Terror From the Beginning of Taking Life 
Until The End of His

        Serial killers tend to be white heterosexual males in their twenties and thirties. While it is impossible to predict who will become a serial killer there are traits that appear to be similar in all killers. These behaviors include cruelty to animals, bedwetting, lying, drug and alcohol abuse, and a history of violence. According to Robert Ressler et al.,
                "serial homicide involves the murder of separate of separate victims 
with time breaks between victims, as minimal as two days to weeks or months. These
 time breaks are referred to as a cooling off period." Because homicides involving multiple victims is gradually becoming more commonplace, and to facilitate an understanding of the aforementioned definition, it is helpful to differentiate serial murder from other types of
 murder, such as mass murder, which involves,"four or more victims killed within a short time span," and spree killings, which Ressler et al. defines as "a series of sequential homicides connected to one event committed over a time period of hours to days and without a cooling off period."

        Ted Bundy is one of the worst serial killers in history. His antisocial personality and psychotic character made him feared across the country.  After all was said and done Ted left behind a trail of bloody slayings that included the deaths of 36 young women and spanned through four states. The biggest question in many people's mind was how could someone as intelligent,highly accomplished, and praised as Bundy do such a thing? 
        Theodore Robert Bundy was born November 24th, 1946 in Burlinton, Vermont to a 21 year old mother. Ted's mom  never told him much about his father except that he was in the armed forces and they had only dated a few times. Ted was left in foster care for two months while his mom and parents decided what to do with him. In 1946 an illegitimate child was extremely looked down upon by society. Once they decided to keep Ted his grandparents told everyone he was their adopted son. Ted knew who his biological mom was, but outsiders were told that she was his sister.
        Ted adored his grandfather. His grandfather was also particularly fond of Ted. He remembered camping and fishing trips he and his grandfather would go on.  Other family members describe his grandfather as an ill-tempered tyrant. He was racist, intolerant, and a perfectionist. He expected everyone to meet his demands. His grandfather  was also verbally abusive toward other family members and physically abusive toward his wife.  He also physically mistreated animals including the family pet. 
        Ted's grandmother suffered from depression. It got so bad that she was eventually treated with electroshock therapy. She also suffered from agoraphobia and never left the house.
        When Ted was three years old, his Aunt, age 15, said she awoke to find him slipping butcher knives into the bed beside her under the covers. She told him to leave and took the knives back. She said no one in the family did anything about this. (Time Life)
        The older Ted got, it became more difficult to hide his family's identity and his secret mother. With this his mother moved to Washington where she met and married John Bundy. At the time Ted was four years old. He was adopted by John and his new parents had four children together. 
        From the beginning Ted did well in school. His teachers complimented him on his good grades. But they also commented on Ted's inability to control his violent temper. Friends recall  Ted as one who would usually avoid fights, though when provoked could explode with frightening violence and anger.  Ted was active in Boy Scouts and attended church regularly. He also held a part-time job and made excellent grades. Ted just dated once during high school and was described as shy.
        It was around this time that Ted began sneaking out of the house and peeping into windows. He became a "Peeping Tom." He occasionally disabled a woman's car to make her more vulnerable, without actually doing anything to her(Time Life). He found these behaviors sexually arousing and masturbated while doing them. He also began shoplifting for expensive items and told his mom that they  were gifts. He was picked up at least twice by juvenile authorities for suspicion of auto theft and burglary, but nothing came of it. 
        While Ted was on death row he once told an interviewer that he knew he was different from other people.  He was quoted as having trouble knowing  what appropriate social behaviors were.  His own needs and desires were all that mattered. Ted recognized that he did not have remorse the way  other kids did so he learned to mimic normal emotions. 
        Ted participated in many respectable behaviors that helped make it so unbelievable to accept his guiltiness. He caught a purse snatcher and was given a commendation from the police department. He also saved a drowning toddler once by diving into a lake after him. Ted also worked for a suicide prevention hotline talking others out of killing themselves. He also wrote rape-prevention books and became active in politics gaining the attention of very important, highly known people.
        Ted worked many low paying jobs to pay for college. He was a busboy at a hotel, a messenger, and clerks at various stores. He left most jobs after only a few months. Some employers said he was a good worker while others gave him less than favorable comments. 
        It is likely that Ted killed his first victim while in his teens. A young schoolmate disappeared at this time.  He is said to have begun his serial killings in his late twenties in 1974. However many people believe that he started earlier than this. He is said to be the suspect in numerous unsolved murders (Wellard). 
        In January of 1974, an 18 year old student was found unconscious in her bedroom.  Ted had beaten her with a metal rod and then inserted it in her vagina. The woman survived but was in a coma for several months and had no memory of the event at all.  A month later he abducted and killed a 21 year old woman named, Lynda Ann Healy.  When police entered her room they found blood all over her bed, her nightgown stiff with blood, and her clothes and backpack from the night before were missing.
        Six weeks later, a 19 year old college student never arrived at a jazz concert she was going to.  The next month a freshman girl disappeared on the way to a movie. Three other women disappeared over the next two months (Time Life) 
        Ted would  use fake casts, splints, and crutches to get his victims to help him. He would use  little things like how he needed help to carry his books or load up his car. In July of 1974 though, he was able to convince a young woman to help him load a sailboat up at his parent's house. The girl was never seen again. That same day he abducted an 18 year old secretary while at a park. 
        Ted had now abducted two people in broad daylight using his real name. People would not believe that a killer would actually use his real name. This lead the press to call these cases the "Ted" cases.  In 1974 the first pieces of bodies were slowly being found. The police began to discover the severity and scope of the killer. 
          Ted Bundy had now moved to Utah where he became a dormitory manager at the University of Utah. Here in Utah he killed 16 year old Nancy Wilcox. Three weeks later he killed 17 year old Melissa Smith.  Ted had killed at least 11 times in Utah and nearby Colorado. 
        In August 1975 Ted was stopped for driving suspiciously. When the trunk was searched the police found an ice pick, ski mask, a mask made of pantyhose, rope and handcuffs. These are the items Ted used in his "rape kit." 
        Ted was convicted of kidnapping and sentenced to prison.  Unfortunately his parents bailed him out.  In 1977 he was transported to Colorado to stand trial for one of the murders when Ted escaped out of the courthouse.  Ted was picked up a few days later for driving recklessly and taken back to jail. It was in December of that same year when Ted again managed to escape and took off toward Florida.  It was January when Ted committed the Chi Omega murders. Upstairs in the sorority house the police found one woman with her nipple bit off her breast and bite marks on her buttocks. Two women were dead from blows to the head while the other two were barely alive.  Right after these clubbing Ted attacked another woman in her apartment down the road from the Chi Omega house and left her for dead. 
        Ted Bundy's last victim was a 12 year old girl  he had taken from school. Her body was found two months later in April of 1978. When Ted Bundy was brought to trial he acted as his own lawyer.  Ted managed to have the original judge removed due to prejudice, he won a change of venue from Tallahassee to Miami, and he managed to have his leg shackles removed so he could walk around the courtroom. In the end Ted was found guilty and sentenced to die. 
        While on death row Ted conducted many interviews. Ted seemed surprised at the anger about the killings and that the women he had killed were mourned so deeply."What's one less person on the face of the earth anyway?"(Time Life) 
        In October of 1982 Ted's daughter was born while he was on death row. It would be seven years later before Ted would die though. On the eve of his execution Ted told an evangelist that watching pornography had led him to commit his crimes. Theodore Robert Bundy died January 1989. His last words were "I'd like you to give my love to my family and friends."(Time Life) 
        Using the DSM IV  Ted Bundy can be diagnosed as having Antisocial Personality Disorder. One criteria used to determine this is showing behavior that could be grounds for arrest, but usually are not. Examples of this criteria are met when Bundy would peek into the women's rooms and masturbate. This is trespassing and invasion of privacy. While you can be arrested for this, people are usually not. Another part of the DSM IV criteria is lying and conning.  Ted was constantly doing this. Every time he picked up a victim he was guilty of it. He lied to women in order to pick them up using his fake splints and casts or when he needed help loading his sailboat. Picking up women also fits the other criteria of charming. Those who knew Ted stated the he was indeed charming. You would have to charming to some extent in order  to pick up over thirty  women.
        Another criteria Ted met was,"consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations." Bundy's  odd jobs and reports from employers hold this to be true. The final criteria Bundy meets for antisocial personality disorder is,"Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another." Bundy most clearly sums this up when he is quoted as saying,"What's one less person on the face of the earth anyway?"
        Besides his antisocial personality disorder Bundy also shows signs of going through the seven phases of a serial killer. The aura or fantasy phase is the one phase I cannot find any evidence of Bundy going through. For this phase there is a withdraw from fantasy and Ted does not appear to do this anywhere. The trolling phase is when Ted would stalk and pick his victims. He went through this stage because the majority of his victims came from college campuses. Bundy was a master at the wooing phase. Most of the time his victims went with him voluntarily.  The capture phase really cannot be applied to Bundy. Sometimes he was sudden about his crimes and sometimes he was not. Bundy always carried out the murders and he also kept body parts to preserve the high he got from the killings. This would be the totemic phase.  Bundy went through depression phase because he was not able to quit. He began to kill as soon as he got to Florida.    
        It is truly sad that a person with such great potential to do good chooses to take a different path.(Holmes) As Judge Cowart said to Bundy immediately after he passed the death sentence,"It's a tragedy for this court to see such a total waste of humanity"(Rule,1980:394).


















 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\ted bundy.TXT
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GANGS

        Gangs are a violent reality that people have to deal with 
in today's cities.  What has made these groups come about?  
Why do kids feel that being in a gang is both an acceptable and 
prestigious way to live?  The long range answer to these 
questions can only be speculated upon, but in the short term 
the answers are much easier to find.  On the surface, gangs 
are a direct result of human beings' personal wants and peer 
pressure.  To determine how to effectively end gang violence we 
must find the way that these morals are given to the individual.  
Unfortunately, these can only be hypothesized.  However, by 
looking at the way humans are influenced in society, I believe 
there is good evidence to point the blame at several 
institutions.  These include the forces of the media, the 
government, theatre, drugs and our economic system.



        On the surface, gangs are caused by peer pressure and 
greed.  Many teens in gangs will pressure peers into becoming 
part of a gang by making it all sound glamorous.  Money is also 
an crucial factor.  A kid (a 6-10 year old, who is not yet a 
member) is shown that s/he could make $200 to $400 for small 
part time gang jobs.  Although these are important factors they 
are not strong enough to make kids do things that are strongly 
against their morals.



        One of the ways that kids morals are bent so that gang 
violence becomes more acceptable is the influence of television 
and movies.  The average child spends more time at a TV than 
she/he spends in a classroom.  Since nobody can completely turn 
off their minds, kids must be learning something while watching 
the TV.  Very few hours of television watched by children are 
educational, so other ideas are being absorbed during this period 
of time.  Many shows on television today are extremely violent 
and are often shown this from a gang's perspective.  A normal 
adult can see that this is showing how foully that gangs are 
living.  However, to a child this portrays a violent gang 
existance as acceptable.  'The Ends Justifies the Means'  
mentality is also taught through many shows where the "goody 
guy" captures the "bad guy" through violence and is then being 
commended.  A young child sees this a perfectly acceptable 
because he knows that the "bad guy" was wrong but has no idea 
of what acceptable apprehension techniques are.



          Gore in television also takes a big part in influencing 
young minds.  Children see gory scenes and are fascinated by 
these things that they have not seen before.  Older viewers see 
gore and are not concerned with the blood but rather with the 
pain the victim must feel.  A younger mind doesn't make this 
connection.  Thus a gore fascination is formed, and has been 
seen in several of my peers.  Unfortunately kids raised with 
this sort of television end up growing up with a stronger 
propensity to becoming a violent gang member or 'violent-
acceptant' person.





          "Gangs bring the delinquent norms of society into 
intimate contact with the individual."1, (Marshall B Clinard, 
1963).  So, as you can see if TV leads a child to believe that 
violence is the norm this will manifest itself in the actions of 
the child quite, often in a gang situation.  This is especially the 
case when parents don't spend a lot of time with their kids at 
the TV explaining what is right and what is wrong.  Quite often 
newer books and some types of music will enforce this type of 
thought and ideas.



        Once this mentality is installed in youngsters they become 
increasingly prone to being easily pushed into a gang situation by 
any problem at home or elsewhere.  For instance, in poor 
families with many children or upper-middle class families where 
parents are always working, the children will often feel deprived 
of love.  Parents can often feel that putting food on the table 
is enough love.  Children of these families may often go to the 
gang firstly out of boredom and to belong somewhere.  As time 
goes on, a form of love or kinship develops between the gang 
members and the child.  It is then that the bond between the 
kid and the gang is completed because the gang has effectively 
taken the place of the family.



        The new anti social structure of cities also effects the 
ease in which a boy/girl can join a gang. " The formation of 
gangs in cities, and most recently in suburbs, is facilitated by 
the same lack of community among parents.  The parents do not 
know what their children are doing for two reasons: First, much 
of the parents' lives is outside the local community, while the 
children's lives are lived almost totally within it.  Second, in a 
fully developed community, the network of relations gives every 
parent, in a sense, a community of sentries who can keep him 
informed of his child's activities.  In modern living-places (city 
or suburban), where such a network is attenuated, he no longer 
has such sentries."2, (Merton Nisbet, 1971).



        In male gangs problems occur as each is the members tries 
to be the most manly.  This often leads to all members 
participating in "one-up-manship".  Quite often this will then 
lead to each member trying to commit a bigger and more violent 
crime or simply more crimes than the others.  With all members 
participating in this sort of activity it makes for a never 
ending unorganized violence spree (A sort of Clockwork Orange 
mentality).  In gangs with more intellegent members these 
feelings end up making each member want to be the star when 
the groups commit a crime.  This makes the gang much more 
organized and improves the morale of members which in turn 
makes them more dangerous and very hard for the police to deal 
with and catch (There is nothing harder to find and deal with 
than organized teens that are dedicated to the group).  This 
sort of gang is usually common of middle or upper class people 
although it can happen in gangs in the projects and other low 
rent districts too.  



        This "one-up-manship" is often the reason between rival 
gangs fighting.  All gangs feel powerful and they want to be 
feared.  To do this they try to establish themselves as the 
only gang in a certain neighborhood.  After a few gang fights 
hatred forms and gang murders and drive-by's begin to take 
place.  When two gangs are at war it makes life very dangerous 
for citizens in the area.  Less that 40% of drive-by's kill 
their intended victim yet over 60% do kill someone.  This gang 
application is one of the many reasons that sexual sterotypes 
and pressure to conform to the same must be stopped.

        

        Lastly one of the great factors in joining a gang is for 
protection.  Although from an objective point of view, we can 
see joining a gang brings more danger than it saves you from, 
this is not always the way it is seen by kids.  In slums such as 
the Bronx or the very worst case, Compton, children will no 
doubt be beaten and robbed if they do not join a gang.  Of 
course they can probably get the same treatment from rivals 
when in a gang.  The gang also provides some money for these 
children who quite often need to feed their families.  The 
reason kids think that the gang will keep them safe is from 
propoganda from the gangs.  Gang members will say that no one 
will get hurt and make a public show of revenge if a member is 
hurt or killed.  



        People in low rent areas are most often being repressed 
due to poverty and most importantly, race.  This often results 
in an attitude that motivates the person to base his/her life 
on doing what the system that oppresses them doesn't want.  
Although this accomplishes little it is a big factor in gang 
enrollment.



        So, as you have seen gangs are a product of the 
environment we have created for ourselves.  Some of these 
factors include:  oppression, the media, greed, violence and 
other gangs.  There seems to be no way to end the problem of 
gangs without totally restructuring the modern economy and 
value system.  Since the chance of this happening is minimal, we 
must learn to cope with gangs and try to keep their following 
to a minimum.  Unfortunately there is no real organized force 
to help fight gangs.  Of course the police are supposed to do 
this but this situation quite often deals with racial issues also 
and the police forces regularly display their increasing inability 
to deal fairly with these issues.  What we need are more people 
to form organizations like the "Guardian Angels" a gang-like 
group that makes life very tough for street gangs that are 
breaking laws. 



        



        

        



           

Bibliography

Margot Webb, Coping with Street Gangs.  Rosen Publishing Group, 
New York, 1990.



William Foote Whyte, Street Corner Society.  University of 
Chicago, Chicago, 1955.



Peter Carroll, South-Central.  Hoyte and Williams, L. A., 1987.



1 Marshall B. Clinard, Sociology of Deviant Behavior.  University 
of Wisconsin,  Wisconsin, 1963, Page 179.



2 Merton Nisbet, Contempory Social Problems.  Harcourt, Brace & 
World, New York, 1971, Page 588.

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Ted Hughes Britains Poet Laureate.TXT
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Edward James Hughes is one of the most outstanding living British poets. In 1984 he was awarded the title of the nation's Poet Laureate. He came into prominence in the late fifties and early sixties, having earned a reputation of a prolific, original and skilful poet, which he maintained to the  present day. 
Ted Hughes was born in 1930 in Yorkshire into a family of a carpenter. After graduating from Grammar School he went up to Cambridge to study English, but later changed to Archaeology and Anthropology. At Cambridge he met Sylvia Plath, whom he married in 1956. His first collection of poems Hawk in the Rain was published in 1957. The same year he  made his first records of reading of some Yeats's poems and one of his own for BBC Third Programme. Shortly afterwards, the couple went to live to America and stayed there until 1959. His next collection of poems Lupercal (1960) was followed by two books for children Meet My Folks (1961) and Earth Owl (1963). Selected Poems, with Thom Gunn (a poet whose work is frequently associated with Hughes's as marking a new turn in English verse), was published in 1962. Then Hughes stopped writing almost completely for nearly three years following Sylvia Plath's death in 1963 (the couple had separated earlier), but thereafter he published prolifically, often in collaboration with photographers and illustrators. The volumes of poetry that succeeded Selected Poems include Wodwo (1967), Crow (1970), Season Songs (1974), Gaudete (1977), Cave Birds (1978), Remains of Elmet (1979) and Moortown (1979). 
At first the recognition came from overseas, as his Hawk in the Rain (1957) was selected New York's Poetry Book Society's Autumn Choice and later the poet was awarded Nathaniel Hawthorn's Prize for Lupercal (1960). Soon he became well-known and admired in Britain. On 19 December 1984 Ted Hughes became Poet Laureate, in succession to the late John Betjeman.
Hughes has written a great deal for the theatre, both for adults and for children. He has also published many essays on his favourite poets and edited selections from the work of Keith Douglas and Emily Dickinson (1968). Since 1965 he has been a co-editor of the magazine Modern Poetry in Translation in London. He is still an active critic and poet, his new poems appearing almost weekly (9:17)

Judging from bibliography, Ted Hughes has received a lot of attention from scholars and literary critics both in the USA and Britain. However, most of these works are not available in Lithuania. Hence my overview of Hughes' criticism might not be full enough. The few things I have learned from reading about Ted Hughes could be outlined as follows.
Some critics describe Hughes as "a nearly demonic poet, possessed with the life of nature", "a poet of violence" (4:162), his poetry being "anti-human" in its nature (12:486). According to Pat Rogers, his verse reflect the experience of human cruelty underlying the work of  contemporary East European poets such as Pilinszky and Popa, both admired by Hughes. Hughes' concern with religion gave inspiration to his construction of anti-Christian  myth, which was mainly based on the famous British writer and critic Robert Ranke Graves' book The White Goddess (1948) and partly on his own studies of anthropology (12:486). 
Speaking of his early poems, the critics note that at first they were mistakenly viewed as a development of tradition of English animalistic poetry (6:414) started by Rudyard Kipling and D.H. Lawrence. G. Bauzyte stresses that Hughes is not purely animalistic poet, since  in his animalistic verse he seeks parallels to human life (4:163). In I. Varnaite's words, "nature is anthropomorphised in his poems" (5:61). Furthermore, G. Bauzyte  observes that Hughes' poetics are reminiscent of the Parnassians and in particular Leconte de Lisle's animalistic poems. She points out, however, that the latter were more concerned with colour, exotic imagery and impression, while Hughes work is marked by deeper semantic meaning. His poetical principals are fully displayed in the poem Thrushes - "spontaneous, intuitive glorification of life, akin to a bird's song or Mozart's music" (4:162).
The four main sources of Hughes's inspiration mentioned are Yorkshire landscape, where he grew up as a son of a carpenter, totemism studied by the poet at Cambridge and theories of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer (4:161, 6:414). The main themes, as singled out by I. Varnaite, are: nature, the world of animals, man, the relationships between man and nature (5:61). 
Hughes often defies traditional poetical cannons, imploring stunning contrasts and surreal imagery (4:162). He was also noted for his language and laconism of style. According to V. A. Skorodenko, Hughes uses contrasting images, unexpected free associations and "sometimes vulgar words" (6:416). I. Varnaite describes Crow and it  sequels as "repetitive, sometimes too naturalistic and even vulgar" (5:62).
Like Hughes's animals, man is also cruel and predatory already in his early poetry (5:62). As I. Varnaite put it, to Hughes, "the most admirable beings are the most ferocious and  violent ones." Similarly, the critic Edwin Muir points out the  ferociousness of Hughes' imagery by calling it "admirable violence" (9:9).This might be an argument in favour of those, who see some fascist tendencies in Hughes's  verse (4:63, 5:62). 
G. Bauzyte observes that in his negativism, Hughes is close to the American poet Emily Dickinson. In his Manichaean vision of the world darkness often prevails over light, cold over warmth, hatred over love (4:163).
Speaking of predecessors, Hughes is said to be kindred to Dylan Thomas in the way that they both  celebrate the natural and their images are taken from the nature (6:414). Hawk in the Rain, for instance, has the feel of D. Thomas's and M. Hopkins poetry, where the man becomes the joining link between the earth and the "fulcrum of violence", the hawk figuring in the poem, thus responding to the Thomas poetical credo "the man is my metaphor" (4:163). The critics also note differences between the two poets. By contrast with Thomas, Hughes's world  is indifferent to suffering and pain it is filled with (6:415) and, while Thomas is purely anthropomorphistic, in Hughes's work, the human being is viewed as a part of animalistic world. For Hughes, there is no great difference between a man and a beast, inasmuch as stoicism and rational will are the only qualities distinguishing people from animals and enabling them to resist the universal chaos. 
In the opinion of A. Skorodenko, Hughes's concept of the world fully unfolds in his books published in the seventies Crow, Cave Birds and Gaudete!, where he collaborated with the American sculptor Leonard Baskin, who drew the pictures, which inspired the poems. Hughes' vision of the world in those cycles approach the quality of a myth. Blood there figures as the ultimate metaphor and goes through all stages of life - from the archetypal pulsation in primal unity to its complete opposite, Littleblood. The principal idea in the latter  books is that blood rules the world, the governing motif for all actions being sexual drive to ensure the output of offspring. Along other new tendencies, V. A. Skorodenko also observes a shift in the poets outlook reflected in the poems written in the eighties, where the man is no longer metaphysically solitary as in the earlier books, but "becomes a part of nature and through it of the whole of Universe" (6:417).  
I. Varnaite points out the influence of Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy on Hughes's verse. According to her, "many poems translate a number of Schopenhauer's theses into the language of modernistic poetry" (4:61). Robert Stuart interprets Hughes' works in the light of Nitzscheanism, while other critics find some of Hughes' poems being under Heidegger's influence (ibid.). I. Varnaite also notes that the poet's worldoutlook is a complex one  and cannot be  one-sidedly simplified to one philosophical school. Among possible influences she mentions folklore, myths and  religions other than Christianity. However, drawing parallels between Hughes's work and Schopenhauers's philosophy, she writes that, to both of them, "animate and inanimate nature have the same essence and contain the element of the Will of the Universe". I.Varnaite concludes with the statement that "Hughes is a nihilist" speaking of "inner emptiness, the dead universe, bleakness, the nothing, nothingness, brutal will..." and his vision of future seems to be no more optimistic than the present and past (4:67).

Bibliography

1. Thom Gunn and Ted Hughes Selected Poems.
London: Farber and Farber Ltd., 1962.

2. Ted Hughes. Lupercal. London: Faber and Faber, 1985.

3. Ted Hughes. The Hawk in The Rain. London: Farber and Farber, 1986.

4. XXa. Vakarø Europos Literatûra. II dalis (1945-1985). Vilnius: Vilniaus Universiteto leidykla, 1995.

5. Literatûra Nr 36 (3). Vilnius: ISSN 0202-3296, 1994.

6. Anglijskaya Literatura 1945-1980 (ed. by Saruchanyan, A. P.). Moscow: Nauka, 1987.

7. Anglijskaya Poeziya v Russkich Perevodach. XX Vek. Moscow: Raduga, 1984. - 848 p.

8. Ivasheva, Valentina Vasiljevna. Literatura Velikobritaniji XX Veka. Moscow: Visshaya Shkola, 1984.

9. Walder, Dennis. Ted Hughes. Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1987.

10. Walder, Dennis. Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath.
Great Britain: The Open University Press,  1976.

11. Stuart, Robert. English Poetry 1960-1970. England: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

12. The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature (ed. by Rogers, Pat). New York: University Press, 1990. - p. 486-489.

13. The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (ed. by  Ousby, Ian). USA: Cambridge University Press, 1991. - p. 484-485.

14. Hopkins, John. Guide to literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: University Press, 1994. -775 p.

15. Lotman, Jurij Michailovich. Struktura Chudozhestvennogo Teksta. Moscow: Isskustvo, 1970.








 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Teddy Roosevelt.TXT
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		 \Theodore Roosdevelt\
	    \26th President of the United States (1901-1909)\

  Theodore Roosevelt was an energetic and dynamic leader who gave the nation a
square deal.  During his presidency to a position of internatio nal leadership.

  Roosevelt belonged to an aristocratic New York family.  He attended Harvard
Univerity.  Theodore Roosevelt fought in the Spanish-American war with the
Rough Riders at the battle of San Juan Hill.  He had served as police
commissiores of New York, assistant secretary of the navy, governor of New
York, and vice president of the United States.	When president McKinley was
assassinated on September 14, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became, at the time, the
youngest (43 years) president in hist ory.

  The president saw himself as a man of the middle who would meditate the
struggle between capital and labor.  He said that business must be protected
against itself and he tended to favor regulatory commissions that provided
nonpartisan supervisi on by experts of business practices.  As president he
succeeded in getting additional authority over the railroads for the interstate
commerce commission.  He was also instrumental in the passage of the meat
inspection act and the pure food and drug act.	Ro attitude toward the poor and
towards the labor movement was that of an enlightened conservative.  He
supported many labor demands such as shorter hours for women and children,
employers' liability laws and limitations on the use of injunctions against
workers in labor disputes.

  In reform, Roosevelt wanted gradual change.  He moved in the direction of the
reformers and ended up as the candidate of the progressive party in the Bull
Moose presidential campaingn in 1912.  He had broken with the Repub lican
party.

  In 1907 immigration reached its all-time high 1,285,000 in one year.
Theodore Roosevelt said, "There can be no divided allegiance here.  Any man who
says he is an American, but something else also, isn't an American at all.  We
have ro om but for on language here and that is the English language, for we
intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American
nationality; we have room for but one soul loyalty, and that is loyalty to the
American people."

  Ro l ed the United States into continous armed interventions in the
caribbean.  In 1906 an insurrection in Cuba caused the United States to
intervene in its affairs.  The American government withdrew its power when ordr
was restored.

  In the Philippines c ivil government was put into operation, and a
communications cable was laid across the Pacific.

  Roosevelt intervened in the war betwwen Russia and Japan.  He invited the
Russian and Japanese governments to send peace commissioners to America where a
peace treaty was sighned in 1905.  The following year the president was awarded
the nobel peace prize.

  People had wanted a canal connectiong the Atlantic and Pacific for hundreds
of years.  A French company, which went bankrupt, had started the pro ject.
The company sold the panamanian rights to build the canal to the United States
government.  Colombia, whose territory included Panama, didn't agree to the
terms offered by the Uninted States.  Ro did not think much of he of Latin
Americans to begin with.  He called he colombians "foolish and homicidal
corruptionits." The Roosevelt administration supported a revolt by the
Panamanians against Colombia.  The new country of Panama signed a canal treaty
favorable to the United States in 1903.  The Pana ma canal was completed August
15, 1914.

  President Theodore Roosevelt died at Sagamore hill, his home at oyster bay,
New York, on January 6, 1919.

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\tennessee williams.TXT
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	Tennessee Williams was born Thomas Lanier Williams on March 26, 1911 in Columbus, Mississippi.  As a child, he lived with his mother and grandfather.  When he was fourteen, Williams too first place in an essay contest sponsored by a national magazine, The Smart Set.  At the age of seventeen, his first published story appeared in the August 1928 issue of Weird Tales.  A year later Williams entered the University of Missouri but in 1932 he withdrew and took a job at the shoe factory where his father held a job as a sales manager.     In 1935 Williams returned to college and graduated from the University of Iowa in 1938.  Williams had begun writing plays while attending the University of Missouri and after his graduation he had supported himself doing a variety of small jobs.  In 1939 he won a national drama award for a group of plays called American Blues.  Williams achieved his first great stage success with The Glass Menagerie, which was produced in New York City in 1945.  This play won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Prize as the years best play.  Williams averaged two plays a year since that time.  On February 4, 1983, Tennessee Williams died in New York City.  Throughout Williams' lifetime he has put forth more than twenty-five full-length plays, more than forty short plays, a dozen produced (and unproduced) screenplays and an opera libretto.  These have been translated into at least twenty-seven languages, including Tamil, Welsh, Marathi and Hindi.  In addition, there are two novels, a novella, more than sixty short stories, more than one hundred poems, an autobiography, a published volume of letters, introductions to plays and books by others, and occasional pieces and reviews.






















PLAYS
Baby Doll & Tiger Tail 
Camino Real 
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof 
Clothes for a Summer Hotel 
Dragon Country 
The Glass Menagerie 
A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur 
The Read Devil Battery Sign 
Small Craft Warnings 
Stopped Rocking and Other Screenplays 
A Streetcar Named Desire 
Sweet Bird of Youth 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME 1 
Battle of Angels, A Streetcar Named Desire, The Glass Menagerie 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME II 
The Eccentricities of a Nightingale, Summer and Smoke, The Rose 
Tattoo, Camino Real 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME III 
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Orpheus Descending, Suddenly Last Summer 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME IV 
Sweet Bird of Youth, Period of Adjustment, The Night of the guana 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME V 
The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore, Kingdom of Earth (The 
Seven Descents of Myrtle), Small Craft Warnings, The Two-Character Play 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VI 
27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Short Plays 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VII 
In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays 
THE THEATER OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS, VOLUME VIII 
Vieux Carre, A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur, Clothes for a Summer 
Hotel, The Red Devil Battery Sign 
27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Plays 
The Two-Character Play 
Vieux Carre 
POETRY
Androgyne, Mon Amour 
In the Winter of Cities 
PROSE 
Collected Stories 
Hard Candy and Other Stories 
One Arm and Other Stories 
The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone 
Where I Live: Selected Essays 
----------------------------- 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\That Great Guy Charles.TXT
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392
Charlemagne was born on April 2, 742, and grew up, illiterate, in a place unknown today. Although Charlemagne was illiterate he did speak old Teutonic, Latin, German, French, Spanish, and understood Greek. Charlemagne is best know as 'Charles the Great'. Charlemagne was 29 when Carloman II, his father, died. Charles then became sole king of France. Two years later he received an appeal for aid against the Lombard Desiderius from Pope Hadrian II. Charles left for was after he received the appeal. When Charlemagne returned to his capital at Aachen he began a series of campaigns designed to round out his empire. This was by conquering and Christianizing Bavaria and Saxony, destroying the troublesome Avars, shielding Italy from the raiding Saracens, and strengthening the defense of Francia against the expanding Moors of Spain. All of the preceding shows what a strong Christian Charlemagne was during his lifetime. Charles the Great also wanted peace and wellness for everyone (no matter who they were). While Charlemagne was king he legislated for agriculture, industry, finance, religion, and especially education. He wanted as many people as possible to go to school and get any sort of an education. Charlemagne was greatly generous toward the Church. Bishops played a leading role in his councils, assemblies, and administrations. Charles called Bishops 'Agents of God'. Charlemagne earned his nickname, 'Charles the Great', because he has been known to be the most powerful king ever. He also started the Hole Roman Empire during his reign. The Hole Roman Empire was one of the most brilliant ideas in the history of statesmanship. It was, altogether, the transformation of Charlemagne's realm into a Holy Roman Empire that should have behind it all the prestige, sanctity, and stability of both Imperial and papal Rome. Charles gave his younger brother, Louis, the privalege of being king in 813. Charlemagne did this because he was really ill. 'Charles the Great' then died in 814 at the age of 72. He lived his life as well and as full as he could. Charlemagne, in my opinion, was good at heart. Charles wanted everyone to realize how great God is and always will be. Charlemagne did take power to his head sometimes though, but was still a good person. Charlemagne was also a nice person to study about.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn.TXT
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The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn


     "You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of "
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer," but that ain't no matter.  that book was made by
Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly.  There were things which he
streched, but mainly he told the truth.  That ain' nothing.  I never seen
anybody but lied, one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow,
or maybr Mary.  Aunt Polly-Tom's Aunt Polly, she is-and Mary, and the Widow
Douglas, is all told bout in that book-which is mostly a true book; with some,
as I said before."(Twain 1)
	Any way I am here to tell you somethings bout this man that has write
all these things bout our adventures.  So listen an maybe you might even learn a
little something bout this man.  Now let me think....oh ya, now I recall it.
     I  reckon it was a warm November ju's like any other,  the 30th to be
exact.  But that ain't how Sam's Pa spoke of it.  He had to go maki'n big, fancy
speeches and things of that sort at the party.  But after all that mubl'in we
had a purdy good time.  As a matter of fact as I recall that day it was almost
pur'fect.  If it warn't for me drunk Pa gettin arrested by the Sheriff that morn,
it woudda'  been real pur'fect.  Course I reckon a boy's gota have a good time
at his best friend's bert'day party.
     I was at Sam's house.  Course I warn't de only one dare.  His Pa, Judge
Clemens and Ma, Miss Jane Lampton, till she married of course,  was dare and I
reckon his whole 'tire family must da been at dat house, can't barely remember
it was only his fourth birthday back in 1839 (Howard 1).  Ya, me and Sam been
friends ever since he moved here, best friends too, he was born an lived in
Florida, Missouri prior to now.  He moved here at the start of this year.  See
lots of people don't give me much thought cause me bein uneducated and havin a
Pa like I do an all.  That all changed though, Sam was the type dat even liked
the niggers, so I be surprised if he thought of me differently than any other
(Paine 4).
     Sam's family had'nt got that much money either but his Pa sure was one
of them educated types.  He was a lawyer and a judge and people looked up to him
for jus dat (Howard 5).  Actually, speakin of money I had some myself, bout
6,000 dollars.  Ya,  I was rich ever since Tom and I had gotten them bandits.
Tell ya the truth, money did'nt really mean much to me anyways cause I liked
livin simple an all.  But some people spend all their time day dreamin bout the
stuff.  Sam's Pa and Sam certainly had somethin in common then cause Judge
Clemens is always thinkin of all these ways to be prosper.  And Sam jus day
dream bout what ever he could think of (Howard 11).  Guess I would do the same
if I was forced to sit in a school house some days myself.  Now your probably
thinkin why I said "most" in sted of all weekdays, well Sam did'nt care for his
schoolin much and often played hooky (Paine 14).  Ya see, cause of Sam's funny
personality he was often switched.  Ol'e Mrs. Elizabeth Horr could never forget
that mam's name.  Ya see dat was Sam's teacher, he did'nt think of her as that
though.  In Sam's mind Mrs. Elizabeth was a jail keeper (Eaton 27).  So we use
ta go in sit at the port.  Hannibal, Mississippi was where we lived, an it was a
big river town (Encarta 1994).  Sam loved them steam boats, he could sit dare an
look it em all day, and he usually did.  Course me bein his best of friends was
always there wit em, did'nt care for em much myself so Sam would always make up
stories, and adventures to says we was doin, when all we was really doin was
lookin at boats, and missin school of course.
	Sam had many of brothers and sisters.  I reckon he was never the lonely
type cause he had many of siblins.  There was Pamela, who was eight years older
than ourselves.  She was well schooled and all, I reckon she even liked it!
(Howard 5).  Orion was  eight years older too.  Then there was Benjamin, never
got to know him well cause he died at only ten and there was the little brother,
Henry (Paine 16).
	Anyways, our schoolin continued, dull as ever.  Well before we known it
we had ourselves out that school.  So Sam was not really sure bout what he
wanted to do with em'self, so to make some money he followed his brother,  Orion
(Encarta).  Ya see Orion had ju's bought himself a local printin press.  The
only article prior to the Hannible Press was the Courier so now Hannible had
itself two papers (Howard 115).  Now durin this time Sam had been workin for a
Mr. Ament, another local printer, for round two years.  So Sam worked under his
older brother bein the printer for the paper (115).  Well it was most
unfortunate that they seems to be carryin some bad luck on their shoulders from
the beginn'in.  The press caught on fire, it was only a small one but them fire
fighters did'nt help the problem much when they doused the water all over the
equipment.  Anyways that there was the least of their problems.  Back around
that time an epidemic struck the Mississippi.  Cholera struck hard and
devastated many of people.  Now cause people could'nt work they had to make
trades for goods, and barterin did't do much good for Sam and Orion (117). But
they were no quitters, they stuck to it and Sam started gettin bored of write'in
the same ol'e things so he turned a little creative.  Sam bein born funny,
started slippin jokes in the paper and made up names to call himself (119).
Well Orion wanted a proper, ol'e fashioned kinda paper.  This caused for some
quarrel'in in between the two and I reckon Sam could'n stand for it no longer,
so he grab himself his belongings and left for St. Louis to visit his sister
Elizabeth and find himself a job.  He did't plan on stay'in there for long
though.  Sam only wanted to make enough money to go to New York (Paine 52).
     Well Sam's plans did not exactly go as he reckoned they would.  He had
many print'in jobs cross the whole country.  Dur'in this time Sam met a fella
named Burruogh.  He was in to literature and was a well read man.  He had quite
the influence on Sam and turned him on to read'in.  Eventually, Sam returned
back in St. Louis and worked for the Evening News.  Well by this time it was
spring and Orion got himself a wife and moved to Iowa.  Sam came to visit his
brother in Iowa and found Henry, his younger brother, now 17,  there too.
        Well life was like ol'e times for a while.  The three brothers lived
together in Orion's house.  This is the period of time when Sam was turned on to
music.  It happened after a music teacher, who lived on the floor below, was
flat out sick and tired of be'in the focus of Sam's noise and pranks that they
would play on him.  He would come upstairs to reprimand them.  Sam would usually
reply with one of his regular wise cracks but one day Sam tried som'in a bit out
the ordinary.  In an attempt to be funny he was overly polite to the teacher.
To his surprise, the man was nice back and before you could blink your own eye
Sam was a musician (60).
       He was bout 20 years of age now and was quite the ladie's man.  But
don't think for a second that Sam was close to a gentleman.  The ladie's along
with everybody else liked Sam for his outgo'in personality.  Although he was a
partier dur'in the sun's hours at night you could predict that the only place he
would be found was in his bed, propped up by a pillow,  smok'in his pipe and
read'in a book (61).  Life was good for the boys and not a day passed without a
laugh.
     Unfortunately good things can only last so long.  Orion's paper was not
mak'in him enough to cover his expenses.  After much struggl'in he wrote home in
distraught to his mama, who was now liv'in with Pamela.  The note told of an
adventure that Orion would go on in the Amazon (62).  His interest was sparked
after read'in a book by Lynch and Henderson.  The book told of the riches that
could be found there in the mines of the rain forest.  Now if you have'nt gotten
the idea that Sam was the adventurous type, you have'nt been listen'in proper,
cause thats what he lived for!  If you think that Sam would miss a chance to not
only ride on a steam boat to South America but also go on an adventure in the
Amazon you are beyond fix'in (64).  Anyway it took him round a year to raise
enough money to go to the Amazon but he finally had it and set forth on the Paul
Jones down the Mississippi to New Orleans.  Sam reckoned the voyage would take
bout a week of time but his foresee'in was more than just a bit off (70).
     Horace Bixby was cap'tn of the boat.  I reckon his day started off jus
as any other, that is until he met Sam of course.  It all happened when Horace
spotted that a man, now 21 years of age, had been star'in at him for hours.
When Horace's shift was over he left the pilot house.  As soon as he opened that
door Sam was in his face ask'in questions bout his job and how liked it.  Their
conversations and friendliness kept for the rest of the trip.  But at the end
Sam left it jus like all the other passengers.
     Sam noticed an ol'e dock hand lean'in up against a pole.  Sam was down
right puzzled when the man laughed at Sam's question.  He replied "There have
never been no steamers sail'in to the Amazon round here!"  It was then and there
when Sam realized that the Mississippi was his river and that pilot'in it had
been his biggest dream.  So Sam went search'in for Bixby and found em too.  He
asked him if he could be a cub on the boat and Bixby had no problem with it
cause Sam had been so friendly and all.  So Sam worked the river for four years
and ventually became himself a cap'tn (Howard 122).  Word got around that Sam
was one of the best cap'tns on that river.  Mr. Bixby was proud and Sam loved
that river more than life it'self and planed to spend it on the Mississippi
(133).  I'm sure he woulda done it till he was able to but someth'in came up.
     One night there was a horrible accident.  There was a ship who's had
them selves a boiler explosion.  Henry was on that boat and went to swim to a
nearby shore.  But Henry heard scream'in and went back to save people.  He never
made it and drowned.  This was not the only thing that made Sam depressed these
days (Paine 91).
     Unfortunately when Sam turned 26 years of age boats were halted go'in up
and down the river cause of the war. Ya see the Yankees has been on us bout how
slaves are immoral and all, and them plantation owners would'n got no notes if
it warn't for their niggers (133).  So as anyone coulda guessed the country
broke out into an all out brawl over the matter.  Course this meant dat any man
worthy of any respect at all was go'in to fight for em selves and their good ol'
e south,  so for a short period of time he did but Sam thought that slavery was
wrong.  He felt for it so strong that he woulda joined emself en the Yank's side
but he would be fightin his friends and neighbors (Howard 134).
     By this time Orion's print'in business had failed.  But Orion's second
cousin was a rich boy.  He was able to fix up Orion with a proper job.  Nevada
was a new territory and it needed itself a Territorial Secretary.  This job was
much like be'in a governor and was considered a real honor.  There was one
problem left to resolve.  It would take Orion all of one-hundred and fifty
dollars.  Well that was no problem that Sam could'nt solve cause he had himself
three-hundred dollars right in his own pocket.  Now if I am do'in my math proper
this would mean that two people would have themselves a ticket to Nevada.  Well
I must to done it right cause they did jus' that.  Sam's plan to make money
would be to mine silver (135).  Well Sam's luck at min'in was not very prosper.
He barely made enough to survive the winter.  But although times were tough he
was always able to make his colleagues and himself laugh dur'in the worst of
times.  Dur'in this period Sam would write humorous letters to Orion.  Well
Orion knew of his li'l brothers problems.  In an attempt to help him he showed
Sam's letters to the local paper.  The owner of the Territorial Enterprise found
exactly what he wanted (137).  It was August when Sam started writ'in for the
paper.  But prior to writ'in a stitch Sam wanted to create a name for himself
that would stick.  He thought long and hard, think'in how great life used to be
on the Mississippi.  Suddenly his eyes took on a glare and his face was
perplexed.  He had a big smile on his face and through his smil'in mouth came
the words "Mark Twain".  It was a river term that told the cap'tn how deep the
water was (15).  Well Sam though he had good ideas bout write'in so he set off
to be a free lance writer.  To make money in between he mined for gold.  One day
while sitt'in on a rock next to the mountain side he heard some men talk'in of
frog races.  This took Sam's mind to the past, his uncle use to have a pet frog.
So he started write'in what came to mind and before he coulda known it himself
he had a completed story in front of his eyes (142).
	Sam sent his story to a  local newspaper.  Well The Bullfrog Of
Calaveras County was the talk of the town!  Before he known it himself Sam
stories were be'in published all over the country (143).
	I reckon it was late May of 1864 when Sam left for the West coast.
Twain's reason for leav'in Nevada for California was because of a duel.  The
duel was really somewhat of a publicity stunt.  It was arranged in between Sam
and a rival paper to the Call, the paper that Sam was write'in for (Paine 137).
When Sam got there he found the city filled wit beautiful flowers and roll'in
green hills.  Sam found the location perfect for his write'in.  He was relaxed
here and could concentrate (Eaton 143).  Sam's job was to venture out into the
city's night life.  It was filled with shows and entertainment! Sam's job was to
report and critique the shows he attended, he loved it at first but soon got
sick of all the lights and glamour (145).  But Sam kept at it.  He had one
reason for wak'in up every day.  You see Sam joined a literary group, it was his
moment of sunshine dur'in an otherwise dismal day (146).  But Sam could barely
take the his monotonous job for another day, he was bout to quit when BOOM.  Now
I have never been to the West myself but Sam told me out there they have these
happen'ins they call earthquakes.  It must be strange to be in one.  Everything
shakes and whole build'ins can fall down!  Anyways for Sam this earthquake
brought bout much to write about.  For many days he made reports bout what
happened to people and their homes and things of the sort.  But eventually
California got themselves some carpenters to fix everyth'in and that was the end
of that topic (146).
	So I reckon you believe how happy Sam was when he got word from Joe
Goodman to rejoin the Enterprise.  Sam would act as their Western reporter and
would free to write bout what ever he chose (147).  Well every thing was go'in
fine until Sam's friend and roommate Steve Gillis almost killed a barkeeper!  He
was put in jail for attempted murder.  So be'in the kind that Sam was,  he
posted his friend's bail.  Well the word got out that this barkeeper was friends
with the Sheriff.  This meant that Steve had no chance of gett'in a fair trial.
So like any man would, Steve fled to Virginia.  Well when he did'nt show up in
court they went after Sam's bail money.  But no worry, cause Sam got word of it
before they found him.
     Steve's brother Jim came to town and told Sam that he could stay with
him in his cabin in the Tuollumne hills (148).  Jim was what was called a "
pocket miner".  These people were miners that would look for gold in abandoned
mines.  So Sam learned the trade of pocket min'in.  They roamed area which is
now Yosemite park scout'in for gold.  Sam did this for weeks mak'in enough to
survive (149).  Eventually Sam's short attention span caught up with him.  Like
every thing else Sam got sick of min'in and be'in so far away from, well,
everything!  So he set down his pails and headed back to San Fransico (150).
	Upon his return Sam was contracted by the Sacremento Union to write some
stories bout the Hawaiian group.  Well within moments Sam had himself on a boat
to the islands.  He would often refer to his time on the islands as one of the
best in his whole, ttire life, a "golden memory" as he put so himself .  Sam was
in his 30s, his prime and was filled with adventure and energy.  He traveled all
over the island and sent back detailed reports (Paine 148).  California and Sam
himself were both amazed with the write'in that Mark Twain was creat'in.  Sam
wanted to refine his skills and better himself.  His first step toward his goal
was to return to California (150).  Sam begun to give lectures,  at the start of
it they were refined to San Fransisco and then to the state.  The results were
amazing.  I don't think I have ever seen so many of people in one room before!
Well cause of these results Sam ventured out to many big cities of the country.
Now if you were to pick one place where the most people were would come to see
Sam's lectures were would you go?  New York, New York of course (160).  The
lectures that Sam gave in New York were probably what kicked off his pathway to
national fame (162).
     Dur'in his travels Sam met a man named Charles Langdon.  They became
good friends.  Sam spent Christmas in New York with Charles.  It is here where
he met Olivia Langdon (Eaton 178).  It was love at first sight, I must say she
was a mighty fine woman, she was!  The two stared at each other through out
dinner at the Langdon's house.  Olivia found Sam the most interest'in person she
had ever met (179).  They saw each other again on New Year's Day and became even
more friendly with each other, even more than prior (182).
	Duty called Sam to Washington, where he would give two speeches.  At
this point Sam's life took a turn.  He realized that he was not meant to be a
reporter but an author (183).  He started write'in quickly, his goal was to
finish a manuscript as soon as possible (184).  The result was The Innocent
Abroad Sam's first novel.  The story told of Sam's trip on the Quaker , a large
sailboat, with six other men.  He was on the ship to tour Europe and lecture in
the some of the big cities (163 Paine).
	In the meantime Sam was invited to spend two days with the Langdon
family.  Everyone was happy to see him.  For two days he tried to lure Olivia
towards engag'in her in some personal conversation (186 Eaton).  Within a short
period of time Sam had convinced Olivia into marry'in him (187).  February 2,
1870 was the day that Sam finally got married, well I can say it was bout time!
He did not want to separate the Langdon family so Sam decided to move nearby to
Olivia's home town, Elmira, so Sam and his new wife moved to Buffalo, New York
(190).
	Almost as soon as the couple moved in they experienced themselves some
problems.  Olivia's father passed away leav'in her grief stricken.  Olivia got
herself into a state of depression, mak'in her weak and confined her to her bed.
In November the couple had a premature baby boy named Langdon.  But instead of
bring'in the family joy it worsened them.  Because the baby was born early it
was weak and sickly, not to good.  How could a man possibly concentrate in such
a mess?  Well he simply could'nt! Sam noticed that ever since they moved to
Buffalo his wife and himself were not the happy people they used to be (192).
	So when Sam received the invitation to spend the summer at Quarry Farm
from Mrs. Crane there was no doubt in his mind to accept.  Mrs. Crane was the
sister of Olivia's mama.  She lived on a farm that had huge views of roll'in
green hills which helped  to inspire Sam an his  write'in (186 Paine).  By the
end of the summer,  Sam had finished his book, Roughing It.  It was bout his
adventures out in the western territory.
     At the summer's end the family chose on mov'in to Hartford, Connecticut,
a thriv'in city that was filled with literary publishers and clubs of that sort
(Paine 189).
	 1872 was a year of change for Sam and his family.  In March his second
child was born Susy Clemens.  But three months later Langdon died of a heavy
cold (198).  Later that year Sam's adventures spanned to England, his mission
was to collect information bout their customs for a new book that he planned to
start.  He returned in November that same year.  His plans changed, Sam
abandoned his idea and started a new fiction book called The Gilded Age.  It was
well known and loved by many people, jus like all of his other write'ins of
course.
     Lov'in England so much, Sam returned there with his family.  He stayed
himself there for a complete two years.  Dur'in this time he had met with many
famous authors and lectured all over England (199).  On his arrival home Sam
started write'in Tom Sawyer.  It was bout his child hood :grow'in up on the
Mississippi.  It was to be one of his most famous books (200).  I guess he must '
av  been feel'in mighty high spirited cause Sam continued on write'in.  He wrote
Sketches New and Old which would have been a tremendous seller if it were by any
other author, but for Sam it was a relatively "small potatoes" (209).
     Sam's next big accomplishment was The Prince and the Pauper , his first
play.  The story was bout Henry VIII.  Sam got the idea after read'in The Prince
and the Page, a well known story (219).
	By now Sam had himself three children Susy, Clara and Jean (Howard 157).
It was at this time when Sam decided to write The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn
(Eaton 217).  Now Sam wrote many a books but this was by far the most excellent
thing that was ever written,  and I can't help lik'in the name of it!  It sold
like a madman, bring'in Sam tons of letters and comments bout his novel.
     After write'in many famous books Sam did someth'in he had been long'in
for.  Sam returned to the Mississippi. There he met up with some  ole friends
and saw ole sites.  For a moment Sam was liv'in his child hood.  Everybody he
knew had read all of his books and the all the people decorated their town for
Sam's return.  As Sam stepped off the boat he said "Has Missouri changed the
date of the 4th of July?" (Howard 166).  The next day Sam was invited to attend
the christen'in of a new steam boat.  The champagne bottle cracked and the
wooden planks that held it in place slipped off the ship reveal'in the name "
MARK TWAIN" (168).
	Years later Sam laid in his bed.  He was now an old man with only Clara
left.  His whole family had died.  He sat in bed remember'in how he had seen
Halley's comet when he was little.  Now 77 years later Sam saw the comet again
on the night of April 21, 1910.  This was one of the lasts things he saw.  Cause
that night Sam passed into a long sleep that still has yet to end (173).
     I went on bein' a sheriff in Montana.  But this story ain't bout myself,
it's bout my friend Sam.
		-Tom Blankenship
                                 a.k.a.: Huckleberry Finn

Note:  This paper was written in a dialect used by Huck.  There are many
spelling and grammatical errors but all are intessional (just kidding, bout (r)--).
 They are there to represent the dialogue of Huck.  I have edited it many times
to be sure ALL the errors now in the paper are intentional!  I have sat through
my spell check alerting me that almost every word was spelled wrong just to
eliminate unintentional errors.



The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn II

	In the novel The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn the setting has a large
influence on Huck's character.  The period of time that Huck lived in was a
distinct era.  The country was changing rapidly.  During this period steam
engines enabled rivers to be used as mass transportation, an idea that had never
been explored until now.  Waterways were the first way in which large amounts of
goods could be transported efficiently.  This drastically changed much of the
nation's economy.  Huge factories were built in the north and southern
plantations tripled their production by using machines.  There were many traits
of this era that can be seen by looking at the components of Huck's character,
his language, actions and thoughts.  Some of these traits are sutle and can be
easily missed but others are very obvious and powerful.  This period of change
was the setting of Huck's childhood.
	One trait that is indicative of the era is the social class of Huck and
Huck's language.  It is greatly affected by his social class and setting.  The
broken English is a sign of Huck's low social class.  In addition it also shows
that he is from a southern river town.  This can be seen from his expressions
and accent.  The language of the novel also assists the reader to get into the
laid back, southern mood of the book.  By doing so the story is brought to life.
It seems as if someone were to bring you back to the time when the novel and the
events in it occurred.
     Because of the rules of the time that Huck's character is governed upon,
Huck was never educated.  During the early 1800s there was no law that required
children to go to school, therefore his low intellect has a strong impact on
Huck's character.  It gives him a "plain and simple" outlook on life,  this
trait can been seen throughout the book in Huck's character.  One specific area
it affects is Huck's plans for his future.  Huck only thought about what he was
going to do for present.  Huck had an incapable father.  He was thought of as
the town drunk, and would often come home intoxicated and abuse Huck.    At one
point his father locked Huck up in a small room without food or water for days.
The setting is important here because if Huck's father were to treat his son in
an abusive manner today, he would lose custody of his child.  A good example of
Huck's unloving relationship was Huck's reaction to his father's death.     When
notified of his death he was relieved and felt safe!  This detail can be used to
illustrate the abuse that Huck went through in the beginning of the book, while
living with his father.  Because of Huck's father's irresponsible actions,  Huck
ran away at a young age in the hope that someday he would find freedom from his
father and society.    By running away Huck saved himself from abuse and being
taken advantage of.  One of the things Huck saved himself from was having 6,000
dollars, that Huck was awarded for the capture of two criminals in Tom Sawyer,
being stolen from him by his father.
      Huck's separation from his father is also the reason for his free
thinking, responsibility and innocence.  These times of hardship formed him into
a mature person and helped contribute to his independent personality.  Without
the influence of the setting Huck would have never been able to achieve the
freedom that he had by being independent.
	When Huck ran away he joined up with Jim, who was also running away, but
from something different.  Jim was fleeing from slavery, a common practice of
the time. Huck's relationship with Jim contributed to Huck's non-prejudice
thinking.  Another factor that gave Huck a understanding of how the slaves must
have felt was the prejudice that he experienced  himself , being part of the
lower class.  Huck was infuriated when people looked down upon him for something
that was no fault of his, he was born into the class because of his father's
social status.  For these reasons Huck always treated Jim as an equal, making
Huck ahead of his time.  Jim knew that Huck respected him, as a result Jim
risked his own life to save Huck.
     Huck's  independence and lack of education resulted in a mind that was
never influenced by adult's beliefs.  This allowed Huck to have thoughts based
on what he believed in, not traditions that are simply carried on by messengers
of the past's beliefs.  Although traditions are often good they prevent new
ideas from entering people's minds.   This made Huck original, this
individuality  could be seen with his relationship with Jim.  During this period
of American history slaves were looked down upon, but Huck, being  an
independent thinker, looked up to Jim for who he was, not for the color of his
skin.  This was made obvious by their moon lit conversations on the raft.  On
the raft Huck and Jim talked about their past and future, friends and how they
planned to avoid trouble that could result from their next adventure.  From the
raft conversations the reader was able to see how Jim longed for freedom and had
feelings just like everyone else, especially Huck.
     As the novel progressed Huck's relationship with Jim grew stronger.  In
the beginning of the book Huck often called Jim "Nigger Jim."  This was not
because of any hatred that Huck had towards Jim.  It was only a term commonly
used to refer to blacks.  But by the end of the book Huck would only call Jim by
his name.  This change in dialogue clearly illustrates how the relationship grew
stronger during their adventures.  By the end of the novel Huck risked his own
life to free Jim in the final escape attempt.  This happened when Huck and Tom
freed Jim from a holding cell.  They were spotted, chased and then shot at by
the men who had captured Jim.  If  the story were to take place in another time,
where slavery did not exist, it could have hid Huck's individuality that slavery
shed light on.
	During the river adventures that Huck and Jim shared Huck realized that
because of his economic status he was dependent on the river to survive. This
can clearly be seen by looking at the origin of his name "Huckleberry". He was
given this name  because at a young age he had been eating huckleberries. His
dependence made him loyal to the Mississippi River.  The personification of the
river  that Huck uses clearly shows his feelings and thankfulness to the river.
The personification also helped show how important the river was to not only
Huck but to all of the river towns.




















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Art of Rock and Roll by Charles Brown.TXT
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The Art of Rock and Roll by Charles Brown


	The book "The Art of Rock and Roll" by Charles T. Brown basically
proposes methods for analyzing music and anyone who reads the books should be
able to develop techniques for listening to music and making legitimate
statements about it.  It treats rock and roll as a serious art form and traces
it cultural roots throughout the book.
	Chapter one discusses the elements of rock and makes four assumptions.
Assumption one states that  rock is a legitimate art form.  An art form is
defined as a creative act that springs from the artist's experience as it
reflects or reacts against society. It then states that acculturation, a process
by which a certain people are influenced by a foreign culture, changed the Afro-
Americans from their original culture to one that was a mixture of U.S.
influences and African roots which played a large part in the way rock and roll
sounds today.  Brown proves rock is a legitimate art form by talking about its
audience and  its lasting power.
	Assumption  two states that  rocks roots are in folk, jazz, and pop
music. Musicians who first started rock and roll must have had something to base
their music on which turned out to be primarily folk, jazz, and pop.  They
simple changed the pattern and style of that music and started forming rock.
	  Assumption three states that it is just as valid to study rock and
roll as European classical music.  Rock will prove to be a valid means of
producing competent musicians and that it demands the same type of performance
as in any musical form.  Since it is a valid way in which to study music in
general it is just as valid to start with rock as starting anywhere else.
	 Assumption four states that simple musical analysis of selected
compositions is a primary tool for understanding musical evolution.  Through
musical analysis we are able to generalize and say that rock from a certain era
has common characteristics.  By doing this we are able to see what influences
lead rock to where it is today.
	The chapter then goes on to discuss the elements of music which are
nonverbal communication, melody, rhythm, harmony, lyrics, and performance.
Music is nonverbal in that it communicates through organized sound and is
difficult to translate, the other elements are what make the sound organized and
meaningful.  Melody is an organized set of notes consisting of different pitches.
 It is basically the up and down motion of the lead singer.  Rhythm is those
beat of patterns that underlie most forms of communications.  It is made up of
pulsations that follow a consistent pattern.  It will sometimes show us the
emotional feel of a song.  Harmony is the simultaneous sounding of two or more
notes at the same time.  It provides a texture for the total song.  Lyrics are
the words used in the song and usually tell us what the song and mood of the
song is about.  Performance tells us the purpose, function, and impact of a
certain song.
	Music generally reflects the value of society.  By using the elements of
music you can begin to make assumptions about how rock and roll reflects its
society.  It quickly took on an attitude of rebellion and eventually became a
symbol of independence for youths
	Chapter two discusses the listening skill needed to better understand
music. Through listening we can define the social impact of a rock group and its
musical style. This purpose of this chapter is to outline ways in which the
individual can create his or her own system of analysis.  The chapter then goes
on describing what you need to do while listening to music to better analyze it.
First you need concentration, you need to change your attitude towards the music
you hear everyday and block out any interference, we must treat it seriously and
analyze it fairly even if we we don't like it.  Then you need to dissect what
your hearing.  You have to decide what to use for a reference point and listen
to the song more than once.  Your first time listening to it you should get a
general idea of what the song is like, what its about, and what it has.  After
that you add more information by listening to each part of the music
individually.  Lyrics are the easiest to analyze.  You must write all the lyrics
down and figure out if there is a verse structure.
	The chapter then goes into the different types of Melody.  First there
is the Soprano- lead melody.  The lead melody is sometimes called the soprano
melody which means the highest melody.  Then there is the bass melody, which is
normally played by  an instrument rather then sung.  It is halfway between
melody and rhythm, or beat.  It is usually low sounding, repetitive and
continuos. It is the foundation for the instrumental ensemble.   Instruments are
another part of melody.  It is the instruments that give rock and roll its
character and beat.  The drums provide the beat, the guitars provide continous
rhythm, and the bass guitar plays the bass melody.  When analyzing you must also
recognize the Rhythm and Harmony.  They both determine the complexity of the
composition and we must become aware of changes in rhythm or harmony because
they indicate changes in the song.
	Chapter three discusses the sources of Rock.  Slave music was important
because when they were brought to the United states they also brought with them
their music which was blues and later on early jazz.  Acculturation began as
soon as their were American-born slaves.  They would sing work songs which were
basically chants which later on formed to become blues.  As blues developed so
did early forms of Jazz.  One of these forms was the cakewalk was the cakewalk
which was a danced step used to make fun of how stiff the white man walked and
later on became the first truly Afro-American dance step.  Another form was
Ragtime which was a piano style which has four main themes.  Then came along
other piano styles such as stride, dixieland, and the boogie-woogie which was
the first obvious influence for rock and roll.
     In the 1930's blues took on a different character because of changes in
society, black musicians developed big bands  and blues singers continued to
have great importance which eventually fostered rhythm and blues.  Rock and roll
started to develop in the last part of the 1930's mainly because of the start of
the removal of the color line between musicians.
	Chapter four discusses early rock.  They started to somewhat define the
rock category by saying that rock uses certain rhythmic devices, its lyrics and
jargon came from the jump blues, rhythm and blues, country, or some combination,
many pieces use a blues progression, and the basic style of performance is
continuos shouting by the singer and continuos playing by the instrumentalists.
There were different types of songs that started to show the development of rock.
 Shouting, songs in which lyrics were shouted over the band background, was a
predominant style of early rock and the foundation for the careers of famous
rock musicians.  Ballad singing is also an important part of early rock and roll,
it is a big band tune from rhythm and blues tradition.   Then there was
novelties , which were a third kind of rock song.  It was a song with some
gimmick that makes it catchy.
     During the 1950's most Americans felt secure, we started to see
ourselves as a world power.  We were involved in the cold war and blacks had
started their movements. Because of the cultural situation rock and roll became
a focal point for rebellion.  The marketing techniques were very primitive, but
started to turn rock and roll into a multimillion dollar business.
	Chapter  five discusses Bill Haley and the Comets and how they set a
model for rock and roll.  There  is not much to be said about this chapter
because Haley wasn't  a great musician and others would come after him and do a
better job at music then he did, but he was essentially one of the first groups
to use the elements of music just right to be labeled a rock and roll musician.
	Chapter six talks about a person who was far more important in giving
rock and roll its lasting power then Bill Haley and that person was Elvis
Presley.  Presley had Musical and personal qualities that far surpassed Haley.
Presley opened up markets for other musicians and served as a symbol for the
development of marketing techniques.  He influenced a tremendous number of
musicians.
	There were other musicians who came from Memphis  and were labeled the
Memphis Mafia.  They produced a more marketable combination of records using
ballads and novelties.  Country was also influenced by this wave of new rock
musicians and created the Nashville sound.  Some rockabilly musicians include
Johnny Cash, who was more influential in folk music as he developed his style,
Buddy Holly, who could have contributed to rock just as much as Presley did if
he had lived longer, Jerry Lee Lewis, who was one of the first rock and roll
piano players, and Carl Perkins.
	Chapter seven talks about the broadening of the music style and the
performers who came out of this period.  During this time, 1950's,  rock had
become legitimized as a category all on its own.  By this time there were four
different types of rock and roll: Rhythm and Blues/shouting, crooning, specialty
songs, and novelty/monster songs.  Free acculturation also came into play around
this time.  Ray Charles is the musician who legitimized this position.
	Urbanization  of rock and roll from rural to urban blues led to the
circumstances in which rock and roll could be marketed.   Rock and Roll began as
a rough form of music. became urban blues form, and then eventually took in
other forms in order to expand its market.  Ballads became significant in the
1950's because they expanded the listening audience and in turn gained
acceptance by the public.  The first ballads predate the invention of the term
rock an roll.
	Chapter eight focuses on soul/mowtown music.  This music had great
influence around the 1960's which were times of tumult and confusion.  Rock
music had new messages and new means to communicate.  Rock around this time
relied heavily on the rhythm section because the style was vocally dominated.
Also around this time Memphis played a more important part because it became a
center for studio recording.  Because of the popularity of gospel and soul along
with rhythm and blues, billboard combined the categories into one called soul.
Mowtown was formed by doowop groups and did fairly well.  Sixty-seven percent of
the singles that came out of mowtown music hit the top of the charts.
	Chapter nine talks about one of the greatest influences on Rock and Roll
which were the Beatles.  Their musical style is defined in three periods which
are early beatle, 1962-1964, middle beatles,1965-1966, and late beatles 1967-
1969.  The early beatles had the following characteristics: Simple lyrics,
Simple background accompaniment, Rock sound from the 1950's, Simple drumbeat and
rhythmic patters, Simple bass lines, and domination by lead singer or unison
singing.  In their early era they just sang songs for that had little or no
meaning and did not have any relationship with each other.  The rhythmic
patterns were simple with little riff orientation.  The Middle beatles had
different style of singing which can be characterized as poetically more complex
lyrics, Symbolic lyrics, More creative music, Universal point of view, sometimes
critical words, growing dissension among group members, more guitar oriented and
less percussive, folklike, more complicated guitar sounds and electronics, more
subjects in musical lyrics, and better background accompaniment.  The beatles
came into their own during this period.  The technical era was more complex.
The albums began to show some continuity and there was logic in which the way
the songs were placed.  The late beatles music can be characterized by
electronic music, studio music, technically precise music, mystical allusions,
and total communication.  The music during this time was both diverse and
homogenous.  They were able to make each song and each album tie into each other
successfully.  The musical style was interwoven with the message of  the singing.
	Chapter ten talks about California and what it gave to rock and roll.
California was seen as a kind of utopia around the 1960's so people wanted to go
there, especially southern California.  They were really into surfing music,
which created such groups as The Beach Boys, and some were more into nonsurfing
groups, which were such groups as The Doors.  Both of these major groups came
out of California around this time.  In northern California, cities such as San
Francisco developed themselves as the center of movement, and musically, folk
music turned into a particular kind of rock.  The sound that it turned into can
be defined as acid rock or psychedelic rock, which means that it is associated
with LSD, or acid.  It became associated with very loud music and use of
electronic amplification.  This new development was important to rock because it
united rocks identification with rebellion, something it had lost for a while.
	Chapter eleven discusses Folk-rock and how it came about.  Folk music is
usually defined as the music of the people, it usually expresses the feelings of
one particular area or group.  It has many different aspects.  Rock, jazz,
country, and other musical textures were added experimentally, leading to fusion.
 Bob Dylan is a musician who played great folk music, he is responsible for
raising the sophistication level of the lyrics.  Around this time, 1970's, it
gets harder to generalize about attitudes.  This shift in attitudes was
partially caused by the technological explosion.  Communications systems became
much more sophisticated, and information was available instantly.
	From here on the book goes on to discuss the different forms of rock
that came about.  Chapter twelve focuses towards English Rock.  English rock has
a distinctive sound for several reasons: Depending on their upbringing, the
musicians sing with a distinctive accent; There is a slight influence of skiffle
in the beginning stages of music from the 1960's; The technology of the
amplified sound is different in that the amplifiers are set to amplify the
harmonic spectrum differently; Musical symbolism tends to be different and draws
from the literary tradition of Europe; The blending of voices tends to be less
emotional.  Three groups who popularized English rock in America  after the
Beatles were The Rolling Stones, The Who, and Elton John.  They capitalized on
the attitudes of the times which were sometimes tasteless and antiestablishment.
The Rolling Stones and The Who eventually have an impact on punk and new wave.
Elton John proves the lasting impact of a pianist and a vocalist.
	Chapter thirteen goes onto art and eclectic rock.  Art rock is a term
that defines music that either has higher pretentions than standard rock or
imitates another style that has been recognized as art.  Eclectic rock is a term
applied to anything considered to be unusual.  The chapter presents a mixture of
styles tied together by the experimental quality of the music  All of it was
generally a fusion of rock and roll with western or nonwestern art music.  Some
musicians that represent this period are The Kinks, Frank Zappa, and Rush just
to name a few.
	Chapter fourteen moves on to Country rock.  It is analogous to rock
music after the middle Beatles period in that it uses elements of different
kinds of music.  Country rock is a combination of pop, folk, jazz, rock, and
country music.  Country rock has a a few distinct elements.  A band normally
uses heavy amplification of the guitar instruments, the lyrics are most
uncharacteristic of straight country music, and the musicians look different
from traditional country musicians.  One of the most important characteristics
of country rock was the emergence of the songwriter as the narrator and the
expression of southern pride.  Some bands that represent country rock are
Alabama, Charlie Daniels Band, the Eagles, the Grateful Dead,  and Lynyrd
Skynyrd.
	Chapter fifteen moves onto Jazz-rock, funk, and disco.  Because there
were many attitudes at the same time in the 1970's, the idea of art forms
merging into something called fusion makes sense.  The fusion music of the 70's
has had an enormous commercial impact, and all three types of music were
financially successful.  All three movements have strong jazz roots.  Jazz-rock
had some significance, it had some very competent musicians and began to make
contributions to the rock technique, rock became more complicated as a result,
the commercial value of rock was made broader, many electronic devices became
commonplace in both jazz and rock, and jazz influences began to further
legitimize rock as a serious form of communication.  Funk is a way of defining
the music as having various sexual and social meanings.  Funk evolved from soul
and became a way of life within the black community.  Funk can be aggressive and
its musical structure combines both softness and harshness.  Disco was important
because it provided a central focus for the return of dancing.  It is simply
good-time music that is optimistic and without social comment.
	Chapter sixteen talks about the emergence of heavy metal.  Heavy Metal
is commonly described as being loud music.  The elements of heavy metal consist
of heavy use of electronic devices, high volume, a thick cluttered sound where
all musical elements combine to establish the sense of power, and a sound mix
where the vocals are buried within the texture.  Classical metal was a period in
which there was a definitive split between British and American styles occurred
and it was at this time that heavy metal became a separate style of rock and
roll.  Mainstream metal is a style that is fully developed, evolves into equal
strength in all instruments and vocal aspects of the band unit, and settles into
a very acceptable level of musical competence.  Heavy metal became more
mainstream in the 1980's.  The terms Thrash/Speed/Death came later on in the
heavy metal period.  Thrash was heavy metal instrumental style with neo-punk
lyrics. Speed metal is the evolution of mainstream American heavy metal,
incorporating long melodic phrases and fast tempos.  Death metal is a particular
style which is defined by its lyrics with words like death, hell, blood, etc.
	Chapter seventeen moves onto punk, new wave, and alternative music.
Punk is a term applied to a child or teenager who acts in a antisocial way.
Punk was a form of rebellion, it turned against all other musical forms of the
1970's.  It is considered the third rock evolution following the formation of
rock and roll and the Beatles.  The music was as much cultural as it was musical.
 It was anarchic, against society, and against everything in the established
order.  New wave refers to new music, sometimes meaning contemporary music.  New
wave was generally the philosophy of life that manifested itself in certain
kinds of music.  Alternative music is music that represents another option to
what is already commercially viable or has been classified.  Alternative groups
have a short term following because they either become more mainstream or get
other jobs.  It has little lasting impact on rock and roll, but occasionally
will have real impact.
	Chapter eighteen is the final chapter and discusses Techno-funk/pop, Rap,
MTV, Dance music, and the future.  Techno-funk was the standard way of defining
what was happening.  The technology of the time created the means to market rock
which was through videotapes.  Techno-funk/pop was more dominant in 1985 than
any other time. Rap is a form of music that features a strong rhythm section,
with the slap bass so important to funk, soul, and reggae.  The rapper tells his
message in a punctuated style. Other aspects of rap that  are important are the
scratching style, dance steps, mouth beat box, and breaking.   Pop rock was
generally called dance music.  In terms of  attitude it represents a growing
commercial period in rock.  MTV had an impact on the relative success of the
various kinds of music as well as the buying habits of younger viewers. Charle T.
Brown concludes the book by stating the basic premises he established throughout
the book which are the following: 1.Rock is a legitimate are form, with its own
technique and its own complexity. 2.Like any art form, it has its highs and lows.
3.We can trace cycles in rock, which seem to correlate with social views. 4.Rock
has had a major influence on society and other art forms. 5.Although it began as
a way for youth to rebel against their parents, rock in now a universal art form
and a means of communication, spanning the gamut of generations all over the
world.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\the body.TXT
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   THE BODY 
	

	In Castel Rock Maine,  There were four boys Vern Tesio,  Gordie La Chance,  Chris ,  and Teddy Duchamp.
	

	They have a tree house in a abandon parking lot where they  play cards and hang out.


	Vern comes and tells the gang that when he was under his portch looking for his penneys that he had burried when he was eight he over heard his brother talking to his friend charlie hogan about the child that was missing but they said that they did it and they said where the body was.

		
	Gordie's brrother died in car crash.
              
	
	Gordies parents never paid any attention to Gordie.

          There was a story that started in the book,and I didn't get it.  It was a nudity scene, like a story but just started in the middle of the book.


	So they each told there mom's and dad's that they were camping out in the field when they where realy going to find the dead child.

	Chris brought a gun that he stole off of his dads bureau.  He let Gordie see it and he told Gordie that it wasn't loaded.  So Gordie pulled the trigger.  And KA-BLAM.  The gun was loaded and he shot the trashcans behind the diner.  The waitress cam out but she thought it was fircrackers.

 
	 They started out on there mission walking along the train tracks.


	Teddy Duchamp played chicken with the train pretending he was a paratrooper,  but Chris pushed him out off the way in the nick of time.  They get into a fight but settle it.


	They go into the town dump to get a drink of water.  It is restrickted to go in there when the dump isn't open.  They fliped to see who goes to the store to get the food.  when they fliped they got a goocher which vern says is bad luck,  so they flip again ang Gordie looses.


	Gordie goes to the store to get the food and he gets in a fight with the clerk about being gipped on the money because when Gordie add it up it came out to be less then what the clerk said.


	When Gordie came back to the dump he couldn't find the guys and he noticed that the owner of the junkyard was here because his car was here.  So he tried to make a run to the opposite side of the junk yard.  But the man noticed him a sicked his dog Chopper after him.  He made it to the other side to find his friends standing there telling him to come on.


	The owner of the junk yard was really mad at th kids for trespasing.  But the kids just kept calling the owner names.


	The owner got realy mad and called Teddy's dad a looney.  Teddy got really mad and said that his dad stormed the beachs of Normady.

	
	They had to cross this train bridge the only problem was that they didn't know when the next train was due.  They started to cross the bridge when they noticed a train was comming so they started running.  Vern and Gordie were in the back when chris and Teddy were up front.  Chris and Teddy made it easely but Vern and Gordie made it by the skin of the teeth.


	Gordie told a story when they camped out.  It was about this pie eating contest.  This looser in the school was called Lardass.  Everyone hated him so he wanted revenge.  He ate a egg and some alchole to make him throw-up before the contest.  He ate 6 pies and then through-up on the person who was the returning campion.  Then everyone started trowing-up.


	They took a short cut through a field to make better time.


	In there short cut they had to pass a swampy area.  when they crossed the water they noticed leaches all over their bodies.  Gordie passed out when he found a leach in his underwear.


	When they arrived at the dead childs body along came Verns brother billy with his gang wanting to take away the body and get credit it for finding it but Gordie shot the gun into the air and made everyone leave so no one could take credit for finding the body.


	 The figured the best way to help the police was by a anonymous call to tell them where the body was.

 
	Vern was killed in a house fire in a appartment building in 1966.  Teddy went in a car crash.  Chris was stabbed in a chicken store.  And Gordie is a writer with a family.  
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The book I read was a biography on Harry Houdini.TXT
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     The book I read was a biography on Harry Houdini. I liked this book because I enjoy learning about magic and Harry Houdini. He is my favorite magician and escape artist. It was very interesting how he did the tricks. He was very good at escaping from dangerous places. One of his famous escapes was getting out of handcuffs. He could also hold his breath over four minutes under water in a tank taking his handcuffs off.

     It is hard to relate to Harry Houdini for many reasons. I can't do magic and I live in a different time. He was more interested in magic tricks than in school. He had a poor childhood and he needed to make money. Things like this don't happen to me so it's hard to be similar to him. I would recommend this book to anyone who is interested in magic and to people who want to know about Harry Houdini.
































                                                                                                             Page 2



f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Catcher In The Rye.TXT
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811
Castle 1 Thomas Bryant Castle Salenger essay March 7, 2000 Escape from the truth In 1950 J.D. Salenger captures one of society's tragedies, the breakdown of a teenager, when he wrote The Catcher In The Rye. Holden Caulfield, a fickle "man" is not even a man at all. His unnecessary urge to lie to avoid confrontation defeats manhood. Holden has not matured and is unable to deal with the responsibility of living on his owe. He childishly uses a hunter's hat to disguise him self from others. The truth of his life is sad and soon leads to his being institutionalized. He tries to escape the truth with his criticisms. Knowing he will never meet his parents' expectations, his only true friend is his eight-year-old sister Phoebe, to whom Holden tells that he really wants to be 'the catcher in the rye". Holden admits his only truth and shows that Phoebe is his only friend. Another form of escape for Holden is his acting, which he uses to excuse the past. Holden has tried to lie, hide, and blame his way through life; when he finds that it is not the answer he collapses. Holden is a pathological liar. He lies, some times for no reason. Holden says his name is Rudolf Schmidt, who is acutely the janitor, to Mrs. Morrow on the train. He continues to lie throughout the conversation and avoids getting together by saying he has a tumor in his brain. This is the type of lies Holden tells. One reason for this might be Castle 2 that he is trying to hide his true identity. He does not want people to know who he really is or that he was kicked out of his fourth school. Holden is always using fake names and tries speaking in a tone to persuade someone to think a cretin way. He does this when he talks to women. While he is talking to the psychiatrist he explains peoples reactions to his lies like they really believe him, when it is very possible that he is a horrible liar and they are looking at him with a "what are you talking a bout?" expression. Holden often lies to the point where he is lying to him self. To Holden ever one is a "phony", and every one has a problem that he feels he needs to exploit. While Holden is speaking to the psychiatrist, he criticizes each person as he meets them in his story. When Holden and Sally Hayes went to the Lunts they met with at guy from Andover, Ivy league. George and Sally talked about people and places. Holden could not tae there boring conversation and said how phony they were. Their conversation continued during the next act. Holden explains how it was the phoniest conversation he ever heard. In most cases his accusations are actually definitions of his own character and personality. By criticizing others Holden can protect him self and hide the truth with others faults. Holden is a child at heart. He can understand children and enjoys there company. Knowing this we can come to the conclusion that Holden is childish and may react to a situation as a child might. At cretin points in the book Holden wonders where the ducks from central park go, who will take care of them. Like a child Holden needs someone to take care of him and this is one thing that leads to his breakdown. While Holden is Castle 3 staying in the Edmount Hotel he is involved in a situation where he owes Sunny (a whore) and Maurice (the elevator guy) five dollars. Holden try's to keep it from them but they force it out of him. Maurice put Holden up against the wall. Tears pour form Holdens' eyes yet he still refuses. Maurice wails his fist into Holdens' stomach and Sonny takes the money from his wallet. They took off and Holden stagers out the door holding his gut like he had been shot. This is not the only example of childish behavior explained. Holden often resorts to this reaction when there is nothing else he can do. Holden can only protect him self for a short while. He soon falls into great depression and has a mental breakdown which leaves him institutionalized. His lies, his criticism, and his childish behavior got him little peace. His truth is shown and his only escape failed. Holden Caulfield, a child needs to be cared for and when they fall they must be caught. Holden is still a child, suffering from sever depression he does not have the strength to deal with the world as an adult.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Election of 1888.TXT
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The Election of 1888


    In 1888, James G. Blaine, the Republican party's most prominent figure,
declined to seek the presidential nomination. The national convention then
nominated Harrison as the soldier-citizen who combined fitness with availability.
The call came on the 8th BALLOT.  Levi P. Morton, a New York City banker,
received the vice-presidential nomination. Cleveland was renominated by the
Democrats.

     Harrison conducted a unique and unexpected front-porch campaign, delivering
more than 80 extemporaneous speeches to nearly 300,000 people who visited him at
Indianapolis. He made "high tariff" the chief issue, while Cleveland called for
lower tariffs and even free trade. On election day, Harrison trailed Cleveland
by more than 90,000 popular votes, but he carried Indiana, New York, and several
"doubtful states" and won the presidency by an ELECTORAL vote of 233 to 168. 


 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The first time.TXT
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THE FIRST TIME

Slush, Slush, Slush, "Ahhhhhhhhhh!"
"Well, there goes another graceful one," I looked admirably down the slope, "How do they do that?"
"With lots of practice?!"  Veronica replied sarcastically.
"No kidding!" I gave her a look. Then with a unsure voice I said, "I'm going to try it myself, wish me luck."
"Break a leg?!"
"Ha, Ha, very funny."
Slowly, I crabbed walked up the slope. Shaking all over, I was afraid to look down. Yet, I still had the courage to stagger myself to the top. Feeling a little dizzy by the high altitude, I took a deep breath of the cold frost bitten air. Then without a second thought, I  lowered my knees and gave it a quick push.
"Ahhhhhhhh!" Oh my God, what have I put myself through. Is this what I really came here for? Why do I feel like I'm flying, like a 747, heavy but still floating in the air. Have I died and left my body? No, No, I'm to young to die. Give me another chance to live. Please, let me go.
Suddenly, I felt myself swaggering. The air pressure pushing harder below me. No, No, I take it back, don't let me go. Thoughts that were racing through my mind were blown away by a sudden "Thud!" like all those times I've dived off a diving board with my belly down.
"Where am I?" I whispered to myself, " Why is it so cold?"
"Hey Jo! Get up!"
"Uh?"
"Hurry, before someone accidentally skis over you," Veronica cried dragging me with her.
"Veronica? Is that you?"
My friend gave me one of her questioning looks. "Has your mind been blown away by the wind?"
 "I'm still alive?" I cried gratefully.
"I guess so."
"How did I look when I came down?"
"You looked magnificent, and I got it all on film," Veronica said proudly, "Even the part when you landed flat on your face buried down in the snow," she laughed.
I groaned.
"There is one part that I don't understand though," she said puzzled.
"Oh? What is that?"
"Why were your arms flying all over the place when you came down?" she looked at me, "Like a frantic baby birdie who's just learning how to fly."
Grinning mysteriously, I remembered my thoughts of how my spirt had float away from my body. "That was a high leveled stunt my dad taught me when I was little," I lied.
"Really?!"
"Ya! Want me to teach you?"
"And end up with my face in the snow? That's okay."
"Well, at least try skiing down the slope like I did."
"Are you sure?"
"Ya! Come on," I said excitedly as I grabbed her arm, sliding into the distance, leaving narrow roadways in the snow.
Hey, what do you expect from a first time skier. It wasn't so bad though. At least I got a feeling of what flying was like without sitting uncomfortably in the plane. Maybe next time I go back to see my folks in Taiwan, I'd be able to get through with the flight without feeling air sick all the time. I sure hope so, because I wouldn't want to run into the bathrooms and barf all over their toilets again, then have the next little girl going into that bathroom and run out with her nose pinched tightly saying, "Mommy 
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Gates Bill.TXT
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	When one thinks of computer software, one must think of Microsoft.  In fact if you use a computer, chances are that you will have some type of program on there that is developed by Microsoft.  The CEO, chairman, cofounder, and owner of 147 billion shares of Microsoft is Bill Gates.  
	William Henry Gates III was born in the midst of a scenic Seattle on Thursday, October 28, 1995 to his parents Mary and William Henry Gates Jr.  His childhood was uneventful and was well raised.  He went to Sunday school at the Congregational church and sang in the choir.  He was a Boy Scout but never showed interest for either of these activities.  Gates was an unusual child who spent long periods in his room in deep thought.  He loved science and showed great skill in the area of math.  In fact he scored a perfect on the math section of the SAT.  His high school English teacher Anne Stephens was amazed at Gates' memory.  She commented on how Gates had remembered a 3-page soliloquy for a school play in one reading.  He read often, tried to take up the trombone, had no interest in philosophy but rather thought of himself as a "scientist."  His science teacher, William Dougall, remembers if the teacher wasn't going fast enough, "Bill always seemed on the verge of saying, 'But that's obvious.'" Gates once said to a teacher that some day he would be a millionaire.  A grossly underestimated statement.  Today Gates is one of the richest men in the world.  
In the fall of 1968, Bill Gates was entering the 8th grade at lakeside School, and his best friend Paul Allen, entered the 10th grade. Lakeside invested $3,000 into a Teletype machine which could connect to the business computer via a phone line.  When the computer courses began in January 1969, both Gates and Allen discovered their passion for programming.  Since very few teachers knew anything about computers, the boys taught themselves with every manual they could get their hands on. Some days both would cut gym to gain extra time on the terminal.  Gates first program was a ticktacktoe game.  Gates and Allen would soon be restricted to time on the terminal because the school's electric bill was ever increasing.  
In a long series of mishaps Gates and Allen would soon be programming away at Lakeside.  The math teacher that had been assigned to do class scheduling, manually, died in an airplane accident.  Gates and Allen were offered $2,400 worth of computer time in exchange for a class scheduling program.  The boys (Gates now 16 and Allen already graduating high school) worked day and night.  Gates soon found out that he could put himself in an all girls classes in every period.
Soon Gates and Allen would found a company called Traf-O-Data.  The two made a program that would regulate traffic data generated by the gray boxes on Seattle streets.  After entering Harvard with a major in law, Gates and Allen contemplated the idea of starting a company.  Their vision soon expanded into the multi-billion dollar empire.   
"Gates is to the software what Edison was to the light bulb- part innovator, part entrepreneur, part salesman and full-time genius."  Gates is the "Edison" of software.  If it wasn't for him we wouldn't have Windows 95, Winword, Microsoft Internet Explorer, or countless others.   In August, 24, 1995, Microsoft announces the availability of Microsoft Windows 95, worldwide.  This new operating system would change the world's view of computers drastically.  The computer would become a toy and using it would be much easier than before.  Four days after the release, Microsoft announces that it estimates that more than 1 million copies of Microsoft Windows 95 were obtained by customers at retail stores in North America.  By October, 17, 1995, 7 million copies were purchased.  That means at least 7 million people were becoming more computer literate. 
Although the practices of Microsoft have been investigated by the Justice Department for monopolistic practices, it has been the leading company for new ventures. On November  20, 1995, Microsoft announced that MSN: The Microsoft Network, has enrolled more than 525,000 members in its first three months of service. With the majority of members using
MSN's full Internet access, this makes it one of the largest Internet service providers.  With this development, half a million people were connect on-line and into the new era of computers.  Recently Microsoft as tried to eliminate Netscape, the leading developer of Internet exploration tools.   I do not believe in this move that Microsoft is trying to implement because smaller companies might have a fresh outlook on the world than the weathered Microsoft.
	I consider Bill Gates a genius.  I don't believe in his companies practices like eating small software companies for lunch, but I do believe that it has effected society as a whole.  Gates' vision of "A personal computer on every desk, in every home" was the foundation of Microsoft and I believe should be the foundation of the future.  I predict that Microsoft will be the leading software developer going into the 21st century.  I believe by the year 2005, that there will be a computer in every house and that Microsoft software will be running on that computer. 
With Gates' leadership, Microsoft is on a mission is to continually advance and improve software technology and they make it easier and more enjoyable for people to use software.  That is The Gates Bill.

 Bibliography
1. Microsoft History, Microsoft, http://library.microsoft.com/msinfo/mshist/histdoc.htm?
2. William H. Gates: Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Microsoft http://www.microsoft.com/corpinfo/bill-g.htm
3. Ichbiah, Daniel and Knepper, Susan L..  The making of Microsoft: How Bill Gates and His Team Created the World's Most Successful Software Company.  Rockline, CA: Prima Publishing.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Kalapalo Indians.TXT
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The Kalapalo Indians


The Kalapalo Indians of Central Brazil are one of a few surviving indigenous
cultures that is uniquely protected by a national reserve in lowland South
America. Through no effort of there own, they have been isolated artificially
from Brazilian social and economic influences that reach almost every other
Indian tribe in Brazil. This unusual situation has made it possible for the
Kalapalo's culture to be undisturbed by the outside world and the surrounding
tribes. Much of Kalapalo life is run through a central concept or an ideal of
behavior, called ifutisu. This is an infinite ideological concept that is
represented in many ways in social life and ideal organization among the
Kalapalo.

The area in which the Kalapalo live is in the northeastern Mato Grosso state
called Upper Xingu Basin. There are four unintelligible languages by groups in
this region. This makes the Upper Xingu Basin linguistically diverse, but with
many of the groups still sharing the same social and ideological features. It is
very difficult to trace back the origins of Kalapalo life because of the
integration of the many different and culturally diverse groups in the Upper
Xingu Basin. So, many of systems of kinship classification, marriage practices,
ceremonial organizations, status allocation, and religious beliefs are
consistent with cultural rules and social practices and not with the original
system. Many of the modern local groups can only reconstruct their own history
which is in limited detail, these systems can't be isolated completely from the
existing society.

The two most important social units in Upper Xingu society are the village and
the household groups. Both the village and household can be considered corporate
in that both control rights to territorial resources, acts as a unit when
performing certain economic and ceremonial activities. Members of a household
group are obligated to pass out food which they collect amongst themselves. Even
when one cannot supply food a Kalapalo is assured of a share because everyone is
treated with the same kind of respect. Despite this corporate organization,
membership in villages and households is constantly changing, and there is much
movement of people between group to group.

The Kalapalo society is a system wherein social units, such as the village
groups and households exist only because of the individual who decides to live
in these systems and choose to cooperate with one another. This is very
different from other non-western societies whereas the individual acquire the
responsibility to join in social units, by birth or other means of relationship
to and with each other regardless of the identity of the individual themselves.
The Kalapalo social organization is characterized by a flexible group membership
and significant differences in the classification of individuals with certain
groups. The choices for the Kalapalo to join groups is based on the personal
relationship between one another instead of certain clan membership, religious
beliefs, or ancestry.

The Kalapalo have an attitude towards cleanliness which encompasses all aspects
of life such as; food, houses, belongings, and physical appearance. During the
time of the year when manioc is being ready to be planted or when it is
harvesting time, it is not uncommon to find them bathing three or four times a
daily. The Kalapalo's  attitude towards cleanliness approaches the excessive
side.

The Kalapalo believe in generosity and peaceful behavior toward every one they
encounter. They reject all acts of aggression and violent expression and find it
inappropriate for human beings. Instead the Kalapalo embrace an ideal of non-
violence which includes suppression of anger and a passive tolerance of behavior.
In Kalapalo society people are incorporated into a cycle of reciprocity and
generosity  . The idea of sharing takes place only along the lines of prior
relations; such as kinship, friendship, or membership of the same household.

The residence of the Upper Xingu Basin are settled agriculturists, fisherman and
hunting. The Upper Xingu Basin is characterized by it's two seasons: The dry
season which falls on the months of May and September, where intensive
subsistence activity begins. New gardens are prepared and manioc is harvested.
Also fishing is done at this time for the rivers are low and the water is clear.
The rainy season occurs during the months of October through early April, where
a decrease subsistence activities begins. The rainy season welcomes the ripening
of new various species of wild fruits. During this time river are flooded and
the Kalapalo must depend on little game hunted, stored food and insects
collected. Kalapalo technology is very primitive. With the restricted absence of
metal and stone tools. The Kalapalo make the best of bone, tooth, and wooden
implements or tools. Manioc is a rooted crop which is the major subsistence item
for the Kalapalo.

Kinship relationship are deemed to be the most important of social ties by the
Kalapalo. Kinship for a Kalapalo is an all-pervasive bond which extends into
almost every part of their life, such as religion, economic, political and
familiar relationship are all deeply influenced by kinship. The Kalapalo trace
relationships through either parents regardless of sex. Second, a kindred is
usually defined ego-centered: persons classed in such a unit are considered
related to a specific individual. This is what the Kalapalo call  otomo concept
which is similar to the anthropologist's concept of kindred. The Kalapalo
distinguished material and paternal filiation by making use of different symbols.
These symbols define the sexual relation between parents as different from other
kinds of sexual relations. The parents of a child doesn't have to be married to
be declared it's mother and father. What is importance is knowing who the
parents are, since it is very important to establish the child's otomo
relationships.

Kalapalo marriage takes one of two forms. The first is an arranged marriage,
which involves a girl being engaged before puberty and to a older man. This type
of marriage is marked by the giving of bridewealth, which is the payment to the
girl's parents and their siblings by the parents of the husband to be. The
second form of marriage involves people who are lovers and takes place after the
death or divorce of a spouse. The Kalapalo seek to establish the first of the
two marriages, which is the arranged marriage on the basis of past relationships
of kinship or affinity. The reason why arranged marriages are important is
because the create alliances between persons who have prior kinship connections.
Also many of the men and women take on different types of marriage such as
polyandry and polygymy.

Although the Kalapalo do not have or define position of leadership, there are
certain individuals whose actions have designated them into leadership roles.
Kalapalo leaders are people who constantly expand and reinforce social ties. By
doing this it demonstrates their ability to influence a large group of
individuals and thus gains a certain amount of respect and prestige. The
Kalapalo have a number of special statuses, each with certain duties and
obligations to perform services, with this comes payment or rewards for duties
or services done. Some of these special statuses are anetaw village mediators
between households and village groups. Oto sponsors of ceremonies, ifi are
ceremonial specialist, who preform the ceremonies and then teaches others about
the ceremony. Fuati are curers and diviners, persons with unusual skills in
healing others. The Kalapalo do not speak of these status roles in terms of
leadership but believe that a leader is a person who has achieved many great
statuses and who thus stand apart from the rest of the community. The Structure
of Kinship in a Tribal Society

This research will focus on the topic of the structure of kinship in a tribal
society, particularly on the kinship connection which structures many areas of
social tribal life. From political alliances formed between tribes, to access of
certain resources, to a status role in tribal groups, and even as important as
life and death. The references include....

Keesing, Roger M. 1975.  Kin Groups and Social Structures.  Holt, Rinehart,
     & Winston: New York.

	This book examines the decent groups, the nature of alliance system and
the internal complexity and diversity of actual societies. Through kinship and
kin groups and there social structures. This source  has been helpful in my
research because explains the formal principles of kin group organization, it
also shows the kin groups in evolutionary and ecological perspective.  The book
also explains the difference between kin groups and social structures and at the
same time explains how kin groups play roles in certain social structures and
vies versa .

Goody, Jack. 1971. Kinship. Cox & Wyman Ltd.: Great Britain. [Langara GN 480 G6]

	This book examines the complex kin networks of many tribal societies and
shows the vital role in safeguarding social and cultural stability. It also
examines the traditional kinship system, kin groups and marriage alliance. This
source has been helpful to my research  because it has explains certain
structure roles and how they affect certain societies. It is also helpful
because it explores the  formations of alliances through marriage. Finally this
book show the collection of kin groups and the relationship to social and
cultural stability.

Levi-Strauss, Claude. 1969.  The Elementary Structures of Kinship.
     Becon Press.: Boston. [Langara GN 480 .L413]

	This book examines the principle of kinship, nature of exogamy. The
theory of kinship which includes Malinowski's theory and it's contradiction.
Historical analysis, social structures, incest and the connection to marriage.
This source has been helpful to my research because it has shown the elementary
structures and theories of kinship. It has also given many kin terms and there
explanations. Finally it tries to explain the significance of social structures
and there relationship between kin groups.

Schusky, Ernest L. 1965. Manual for Kinship Analysis. Holt, Rinehart &
     Winston.: New York. [Langara GN 480S35]

	This book examines the beliefs and ideal behavior of a people and their
actual behaviors by understanding kinship practices.  It also examines the
theory of kinship and the development of functional anthropology. This book also
includes the theories and perspectives of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. This
book has been helpful in my research because it has broken down the kinship
system and other kinship classifications. It analyze  the kinship structure and
the kin groups through simple explanatory graphs.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The King Of Terror.TXT
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The King of Terror


        Stephen Edwin King is one of today's most popular and best selling writers.  
King combines the elements of psychological thrillers, science fiction, the paranormal, 
and detective themes into his stories.  In addition to these themes, King sticks to 
using great and vivid detail that is set in a realistic everyday place.  Stephen King 
who is mainly known for his novels, has broadened his horizons to different types of 
writings such as movie scripts, nonfiction, autobiographies, children's books, and short 
stories.  While Stephen King might be best known for his novels The Stand and It, some 
of his best work that has been published are his short stories such as "The Body" and 
"Quitters Inc".  King's works are so powerful because he uses his experience and 
observations from his everyday life and places them into  his unique  stories.  
        Stephen Edwin King was born in Portland, Maine, on September 21, 1947, at the 
Maine General Hospital.  Stephen, his mother Nellie, and his adopted brother David were 
left to fend for themselves when Stephen's father Donald, a Merchant Marine captain, 
left one day, to go the store to buy a pack of cigarettes, and never returned.  His 
fathers leaving had a big indirect impact on King's life.  In the autobiographical work 
Danse Macabre, Stephen King recalls how his family life was altered:  "After my father 
took off, my mother, struggled, and then landed on her feet."  My brother and I didn't 
see a great deal of her over the next nine years.  She worked a succession of continuous 
low paying jobs."  Stephen's first outlooks on life were influenced by his older brother 
and what he figured out on his own.  While young Stephen and his family moved around
the 
North Eastern and Central United States.  When he was seven years old, they moved to 
Stratford, Connecticut.  Here is where King got his first exposure to horror.  One 
evening he listened to the radio adaptation of Ray Bradbury's story "Mars Is Heaven!"  
That night King recalls he "slept in the doorway, where the real and rational light of 
the bathroom bulb could shine on my face" (Beaham  16).   Stephen King's exposure to 
oral storytelling on the radio had a large impact on his later writings.  King tells his 
stories in visual terms so that the reader would be able to "see" what was happening in 
their own mind, somewhat in the same fashion the way it was done on the radio (Beaham 
17).  King's fascination with horror early on continued and was pushed along only a 
couple weeks after Bradbury's story.  One day little Stephen was looking through his 
mother's books and came across one named "The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde." 
 After his mother finished reading the book to him, Stephen was hooked.  He immediately 
asked her  to read it again.  King recalls "that summer when I was seven, [my mother] 
must have read it to me half a dozen times"(Beaham  17).   Ironically that same year, 
while Stephen was still seven years old, he went to go see his first horror movie, The 
Creature from the Black Lagoon.  This is important because Stephen says, " Since [the 
movie], I still see things cinematically.  I write down everything I see.  What I see, 
it seems like a movie to me"(Beaham  17). During this year the biggest event that 
probably had the biggest impact on Stephen King's writing style was the discovery of the 
author H. P. Lovecraft.  King would later write of Lovecraft, "He struck with the most 
force, and I still think, for all his shortcomings, he is the best writer of horror 
fiction that America has yet produced"(Beaham  22).  In many of Lovecraft's writings he 
always used his present surroundings as the back drop of his stories.  King has followed 
in his footsteps with the fictional town of Castle Rock, Maine.  Castle Rock  is a 
combination of several towns that King moved to and from with his family in his 
childhood. The main town that it resembles is that of Durham, Maine.  It was after the 
exposure to H. P. Lovecraft's stories that King first began to write.   
        While growing up and moving around the way his family did, Stephen had never 
been able to feel comfortable and settle down in one place and make friends they way 
other kids his age did (Underwood  77).  Around the age of twelve the King family 
finally settled in the town of Durham, Maine.  For Stephen King, Durham was the place 
where his imagination began to shine.  It was at this time that Stephen first began to 
make friends.  Along with his friends, Stephen would go the movies a lot.  Stephen would 
use the movies as a inspiration.  Although he enjoyed going out and having fun,  
whenever he would come home, Stephen would immediately write down his experiences
and 
observations.  Frequently King would place his friends and family into childhood fantasy 
tales.  And one would always know how Stephen felt about them because of how long
they 
lived in the story.    It was not until college that Stephen King received any kind of 
real recognition for his writings.  In the Fall of 1967, King finished his first novel, 
The Long Walk, and turned it into his  sophomore American Literature professor for 
review.  After a couple of weeks and a couple rounds around the department, the English 
professors were stunned.  They realized that they had a real writer on their hands.  
>From then until he graduated with a bachelors degree in English from University of
Maine 
at Orono in the Spring of 1970, King concentrated on  rounding off the edges of his 
writing technique.  
        One short story that best shows the type and technique of Stephen King's writing 
is "The Body."  "The Body", which has been adapted into to a Hollywood movie, was
first 
published in the collection of short stories called Different Seasons.  The story is a 
tale of four twelve year old friends who at the end of one summer go out on a journey in 
into the woods to see a dead body.  While on their journey  they learn about life, 
friendship, and are propelled from innocent to experienced.  On the surface of the story 
it appears to be simple journey with its occasional mishaps, but the true magnificence 
is that this story has a strong autobiographical coincidence.  The main character, 
Gordie Lachance,  is a boy growing up on his own through the memory of his dead older 
brother.  Growing up, Gordie, an avid story teller,  dreamed of becoming a writer.  
Before  his brothers accidental death, all his parents would ever care about was his 
brother.  Since his death, Gordie's parents have presumably shut themselves away from 
Gordie.  This, to a certain degree is true of King.  Because of his father leaving when 
Stephen was two, and his mother taking on around the clock jobs, he never really had any 
parental guidance.  
        The story itself is written with Gordie narrating in the present time look back 
at the journey.  At the time of his flashback, Gordie is a best selling author who has 
returned to his home town of Castle Rock to revisit his past.  This is ironic because at 
the time Stephen wrote the story he himself had just moved from Bolder, Colorado, back 
"home" to the town of Bangor.  King's childhood home town of Durham is used in several 
different stories under the fictional town name of Castle Rock.  It is also noticeable 
how in the story when Gordie "looks" back to him and his brother, his brother is the 
only person who cares for him.  He noticeably goes out of his way to look out for 
Gordie, and is always encouraging his and asking him about his writing, while all his 
parents seem to do is ignore Gordie.  This also can be related to King's past because 
while growing up his brother while only two years older then him, always seemed to be 
there for Stephen and look out for him.  Probably the deepest imagery of the story is at 
the end of the novel.  Gordie is shown back at home and putting the finishing touches on 
his latest work.  While finishing up,  Gordie is interrupted by his son who is shown in 
a sense to be a good-natured and caring boy.  Gordie experiences a deep love for his 
family at the time.  This setup is presumably placed in the story as an escape for King. 
 In his autobiography Danse Macabre, King tells of his fear of providing for and caring 
for a family (Reino  112).  This shows King pushing away the fear, in a sense saying 
that he is all right.  That he has now embraced the idea.               
        One of King's best work is also one that does not fit in any category of his 
usual writings.  For an author who usually writes horror, "Rita Hayworth and Shawshank 
Redemption", is a story that is a refreshing sidestep.  The story tells of  how Andy 
Dufresne,  who is falsely tried, convicted, and sentenced to back to back life sentences 
for the double murder of his wife and her lover, deals with being trapped within a 
dreadful situation that are out of his hands. Throughout the nineteen years that he is 
in Shawshank prison, Andy has to endure everything from a gang called the "Sisters", who 
go around raping and beating their prey to being forced to create and run a money 
laundering  scheme for the prison Warden.  If this story was written without the authors 
name on it, there is none of Stephen King's characteristic style, except for maybe in 
one place in the story.  The one possible place that even hints that it is from the mind 
of King is at the end of the story where Red is off to keep his promise to Andy.  Andy 
asks Red, that when he get out of jail to travel to a southern Maine town called Buxton 
and look for something he buried in a "hay field under a large oak field."  The suspense 
of what was buried and the description of the field in Buxton is what  is typical of 
Stephen King.  While the story is very uncharacteristic of King it does deep down relate 
to himself.  The theme of hope and of how Andy overcomes the situation is one that is 
tied closely to King.  It runs a direct parallel with life as a child and how his life 
has turned out.  Just as Andy was thrown into predicament and later escapes and lives 
his life on  his own terms, Stephen, early on was forced to move from town to town with 
mother and brother.  In the end Stephen escapes and now lives on his own terms.  
        Stephen King's works are so powerful because he uses his experiences and 
observations from his life and places them into his unique works.  What seems to make 
Stephen King's stories almost magical is that the settings of his stories are placed 
into common every day places.  Additionally, Stephen's writings are true to life in  
peoples mind's because he draws upon common fears.  Just as King's writing style and 
genre  had been influenced by movies throughout  his life, he is now influencing the 
same industry with his own vision and imagination.  King's writings are so widely 
appealing that over 42 of his works have been based upon or turned into Hollywood  
movies  which have included stars like Jack Nicholson (The Shining), John Travolta 
(Carrie), and Morgan Freeman (The Shawshank Redemption).
 Works Cited
Beaham ,  George .  Stephen King Companion , The .  Kansas City :  Universal    Press 
Syndicate Company ,  1995 .  
Beaham ,  George .  Stephen King Story, The : A Literary Profile .  Kansas City :       
Universal Press Syndicate Company , 1992 .  
King ,  Stephen .  "Body ,  The" in Different Seasons .  New York :  Viking     Penguin 
Inc .,  1982 .
King ,  Stephen .  "Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption" in Different        Seasons 
.  New York :  Viking Penguin Inc .,  1982 .
Reino ,  Joseph .  Stephen King :  The First Decade ,  Carrie to Pet Sematary .         
Boston :  Twayne Publishers ,  1988 .
Underwood ,  Tom .  Conversations on Terror with Stephen King .  New York :    
Warner 
Books ,  1988 . 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Life And Times Of Al Capone.TXT
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2233
The Life and Times of Al Capone by Bill Rollindubeys Alphonse Capone was born in New York City by two parents Gabriel and Teresa Capone. Capone's parents immigrated to the United States in 1893 from Naples, Italy. Capone came from a large family and was the fourth oldest of nine children. (Kobler 10). As a child, Capone was very wise when it came to living on the streets of New York. He had a clever mind when it came to street smarts. As far as school goes, Capone was a near-illiterate. He came from a poor neighborhood in Brooklyn, so education was not a top priority. At about the age of eleven Capone became a member of a juvenile gang in his neighborhood. While this was taking place, around the year 1900, about eleven percent of all the foreign born population in the United States were Italian. Capone was forced to either deal with a miserable low wage job with a hopeless future or make an improvement for himself by committing first minor, then serious crimes. Al Capone's philosophy was that laws only applied to people who had enough money to live by them. While in the "Bim Booms" gang, Capone was taught how to defend himself with a knife, and with a gun. By the time Capone reached the sixth grade he had already become a street brawler. Capone never responded well to authority and for this very reason his schooling would soon come to an end. While attending school, Capone was responsible for beating a female teacher and knocking her to the ground. The principal of the school rushed in and punished young Capone and for this very reason he would never return to school again. (Sifakis 603) After dropping out of school, Capone took up jobs such as working as a pin-setter at a bowling alley, and working behind the counter at a candy store. Capone was terrific at pool, winning every eightball tournament held in Brooklyn. He also became an expert knife fighter. Although the "Bim Booms" gang was the first gang Capone ever entered, he was quickly picked up by the "Five Pointers". The "Five Pointers" was the most powerful gang in New York city. The gang was headed by Johnny Torrio, and was made up of over 1,500 thugs who specialized in burglary, extortion, robbery, assault, and murder. While working as a strong arm enforcer under Torrio, Capone learned all the lethal tricks that would help him get from rags to riches in no time at all. Capone was very grateful to Torrio. Torrio first set Capone out to do all of his "dirty work". Capone was sent to beat up loan shark victims behind on their payments, then a pimp, beating up girls who were holding out on their nightly take. Torrio finally got Capone a job as a bouncer at the Harvard Inn. By this time Capone was recognized by his gang as being a vicious fighter with both fists and knives. He also became an excellent marksman with both a revolver and automatic weapons. This was due to many months of shooting empty bottles in the basement of the Inn. Capone was later promoted to bartender at the Harvard Inn. At this time capone recieved the scar which would give him his famous nickname, "Scarface". It is really not known how Capone ended up with a scar that extended four inches across his left cheek. Capone often lied about how he got the scar. On December 18, 1918, Capone was married at the age of 19, to a 21 year old Irish girl named Mae Coughlin. A short time later Albert Francis Capone was born to the couple. At the same time this was going on, in New York, Johnny Torrio moved his operations to Chicago. Torrio's prospects in New York looked low because Capone was charged for two murders. He was released when a witness lost her memory, and evidence suddenly vanished from the court. Al Capone knew that he had Torrio to thank for this. A few days later, Capone got into a fight with another man and killed him. Rather than being charged again, Capone called Torrio and received an invitation to move to Chicago. (Nash 604) As Capone arrived in Chicago, Capone was given a job as a bouncer at Torrio's newest club, The Four Deuces. Capone was known as an aggressive man, hospitalizing most of the drunks he evicted. Men were hospitalized with broken arms, broken legs, and skull fractures. Capone was repeatedly arrested for assault, but was always released thanks to Torrio's police connections. While working at The Four Deuces, Capone strangled at least twelve men with his bare hands. The bodies were dragged to the basement through a trap door that led to the alley behind the club. There a fast getaway car would always be waiting for Capone to flee in. The underworld of Chicago at the time was being run by a fellow named "Big Jim" Colosimo. Colosimo was a flamboyant man. He dressed in expensive suits and was covered in diamond jewelry. He was always seen eating at expensive restaurants, and owned all the brothels, saloons, and gambling dens in Chicago. (Nash 605) Johnny Torrio grew very jealous of Colosimo and soon sent for his most loyal hitman, Al Capone. When Capone arrived in Chicago, he was assigned the small jobs as a bouncer and bartender to disguise Torrio's real reason for sending for him, to kill off "Big Jim" Colosimo. "Big Jim" Colosimo was killed on the night of May 11, 1920. (Nash 606) The reason for his death was due mostly to the prohibition act to be passed in 1920. The act forbid alcohol to be distributed to all the bars in Chicago. Torrio, the nephew of Colosimo, often asked him to start an underground operation that could supply all the bars with beer and liquor, but Colosimo always answered with a firm no. In this, Al Capone was soon to become the great distributor of alcohol in Chicago during Prohibition. (Allsop 56) Al Capone's mob ran the streets of Chicago. While Capone's street mob was at its peak, it consisted of over 1,000 members and half of the Chicago police force. Capone's payroll at the time consisted of police officers, state's attorneys, mayors, legislators, governors, and even congressmen. (Nash 608) At the time Capone was known as the "King of Chicago". Being the king of Chicago had its downfalls. Numerous threats on his life were made, he was shot at in streets, and even had poison slipped into his food at clubs. In a near death experience a rival gang member, Dion O'Banion, shot 1,000 rounds into the Hawthorn Inn where Capone was staying. After he had cheated death, the arranging of O'Banion's death would be marked as one of Capone's greatest accomplishments. This assassination was done by Capone's two best hitmen, John Scalise and Albert Anselmi. Unfortunately for Al Capone all was not well after the murder of Dion O'Banion. Capone's last effort was to kill the last major leader of the O'Banion's street gang, Bugs Moran. This was ordered as the St. Valentine's Day Massacre. Capone's men dressed as police officers and lined seven of O'Banion's gang members up across a garage wall. The gang offered no resistance because they thought it was a regular police routine. Instead Capone's men opened up over 1,000 rounds of machine gun fire slaughtering the members. Unfortunately for Capone, Bugs Moran was not present among the seven men who were killed. (Nash 112) Capone's downfall was caused by one of his own business agents who ran Capone's dog and horse race tracks. The man's name was Eddie O'Hare, one of the best undercover men hired by the IRS. He informed the IRS where books reflecting Capone's income could be seized. Capone had never paid any type of income tax and for this very reason he was brought up on charges of tax invasion in front of the federal court. Capone offered the federal government $400,000 to drop the case against him, but they rejected the offer. Capone was convicted and given the maximum sentence which was a $50,000 fine, court costs of $30,000, and eleven years in jail. (Nash 116 ) Capone started his sentence in an Atlanta prison. In 1934 he was transferred to Alcatraz, also known as "The Rock". Five years later he was released from Alcatraz as a helpless paretic, due to the untreated syphilis he got from prostitutes. Later that year, Al Capone was judged insane and was released to the care of his family. (Sifakis 613 ) In January 1947 Capone had a massive brain hemorrhage and died. His body was removed from his estate in Florida and transferred back to the seen of his underworld triumph, Chicago. The family held a private ceremony at the cemetery, but were affraid of grave robbers taking the corpse so they reburied Capone in a secret place in Mt. Carmel Cemetery. (Kobler 122)
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Life of John F Kennedy 4.TXT
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				The Life of John F. Kennedy




	John F. Kennedy was born in Brookline Massachusetts on May 29, 1917.
 He attended Harvard University and graduated in 1940. From 1941-1945 he
 served in the United States Navy, during World War II. In 1946 he was
 elected to the United States House of Representatives. Then in 1952 he
 was elected to the United States Senate. On September 12, 1953 he was
 married to Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. Then in 1960 he was elected President
 of the United States. On November 22, 1963 he was assassinated in Dallas,
 Texas.

	John grew up in Boston, Massachusetts. His father Joseph P. Kennedy,
 was a self-made millionaire. During the administration of President
 Franklin D. Roosevelt, he served as the first chairman of the Securities
 and Exchange Commission, and as United States Ambassador to Great Britain.
 During John's childhood, his family often moved. Some of these moves sent
 the family into New York. All of the Kennedy children developed a strong
 competitive spirit. The boys enjoyed playing touch football together.

	John Kennedy's education included elementary schools in Brookline
 and Riverdale. By the age of thirteen his father sent him to the
 Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. He then transferred to
 Choate Academy in Wallingford, Connecticut, and graduated in 1935 at
 eight-teen years old. In 1936, after a summer in England, John entered
 Princeton University. After Christmas, of that same year, he developed
 jaundice. Then in 1936 he entered Harvard University. At Harvard he
 majored in government and international relations. In 1940 he graduated
 from Harvard. He then enrolled at Stanford University, but dropped out
 after only six months.

	After serving in the United States Navy, where he won the Navy and
 Marine Corps Medal as the skipper of a PT boat in World War II, John
 decided to enter government. In 1946, he ran for the House of
 Representatives and won the election over his Republican opponent. He
 was reelected to the House in both 1948 and 1950. In 1952, he ran for
 the United States Senate. He defeated his opponent Henry Lodge, who was
 a popular and experienced legislator. After the 1956 Presidential election
 he decided to try to run for the upcoming 1960 Presidential election.

	In 1960 John Kennedy ran in the Presidential Election. His opponent,
 Richard M. Nixon, was a popular person, he had previously been the
 vice-president under Dwight Eisenhower. Together they became the first
 Presidential opponents to debate face-to-face on television. John Kennedy
 won the election. During his years as president, John helped pass a number
 of laws. He also established the United States Peace Corps, through
 executive order. On November 22, 1963 Kennedy went to Dallas Texas with
 his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, and with Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife to
 Dallas, Texas. There, while in a motorcade going through the streets of
 Dallas, he was shot by an assumed gunman by the name of Lee Harvey Oswald.
 After his death in Dallas, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United
 States, on the plane back to Washington. Kennedy's funeral was held on
 November 25, 1963 where he was then buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
 An eternal flame was lit over his grave, where it is still burning today. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Life of John F Kennedy.TXT
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				The Life of John F. Kennedy




	John F. Kennedy was born in Brookline Massachusetts on May 29, 1917.
 He attended Harvard University and graduated in 1940. From 1941-1945 he
 served in the United States Navy, during World War II. In 1946 he was
 elected to the United States House of Representatives. Then in 1952 he
 was elected to the United States Senate. On September 12, 1953 he was
 married to Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. Then in 1960 he was elected President
 of the United States. On November 22, 1963 he was assassinated in Dallas,
 Texas.

	John grew up in Boston, Massachusetts. His father Joseph P. Kennedy,
 was a self-made millionaire. During the administration of President
 Franklin D. Roosevelt, he served as the first chairman of the Securities
 and Exchange Commission, and as United States Ambassador to Great Britain.
 During John's childhood, his family often moved. Some of these moves sent
 the family into New York. All of the Kennedy children developed a strong
 competitive spirit. The boys enjoyed playing touch football together.

	John Kennedy's education included elementary schools in Brookline
 and Riverdale. By the age of thirteen his father sent him to the
 Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. He then transferred to
 Choate Academy in Wallingford, Connecticut, and graduated in 1935 at
 eight-teen years old. In 1936, after a summer in England, John entered
 Princeton University. After Christmas, of that same year, he developed
 jaundice. Then in 1936 he entered Harvard University. At Harvard he
 majored in government and international relations. In 1940 he graduated
 from Harvard. He then enrolled at Stanford University, but dropped out
 after only six months.

	After serving in the United States Navy, where he won the Navy and
 Marine Corps Medal as the skipper of a PT boat in World War II, John
 decided to enter government. In 1946, he ran for the House of
 Representatives and won the election over his Republican opponent. He
 was reelected to the House in both 1948 and 1950. In 1952, he ran for
 the United States Senate. He defeated his opponent Henry Lodge, who was
 a popular and experienced legislator. After the 1956 Presidential election
 he decided to try to run for the upcoming 1960 Presidential election.

	In 1960 John Kennedy ran in the Presidential Election. His opponent,
 Richard M. Nixon, was a popular person, he had previously been the
 vice-president under Dwight Eisenhower. Together they became the first
 Presidential opponents to debate face-to-face on television. John Kennedy
 won the election. During his years as president, John helped pass a number
 of laws. He also established the United States Peace Corps, through
 executive order. On November 22, 1963 Kennedy went to Dallas Texas with
 his wife, Jacqueline Kennedy, and with Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife to
 Dallas, Texas. There, while in a motorcade going through the streets of
 Dallas, he was shot by an assumed gunman by the name of Lee Harvey Oswald.
 After his death in Dallas, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United
 States, on the plane back to Washington. Kennedy's funeral was held on
 November 25, 1963 where he was then buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
 An eternal flame was lit over his grave, where it is still burning today. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Life of Mark Twainpersonal book analysisreview of liter.TXT
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Tom Kelly
The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn
I

	"You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer," but that ain't no matter.  that book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly.  There were things which he streched, but mainly he told the truth.  That ain' nothing.  I never seen anybody but lied, one time or another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybr Mary.  Aunt Polly-Tom's Aunt Polly, she is-and Mary, and the Widow Douglas, is all told bout in that book-which is mostly a true book; with some, as I said before."(Twain 1)  
	Any way I am here to tell you somethings bout this man that has write all these things bout our adventures.  So listen an maybe you might even learn a little something bout this man.  Now let me think....oh ya, now I recall it.
	I  reckon it was a warm November ju's like any other,  the 30th to be exact.  But that ain't how Sam's Pa spoke of it.  He had to go maki'n big, fancy speeches and things of that sort at the party.  But after all that mubl'in we had a purdy good time.  As a matter of fact as I recall that day it was almost pur'fect.  If it warn't for me drunk Pa gettin arrested by the Sheriff that morn, it woudda'  been real pur'fect.  Course I reckon a boy's gota have a good time at his best friend's bert'day party.  
	I was at Sam's house.  Course I warn't de only one dare.  His Pa, Judge Clemens and Ma, Miss Jane Lampton, till she married of course,  was dare and I reckon his whole 'tire family must da been at dat house, can't barely remember it was only his fourth birthday back in 1839 (Howard 1).  Ya, me and Sam been friends ever since he moved here, best friends too, he was born an lived in Florida, Missouri prior to now.  He moved here at the start of this year.  See lots of people don't give me much thought cause me bein uneducated and havin a Pa like I do an all.  That all changed though, Sam was the type dat even liked the niggers, so I be surprised if he thought of me differently than any other (Paine 4).
	Sam's family had'nt got that much money either but his Pa sure was one of them educated types.  He was a lawyer and a judge and people looked up to him for jus dat (Howard 5).  Actually, speakin of money I had some myself, bout 6,000 dollars.  Ya,  I was rich ever since Tom and I had gotten them bandits.  Tell ya the truth, money did'nt really mean much to me anyways cause I liked livin simple an all.  But some people spend all their time day dreamin bout the stuff.  Sam's Pa and Sam certainly had somethin in common then cause Judge Clemens is always thinkin of all these ways to be prosper.  And Sam jus day dream bout what ever he could think of (Howard 11).  Guess I would do the same if I was forced to sit in a school house some days myself.  Now your probably thinkin why I said "most" in sted of all weekdays, well Sam did'nt care for his schoolin much and often played hooky (Paine 14).  Ya see, cause of Sam's funny personality he was often switched.  Ol'e Mrs. Elizabeth Horr could never forget that mam's name.  Ya see dat was Sam's teacher, he did'nt think of her as that though.  In Sam's mind Mrs. Elizabeth was a jail keeper (Eaton 27).  So we use ta go in sit at the port.  Hannibal, Mississippi was where we lived, an it was a big river town (Encarta 1994).  Sam loved them steam boats, he could sit dare an look it em all day, and he usually did.  Course me bein his best of friends was always there wit em, did'nt care for em much myself so Sam would always make up stories, and adventures to says we was doin, when all we was really doin was lookin at boats, and missin school of course.
	Sam had many of brothers and sisters.  I reckon he was never the lonely type cause he had many of siblins.  There was Pamela, who was eight years older than ourselves.  She was well schooled and all, I reckon she even liked it! (Howard 5).  Orion was  eight years older too.  Then there was Benjamin, never got to know him well cause he died at only ten and there was the little brother, Henry (Paine 16).
	Anyways, our schoolin continued, dull as ever.  Well before we known it we had ourselves out that school.  So Sam was not really sure bout what he wanted to do with em'self, so to make some money he followed his brother,  Orion (Encarta).  Ya see Orion had ju's bought himself a local printin press.  The only article prior to the Hannible Press was the Courier so now Hannible had itself two papers (Howard 115).  Now durin this time Sam had been workin for a Mr. Ament, another local printer, for round two years.  So Sam worked under his older brother bein the printer for the paper (115).  Well it was most unfortunate that they seems to be carryin some bad luck on their shoulders from the beginn'in.  The press caught on fire, it was only a small one but them fire fighters did'nt help the problem much when they doused the water all over the equipment.  Anyways that there was the least of their problems.  Back around that time an epidemic struck the Mississippi.  Cholera struck hard and devastated many of people.  Now cause people could'nt work they had to make trades for goods, and barterin did't do much good for Sam and Orion (117). But they were no quitters, they stuck to it and Sam started gettin bored of write'in the same ol'e things so he turned a little creative.  Sam bein born funny, started slippin jokes in the paper and made up names to call himself (119).  Well Orion wanted a proper, ol'e fashioned kinda paper.  This caused for some quarrel'in in between the two and I reckon Sam could'n stand for it no longer, so he grab himself his belongings and left for St. Louis to visit his sister Elizabeth and find himself a job.  He did't plan on stay'in there for long though.  Sam only wanted to make enough money to go to New York (Paine 52).  
	Well Sam's plans did not exactly go as he reckoned they would.  He had many print'in jobs cross the whole country.  Dur'in this time Sam met a fella named Burruogh.  He was in to literature and was a well read man.  He had quite the influence on Sam and turned him on to read'in.  Eventually, Sam returned back in St. Louis and worked for the Evening News.  Well by this time it was spring and Orion got himself a wife and moved to Iowa.  Sam came to visit his brother in Iowa and found Henry, his younger brother, now 17,  there too.   
	   Well life was like ol'e times for a while.  The three brothers lived together in Orion's house.  This is the period of time when Sam was turned on to music.  It happened after a music teacher, who lived on the floor below, was flat out sick and tired of be'in the focus of Sam's noise and pranks that they would play on him.  He would come upstairs to reprimand them.  Sam would usually reply with one of his regular wise cracks but one day Sam tried som'in a bit out the ordinary.  In an attempt to be funny he was overly polite to the teacher.  To his surprise, the man was nice back and before you could blink your own eye Sam was a musician (60).
	  He was bout 20 years of age now and was quite the ladie's man.  But don't think for a second that Sam was close to a gentleman.  The ladie's along with everybody else liked Sam for his outgo'in personality.  Although he was a partier dur'in the sun's hours at night you could predict that the only place he would be found was in his bed, propped up by a pillow,  smok'in his pipe and read'in a book (61).  Life was good for the boys and not a day passed without a laugh.
	Unfortunately good things can only last so long.  Orion's paper was not mak'in him enough to cover his expenses.  After much struggl'in he wrote home in distraught to his mama, who was now liv'in with Pamela.  The note told of an adventure that Orion would go on in the Amazon (62).  His interest was sparked after read'in a book by Lynch and Henderson.  The book told of the riches that could be found there in the mines of the rain forest.  Now if you have'nt gotten the idea that Sam was the adventurous type, you have'nt been listen'in proper, cause thats what he lived for!  If you think that Sam would miss a chance to not only ride on a steam boat to South America but also go on an adventure in the Amazon you are beyond fix'in (64).  Anyway it took him round a year to raise enough money to go to the Amazon but he finally had it and set forth on the Paul Jones down the Mississippi to New Orleans.  Sam reckoned the voyage would take bout a week of time but his foresee'in was more than just a bit off (70).
	Horace Bixby was cap'tn of the boat.  I reckon his day started off jus as any other, that is until he met Sam of course.  It all happened when Horace spotted that a man, now 21 years of age, had been star'in at him for hours.  When Horace's shift was over he left the pilot house.  As soon as he opened that door Sam was in his face ask'in questions bout his job and how liked it.  Their conversations and friendliness kept for the rest of the trip.  But at the end Sam left it jus like all the other passengers.
	Sam noticed an ol'e dock hand lean'in up against a pole.  Sam was down right puzzled when the man laughed at Sam's question.  He replied "There have never been no steamers sail'in to the Amazon round here!"  It was then and there when Sam realized that the Mississippi was his river and that pilot'in it had been his biggest dream.  So Sam went search'in for Bixby and found em too.  He asked him if he could be a cub on the boat and Bixby had no problem with it cause Sam had been so friendly and all.  So Sam worked the river for four years and ventually became himself a cap'tn (Howard 122).  Word got around that Sam was one of the best cap'tns on that river.  Mr. Bixby was proud and Sam loved that river more than life it'self and planed to spend it on the Mississippi (133).  I'm sure he woulda done it till he was able to but someth'in came up.  
	One night there was a horrible accident.  There was a ship who's had them selves a boiler explosion.  Henry was on that boat and went to swim to a nearby shore.  But Henry heard scream'in and went back to save people.  He never made it and drowned.  This was not the only thing that made Sam depressed these days (Paine 91).
	Unfortunately when Sam turned 26 years of age boats were halted go'in up and down the river cause of the war. Ya see the Yankees has been on us bout how slaves are immoral and all, and them plantation owners would'n got no notes if it warn't for their niggers (133).  So as anyone coulda guessed the country broke out into an all out brawl over the matter.  Course this meant dat any man worthy of any respect at all was go'in to fight for em selves and their good ol'e south,  so for a short period of time he did but Sam thought that slavery was wrong.  He felt for it so strong that he woulda joined emself en the Yank's side but he would be fightin his friends and neighbors (Howard 134).  
	By this time Orion's print'in business had failed.  But Orion's second cousin was a rich boy.  He was able to fix up Orion with a proper job.  Nevada was a new territory and it needed itself a Territorial Secretary.  This job was much like be'in a governor and was considered a real honor.  There was one problem left to resolve.  It would take Orion all of one-hundred and fifty dollars.  Well that was no problem that Sam could'nt solve cause he had himself three-hundred dollars right in his own pocket.  Now if I am do'in my math proper this would mean that two people would have themselves a ticket to Nevada.  Well I must to done it right cause they did jus' that.  Sam's plan to make money would be to mine silver (135).  Well Sam's luck at min'in was not very prosper.  He barely made enough to survive the winter.  But although times were tough he was always able to make his colleagues and himself laugh dur'in the worst of times.  Dur'in this period Sam would write humorous letters to Orion.  Well Orion knew of his li'l brothers problems.  In an attempt to help him he showed Sam's letters to the local paper.  The owner of the Territorial Enterprise found exactly what he wanted (137).  It was August when Sam started writ'in for the paper.  But prior to writ'in a stitch Sam wanted to create a name for himself that would stick.  He thought long and hard, think'in how great life used to be on the Mississippi.  Suddenly his eyes took on a glare and his face was perplexed.  He had a big smile on his face and through his smil'in mouth came the words "Mark Twain".  It was a river term that told the cap'tn how deep the water was (15).  Well Sam though he had good ideas bout write'in so he set off to be a free lance writer.  To make money in between he mined for gold.  One day while sitt'in on a rock next to the mountain side he heard some men talk'in of frog races.  This took Sam's mind to the past, his uncle use to have a pet frog.  So he started write'in what came to mind and before he coulda known it himself he had a completed story in front of his eyes (142).
	Sam sent his story to a  local newspaper.  Well The Bullfrog Of Calaveras County was the talk of the town!  Before he known it himself Sam stories were be'in published all over the country (143).
	I reckon it was late May of 1864 when Sam left for the West coast.  Twain's reason for leav'in Nevada for California was because of a duel.  The duel was really somewhat of a publicity stunt.  It was arranged in between Sam and a rival paper to the Call, the paper that Sam was write'in for (Paine 137).  When Sam got there he found the city filled wit beautiful flowers and roll'in green hills.  Sam found the location perfect for his write'in.  He was relaxed here and could concentrate (Eaton 143).  Sam's job was to venture out into the city's night life.  It was filled with shows and entertainment! Sam's job was to report and critique the shows he attended, he loved it at first but soon got sick of all the lights and glamour (145).  But Sam kept at it.  He had one reason for wak'in up every day.  You see Sam joined a literary group, it was his moment of sunshine dur'in an otherwise dismal day (146).  But Sam could barely take the his monotonous job for another day, he was bout to quit when BOOM.  Now I have never been to the West myself but Sam told me out there they have these happen'ins they call earthquakes.  It must be strange to be in one.  Everything shakes and whole build'ins can fall down!  Anyways for Sam this earthquake brought bout much to write about.  For many days he made reports bout what happened to people and their homes and things of the sort.  But eventually California got themselves some carpenters to fix everyth'in and that was the end of that topic (146).  
	So I reckon you believe how happy Sam was when he got word from Joe Goodman to rejoin the Enterprise.  Sam would act as their Western reporter and would free to write bout what ever he chose (147).  Well every thing was go'in fine until Sam's friend and roommate Steve Gillis almost killed a barkeeper!  He was put in jail for attempted murder.  So be'in the kind that Sam was,  he posted his friend's bail.  Well the word got out that this barkeeper was friends with the Sheriff.  This meant that Steve had no chance of gett'in a fair trial.  So like any man would, Steve fled to Virginia.  Well when he did'nt show up in court they went after Sam's bail money.  But no worry, cause Sam got word of it before they found him.  
	Steve's brother Jim came to town and told Sam that he could stay with him in his cabin in the Tuollumne hills (148).  Jim was what was called a "pocket miner".  These people were miners that would look for gold in abandoned mines.  So Sam learned the trade of pocket min'in.  They roamed area which is now Yosemite park scout'in for gold.  Sam did this for weeks mak'in enough to survive (149).  Eventually Sam's short attention span caught up with him.  Like every thing else Sam got sick of min'in and be'in so far away from, well,  everything!  So he set down his pails and headed back to San Fransico (150).
	Upon his return Sam was contracted by the Sacremento Union to write some stories bout the Hawaiian group.  Well within moments Sam had himself on a boat to the islands.  He would often refer to his time on the islands as one of the best in his whole, ttire life, a "golden memory" as he put so himself .  Sam was in his 30s, his prime and was filled with adventure and energy.  He traveled all over the island and sent back detailed reports (Paine 148).  California and Sam himself were both amazed with the write'in that Mark Twain was creat'in.  Sam wanted to refine his skills and better himself.  His first step toward his goal was to return to California (150).  Sam begun to give lectures,  at the start of it they were refined to San Fransisco and then to the state.  The results were amazing.  I don't think I have ever seen so many of people in one room before!  Well cause of these results Sam ventured out to many big cities of the country.  Now if you were to pick one place where the most people were would come to see Sam's lectures were would you go?  New York, New York of course (160).  The lectures that Sam gave in New York were probably what kicked off his pathway to national fame (162).
	Dur'in his travels Sam met a man named Charles Langdon.  They became good friends.  Sam spent Christmas in New York with Charles.  It is here where he met Olivia Langdon (Eaton 178).  It was love at first sight, I must say she was a mighty fine woman, she was!  The two stared at each other through out dinner at the Langdon's house.  Olivia found Sam the most interest'in person she had ever met (179).  They saw each other again on New Year's Day and became even more friendly with each other, even more than prior (182).
	Duty called Sam to Washington, where he would give two speeches.  At this point Sam's life took a turn.  He realized that he was not meant to be a reporter but an author (183).  He started write'in quickly, his goal was to finish a manuscript as soon as possible (184).  The result was The Innocent Abroad Sam's first novel.  The story told of Sam's trip on the Quaker , a large sailboat, with six other men.  He was on the ship to tour Europe and lecture in the some of the big cities (163 Paine). 
	In the meantime Sam was invited to spend two days with the Langdon family.  Everyone was happy to see him.  For two days he tried to lure Olivia towards engag'in her in some personal conversation (186 Eaton).  Within a short period of time Sam had convinced Olivia into marry'in him (187).  February 2, 1870 was the day that Sam finally got married, well I can say it was bout time!  He did not want to separate the Langdon family so Sam decided to move nearby to Olivia's home town, Elmira, so Sam and his new wife moved to Buffalo, New York (190).  
	Almost as soon as the couple moved in they experienced themselves some problems.  Olivia's father passed away leav'in her grief stricken.  Olivia got herself into a state of depression, mak'in her weak and confined her to her bed.  In November the couple had a premature baby boy named Langdon.  But instead of bring'in the family joy it worsened them.  Because the baby was born early it was weak and sickly, not to good.  How could a man possibly concentrate in such a mess?  Well he simply could'nt! Sam noticed that ever since they moved to Buffalo his wife and himself were not the happy people they used to be (192).
	So when Sam received the invitation to spend the summer at Quarry Farm from Mrs. Crane there was no doubt in his mind to accept.  Mrs. Crane was the sister of Olivia's mama.  She lived on a farm that had huge views of roll'in green hills which helped  to inspire Sam an his  write'in (186 Paine).  By the end of the summer,  Sam had finished his book, Roughing It.  It was bout his adventures out in the western territory.
	At the summer's end the family chose on mov'in to Hartford, Connecticut, a thriv'in city that was filled with literary publishers and clubs of that sort (Paine 189). 
	 1872 was a year of change for Sam and his family.  In March his second child was born Susy Clemens.  But three months later Langdon died of a heavy cold (198).  Later that year Sam's adventures spanned to England, his mission was to collect information bout their customs for a new book that he planned to start.  He returned in November that same year.  His plans changed, Sam abandoned his idea and started a new fiction book called The Gilded Age.  It was well known and loved by many people, jus like all of his other write'ins of course.  
	Lov'in England so much, Sam returned there with his family.  He stayed himself there for a complete two years.  Dur'in this time he had met with many famous authors and lectured all over England (199).  On his arrival home Sam started write'in Tom Sawyer.  It was bout his child hood :grow'in up on the Mississippi.  It was to be one of his most famous books (200).  I guess he must 'av  been feel'in mighty high spirited cause Sam continued on write'in.  He wrote Sketches New and Old which would have been a tremendous seller if it were by any other author, but for Sam it was a relatively "small potatoes" (209). 
	Sam's next big accomplishment was The Prince and the Pauper , his first play.  The story was bout Henry VIII.  Sam got the idea after read'in The Prince and the Page, a well known story (219).  
	By now Sam had himself three children Susy, Clara and Jean (Howard 157).  It was at this time when Sam decided to write The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn (Eaton 217).  Now Sam wrote many a books but this was by far the most excellent thing that was ever written,  and I can't help lik'in the name of it!  It sold like a madman, bring'in Sam tons of letters and comments bout his novel.
	After write'in many famous books Sam did someth'in he had been long'in for.  Sam returned to the Mississippi. There he met up with some  ole friends and saw ole sites.  For a moment Sam was liv'in his child hood.  Everybody he knew had read all of his books and the all the people decorated their town for Sam's return.  As Sam stepped off the boat he said "Has Missouri changed the date of the 4th of July?" (Howard 166).  The next day Sam was invited to attend the christen'in of a new steam boat.  The champagne bottle cracked and the wooden planks that held it in place slipped off the ship reveal'in the name "MARK TWAIN" (168).
	Years later Sam laid in his bed.  He was now an old man with only Clara left.  His whole family had died.  He sat in bed remember'in how he had seen Halley's comet when he was little.  Now 77 years later Sam saw the comet again on the night of April 21, 1910.  This was one of the lasts things he saw.  Cause that night Sam passed into a long sleep that still has yet to end (173).  
	I went on bein' a sheriff in Montana.  But this story ain't bout myself, it's bout my friend Sam.
		-Tom Blankenship
                                 a.k.a.: Huckleberry Finn 

Note:  This paper was written in a dialect used by Huck.  There are many spelling and grammatical errors but all are intessional (just kidding, bout (r)--).  They are there to represent the dialogue of Huck.  I have edited it many times to be sure ALL the errors now in the paper are intentional!  I have sat through my spell check alerting me that almost every word was spelled wrong just to eliminate unintentional errors. 
	     
	

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn
II
	
	In the novel The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn the setting has a large influence on Huck's character.  The period of time that Huck lived in was a distinct era.  The country was changing rapidly.  During this period steam engines enabled rivers to be used as mass transportation, an idea that had never been explored until now.  Waterways were the first way in which large amounts of goods could be transported efficiently.  This drastically changed much of the nation's economy.  Huge factories were built in the north and southern plantations tripled their production by using machines.  There were many traits of this era that can be seen by looking at the components of Huck's character, his language, actions and thoughts.  Some of these traits are sutle and can be easily missed but others are very obvious and powerful.  This period of change was the setting of Huck's childhood.  
	One trait that is indicative of the era is the social class of Huck and Huck's language.  It is greatly affected by his social class and setting.  The broken English is a sign of Huck's low social class.  In addition it also shows that he is from a southern river town.  This can be seen from his expressions and accent.  The language of the novel also assists the reader to get into the laid back, southern mood of the book.  By doing so the story is brought to life.  It seems as if someone were to bring you back to the time when the novel and the events in it occurred.
	Because of the rules of the time that Huck's character is governed upon, Huck was never educated.  During the early 1800s there was no law that required children to go to school, therefore his low intellect has a strong impact on Huck's character.  It gives him a "plain and simple" outlook on life,  this trait can been seen throughout the book in Huck's character.  One specific area it affects is Huck's plans for his future.  Huck only thought about what he was going to do for present.  Huck had an incapable father.  He was thought of as the town drunk, and would often come home intoxicated and abuse Huck.    At one point his father locked Huck up in a small room without food or water for days.  The setting is important here because if Huck's father were to treat his son in an abusive manner today, he would lose custody of his child.  A good example of Huck's unloving relationship was Huck's reaction to his father's death.     When notified of his death he was relieved and felt safe!  This detail can be used to illustrate the abuse that Huck went through in the beginning of the book, while living with his father.  Because of Huck's father's irresponsible actions,  Huck ran away at a young age in the hope that someday he would find freedom from his father and society.    By running away Huck saved himself from abuse and being taken advantage of.  One of the things Huck saved himself from was having 6,000 dollars, that Huck was awarded for the capture of two criminals in Tom Sawyer, being stolen from him by his father. 
	 Huck's separation from his father is also the reason for his free thinking, responsibility and innocence.  These times of hardship formed him into a mature person and helped contribute to his independent personality.  Without the influence of the setting Huck would have never been able to achieve the freedom that he had by being independent.
	When Huck ran away he joined up with Jim, who was also running away, but from something different.  Jim was fleeing from slavery, a common practice of the time. Huck's relationship with Jim contributed to Huck's non-prejudice thinking.  Another factor that gave Huck a understanding of how the slaves must have felt was the prejudice that he experienced  himself , being part of the lower class.  Huck was infuriated when people looked down upon him for something that was no fault of his, he was born into the class because of his father's social status.  For these reasons Huck always treated Jim as an equal, making Huck ahead of his time.  Jim knew that Huck respected him, as a result Jim risked his own life to save Huck. 	
	Huck's  independence and lack of education resulted in a mind that was never influenced by adult's beliefs.  This allowed Huck to have thoughts based on what he believed in, not traditions that are simply carried on by messengers of the past's beliefs.  Although traditions are often good they prevent new ideas from entering people's minds.   This made Huck original, this individuality  could be seen with his relationship with Jim.  During this period of American history slaves were looked down upon, but Huck, being  an independent thinker, looked up to Jim for who he was, not for the color of his skin.  This was made obvious by their moon lit conversations on the raft.  On the raft Huck and Jim talked about their past and future, friends and how they planned to avoid trouble that could result from their next adventure.  From the raft conversations the reader was able to see how Jim longed for freedom and had feelings just like everyone else, especially Huck. 
	As the novel progressed Huck's relationship with Jim grew stronger.  In the beginning of the book Huck often called Jim "Nigger Jim."  This was not because of any hatred that Huck had towards Jim.  It was only a term commonly used to refer to blacks.  But by the end of the book Huck would only call Jim by his name.  This change in dialogue clearly illustrates how the relationship grew stronger during their adventures.  By the end of the novel Huck risked his own life to free Jim in the final escape attempt.  This happened when Huck and Tom freed Jim from a holding cell.  They were spotted, chased and then shot at by the men who had captured Jim.  If  the story were to take place in another time, where slavery did not exist, it could have hid Huck's individuality that slavery shed light on.
	During the river adventures that Huck and Jim shared Huck realized that because of his economic status he was dependent on the river to survive. This can clearly be seen by looking at the origin of his name "Huckleberry". He was given this name  because at a young age he had been eating huckleberries. His dependence made him loyal to the Mississippi River.  The personification of the river  that Huck uses clearly shows his feelings and thankfulness to the river.  The personification also helped show how important the river was to not only Huck but to all of the river towns and  








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\THE LIFE OF PRESIDENT BENJAMIN HARRISON.TXT
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              Election of 1888

              In 1888, James G. Blaine, the Republican party's most prominent figure, declined to seek
              the presidential nomination. The national convention then nominated Harrison as the
              soldier-citizen who combined fitness with availability. The call came on the 8th BALLOT.
              Levi P. Morton, a New York City banker, received the vice-presidential nomination.
              Cleveland was renominated by the Democrats.

              Harrison conducted a unique and unexpected front-porch campaign, delivering more than
              80 extemporaneous speeches to nearly 300,000 people who visited him at Indianapolis. He
              made "high tariff" the chief issue, while Cleveland called for lower tariffs and even free
              trade. On election day, Harrison trailed Cleveland by more than 90,000 popular votes, but
              he carried Indiana, New York, and several "doubtful states" and won the presidency by an
              ELECTORAL vote of 233 to 168. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Life of Sylvia Plath.TXT
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The Life of Sylvia Plath


     Sylvia Plath's life,  like her manic depression,  constantly jumped
between Heaven and Hell.  Her seemingly perfect exterior hid a turbulent and
deeply troubled spirit.  A closer look at  her childhood and personal
experiences removes some element of mystery from her writings.
     One central character to Sylvia Plath's poems is her father, Professor
Otto Emile Plath.   Otto Plath was diabetic and  refused to stay away from foods
restricted by his doctor.  As a result ,  he developed a sore on his left foot.
Professor Plath ignored the sore,  and eventually the foot was overcome with
gangrene.  The foot and then the entire left leg were amputated in an effort to
save his life,  but he died in November of 1940, when Sylvia was just eight
years old.
	The fact that her father could have prevented his death left Sylvia
Plath with a feeling of deliberate betrayal.  Instead of reaching out to other
people for comfort, she isolated herself with writing as her only expressive
outlet, and remarkably had a poem published when she was only eight.
	Plath continued prolific writing through high school and won a
scholarship to Smith College in 1950 where she met her friend Anne Sexton.
Sexton often joined Plath for martinis at the Ritz where they shared poetry and
intellectualized discussions about death.  Although they were friends, there was
also an element of competition between Sexton and Plath.  Sylvia Plath's poem "
Daddy" was possibly a response to Anne Sexton's "My Friend, My Friend."  It was
as if Plath was commenting that her writing skills were just a bit better than
Sexton's.  Sexton frequently would express to Robert Lowell in his poetry class
her dissatisfaction with Plath's writing.  She said that Plath "dodges the point
in her poetry and hadn't yet found the form that belonged to her."  The
competitive nature of their relationship continued to the very end.
	  To all appearences, Plath appeared normal, her social life similar to
other middle class coeds.Many were attracted to Plath's brilliant mind, but few
were aware of the inner torment that drove her to write,  alienating her  from
the rest of society.
	Madamoiselle magazine awarded Plath a  position as guest editor the
summer following her junior year at Smith.  Friends and family were stunned at
her suicide attempt when she returned to college, most believing she had
suffered a nervous breakdown due to the stress at the magazine.  Her treatment
was considered the best the medical world could offer and included electro-shock
and psychotherapies.  Plath tells her side of the story in  the  poem Lady
Lazarus  where she likens her experience to a victim of the Holocaust.  But her
apparent recovery enabled her to return to graduate summa cum laude  the
following year.
	Ted Hughes met and fell in love with the writer while she continued her
studies at Cambridge on a Fulbright grant.  Hughes was also a student at
Cambridge, and a fellow poet.  The couple married four years later, and after a
short stay in the States, returned to England.  After returning to London, Plath'
s first book of poetry, Colossus, was published in 1960.  Plath's best known
work, The Bell Jar was published following the birth of their second child.( Ted
Hughes, 52-66)  The novel is semi-autobiographical, describing a young woman's
tragic coming of age.  The central character, a schoolgirl prodigy, Esther
Greenwood, makes her way to adulthood in spite of periodic mental breakdowns.
The Bell Jar is particularly poignant when Esther desrcibes her madness as " .
..a bell jar, stifling and airless that descends without warning..."
	Not long after the publication of The Bell Jar in1963, Ted Hughes and
Sylvia Plath split up.  Plath was left caring for two children in a low-income
area of London during one of the coldest Novembers in centuries.  She worked
between four and eight in the morning.  Apparently being inspired by hardship,
Plath sometimes finished a poem every day.  In her last poems, death is given a
cruel and physical allure and pain becomes tangiible.  Leaving some food and
milk at the kitchen table for her children, she gassed herself to death.
Ironically, the woman Ted Hughes left Sylvia Plath for another woman that would
commit suicide by gas.
	Posthumous Publications include : Ariel, published in 1965, inspired a
cult following.  The poems were less uniform and more emotional than those
published in Colossus.  Other volumes are :Crossing the Water ( 1971) , Winter
Trees (1971) , Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams (1977) , and The Collected
Poems (1981) , which was edited by Ted Hughes.
	At the funeral of Sylvia Plath, Anne Sexton said in a eulogy that she
and Plath had " talked death with burned-up intensity, both of us drawn to it
like moths to an electric light bulb."
     Ever since the 1700's, suicide has been thought of, in some circles, a
romantic way to die ( i.e. Romeo and Juliet).  Some individuals also think that
to take your own life will add to your artistic reputation.Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Weather  suggested that suicide is accepted from
those with artistic temperament because artists are supposedly more prone to
drug use, isolation, suicide, etc...
     Every trip to the triumphant high points of Sylvia Plath's life was
followed by a long stay in the bowels of Hell.  Hell for Sylvia Plath was her
own fantasy playground that was demolished at a young and tender age.  Maybe if
her gift were better known when she was alive, her life would have been more
fulfilling, but at least she is now at peace.



Works Cited

Hughes, Ted, and Fredrick McCullough. The Journals Of Sylvia Plath.
     London: Simon and Schuster, 1983.

Butscher, Edward. Sylvia Plath : Method and Madness. New York: The
     Seabury Press, 1976.

" The Bell Jar ". Grolier's Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic
     Publishing, 1995.

" Suicide ". Grolier's Multimedia Encyclopedia. Grolier Electronic
     Publishing, 1995. Gilson,

William. Sylvia Plath Bio. http://home.interlynx.net/~hecate/pbio.html




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Nomination of Andrew Jackson.TXT
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The Nomination ofAndrew Jackson to the "Presidents Hall of Fame"


	Like any hall of fame, its inductees are the best in whatever they do,
from baseball or football to something like being President.  If you are a
member of any hall of fame (including the one for the Presidents), it means that
you have done something special or have a certain quality about yourself that
makes you worthy to be in a hall of fame.  My nominee for the Presidents hall of
Fame is our seventh President of the United States, Andrew Jackson.  I'll go
over his presidency, focusing on both the highs and the lows of his two terms in
office, from 1829-1837.  The issues that I'll focus on are states' rights,
nullification, the tariff, the spoils system, Indian removal and banking
policies; these controversies brought forth strong rivalry over his years of
president.  He was known for his iron will and fiery personality, and strong use
of the powers of his office that made his years of presidency to be known as the
"Age of Jackson."
	Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in a settlement on the border
of North and South Carolina.  He was orphaned at age 14.  After studying law and
becoming a member of the Bar in North Carolina later he moved to Nashville
Tennessee.  Their he became a member of a powerful political faction led by
William Blount.  He was married in 1791 to Rachel Donelson Robards, and later
remarried to him due to a legal mistake in her prior divorce in 1794.
	Jackson served as delegate to Tenn. in the 1796 Constitutional
convention and a congressman for a year (from 1796-97).  He was elected senator
in 1797, but financial problems forced him to resign and return to Tennessee in
less than a year.  Later he served as a Tennessee superior court judge for six
years starting in 1798.  In 1804 he retired from the bench and moved to
Nashville and devoted time to business ventures and his plantation.  At this
time his political career looked over.
	In 1814 Jackson was a Major General in the Tennessee Militia, here he
was ordered to march against the Creek Indians (who were pro-British in the war
of 1812).  His goal was achieved at Horseshoe Bend in March of 1814.  Eventually
he forced All Indians from the area.  His victory's impressed some people in
Washington and Jackson was put in command of the defense of New Orleans.  This
show of American strength made Americans feel proud after a war filled with
military defeats.  Jackson was given the nickname "Old Hickory", and was treated
as a national hero.
	In 1817 he was ordered against the Seminole Indians.  He pushed them
back into Spanish Florida and executed two British subjects.  Jackson instead
that his actions were with approval of the Monroe administration.  His actions
helped to acquire the Florida territory, and he became a provisional governor of
Florida that same year.
	In 1822 the Tennessee Legislature nominated him for president  and the
following year he was elected the U.S. senate.  He also nearly won the
presidential campaign of 1824 however as a result of the "corrupt bargain" with
Henry Clay.  Over the next four years the current administration built a strong
political machine with nationalistic policies and a lack of concern of states
rights.  In 1828 through a campaign filled with mud slinging on both sides,
Andrew Jackson became the seventh President to the United States.
	Instead of the normal cabinet made up by the president, he relied more
on an informal group of newspaper writers and northern politicians who had
worked for his election.  I believe that this made him more in contact with the
people of the United States, more in contact with the public opinion and
feelings toward national issues
	President Jackson developed the system of "rotation in office."  This
was used to protect the American people from a development of a long-standing
political group by removing long-term office holders.  His enemies accused him
of corruption of civil service for political reasons.  However, I think that it
was used to insure loyalty of the people in his administration.
	States rights played an important part in Jackson's policy's as
president.  In the case of the Cherokee Indians vs. The State of Georgia, two
Supreme Court decisions in 1831 and 1832 upholding the rights of the Cherokee
nation over the State of Georgia who had wanted to destroy Cherokee jurisdiction
on it's land because gold had been found on it, and the state seeing the Indians
as tenants on state land decided to "kick them out".  Chief  Justice John
Marshall ruled that Georgia had no jurisdiction to interfere with the rights of
the Cherokee and removal of them would violate treaties between them and the U.S.
Government.  However, Jackson, not liking these decisions was reported of saying
"John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it."  It seems to me
like a slap in Justice Marshall's face, that Jackson was and always will be an
Indian fighter.  I think he just liked pushing around the Indians because he new
that whatever resistance they had was no match for the U.S. army.  To emphasize
his po int, in 1838 (one year after Jackson left office), a unite of federal
troops rounded up the 15,000 Cherokee who resisted relocation and remained in
Georgia and during the cold and rain of winter forced them to march to their
lands in the west, this was known as the "Trail of Tears" since about 25% of the
people died in route of either disease, starvation, and exposure to the cold.
Even though Jackson wasn't in office at the time and is not a part of his
presidency, his effluence still existed through his predecessor, Martin Van
Burin.
	The question of the tariff was a major controversy in the United States
around the years of his Presidency and his strong support for a unified nation
oven states rights would hold the country together in this national crisis.
Jackson had promised the south a reduction in duties to levels established in
1828, which were acceptable to southerners as opposed to the higher rates since
then.  In 1832 his administration only sliced away a little bit of the duties,
not close to what the south expected he would do.  In retaliation of this
insulting lack of concern of the South's voice in government, South Carolina
acting on the doctrine of Nullification which stated that the union was made up
of the states and that the states had the right to null or void a law if they
didn't agree with it, declared the federal tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 invalid
and prohibited collection of tariff's after February first of 1833.  Jackson's
response to this came on his Nullification Proclamation on December 10, 1832.
He declared his intent to enforce the law and was willing to seek and agreement
in a lowering of tariff's.  In 1833 congress passed a compromise bill which set
a new tariff, when the other southern states accepted the new tariff the threat
of S. Carolina breaking away form the union was brought to a "happy" end.
	The Second Bank of the United States was not made into an issue of his
election in 1828 by Jackson.  However he decided the  bank, which is not a
government bank, but chartered by it in 1826, had failed to provide a stable
currency, and had favored the Northern states, and few loans were granted to the
southern and western areas because they were a larger risk and the bank didn't
see it in it's interest to make such a gamble with it's money.  And in his mind
the bank was in violation on the Constitution.  Even though the bank's charter
wasn't due to expire until 1836, Jackson's political enemies pushed a bill
through congress granting the banks re-charter, Jackson vetoed the bill.  The
"Bank" issue was a major item in his re-election in 1832.  In his second term
Jackson decided to remove federal deposits from the bank into "pet banks" which
virtually took away the power Nicholas Biddle's power as president of the Second
National Bank, which left him and anti-Jackson people very upset with what they
called the abuse of his powers.  The increase in loans from the state
chartered caused a land boom and gave the federal government a surplus
(which it split up amongst the states), the increase in loans brought on the
use of paper currency that was issued by the state banks, Jackson prohibited
the use of paper money to by federal land or pay federal debts.  This demand
for coins called specie led to many bank failures in the Panic of 1837.  I
don't think he knew what he got himself into when he did this, and could of
handled the situation a little better, but not all the blame should fall on
his shoulders, because it wasn't his fault the private state-chartered banks
issued the paper money when they didn't have the specie to back it up.
	Jackson's foreign policy showed a strong interest in making the French
to pay long-overdue spoliation claims and reopening the British West Indian
Trade.  Even thought he personally agreed with the rebellion of Texas against
Mexico.  He didn't recognize the Lone Star republic until the day before he left
office in 1837, and left the problem of  Texas annexation to Martin Van Buren.
	Even though Jackson switched support form his successor Martin Van Buren
to James K. Polk (probably due to Van Burins failed economic policy).  Jackson
was a powerful voice in the Democratic party even after retired.  He died on
June 8, 1845 on his plantation, the Hermitage, in Nashville Tennessee.
	Andrew Jackson was the first "peoples president."  This comes from his
youth in a frontier territory and his "people qualities" which helped him to be
more touch with the people of the United States, and therefore the people of the
United States took a more active role in the Government.  He even went so far as
to call himself the elected representative of all American people.  I think that
Jackson's strengthening of the powers of the presidency are the biggest
influence to this day.  He used the power of the veto 12 times (more times than
all of his successors combined).  And his use of the powers of removal and of
executive orders made a standard for a modern American Presidency.  I only wish
that their was a candidate like that running for election in '96.  The closest
to someone like Jackson would of probably been Colin Powel, unfortunately he
decided not to run.  When you gave this project, I though Jackson was a mean
tempered Indian fighter who found his way to office because he took over Florida
and de fended New Orleans Successfully.  But I grew to learn that he was really
a great president and did a lot for the presidency of the United States of
America.


								By:  Brian Weber
								Dedember 8, 1995



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Peoples Princess.TXT
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The People's Princess 
Diana Frances Spencer was born on July 1, 1961 in Sandringham, Norfolk. Her parents, John and Frances Spencer, were hoping for a boy to carry on the Spencer name. It took them nearly a week to come up with a name for the baby girl. Eighteen months earlier, her mother had giver birth to a baby boy, but he was so sick that he only survived for ten hours. Lady Frances, twenty three at the time, was sent to many specialists to find out the reason why she could not have a little boy. Three years after Diana was born, Lady Frances gave birth to a healthy baby boy, Charles. Diana had been christened in Sandringham Church with well-to-do commoners for godparents. Charles, on the other hand, was christened in Westminster Abbey with the Queen of England as his godparent. As a child, Diana spent most of her time playing outside. Close to her home were many woods, horse stables, and they owned a heated swimming pool. The woods were filled with rabbits, foxes, deer, and other animals. As she grew older, she also grew a great love for animals. She also had a love for children. At age eighteen, she became a teachers assistant. She taught dance, drawing, and painting to kindergarten students. When she was six years old, her mother left her father for another man. She went between her mother's townhouse and her father's country estates. Both parents got re-married, so she had two step-parents to please. Because of Diana's royal background, she earned an invitation to Prince Charles's thirtieth birthday party. This is were the two met for the first time. There were hundreds of people at the party, but Charles couldn't take his eyes off of Diana. A few months later, the two became a couple. "The news about Charles and Diana's love soon spread. The shy young teacher's aide quickly became famous. Everyone wanted to know if the Prince had finally found his Princess. "The answer came in February 1981. Prince Charles asked Lady Diana to be his wife. Blushing with happiness, Diana accepted. The fairy tale had begun-and Diana's life would never be the same."1 During their engagement, Diana frequently visited Buckingham Palace, and the Queen of England for royal training. She practiced walking down the aisle, how to dress like a princess, and how to sit for hours while her portrait is was painted. She also had to get used to be photographed wherever she went. The royal wedding took place on July 24, 1981 at Saint Paul's Cathedral. The wedding was viewed by over 750 million people around the world. After the wedding, the couple took a cruise along the Mediterranean Sea on the royal yacht, Britannia. They were the only passengers on board, but there were 276 officers on board, ready to wait on their every need. After the cruise, they continued their honeymoon at the Windsor family's Scottish estate, Balmoral Castle. On June 21, 1982 at Saint Mary's Hospital in Paddington London, Prince William Arthur Phillip Louis, the future King of England. Two years later, Henry (Harry) Charles Albert David was born. He was called the "spare" because he would only become king if his brother William couldn't. After the birth of her two boys, Diana made it a point to expose her sons to life outside the palace. She and her boys road roller coasters, shot rapids, and ate at fast food restaurants. Diana insisted that William and Harry attend regular schools. She took them with her when she visited AIDS patients and the homeless. Her reason for doing this was to show the boys that there was life outside of royalty. Princess Diana once told reporters, "I think the biggest disease this worl suffers from...is the disease of people feeling unloved. I can give love...and I'm very happy to do that. I want to do that."2 Giving love is exactly what Princess Diana did. At one point, she was president of 6 of the 27 charities that she was involved in. As years passed, her schedule became very hectic. Although she was extremely busy, she made time to stay physically fit. She visited the gym, played tennis, or swam nearly everyday. Once Diana had Christies auction off 79 gowns that she had collected during her fifteen years as the Wife of Windsor. All the proceeds of the auction went to charity. She made many personal sacrifices from charities. She learned sign language so that she could communicate with the deaf association and she wrote personal notes to the families of hospital patients that she had met. She raised awareness of social issues such as AIDS, poverty, drug use problems, and homelessness. "Being a princess isn't all it's cracked up to be3," Diana once said. The strain of royal life triggered a fatal eating disorder, Bulimia Nervosa. In the mid 1980's, Prince Charles began to see his old love , Camilla Parker Bowles. The fairy tale life of Princess Diana was falling apart. In December, 1992, Prime Minister John Major announced to Parliament that Charles and Diana were separating. The divorce of Prince Charles and Princess Diana was finalized on August 28, 1996. When the divorce was finalized, she officially lost her title "Her Royal Highness." After the divorce, she began to struggle just as any newly single woman would. "For the first time in her life, Diana had the chance to be mistress of her own fate."4 Over the last few years of her life, Diana had grown estranged from her own family, her sisters Jane and Sarah, and her brother Charles. "None of her family was regarded as important in her life. In January, her longtime private secretary, Patrick Jephson, along with her chauffeur, quit. After her divorce, Diana found a new love. Diana had fallen for Dodi Fayed. Dodi is a multi-millionaire, who's father owned the famous Herrods department store. Diana no longer tried to hide from the cameras. She was very open with her new relationship. Prince William and Prince Harry did not mind their mother's new life. They said that they were happy as long as she was happy. The day was August 31, 1997. Diana and Dodi's last day together was reportedly romantic. They ate dinner at the two-star restaurant in the Ritz Hotel, which is also owned by Dodi's father. Then they were to spend the rest of the evening at a private villa across the Seine River, but they never made it there. After leaving the restaurant, Diana and Dodi got into their car, not knowing that the driver had been drinking. The car went speeding into the Place de l'Alma underpass in Central Paris shortly after midnight. The car lost control and smashed into the median. Ambulances were called at 12:35 a.m. (Paris time). The police arrived in four minutes, but the first ambulance didn't arrive for eleven minutes. By the time that the ambulance arrived, the driver of the car, and Dodi Fayed were already dead. It was determined later that they both had blood alcohol levels of at least three ties the legal limit. Princess Diana was found in the rear passenger seat with her arm around Dodi. The paramedics and fireman took nearly an hour cutting Diana out of the wrecked car. At first, her vital signs were stable and she appeared to have just a broken arm, some cuts and bruises, and a concussion. After placing her in the ambulance, the paramedics began CPR. "Suddenly, Diana's heart stopped beating, again. For the next two hours, surgeons literally held her heart in their hands as they performed open-heart surgery and other emergency treatments, including a massive blood transfusion."5 The doctors used cardio-electric shock to try to get her heart beating again. But, it didn't work. The Princess suffered a major heart attack. "After two hours (of massaging her heart), Dr. Riou softly sighed, 'C'est fini, (it's over).' The battle has been lost."6 The world was shocked to hear the news of the tragic death of the Princess. The whole worlds hearts went out to the two young boys that she had left behind. "She was their mother, The one who , unlike Charles, game them their kisses and cuddles."7 She took them to parks in London, and played commando games with them at video arcades. They met motor-racing heroes together, and listened to the Spice Girls. "She once let Harry eat chocolate until he was sick, and traded sly jokes with them. She was their pal, not just their mother."8 "In the days following her death, thousands of flowers and notes were left at the gates of Buckingham Palace. It seemed the entire world was weeping for its lost princess."9 On Sunday August third, Princess Diana's body was taken by BAe 146 aircraft of the Royal Squadron back to London. Lady Sarah McCorquodale and Lady Jane Fellowes accompanied the princess's coffin on it's return journey. The Princess's funeral was held on Saturday, September 6 in Westminster Abbey. "There were no outburst;s of emotion, no cruel words for the royal family, no anger at the media, who even in this hour of worship, swarmed in with questions and whirring cameras."10 I stand before you today the representative of a family in grief, in a country in mourning before a world in shock. We are all united not only in our desire to pay our respects to Diana but rather in our need to do so. For such was her extraordinary appeal that the tens of millions of people taking part in this service all over the world via television and radio who never actually met her, feel that they, too, lost someone close to them in the early hours of Sunday morning. It is a more remarkable tribute to Diana than I can ever hope to offer her today. Diana was the very essence of compassion, of duty, of style, of beauty. All over the world she was a symbol of selfless humanity, a standard-bearer for the rights of the truly downtrodden, a truly British girl who transcended nationality, someone with a natural nobility who was classless, who proved in the last year that she needed no royal title to continue to generate her particular brand of magic. Today is our chance to say ``thank you'' for the way you brightened our lives, even though God granted you but half a life. We will all feel cheated that you were taken from us so young, and yet we must learn to be grateful that you came along at all. Only now you are gone do we truly appreciate what we are now without, and we want you to know that life without you is very, very difficult. We have all despaired at our loss over the past week, and only the strength of the message you gave us through your years of giving has afforded us the strength to move forward. There is a temptation to rush to canonize your memory. There is no need to do so. You stand tall enough as a human being of unique qualities not to need to be seen as a saint. Indeed, to sanctify your memory would be to miss out on the very core of your being, your wonderfully mischievous sense of humor with the laugh that bent you double, your joy for life transmitted wherever you took your smile, and the sparkle in those unforgettable eyes, your boundless energy which you could barely contain. But your greatest gift was your intuition, and it was a gift you used wisely. This is what underpinned all your wonderful attributes. And if we look to analyze what it was about you that had such a wide appeal, we find it in your instinctive feel for what was really important in all our lives. Without your God-given sensitivity, we would be immersed in greater ignorance at the anguish of AIDS and HIV sufferers, the plight of the homeless, the isolation of lepers, the random destruction of land mines. Diana explained to me once that it was her innermost feelings of suffering that made it possible for her to connect with her constituency of the rejected. And here we come to another truth about her. For all the status, the glamour, the applause, Diana remained throughout a very insecure person at heart, almost childlike in her desire to do good for others so she could release herself from deep feelings of unworthiness, of which her eating disorders were merely a symptom. The world sensed this part of her character and cherished her for her vulnerability, whilst admiring her for her honesty. The last time I saw Diana was on July the first, her birthday, in London, when typically she was not taking time to celebrate her special day with friends but was guest of honor at a charity fund-raising evening. She sparkled, of course, but I would rather cherish the days I spent with her in March when she came to visit me and my children in our home in South Africa. I am proud of the fact that apart from when she was on public display meeting President Mandela, we managed to contrive to stop the ever-present paparazzi from getting a single picture of her. That meant a lot to her. These are days I will always treasure. It was as if we'd been transported back to our childhood, when we spent such an enormous amount of time together, the two youngest in the family. Fundamentally she hadn't changed at all from the big sister who mothered me as a baby, fought with me at school, and endured those long train journeys between our parents' homes with me at weekends. It is a tribute to her level-headedness and strength that despite the most bizarre life imaginable after her childhood, she remained intact, true to herself. There is no doubt that she was looking for a new direction in her life at this time. She talked endlessly of getting away from England, mainly because of the treatment she received at the hands of the newspapers. I don't think she ever understood why her genuinely good intentions were sneered at by the media, why there appeared to be a permanent quest on their behalf to bring her down. It is baffling. My own, and only, explanation is that genuine goodness is threatening to those at the opposite end of the moral spectrum. It is a point to remember that of all the ironies about Diana, perhaps the greatest is this: That a girl given the name of the ancient goddess of hunting was, in the end, the most hunted person of the modern age. She would want us today to pledge ourselves to protecting her beloved boys, William and Harry, from a similar fate. And I do this here, Diana, on your behalf. We will not allow them to suffer the anguish that used regularly to drive you to tearful despair. Beyond that, on behalf of your mother and sisters, I pledge that we, your blood family, will do all we can to continue the imaginative and loving way in which you were steering these two exceptional young men, so that their souls are not simply immersed by duty and tradition but can sing openly as you planned. We fully respect the heritage into which they have both been born, and will always respect and encourage them in their royal role. But we, like you, recognize the need for them to experience as many different aspects of life as possible, to arm them spiritually and emotionally for the years ahead. I know you would have expected nothing less from us. William and Harry, we all care desperately for you today. We are all chewed up with sadness at the loss of a woman who wasn't even our mother. How great your suffering is we cannot even imagine. I would like to end by thanking God for the small mercies he has shown us at this dreadful time; for taking Diana at her most beautiful and radiant and when she had so much joy in her private life. Above all, we give thanks for the life of a woman I am so proud to be able to call my sister: the unique, the complex, the extraordinary and irreplaceable Diana, whose beauty, both internal and external, will never be extinguished from our minds."
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Ride.TXT
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The Ride	
It was a beautiful day and definitely not forewarning of the events that would change my life.  The warm Las Vegas sun was shining brightly in the blue and cloudless sky.  A light breeze cooled the warm air just enough to stop the body from sweating.  The breeze was clean and crisp that blew along with the scent of a spring day.  The only noise was the roar of the engine as I twisted the throttle and accelerated through the twisted roads near my home.  As everything raced by me, I felt a rush of adrenaline, then the fateful turn approached.  I had taken the turn a hundred times before but today it would change my life.  Around the turn would be my motorcycle accident that would cause me to take life much more seriously.
	Before the accident my lifestyle was very fast paced.  I spent almost all of my time with my friends going out to parties every night.  My life was in control without any abusive habits, it was just fast paced and fun times with friends.  Never being at home added to an already stressful family environment.  My high school education suffered from too much fun and too little studying.  My father made being at home a very uneasy feeling, making me want to stay away even more.  He never took any time to help me with school, car or money.  I always had to work to earn everything, the only thing I wasn't paying for was rent.  In turn I wanted little to do with my father, stepmother or brother, never contributing or helping out.  I even stopped going with them on vacations.  The feelings I had were that I just wanted to be alone by myself, independent.  
	For four months after the accident I was unable to do anything that I had previously done in the normal routine of my life. With a full leg and hand cast I spent almost all my time during the four months recovering on the couch in the living room.  I finished my junior year of high school at my bedroom desk.  During this period I developed a lot of patience from the slow healing process of my bones. I also spent a great deal of time thinking, assessing, and contemplating my life and my future.  Some of my thoughts were "What  was I doing with my life?", "Where was I headed?", "What was in my future for myself?", "What did I want to do with my life?", "How my family life was affecting me?", and many other personal issues dealing with my personality.  While I was contemplating I realized that my life had no focus or direction.  After several mentally stressful and depressive months, my life came into focus. After visiting my mom in Sacramento for a week, I realized living with my father was very negative for me.   During that week I was totally happy and more than willing to try to help out around the house, even though I still wore a brace on my leg.  Being treated differently with love and as a young adult, not a child, made all the difference.  It was a very tough decision to move to Sacramento during my Senior year of high school and leave all my friends behind, but I could no longer live with my father.
	After moving to Sacramento, to live with my mother, I gained positive direction.  Traveling in that same direction I have developed my future and career.  Now I have a positive family life, which I have learned to value very much.  Also I have slowly developed a better relationship with my father. I often go back to Las Vegas to visit my friends and my family.  I still go out with my friends and have a good time.  We still have a wild time, but not all of the time. We have all matured and found purpose and balance in our lives.  I had no idea this event would dramatically change my life, my future, the way I think, and the events to come into my life.  I am not certain that it was for the best or the worst, because I do not know what events would have followed if I did not drive around that turn.  
	One thing for certain I would not be here in Sacramento, where I have a great life and have developed a promising successful career.  I might still be riding through those corners in Las Vegas, living fast and carefree.  Perhaps that turn put my life in the right direction.  I know now that I have a greater appreciation for life and I have learned what the more important aspects of one's life are. I attribute most of the changes in my attitude and my accomplishments to my mom.  She has always been there for me with unconditional love and positive support of me as a person.  My accident and the events that followed changed me.  I now take life more serious and know that having a family that cares about you and loves you is the most valuable asset one can possess.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Significance of Alexander Graham Bell in American History.TXT
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	Alexander Graham Bell is a name of great significance in American history today.  A skillful inventor and generous philanthropist, he astounded the world with his intuitive ideas that proved to be both innovative and extremely practical in the latter half of the 19th century.  Most notable, of course, are Bell's work in developing the telephone and his venerable life-long endeavor to educate the deaf.  Originally, his only wish was to help deaf people overcome their difficulty in learning verbal communication, and later was pushed into researching the possibility of a device that could transmit the human voice electronically over a distance.  After building his first working telephone model, Bell's fame spread quickly as people in America and around the world began to realize the awesome potential this wonderfully fascinating new device held in store for society (Brinkley 481).  His telephone an instant success and already a burgeoning industry, A. G. Bell decided to turn his attention back to assisting the deaf and following other creative ideas including the development of a metal detector, an electric probe which was used by many surgeons before the X ray was invented, a device having the same purpose as today's iron lung, and also a method of locating icebergs by detecting echoes from them.  With his many inventions (especially the insanely popular and universally applied telephone), his efforts to educate the deaf, and the founding and financing of the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf (now called the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf),  Alexander Graham Bell has become a very important historical figure indeed (Berstein 9).
	Perhaps a key factor in Bell's successful life was his invigorating background.  His family and his education definitely had a deep influence on his career.  Born in Scotland, his mother was a painter and an accomplished musician, his father a teacher of the deaf and speech textbook writer.  His father invented "Visible Speech," a code of symbols which indicated the position of the throat, tongue, and lips in making sounds.  These symbols helped guide the deaf in learning to speak.  His grandfather, also named Alexander Bell, had similarly specialized in good speech.  He acted for several years and later gave dramatic readings from Shakespeare.   Young Alexander Graham Bell had a great talent for music.  He played by ear from infancy, and received a musical education.  Later, Bell and his two brothers assisted their father in public demonstrations in Visible Speech, beginning in 1862.  He also enrolled as a student-teacher at Weston House, a boys' school, where he taught music and speech in exchange for instructions in other subjects.  Bell became a full-time teacher after studying for a year at the University of Edinburgh.  He also studied at the University of London and used Visible Speech to teach a class of deaf children.  Growing up in a healthy environment where creativity and new ideas were embraced with vigor was to certainly contribute to Alexander Graham Bell's genius later on in life (Winefield 12).
	Young Bell carried out in 1866 a series of experiments to determine how vowel sounds are produced.  A book, describing experiments in combing the notes of electrically driven tuning forks to make vowel sounds, gave him the idea of "telegraphing" speech, though he had no idea about doing it.  However, this was the start of his interest in electricity.
	Bell took charge of his father's work while the latter lectured in America in 1968.  Bell became his father's partner in London in the following year.  He specialized in the anatomy of the vocal apparatus at University College in London at the same time.  In 1872, Alexander opened his own school for teachers of the deaf in Boston.  The following year, he became a professor at Boston University.  
	Bell won the friendship of Gardiner Green Hubbard, a Boston attorney at this time.  Hubbard's daughter, Mabel, had been left deaf by scarlet fever when she was 4.  Hubbard had Bell tutor her and in no time they were in love, although Mabel's first memories of Alexander were not all positive.
I both did not, and did like him.  He was so interesting that I was forced to like to listen to him, but he himself I disliked.  He dressed carelessly and in a horrible, shiny [hat]-expensive but fashionable-and which made his jet-black hair look shiny.  Altogether I did not think him exactly a gentleman (Winefield 17).
Miss Hubbard became Bell's wife in 1877.  Another friendship developed when Thomas Sanders, a successful merchant, brought his son to Bell as a private pupil.  Both Hubbard and Sanders learned in 1873 of electrical experiments Bell carried on at night and offered to pay the cost.
	Bell did not attempt to transmit speech electrically at this time.  He tried instead to send several telegraph messages over a single wire at the same time.  In 1874, while visiting his father in B 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Touch of Magic by Lorena Hickok.TXT
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The Touch of Magic by Lorena Hickok


	The book I chose to read is called The Touch of Magic written by Lorena
A. Hickok.  The story was about Anne Sullivan Macy, Helen Keller's  wonderful
teacher.  I had never heard of Anne before I read this book, but while looking
in the library my mom explained to me who she was and she seemed like she would
be an interesting person to do it on.  I was right.
	Anne Sullivan Macy was born on April 14, 1866 in Feeding Hills,
Massachusetts.  At the age of nine she was taken to the outskirts of Tewksbury,
Massachusetts with her three year old brother Jimmie.  There, they were sent to
the Massachusetts State Infirmary.  Not because they were mentally sick or
anything, but because they had nowhere else to go.
	Their mother had died of tuberculosis and their father had left them.
None of their relatives wanted them because Annie was nearly blind and Jimmie
had something wrong with his hip and had to walk with a crutch.  Annie's one
year old sister was taken right away by her aunt and uncle because she was
darling.  Nobody knew where to send them so that's how she ended up at the
infirmary.
     A few months after they had arrived, Jimmie got deathly ill.  The doctor'
s couldn't do anything for him and unfortunately he past away.  Annie took this
unbelievably hard for she had realized that Jimmie was the only thing she had
ever loved.
     Annie's attitude then worsened even more because she felt she had
nothing left.  She would throw hissy fits at the nurses and kick and scream.
Believe it or not, this is one of the character traits that I most admire about
Miss Macy.  She was aggressive and didn't let anyone tell her what to do.  Even
though she could hardly see, she lived her own life in her own little world.
	Another trait that I admire about her is that she was a dreamer.  I know
I am a big dreamer and can get lost in my thoughts sometimes, but her dreams
weren't like mine.  Annie dreamt of being able to see, but most often dreamt of
going to school.  Annie wanted to learn but had no one to teach her.
     One day, about a year after Jimmie's death, the State Board of Charities
came by to look around.  Annie was so excited because she heard they might be
able to send her to school.  When they were leaving she jumped in front of them
and yelled out that she wanted to go to school.  The men asked her what was
wrong with her and she explained to them that she was nearly blind.
	A few days later, after Annie thought she had blown her chance of ever
going to school, a girl from the ward came saying that Annie was to go to school.
 Annie was ecstatic and couldn't wait to go.  This is the first major event that
I think led to Annie's success.
	The day finally came and Annie arrived at the Perkins Institution for
the Blind in South Boston around noon.  She didn't like it at first but later
became quite popular.  While the other girls stayed in nice cottages, Annie
stayed in an old cottage with fifty year old Laura Bridgman.  Laura was blind,
deaf, and dumb.
	Laura Bridgman had gone to that school forty some years earlier and was
taught the manual alphabet.  This is where you communicate by spelling words on
each other's palms and then feel an object to know that the word spelled is the
word felt.
	Annie was simply fascinated with this way of communicating that she
learned the manual alphabet. That's why I think Laura was the person who had the
greatest influence on Annie.  Annie would spend hours "talking" with Laura.  She
would tell Laura what was going on in school and things around them and Laura
would share her thoughts and feelings back to Annie.
	Annie was good in school and her teachers saw that.  She had a hard time
with Braille but after a lot of hard work, she got it.  I think that is another
admirable trait about Annie.  Her eagerness and willingness to learn.  an
education was what she wanted all her life and her dream finally came true.
After she learned Braille, Annie would search the library for books.  She loved
to read.
	Summer quickly came and all the girls, even Laura, left for home.  The
teachers refused to send Annie back to Tewksbury so one of them was able to find
her a job doing little work at a rooming house.
	One of the roomers, a young man, really took to Annie and felt sorry for
her.  One day he told her that he thought he knew of someone who could help her
eyes.  Annie agreed to go see Dr. Bradford at the Carney Catholic Hospital.  He
insisted on operating even though she explained to him that she had already had
two unsuccessful operations.  He convinced her and started work later that
summer.
	He first cut away the scabs on the insides of her eyelids.  This would
stop the scabs from scratching her eyeballs.  He said that he would treat her
for a few months and then in a year operate again.
	A year passed and Annie, now sixteen, was back.  Dr. Bradford felt good
and hopeful that the operation would be successful.  After many days of being
bandaged up, the bandages were removed.  Afraid to open her eyes, Annie finally
did and was able to see.  Not one hundred percent mind you, but she could see
detail and the doctor was smiling.  Being able to see is another thing I think
that led up to Annie's success.
	Now that Annie could see she had no reason to go back to school.  She
had nowhere to go, so the teachers let her stay and help with the younger kids.
She still attended classes and became so popular that she was voted
Valedictorian in her sixth and final year of school.
	The day was so special, but all Annie could think about was what she
would do after school.  Annie had no idea what she wanted, but a couple of
teachers said that they might be able to find her a job.  Annie didn't want to
think about it so left for the summer.
	During a summer day, a letter came for Annie.  It was from her principal
asking her to read the enclosed letter.  The letter was from a man from Alabama
asking the Perkins Institute if they could recommend a good teacher for his six
year old daughter.  She was deaf, blind, and dumb, her name was Helen Keller.
	Twenty year old Annie decided to go.  On March 5, 1887 Annie headed out
to Alabama.  This, I think would have to be the third event that led up to Annie'
s success.
	At first Annie thought she could get through to Helen, but later found
that it wouldn't be that easy.  Helen was a dangerous child, like an animal, but
what do you expect if you can't hear or see?  After a few days Annie tried to
get through to her by being gentle, but during one of Helen's rages she knocked
out Annie's two front teeth.
	Annie decided to take the initiative and tried disciplining Helen.
Something of which her parents never did.  She thought it would be best if she
could be alone with Helen so they moved into their own little cottage a few
minutes away from Helen's parents.
	Annie started teaching Helen the manual alphabet that she had learned
from Laura Bridgman.  Helen was able spell things back, but still they had no
meaning to her.  About a month after Annie's arrival, Helen finally figured out
that the word Annie was spelling was the word of the object she held in her hand.
 Soon after this Helen starting writing in Braille.  A lot of it didn't make
sense, but as she was learning sentences it got better.
	After about a year of working with Helen, Annie decided to take her to
Boston.  They didn't spend long there, but Helen soon became a celebrity.
Everyone was interested in Helen, who wouldn't be?
	During their long time of fame, Helen and Annie met a lot of neat,
interesting people including a very nice young man named John Macy.  He worked
for a magazine and was one of the greatest supporters Helen and Annie ever had.
When Helen grew up, John decided that he would ask Annie to marry him.  Annie at
first wasn't sure because he was eleven years younger than her.  She finally
said yes and they were married on May 2, 1905.  Annie was now thirty-nine and
John was twenty-eight.
	The marriage only lasted eight years before John decided to sail to
Europe.  It wasn't a divorce, but more of a separation.  Annie knew that she
could count on him if she needed anything, so it wasn't like they hated each
other, it just didn't work out.
	Annie and Helen spent the rest of their lives together touring the
United States and parts of Canada, talking to people and doing presentations.
Annie off and on during these years, got sick.  Sometimes really bad and
sometimes just little colds.  On October 19, 1936, it was different.  A couple
of days before, Annie had seemed happy and was laughing and smiling just like
her old self.  On that night though, she slipped into a coma and never woke up
again.  She had quietly past away, but lived a good, long life of seventy years.
Helen was fifty-six.
	I really enjoyed reading this book and would definitely recommend it to
anyone who likes an interesting true story.  The book taught me a lot about the
blind and deaf and how they cope with their unfortunate handicap.  It taught me
that even though you might have a handicap nothing is impossible.  As long as
you put your mind to it you can do anything.  Anyone who likes an inspirational
novel would love this book.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\The Working Single Mother Primary Care Vs Secondary Care.TXT
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1714
Comparing its structure and function as it was in 1960 with what it had become in 1990 can highlight the dramatic changes in the American family. Until 1960 most Americans shared a common set of beliefs about family life; family should consist of a husband and wife living together with their children. The father should be the head of the family, earn the family's income, and give his name to his wife and children. The mother's main tasks were to support and enable her husband's goals, guide her children's development, look after the home, and set a moral tone for the family. Marriage was an enduring obligation for better or worse and this was due much to a conscious effort to maintain strong ties with children. The husband and wife jointly coped with stresses. As parents, they had an overriding responsibility for the well being of their children during the early years-until their children entered school, they were almost solely responsible. Even later, it was the parents who had the primary duty of guiding their children's education and discipline. Of course, even in 1960, families recognized the difficulty of converting these ideals into reality. Still, they devoted immense effort to approximating them in practice. As it turned out, the mother, who worked only minimally--was the parent most frequently successful in spending the most time with her children. Consequently, youngsters were almost always around a parental figure -- they were well-disciplined and often very close with the maternal parent who cooked for them, played with them, and saw them off to and home from school each day. Over the past three decades these ideals, although they are still recognizable, have been drastically modified across all social classes. Women have joined the paid labor force in great numbers stimulated both by economic need and a new belief in their capabilities and right to pursue opportunities. Americans in 1992 are far more likely than in earlier times to postpone marriage. Single parent families--typically consisting of a mother with no adult male and very often no other adult person present-have become common. Today at least half of all marriages end in divorce (Gembrowski 3). Most adults no longer believe that couples should stay married because divorce might harm their children. Of course, these contemporary realities have great consequential impact on mother-child relationships and child development; even from an early age. Survey research shows a great decrease in the proportion of women favoring large families, an upsurge in their assertiveness about meeting personal needs, and an attempt by women to balance their needs with those of their children and the men in their lives (Burgess & Conger 1164). A clear and increasing majority of women believe that both husband and wife should be able to work, should have roughly similar opportunities, and should share household responsibilities and the tasks of child rearing. A majority of mothers of preschool children now work outside the home. A growing minority of young married women, often highly educated and career oriented, are choosing not to have any children and have little interest in children's issues-yet one more indication of the dramatic transformation of American families that has been taking place in recent decades (Bousha & Twentyman 106). It is unavoidable that those mothers who work simply are not there as much for their children. In fact, in many cases the relationship between the contemporary mother and her children is similar to the age-old traditional role of the father and his children. Often, the mother is indeed a strong-minded disciplinarian in the evening after work-but she is very frequently not much more than that. To very children, care is a nursery or some school of others with caregivers. To the pre-adolescent youth, care is either a baby-sitter, nanny, or just phone call to 'mom' after work--if even that much. In some of the more positive cases, this creates an early sense of responsibility and independence for the child. But more commonly, it is known to invite poor behavior, recklessness, and even accidents at home when the mother is not there. Some children become despondent; others grow adamantly rebellious. But regardless of patternistic character, they all reportedly exhibit a diminished sense of relationship with their mother. With regard to interpersonal signals, today's working mothers are unlikely to respond to child signals and more likely to initiate spontaneously nonreciprocal types of interaction, such as requests and demands (Aragona & Eyeberg 599). I infer that this comes in part from the pressures and stresses of their own busy work schedules (plus they are still usually left with a plethora of time-consuming "mothering" responsibilities) as well as from their own diminished relationship with the child(ren). My readings strongly indicate that mothers who work all day often become almost unavoidably neglectful in that they fail to perceive, and attend to, child signals and information about child needs. Evidently, the underlying process in such cases is often one of prematurely ending the processing of information about feelings. That is, in cases where mothers are consistently withdrawn, psychologically unavailable, and/or stressed over work, it is proposed that parental style of processing information is typified by preconscious exclusion from perception of information that elicits affect (Giovannoni 14). Such information is of crucial importance to human functioning as it provides the earliest (both developmentally and situationally) interpretation and prescription for response (Zajonc, 1998). Later developing cognitively generated information and processing interaction with affect to produce increasingly differentiated, sophisticated, and adaptive responses (Egeland & Erickson 114-15). When, however, affect is distorted, either by inhibition or exaggeration, it reportedly reduces the flexibility of individuals' response to their environment. The rearing of children is, of course, an affectively arousing experience. Indeed, children, especially young children, communicate largely through affective signals, for example, cries, smiles, eye contact, touch. When mothers are not around much and fail to respond to these signals, children first become very upset and, if no parental response is forthcoming, ultimately cease to signal. In either case, they both fail to learn to modify signals in ways that lead to the development of mature communicative skills and also learn to behave in increasingly aversive ways. Indeed, the more upset they become, the longer it takes them to recover, that is, the longer they remain distressed. Consequently, if working mothers were initially ambivalent about responding to child signals, they could be expected to become more reluctant after their children became upset. At that point, interactions are likely to take on the negative quality noted by many researchers (Burgess & Conger, 1998). Thus early neglect of infant signals can have a progressive and deteriorating effect on the development of the parent-child relationship. And such neglect is indeed common among working mothers. In addition, children's signals are often tied to their need for help in managing their emotions. Thus children turn to their parents when they are hurt, angry, sad, frightened, and so on. If their mothers are too preoccupied to respond to these feelings, they may ignore precisely those signals that imply the greatest need for maternal involvement. Indeed, "simple" requests for food, clothing, shelter, and medical attention can be fulfilled by other adults such as nannies, caregivers etc; But this seriously alters the mother-child relationship and places many aspects of that traditional role on the career-child relationship instead. Because the desire for affection and comfort can only be satisfied by attachment figures (i.e., parents), it is more subject to defensive biases. This suggests both the importance of psychological neglect (Egeland & Erickson, 1997) and the basis for such neglect in parents' own developmental history. Previous to the age of the working mother, it might have been said that children were often a bit spoiled by their mother's constant presence. All of the attention that they needed was there before school, after school, on the weekends and so forth. This created a strong dependency upon the maternal parent; relationships were overtly familiar and the bond between mother and child was more often a strong one than today. An old cliché of that time was the expression from mother to child "just wait 'till your father gets home." In many cases today, just waiting for mother to come home may carry with it the same intimidation. And without a parental balance between disciplinarian and caregiver--much of the relationship between mother and child so amiable in the 1950's and before--is gone. Conclusively, it is difficult to blame mothers for their inability to develop and maintain relationships with their children as strongly as in previous decades. The pressures of a full-time career coupled with full-time mothering may be too much for anyone to handle wholly and effectively. It is for this reason that responsible parents seek the assistance of day care centers, professional baby-sitters, and so forth. But it is also for this reason that the relationship that exists between mother and child today has changed so drastically. References Aragona, J., & Eyeberg, S. "Neglected children: Mothers' reports of child behavior problems and observed verbal behavior." Child Development 52 (1995): 596-602. Bousha, D., & Twentyman, C. "Mother-child interaction style in abuse, neglect, and control groups: Naturalistic observations in the home." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93 (1997) : 106-114. Burgess, R. L., & Conger, R. D. "Family interaction in abusive, neglectful, and normal families." Child Development 49 (1998) : 1163-1173. Egeland, B., & Erickson, M. "Psychologically unavailable care giving." In M. R. Brassard, R. Germaine, & S. N. Hart (Eds.), Psychological maltreatment of children and youth. New York: Pergamon, 1997 (pp. 110-120). Gembrowski, Susan. "A Portrait of Families Today." Los Angeles Times, 22 Oct. 1992 : 3. Giovannoni, J. M., & Becerra, R. M. Defining child abuse. New York: Free Press, 1996. Zajonc, R.B. "Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences." American Psychologist 35 (1998) : 151-175.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Theodore Roosdevelt.TXT
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Theodore Roosdevelt: 26th President of the United States (1901-1909)


  Theodore Roosevelt was an energetic and dynamic leader who gave the nation a
square deal.  During his presidency to a position of internatio nal leadership.

  Roosevelt belonged to an aristocratic New York family.  He attended Harvard
Univerity.  Theodore Roosevelt fought in the Spanish-American war with the Rough
Riders at the battle of San Juan Hill.  He had served as police commissiores of
New York, assistant secretary of the navy, governor of New York, and vice
president of the United States.	When president McKinley was assassinated
on September 14, 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became, at the time, the youngest (43
years) president in hist ory.

  The president saw himself as a man of the middle who would meditate the
struggle between capital and labor.  He said that business must be protected
against itself and he tended to favor regulatory commissions that provided
nonpartisan supervisi on by experts of business practices.  As president he
succeeded in getting additional authority over the railroads for the interstate
commerce commission.  He was also instrumental in the passage of the meat
inspection act and the pure food and drug act.	Ro attitude toward the poor and
towards the labor movement was that of an enlightened conservative.  He
supported many labor demands such as shorter hours for women and children,
employers' liability laws and limitations on the use of injunctions against
workers in labor disputes.

  In reform, Roosevelt wanted gradual change.  He moved in the direction of the
reformers and ended up as the candidate of the progressive party in the Bull
Moose presidential campaingn in 1912.  He had broken with the Repub lican party.

  In 1907 immigration reached its all-time high 1,285,000 in one year. Theodore
Roosevelt said, "There can be no divided allegiance here.  Any man who says he
is an American, but something else also, isn't an American at all.  We have ro
om but for on language here and that is the English language, for we intend to
see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, of American
nationality; we have room for but one soul loyalty, and that is loyalty to the
American people."

  Ro l ed the United States into continous armed interventions in the caribbean.
In 1906 an insurrection in Cuba caused the United States to intervene in its
affairs.  The American government withdrew its power when ordr was restored.

  In the Philippines c ivil government was put into operation, and a
communications cable was laid across the Pacific.

  Roosevelt intervened in the war betwwen Russia and Japan.  He invited the
Russian and Japanese governments to send peace commissioners to America where a
peace treaty was sighned in 1905.  The following year the president was awarded
the nobel peace prize.

  People had wanted a canal connectiong the Atlantic and Pacific for hundreds of
years.  A French company, which went bankrupt, had started the pro ject. The
company sold the panamanian rights to build the canal to the United States
government.  Colombia, whose territory included Panama, didn't agree to the
terms offered by the Uninted States.  Ro did not think much of he of Latin
Americans to begin with.  He called he colombians "foolish and homicidal
corruptionits." The Roosevelt administration supported a revolt by the
Panamanians against Colombia.  The new country of Panama signed a canal treaty
favorable to the United States in 1903.  The Pana ma canal was completed August
15, 1914.

  President Theodore Roosevelt died at Sagamore hill, his home at oyster bay,
New York, on January 6, 1919.




 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Theodore Roosevelt.TXT
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Theodore Roosevelt


     Theodore Roosevelt the 26th president of the United States, was born
at 33 East 20th Street in New York on October 27, 1858.His father was a man of
some wealth and importance in civic affairs.  A  prosperous family like the
Roosevelts had a better than most people in that era. At eight years of age he
was sickly and delicate and then his interest in natural-history started at this
early age. Through sports and outdoor living, he became rugged and a love of the
strenuous life that he never lost. T Through private tutoring and travel he
became a very smart boy.
      In 1876 Theodore entered Harvard college. At Harvard every ha to dress,
walk, and have good manners, but Thoedore did do these things.  Most
students thought him odd. Later years at Harvard were better than the
earlier years.  He was a member to: Porcelain Club, Institute of 1770, Hasty
Pudding Club , Alpha Delta Phi , O.K. Club , Natural History Society , The
Harvard Advocate (editor) , Glee Club , and in the Class Committee. After he
graduating from Harvard in 1880 , he married Alice Hathaway Lee of Boston.  In
the same year he entered Columbia University Law School. But historical writing
and politics lured him away from a legal career.
       His yearning for public acknowledge plus the corrupt state of New York
led him to join a local Republican Reform Club.  In 1881 he was elected to
New York assembly where he set out to stop the corruption in both party
machines. In 1884 the death of his wife and a defeat in his political career
made him retreat to the Dakota Territory. In 1886 he came back to New York.
He ran for mayor when he came back.He was third.  For the next three years
he stayed out of public affairs, and attending to his personal affairs .  In
those three years he married Edith Kermit Carow and built a home near Oyster
Bay, Long Island.  He had been appointed to the U.S. Civil Service by
President Harrison .   His  defeats in his political career helped him get
this job. A position he held from 1889 to 1895.In 1895 he accepted the
presidency of the Board of Police Commissioners in New York City.  In this
position he called for war with Spain , and occasionally embarrassed his
superiors.At the start of the Spanish-American war he readily resigned to
join his friend Leonard Wood in organizing the first volunteer Calvary, but
widely know as the"Rough Riders" .  Later he became the leader of the Rough
Riders and led charge up Kettle Hill during the battle of San Juan Hill.
His success in the Spanish-American war and the stories in the newspaper
he became sort of a national hero .  In 1898 , when he came back , he was
nominated for governor two weeks after he came back.   He won the election  and
he fulfilled all of his campaign promises .
     In 1900 he was nominated for vice-president he accepted it in part
that  he was not sure he would be elected again for governor of New
York state .  He was bored of the vice-presidency and talked about leaving
and going back to law. He became the 26th president of the Untied States
when president McKinley  was shot by a former campaign worker.  At first
he said there would be no change in McKinley's polices , but then it
was apparent there would be.  He was worried about the trusts.  He went on
a anti-trust campaign and he brought back the Anti-trust Act that had
been almost been dead for twelve years.  He attacked the heart of these
be bringing  down the Northern Securities Company in 1904. Helping Panama win
there independence from Columbia was a good move for him.  They let the U.S.
lease the land for the canal.  He was the first president to travel off of U.S.
soil when he went to oversee the construction of the canal. ne other thing he
did while president was to expand the Monroe Doctrine to the Roosevelt Corollary.
 This law said that we could intervene in any Latin American law He did so that
if any of those countries posed a threat we   could just invade them and do what
we wanted to the government.  In 1902 he won the Nobel Peace Prize for bringing
the Russians and the Japanese to the Portsmouth Conference.  In 1909 after he
secured Taft's nomination he left the office.
     After he left the office he traveled all over the world. He took a
ten month hunting trip to North Africa,and made a grand tour of Europe visiting
all of the Royal people. After hearing from of his friends he decided
to come back to America and go back into politics.  The Republican Party
already had a nominee ,so he ran on a ticket he made up called the Bull
Moose Party. They lost the campaign for president .  For two years after
he lost the 1912 election he was out of the public eye.  He became a supporter
of U.S. going into WWI after the sinking of the "Lustinia".  In the very
close election of 1916 , the Republican lossed and Roosevelt thought his
public usefulness was over , because the Republicans lost . In 1919 Theodore
Roosevelt died in his sleep that was related to a fever he had gotten in Brazil.


"The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt" by Steffan Lorant  Encyclopedia
Britannica volume 19



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Theodore Roosevlt.TXT
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                        T H E O D O R E      R O O S E V E L T                                       b y                         E r i c                     T h e o d o r e  R o o s e v e l t the 26th president of the United States, was born at 33 East 20th Street in New York on October 27, 1858.His father was a man of some wealth and importance in civic affairs.  A  prosperous family like the Roosevelts had a better than most people in that era. At eight years of age he was sickly and delicate and then his interest in natural-history started at this early age. Through sports and outdoor living, he became rugged and a love of the strenuous life that he never lost. T Through private tutoring and travel he became a very smart boy.         In 1876 Theodore entered Harvard college. At Harvard every ha to dress, walk, and have good manners, but Thoedore did do these things.  Most students thought him odd. Later years at Harvard were better than the earlier years.  He was a member to: Porcelain Club, Institute of 1770, Hasty Pudding Club , Alpha Delta Phi , O.K. Club , Natural History Society , The Harvard Advocate (editor) , Glee Club , and in the Class Committee. After he graduating from Harvard in 1880 , he married Alice Hathaway Lee of Boston.  In the same year he entered Columbia University Law School. But historical writing and politics lured him away from a legal career.       His yearning for public acknowledge plus the corrupt state of New York  led him to join a local Republican Reform Club.  In 1881 he was elected to New York assembly where he set out to stop the corruption in both party machines. In 1884 the death of his wife and a defeat in his political career made him retreat to the Dakota Territory. In 1886 he came back to New York. He ran for mayor when he came back.He was third.  For the next three years he stayed out of public affairs  , and attending to his personal affairs .  In those three years he married Edith Kermit Carow and built a home near Oyster Bay, Long Island.  He had been appointed to the U.S. Civil Service by President Harrison .   His  defeats in his political career helped him get this job. A position he held from 1889 to 1895.In 1895 he accepted the presidency of the Board of Police Commissioners in New York City.  In this position he called for war with Spain , and occasionally embarrassed his superiors.At the start of the Spanish-American war he readily resigned to join his friend Leonard Wood in organizing the first volunteer Calvary, but widely know as the"Rough Riders" .  Later he became the leader of the Rough Riders and led charge up Kettle Hill during the battle of San Juan Hill.  His success in the Spanish-American war and the stories in the newspaper he became sort of a national hero .  In 1898 , when he came back , he was nominated for governor two weeks after he came back.   He won the election  and he fulfilled all of his campaign promises .                In 1900 he was nominated for vice-president he accepted it in part  that  he was not sure he would be elected again for governor of New York state .  He was bored of the vice-presidency and talked about leaving and going back to law. He became the 26th president of the Untied States when president McKinley  was shot by a former campaign worker.  At first he said there would be no change in McKinley's polices , but then it was apparent there would be.  He was worried about the trusts.  He went on a anti-trust campaign and he brought back the Anti-trust Act that had been almost been dead for twelve years.  He attacked the heart of these be bringing  down the Northern Securities Company in 1904. Helping Panama win there independence from Columbia was a good move for him.  They let the U.S. lease the land for the canal.  He was the first president to travel off of U.S. soil when he went to oversee the construction of the canal. ne other thing he did while president was to expand the Monroe Doctrine to the Roosevelt Corollary.  This law said that we could intervene in any Latin American law He did so that if any of those countries posed a threat we   could just invade them and do what we wanted to the government.  In 1902 he won the Nobel Peace Prize for bringing the Russians and the Japanese to the Portsmouth Conference.  In 1909 after he secured Taft's nomination he left the office .        After he left the office he traveled all over the world. He took a ten month hunting trip to North Africa, and made a grand tour of Europe visiting all of the Royal people. After hearing from of his friends he decided to come back to America and go back into politics.  The Republican Party already had a nominee ,so he ran on a ticket he made up called the Bull Moose Party. They lost the campaign for president .  For two years after he lost the 1912 election he was out of the public eye.  He became a supporter of U.S. going into WWI after the sinking of the "Lustinia".  In the very close election of 1916 , the Republican lossed and Roosevelt thought his public usefulness was over , because the Republicans lost . In 1919 Theodore Roosevelt died in his sleep that was related to a fever he had gotten in Brazil.  "The Life and Times of Theodore Roosevelt" by Steffan Lorant  Encyclopedia Britannica volume 19   902   words        








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Thomas Jefferso1.TXT
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Thomas Jefferson


*******************

     I really didn't have any problems finding information about Thomas
Jefferson.  On the Internet, I just did a search for Thomas Jefferson, and I got
all kinds of information, from the Thomas Jefferson University to his
autobiography.
	If I was the teacher, I would have allowed the students to print off of
the web pages.  It isn't illegal, and it would make it much easier and more
efficient to hit command-p and hit return than copy down 5 pages of information
longhand and not be able to write legibly for the rest of the day because of a
numb hand.  I also would have given a little more time than a week.
     All of the information I have came from the Internet.  I didn't use one
book to find information.  I think that it is much smarter to try to find
information electronically than it is to go to a library, do a search, hope they
have it in stock, walk around trying to find the book, go check it out, drive
home, stop at McDonald's, and finally site down and read it.  By the time you
get home and have time to read it, you're too tired to read the book, let alone
do a report with it.

********************

	Thomas Jefferson was born in Shadwell in Albemarle county, Virginia, on
April 13, 1743. His dad, Peter Jefferson and his mom Jane Randolph were members
of the most famous Virginia families. 	Besides being born rich, Thomas
Jefferson, was well educated. He attended the College of William and Mary and
read law (1762-1767) with George Wythe, the best law teacher of his time in
Virginia.  He went into to the bar in 1767 and practiced until 1774, when the
courts were closed by the American Revolution.

	He had inherited a considerable landed estate from his father, and
doubled it by a happy marriage on Jan. 1, 1772, to Martha Wayles Skelton. He was
elected to the House of Burgesses, when he was 25, he served there from 1769 to
1774, proving himself to be an effective committeeman and skillful draftsman,
though not good at speaking

	From the beginning of the struggle with the mother country, Jefferson
stood with the more advanced Patriots, grounding his position on a wide
knowledge of English history and political philosophy. His biggest early
contribution to the cause of the Patriots was his powerful pamphlet A Summary
View of the Rights of British America (1774), originally written for
presentation to the Virginia convention of that year. In this he emphasized
natural rights, including that of immigration, and denied parliamentary
authority over the colonies, recognizing no tie with the mother country except
the king.

	When he was a member of the Continental Congress (1775-1776), Jefferson
was chosen together with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingstone and
Roger Sherman in 1776 to draft the Declaration of Independence . He wrote the
declaration almost all by himself and was amended by John Adams and Benjamin
Franklin .

	Jefferson left Congress in 1776 and served in the Virginia legislature
until his election as governor in 1779. He was governor from 1779 to 1781.

	During this brief private interval (1781-1783) he began to write the
Notes on the State of Virginia, which was published in 1785. In this document
there are some of his opinions on slavery. From 1783 to 1784 he was a member of
the Continental Congress.

	While Jefferson was secretary of state from 1790 to 1793, Alexander
Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, defeated the movement for commercial
discrimination against Britain, which Jefferson liked. Jefferson's policy was
not pro-French, but it seemed anti-British. Hamilton was distinctly pro-British.

	By late 1792 or 1793 the opponents of Hamiltonianism (I hope I used a
real word) constituted a fairly definite national party, calling itself
Republican. Early in 1793 the Virginians in Congress forced Hamilton to quit his
office.

	Jefferson retired as Secretary of State at the end of the year 1793.
During a respite of three years from public duties, he began to remodel his
house at Monticello and interested himself greatly in agriculture.

	He was supported by the Republicans for president in 1796, and running
second to John Adams by three electoral votes, he became vice president.

	Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr defeated John Adams in the
elections of 1800. Jefferson's own title to the presidency was not real for some
weeks because he was tied with his running mate under the workings of the
original electoral system. The election was thrown into the House of
Representatives. The Federalists voted for Burr through many indecisive ballots.
Finally, enough of them allowed the obvious decision of the majority to be
carried out. And so Jefferson became the 3d president of the United States of
America. And what also was important that the movement was effected by strictly
constitutional means. Jefferson emphasized this in his accommodating inaugural
address.

	Jefferson was replaced in 1809 by his loyal lieutenant, James Madison.
During the last 17 years of his life, Jefferson remained in Virginia. As the
'Sage of Monticello' he engaged in a large and rich correspondence with John
Adams and others. Jefferson's last great public service was the founding of the
University of Virginia in 1819. He died at Monticello on July 4, 1826 on the
50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Thomas Jefferson 4.TXT
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	"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."  These famous lines of the Declaration of Independence was written in the front parlor of a second floor rented apartment by the American, Thomas Jefferson.  These few words show what ideas and beliefs Thomas Jefferson stood for, and how he continuously fought for these words to become fulfilled in his country.
	This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albermarle County, Virginia.  From his father he inherited some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a high social ranking.  He studied at the College of William and Mary, then read the law.
	Thomas Jefferson was a man of many different talents.  He knew several languages, including Latin and Greek.  He was an expert mathematician who was even able to calculate when eclipses of the sun and moon would occur.  He could design buildings, perform medical operations like an experienced surgeon, survey land, and play the violin.  Despite his thinness, he was strong enough to tame a wild horse and chop wood like a lumberjack.  Most important of all, he was know to be a superb writer.
	Though surprisingly, Thomas Jefferson was not a man of many words.  Not known for his speaking abilities, he was shy and seldom spoke in public.  When delegates at the Congress gave long speeches, Thomas Jefferson oftentimes just listened.  John Adams said of Jefferson, "During the whole time I sat with him in Congress, I never heard him utter three sentences together."
	Instead, this Virginian contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriotic cause.  Being known throughout the colonies as a fine writer on political questions, he received the most votes to become the chairman of the committee elected to write a Declaration of Independence.  The other members of the committee asked him to write a first draft of the Declaration.  Jefferson began his work in the parlor of his apartment.  For several days, he worked long hours at a desk, writing this Declaration for which he is widely known.  He described that his words were not meant to be original or creative, but "to be an expression of the American mind."
	Thomas Jefferson was a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, and came within three votes of election.  However in 1800 he did become the third president of the United States.  As president Jefferson slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated tax on whiskey, and reduced the national debt by a third.  Although the Constitution made no provisions for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality and acquired the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.
	Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia.  As a French nobleman observed, he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."
	Truly, Thomas Jefferson was an American.  He had endless devotion and love for his country, and helped establish what the American experience stood for.  He had a great impact on how the young nation grew into the powerful country it is today.  Not only did he physically double the size of the United States, he played a key role in making the nation independent.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Thomas Jefferson.TXT
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	"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."  These famous lines of the Declaration of Independence was written in the front parlor of a second floor rented apartment by the American, Thomas Jefferson.  These few words show what ideas and beliefs Thomas Jefferson stood for, and how he continuously fought for these words to become fulfilled in his country.
	This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albermarle County, Virginia.  From his father he inherited some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a high social ranking.  He studied at the College of William and Mary, then read the law.
	Thomas Jefferson was a man of many different talents.  He knew several languages, including Latin and Greek.  He was an expert mathematician who was even able to calculate when eclipses of the sun and moon would occur.  He could design buildings, perform medical operations like an experienced surgeon, survey land, and play the violin.  Despite his thinness, he was strong enough to tame a wild horse and chop wood like a lumberjack.  Most important of all, he was know to be a superb writer.
	Though surprisingly, Thomas Jefferson was not a man of many words.  Not known for his speaking abilities, he was shy and seldom spoke in public.  When delegates at the Congress gave long speeches, Thomas Jefferson oftentimes just listened.  John Adams said of Jefferson, "During the whole time I sat with him in Congress, I never heard him utter three sentences together."
	Instead, this Virginian contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriotic cause.  Being known throughout the colonies as a fine writer on political questions, he received the most votes to become the chairman of the committee elected to write a Declaration of Independence.  The other members of the committee asked him to write a first draft of the Declaration.  Jefferson began his work in the parlor of his apartment.  For several days, he worked long hours at a desk, writing this Declaration for which he is widely known.  He described that his words were not meant to be original or creative, but "to be an expression of the American mind."
	Thomas Jefferson was a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, and came within three votes of election.  However in 1800 he did become the third president of the United States.  As president Jefferson slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated tax on whiskey, and reduced the national debt by a third.  Although the Constitution made no provisions for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality and acquired the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.
	Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia.  As a French nobleman observed, he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."
	Truly, Thomas Jefferson was an American.  He had endless devotion and love for his country, and helped establish what the American experience stood for.  He had a great impact on how the young nation grew into the powerful country it is today.  Not only did he physically double the size of the United States, he played a key role in making the nation independent.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Thomas Paine 4.TXT
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Thomas Paine
In September of 1776, on the outskirts of Newark, among the tired, discouraged, soldiers, as they paused from their daily retreat, sat Thomas Paine. He wrote many papers that would have a major effect on the outcome of the quest for independence. 
Born the son of a  Quaker Laymaker on January 29th, 1737 at Thetford, Norfolk England. He received a basic elementary education, and started to work for his father as an apprentice, and later as an excise officer. He was not a huge success at either, and was in fact fired twice from the job as an excise officer.	
When he arrived in Philadelphia on November 30th 1774, he was sick and feverish, and had to be carried on a stretcher. With a letter of recommendation from Ben Franklin, he was accepted into a hospital and given special care, until he recovered. With that same letter from Ben Franklin, he found many doors opened for him, including jobs tutoring many of the sons of the wealthiest men in Philadelphia.
	Paine started over again, by publishing African Slavery In America, in the spring of 1775, in which he criticized slavery in America as being unjust and inhumane. At about this same time, he became the co-editor for the Pennsylvania Magazine. When he arrived in Philadelphia, Paine noticed the tension, and the rebellious attitude, that was continually getting larger, after the Boston Tea Party.
	In Paine's opinion, the Colonies had all the right to revolt against a government that imposed taxes on them, and which did not give them the right of representation in the Parliament at Westminster. Then he went one massive step further, he decided there was no reason for the Colonies to stay dependent on England. He published his opinions in the American independence pamphlet Common Sense.  
	In Common Sense Paine states that sooner or later Independence from England must come, because America had lost touch with the mother country. He felt that the function of government in society was to only be a regulator, and thus pretty simple. His strong beliefs made him a major influence on the Declaration Of Independence.
 	 He joined General Washington in his battle against General Howe in the War of Independence. Where he motivated many downhearted soldiers who needed reassurance. The retreating of General Washington's army was a slow, daily affair. Being an Englishman himself, Paine knew that the British enemy, would not take the Revolutionary Army seriously and was familiar with tactics of the English Army, and could advise the Revolutionary Army of what was to be expected. The English were polite in the way that they did not attack at night. They were slow to rise in the mornings, and early to retire for the evenings. 
Their strategy on the battlefield was very formal and exact. The English would march in tight ranks, which was perfect for European battles, but senseless in the New World, where they would easily be taken out by Revolutionary sharpshooters. The bright red military uniforms that they wore looked great, but made them extra easy targets, in the misty New England days. 
While under General Washington's command, Paine started work on the first of  his American Crisis papers, which were later published between the years of 1776 and 1783 In these papers he wrote of how Americans must be willing to give it their all... 
"These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot, will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." 
He also wrote of how the Americans would not win easily, for if they did, they would not respect it with the respect if they had a hard time overcoming it.
"Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered... What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly."

In 1787 Thomas Paine left for England, when the French Revolution broke out. Originally intending to raise money for a bridge he was building, Paine was sidetracked and became deeply involved in the French Revolution. He began publishing The Rights Of Man in which he defended the Revolution and attacked the English monarch. His book was banned in England, naturally, and he was to be arrested, but was not on account he had left for France.
When he returned to America in 1802, under invitation by Thomas Jefferson, he learned that he was considered a hindrance to America, or altogether forgotten. He died on June 8, 1809 in New York City, from dropsy.
Truly Thomas Paine was the Most Loved and Most Hated Man in America. He had motivated the young nation to free itself from a monarchic rule. And was a thorn in the side of England, as they continued to lose their grip of control, on America.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Thomas Paine.TXT
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Thomas Paine
In September of 1776, on the outskirts of Newark, among the tired, discouraged, soldiers, as they paused from their daily retreat, sat Thomas Paine. He wrote many papers that would have a major effect on the outcome of the quest for independence. 
Born the son of a  Quaker Laymaker on January 29th, 1737 at Thetford, Norfolk England. He received a basic elementary education, and started to work for his father as an apprentice, and later as an excise officer. He was not a huge success at either, and was in fact fired twice from the job as an excise officer.	
When he arrived in Philadelphia on November 30th 1774, he was sick and feverish, and had to be carried on a stretcher. With a letter of recommendation from Ben Franklin, he was accepted into a hospital and given special care, until he recovered. With that same letter from Ben Franklin, he found many doors opened for him, including jobs tutoring many of the sons of the wealthiest men in Philadelphia.
	Paine started over again, by publishing African Slavery In America, in the spring of 1775, in which he criticized slavery in America as being unjust and inhumane. At about this same time, he became the co-editor for the Pennsylvania Magazine. When he arrived in Philadelphia, Paine noticed the tension, and the rebellious attitude, that was continually getting larger, after the Boston Tea Party.
	In Paine's opinion, the Colonies had all the right to revolt against a government that imposed taxes on them, and which did not give them the right of representation in the Parliament at Westminster. Then he went one massive step further, he decided there was no reason for the Colonies to stay dependent on England. He published his opinions in the American independence pamphlet Common Sense.  
	In Common Sense Paine states that sooner or later Independence from England must come, because America had lost touch with the mother country. He felt that the function of government in society was to only be a regulator, and thus pretty simple. His strong beliefs made him a major influence on the Declaration Of Independence.
 	 He joined General Washington in his battle against General Howe in the War of Independence. Where he motivated many downhearted soldiers who needed reassurance. The retreating of General Washington's army was a slow, daily affair. Being an Englishman himself, Paine knew that the British enemy, would not take the Revolutionary Army seriously and was familiar with tactics of the English Army, and could advise the Revolutionary Army of what was to be expected. The English were polite in the way that they did not attack at night. They were slow to rise in the mornings, and early to retire for the evenings. 
Their strategy on the battlefield was very formal and exact. The English would march in tight ranks, which was perfect for European battles, but senseless in the New World, where they would easily be taken out by Revolutionary sharpshooters. The bright red military uniforms that they wore looked great, but made them extra easy targets, in the misty New England days. 
While under General Washington's command, Paine started work on the first of  his American Crisis papers, which were later published between the years of 1776 and 1783 In these papers he wrote of how Americans must be willing to give it their all... 
"These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot, will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." 
He also wrote of how the Americans would not win easily, for if they did, they would not respect it with the respect if they had a hard time overcoming it.
"Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered... What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly."

In 1787 Thomas Paine left for England, when the French Revolution broke out. Originally intending to raise money for a bridge he was building, Paine was sidetracked and became deeply involved in the French Revolution. He began publishing The Rights Of Man in which he defended the Revolution and attacked the English monarch. His book was banned in England, naturally, and he was to be arrested, but was not on account he had left for France.
When he returned to America in 1802, under invitation by Thomas Jefferson, he learned that he was considered a hindrance to America, or altogether forgotten. He died on June 8, 1809 in New York City, from dropsy.
Truly Thomas Paine was the Most Loved and Most Hated Man in America. He had motivated the young nation to free itself from a monarchic rule. And was a thorn in the side of England, as they continued to lose their grip of control, on America.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Tiger Woods The Making of a Champion.TXT
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									       Matt Buyan	
								                                    C-period
										         1-1-97 

TIGER WOODS THE MAKING OF A CHAMPION
					BY: JOHN GARRITY
 	
Eldrick Tiger Woods was born in Brooklyn, NY on December 30, 1975.  His parents names are Earl and Kutildra. Earl is a 1/4 American Indian, a 1/4 Chinese and half Black. Kutildra is a 1/4 White, a 1/4 Chinese and half Thai. Both of Earl's parents were dead by the time he was 13.  He named his son  "Tiger" after his Vietnam War partner Nguyen Phong of the South Vietnamese army. He nicknamed him Tiger for his iron will and bravery.  Around 1967 or 1968 they lost contact and never spoke to one another since.  Earl hopes that 1 day Nguyen will see his son's name either on TV or in a paper and contact him, so they can reunite.  Tiger was first introduced to golf by his father who bought him a junior golf set as a kid.  Tiger and his family now live in Cypress, California and he stands a tall 6'4 and weighs a lean 155.

	Now about his golfing days.  Tiger won the 1991, 1992,  and 1993 U.S  Junior Amateur  championships.  When winning his third he brought out a record attendance of over 15,000 spectators.  Woods was also the first  African-American to win the U.S Juniors.  He quotes " when I am up at the tee all I think about is where I want my ball to go".  During this whole time Tiger attended Stanford college and maintained straight A's in his sophomore year.  He had originally planed to graduate from Stanford before going pro, but when Nike offered him a 42 million dollar deal to wear their clothes for 5 years he couldn't resist. This was not the only reason he decided to go pro. After an excellent finish in the British Open, Tiger felt that he also had enough mental strength to go pro.  His parents are very supportive of him and felt fine with this. Wood's first pro win  was the Las Vegas invitational.  At the Honors Course in Texas he brought out an enormous crowd. Of the 14,694 tickets sold, 14,000 were fans wanting to see their Tiger.

	If you were to ever meet Tiger Woods for yourself he would probably be the nicest person you will ever meet. He signs just about every autograph and is never mean to fans.  Tiger and his father gave out free golf lessons to caddies and junior golfers.  Many of you may no his nickname the "Come Back Kid", he got this name because he was the 1st person to have a six hole deficit on the U.S Amateur championship and win. He also hangs out with some really smart people. One of his friends put a computer together from scrap and the 1st time he turned it on it worked. Golf pays quite well when he finished 60th in his 3rd pro course he received 2,544 dollars.......People often ask Tiger if he wants to be the greatest African-American to play the game and he responds with "No I want to be the greatest to ever play the sport"

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Tiger Woods.TXT
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Tiger Woods: The making of a Champion

									

TIGER WOODS THE MAKING OF A CHAMPION BY: JOHN GARRITY

     Eldrick Tiger Woods was born in Brooklyn, NY on December 30, 1975.  His
parents names are Earl and Kutildra. Earl is a 1/4 American Indian, a 1/4 Chinese
and half Black. Kutildra is a 1/4 White, a 1/4 Chinese and half Thai. Both of Earl's
parents were dead by the time he was 13.  He named his son  "Tiger" after his
Vietnam War partner Nguyen Phong of the South Vietnamese army. He nicknamed him
Tiger for his iron will and bravery.  Around 1967 or 1968 they lost contact and
never spoke to one another since.  Earl hopes that 1 day Nguyen will see his son'
s name either on TV or in a paper and contact him, so they can reunite.  Tiger
was first introduced to golf by his father who bought him a junior golf set as a
kid.  Tiger and his family now live in Cypress, California and he stands a tall
6'4 and weighs a lean 155.

	Now about his golfing days.  Tiger won the 1991, 1992,  and 1993 U.S
Junior Amateur  championships.  When winning his third he brought out a record
attendance of over 15,000 spectators.  Woods was also the first  African-
American to win the U.S Juniors.  He quotes " when I am up at the tee all I
think about is where I want my ball to go".  During this whole time Tiger
attended Stanford college and maintained straight A's in his sophomore year.  He
had originally planed to graduate from Stanford before going pro, but when Nike
offered him a 42 million dollar deal to wear their clothes for 5 years he couldn'
t resist. This was not the only reason he decided to go pro. After an excellent
finish in the British Open, Tiger felt that he also had enough mental strength
to go pro.  His parents are very supportive of him and felt fine with this. Wood'
s first pro win  was the Las Vegas invitational.  At the Honors Course in Texas
he brought out an enormous crowd. Of the 14,694 tickets sold, 14,000 were fans
wanting to see their Tiger.

	If you were to ever meet Tiger Woods for yourself he would probably be
the nicest person you will ever meet. He signs just about every autograph and is
never mean to fans.  Tiger and his father gave out free golf lessons to caddies
and junior golfers.  Many of you may no his nickname the "Come Back Kid", he got
this name because he was the 1st person to have a six hole deficit on the U.S
Amateur championship and win. He also hangs out with some really smart people.
One of his friends put a computer together from scrap and the 1st time he turned
it on it worked. Golf pays quite well when he finished 60th in his 3rd pro
course he received 2,544 dollars.......People often ask Tiger if he wants to be the
greatest African-American to play the game and he responds with "No I want to be
the greatest to ever play the sport"



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Todd Gray.TXT
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Todd Gray: Iconographic Photography
The subjective nature presented in Todd Gray's photographs appears to reflect the upbringings of the artist himself. In his photograph entitled Anti-Euro, Gray studied the idea of being a "floating entity." He attempts to reveal the notion that all people are mixed in some way and that no one is really pure black or pure white. He conceived the notion of creating his own mythology after reading influential books. Gray states, "I would read Greek and African mythology books and try to navigate between the two. I thought I'd create my own culture" (Philip, Los Angeles Times, January 1997). Gray's other piece entitled, "Boxer punching buildings," reveals aspects of his frustration and disturbance toward society. The piece is composed of images of an African American boxer throwing a punch at a large corporate building. He presented it as a series of posters that were placed throughout the city to be viewed by the public. During lecture, he explained that the poster was a metaphor of classic slavery versus the corporate conglomerates of society. Gray explains, "I was thinking about the gladiators of the past, dark people who had to fight against domination. The same system seemed to be intact" (Philip, Los Angeles Times).
As most identify Gray as being the ex-photographer of Michael Jackson, his attempts and success to step into the realm of fine art was mainly due to expressing his emotions. Gray states, "It was important to show that I could do both [fine and commercial art] and keep the integrity. It's like blacks and other minorities share with women, that we've got to work twice as hard to get half as far" (Philip, Los Angeles Times).
As Gray found himself becoming immersed in commercial arts, he returned to the school where he received his undergraduate degree to "recommit" himself to art. It was there that he found his new centerpiece for his artwork and a new perception of the innocent. His interest on Disney characters and toys derived from an observation that cartoons and popular culture influenced people. According to Hunter Drohojowska Philip, "He soon found himself viewing the ubiquitousness of seemingly innocent cartoon characters as a form of cultural imperialism" (Los Angeles Times).
During the past eight or so years, Gray devoted most of his time to investigate the ideas of what forms our thinking, or rather, what informs our culture to think a certain way. His study began with the iconography of characters that are noticed and identified by everyone in this world, Disney characters. His portrayal of simple and lovable cartoon characters seem to transform into intimidating life size portraits of powerhouses. At lecture, Gray discussed the symbolism of various icons; Scrooge was reminiscent to the typical industrialist, overpowering and demanding; Goofy was similar to a homeboy, or could also be identified as a proletariat, a worker; Daisy Duck is similar to the feminist type, dominant and governing, demanding Daffy (representing men) around. According to Marilu Knode's article, she writes "Each of these are active, recognizable slaves to a commercialized stereotype, with Gray pushing their innocent syntax into a twisted realm of cultural monster" (Knode, Abracapocus: Goofy and Sex Looking For God). It seems that the primary intention of Gray's utilization of characters is to point out how overpowering simple little characters can be. The idea of Gray photographing the silhouette of these cuddly characters and presenting them as human size was primarily to reveal a different aspect that may not normally be seen.
The impact of Gray's photographs evokes much criticism as well as praise among viewers. Though some may not find his work meaningful, his art proves to become a cultural context of society. Though his artwork may not seem very aesthetically pleasing or fit the typical description of "art," Gray's artwork attempts to do something that many others do not, that is to study the influences of our culture from society. Gray captures the ordinary and reveals the extraordinary; he searches beneath the façade of our cultural framework and re-presents them through his perception. Gray's work may have served as an emotional outlet for himself as well as an informative presentation to his audience and viewers, namely anyone who sees his work. I believe the primary intention of the pictures being life size was that it gave the subject in the image a different aura. Subjectively speaking, if I viewed Goofy as being any smaller, I would mainly reference it to the cartoons instead of any other social context. By the grand scale of the image along with the black and white silhouette, I mainly view it as overpowering and lifelike.
In retrospect, one question I would have formulated for Todd Gray, before the session had ended, is if he had received hostile reactions from viewers after they view his work. Also, I would ask whether or not his work may have different had he grew up in the slums with a lower class family. I question whether creativity is innate or whether it depends on how and what type of environment a person is nurtured. It would have been nice to hear his theory on this subject matter.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Tony Kornheiser.TXT
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Tony Kornheiser is the self-admitted opinionated, sarcastic sports and style columnist for The Washington Post.  Kornheiser's purpose is not to report to the reader an objective account of a sporting event, but rather to add humor to topics that range in topic from the Washington Redskins ("It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle," November 5, 1996) to his lunch-time experience the other day ("In a Real Fix," November 3, 1996).  Kornheiser's diction, figurative language, and tone make his columns what they are.  Often, diction, figurative language, and tone are not common in the journalistic world, but Kornheiser's humor finds room for them.
	Tony Kornheiser's sarcasm is almost entirely related to his diction.  He contains the skills to take something as insignificant as a restaurant changing on him unexpectedly and reports about it so that the common man can relate.  He is The Washington Post's Jerry Seinfeld.  He blends the slang of the street man with the poetic verbs and fluid adjectives of an English teacher.  For example, in "In A Real Fixe," Kornheiser says, "George was beginning to suspect that we had entered (doo-doo, doo-doo). . . The Nouvelle Dining Zone."  Most people who have watched the Twilight Zone before can relate this statement as a reference to the famous TV show, so Kornheiser's slang was effective in grabbing the reader, even if a large majority of them have no idea what the word "nouvelle" means.  Kornheiser uses an array of such adjectives throughout his pieces but he does not pretend to be above his readers.  He fills his work with colloquial speech such as his references in "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" to other Washington Post columnists such as Michael Wilbon, and to his "Redskins Bandwagon." (The Redskins Bandwagon was a common phrase used by Washington Redskins fans when the team won the Superbowl in 1991).  Kornheiser assumes that the reader is familiar with him, and that is clear in his informal diction that is used with the reader.  It is almost to the point of a friendship, as though a coworker was letting off his steam at work during a lunch break.  
	Kornheiser's figurative speech also add to his style quite well.  The blend of diction and figurative speech is clear as Kornheiser uses several local allusions in his metaphors and similes that add to his "common man" image.  For example, in "In a Real Fixe," Kornheiser compares the look of a hostess' face to one of a nurse at St. Elizabeth's, a local mental hospital.  In that same article he also compares his whole experience to "going down into the Metro and finding you're on the Concorde."  His figurative language add to his sarcasm.  Anytime a metaphor or a simile is used, it is used for exaggeration purpose.  Sarcasm is funny exaggeration.  Kornheiser compared his expensive lunch meal to "Big Red chewing gum wrapped around a pimento."  That's funny because he is comparing such an precious meal to a piece of gum and a pimento, a $25 meal to a 25 cent meal.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle," the whole column is one giant metaphor.  His Redskins Bandwagon (which is supposedly a vehicle that starts up and gets ready to let fans hop on all the way to the Superbowl with the Redskins, but if you are a Kornheiser reader, he expects you to know that already) has turned into an "off-road vehicle" because of a Redskins crushing defeat to a team.  His figurative language is easy to understand, and it is funny.  Always, though, it is used in a satirical manner and it is always used to help the reader to relate to the situation, usually in their terms.
	The most important element of Kornheiser's writing is his tone.  His tone is extremely sarcastic, light-hearted, facetious, and sometimes derogatory to his peers.  It is his tone which makes the diction and the figurative language work.  If his tone were one of seriousness, there would still be the sarcasm but it would be far less understandable.  In "In a Real Fixe," the main theme of his story is about how uncomfortable he and his friends felt in the fancy restaurant that had once been an eat-and-go place.  It is apparent how uncomfortable they felt by the quotes that Kornheiser uses.  When his boss, George, is questioned about imported water, he says that he "likes tap water."  This clearly shows the uncharacteristic situation that they are in.  His sarcasm is shown when he refers to cold buffets he had been to before where "some guys aren't even wearing shirts," as a joke about the dress code necessary for this place.  When he claims that his boss, George, was nervous because "he'd [n]ever been anywhere with fresh flowers before, other than a funeral," it is obviously sarcastic to express the point.  It is that kind of tone that gets the reader's reaction the best.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" the same tone is evident.  He expresses his thoughts on Jim Kelly's age (Jim Kelly is a 37 year old quarterback for the Buffalo Bills) by comparing Kelly's age to his own age in terms of calling himself the "Sultan of Samarkand." When mentioning the Redskins poor performance, he jokes that a team that cannot tackle, cannot pass, and cannot run cannot win unless they are playing the St. Louis Rams (a notoriously bad franchise in professional football).  It is comments like those that make Kornheiser's columns funny.  His derogatory name calling is also humorous because it is rare that a columnist stoops down to such a level without remorse.  In "In a Real Fixe," he refers to his boss (his boss!) as a "notoriously cheap" man and gives a funny example of how tight his boss is.  In "It's Now An Off-Road Vehicle," Kornheiser lashes out of fellow columnist Michael Wilbon for a considerable length of the piece.  This derogatory tone, however, is funny not serious, which adds to the overall facetious attire of the columns.
	It is clear that Tony Kornheiser's purpose in writing is not to inform the reader of an event that happened.  The average person could care less what Kornheiser ate for lunch or what he thinks about fellow reporters, but he writes about it anyway.  He doesn't write about those topics just to write about those topics, he writes about those topics because the average person wants someone to relate to and they want someone to laugh with, and sometimes at, when Kornheiser self-abuses himself.  People like Kornheiser because he is like a buddy.  He writes about average stuff, and he is willing to stoop down to low levels to impress.  But Kornheiser is not an average writer, he is instead a well-practiced, intelligent one, as shown by his usage of vivid verbs, aesthetic adjectives, and no-nonsense nouns.  If requested, Kornheiser could write a plain summary of a football game or a basketball game, but instead, Kornheiser has his job because he is talented.  He expects people to read his column and it is shown in the continuation of each article.  He knows he is good and he is not afraid to show a certain cockiness, but it is his colloquial sarcasm that wins the readers.
	
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Tony Kronheise1.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Tony Kronheiser


     Tony Kornheiser is the self-admitted opinionated, sarcastic sports and style
columnist for The Washington Post.  Kornheiser's purpose is not to report to the
reader an objective account of a sporting event, but rather to add humor to
topics that range in topic from the Washington Redskins ("It's Now an Off-Road
Vehicle," November 5, 1996) to his lunch-time experience the other day ("In a
Real Fix," November 3, 1996).  Kornheiser's diction, figurative language, and
tone make his columns what they are.  Often, diction, figurative language, and
tone are not common in the journalistic world, but Kornheiser's humor finds room
for them.
     Tony Kornheiser's sarcasm is almost entirely related to his diction.  He
contains the skills to take something as insignificant as a restaurant changing
on him unexpectedly and reports about it so that the common man can relate.  He
is The Washington Post's Jerry Seinfeld.  He blends the slang of the street man
with the poetic verbs and fluid adjectives of an English teacher.  For example,
in "In A Real Fixe," Kornheiser says, "George was beginning to suspect that we
had entered (doo-doo, doo-doo). . . The Nouvelle Dining Zone."  Most people who
have watched the Twilight Zone before can relate this statement as a reference
to the famous TV show, so Kornheiser's slang was effective in grabbing the
reader, even if a large majority of them have no idea what the word "nouvelle"
means.  Kornheiser uses an array of such adjectives throughout his pieces but he
does not pretend to be above his readers.  He fills his work with colloquial
speech such as his references in "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" to other
Washington Post columnists such as Michael Wilbon, and to his "Redskins
Bandwagon." (The Redskins Bandwagon was a common phrase used by Washington
Redskins fans when the team won the Superbowl in 1991).  Kornheiser assumes that
the reader is familiar with him, and that is clear in his informal diction that
is used with the reader.  It is almost to the point of a friendship, as though a
coworker was letting off his steam at work during a lunch break.
     Kornheiser's figurative speech also add to his style quite well.  The
blend of diction and figurative speech is clear as Kornheiser uses several local
allusions in his metaphors and similes that add to his "common man" image.  For
example, in "In a Real Fixe," Kornheiser compares the look of a hostess' face to
one of a nurse at St. Elizabeth's, a local mental hospital.  In that same
article he also compares his whole experience to "going down into the Metro and
finding you're on the Concorde."  His figurative language add to his sarcasm.
Anytime a metaphor or a simile is used, it is used for exaggeration purpose.
Sarcasm is funny exaggeration.  Kornheiser compared his expensive lunch meal to
"Big Red chewing gum wrapped around a pimento."  That's funny because he is
comparing such an precious meal to a piece of gum and a pimento, a $25 meal to a
25 cent meal.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle," the whole column is one giant
metaphor.  His Redskins Bandwagon (which is supposedly a vehicle that starts up
and gets ready to let fans hop on all the way to the Superbowl with the Redskins,
but if you are a Kornheiser reader, he expects you to know that already) has
turned into an "off-road vehicle" because of a Redskins crushing defeat to a
team.  His figurative language is easy to understand, and it is funny.  Always,
though, it is used in a satirical manner and it is always used to help the
reader to relate to the situation, usually in their terms.
     The most important element of Kornheiser's writing is his tone.  His
tone is extremely sarcastic, light-hearted, facetious, and sometimes derogatory
to his peers.  It is his tone which makes the diction and the figurative
language work.  If his tone were one of seriousness, there would still be the
sarcasm but it would be far less understandable.  In "In a Real Fixe," the main
theme of his story is about how uncomfortable he and his friends felt in the
fancy restaurant that had once been an eat-and-go place.  It is apparent how
uncomfortable they felt by the quotes that Kornheiser uses.  When his boss,
George, is questioned about imported water, he says that he "likes tap water."
This clearly shows the uncharacteristic situation that they are in.  His sarcasm
is shown when he refers to cold buffets he had been to before where "some guys
aren't even wearing shirts," as a joke about the dress code necessary for this
place.  When he claims that his boss, George, was nervous because "he'd [n]ever
been anywhere with fresh flowers before, other than a funeral," it is obviously
sarcastic to express the point.  It is that kind of tone that gets the reader's
reaction the best.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" the same tone is evident.
He expresses his thoughts on Jim Kelly's age (Jim Kelly is a 37 year old
quarterback for the Buffalo Bills) by comparing Kelly's age to his own age in
terms of calling himself the "Sultan of Samarkand." When mentioning the Redskins
poor performance, he jokes that a team that cannot tackle, cannot pass, and
cannot run cannot win unless they are playing the St. Louis Rams (a notoriously
bad franchise in professional football).  It is comments like those that make
Kornheiser's columns funny.  His derogatory name calling is also humorous
because it is rare that a columnist stoops down to such a level without remorse.
In "In a Real Fixe," he refers to his boss (his boss!) as a "notoriously cheap"
man and gives a funny example of how tight his boss is.  In "It's Now An Off-
Road Vehicle," Kornheiser lashes out of fellow columnist Michael Wilbon for a
considerable length of the piece.  This derogatory tone, however, is funny not
serious, which adds to the overall facetious attire of the columns.
     It is clear that Tony Kornheiser's purpose in writing is not to inform
the reader of an event that happened.  The average person could care less what
Kornheiser ate for lunch or what he thinks about fellow reporters, but he writes
about it anyway.  He doesn't write about those topics just to write about those
topics, he writes about those topics because the average person wants someone to
relate to and they want someone to laugh with, and sometimes at, when Kornheiser
self-abuses himself.  People like Kornheiser because he is like a buddy.  He
writes about average stuff, and he is willing to stoop down to low levels to
impress.  But Kornheiser is not an average writer, he is instead a well-
practiced, intelligent one, as shown by his usage of vivid verbs, aesthetic
adjectives, and no-nonsense nouns.  If requested, Kornheiser could write a plain
summary of a football game or a basketball game, but instead, Kornheiser has his
job because he is talented.  He expects people to read his column and it is
shown in the continuation of each article.  He knows he is good and he is not
afraid to show a certain cockiness, but it is his colloquial sarcasm that wins
the readers.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Tony Kronheiser.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Tony Kronheiser


     Tony Kornheiser is the self-admitted opinionated, sarcastic sports and style
columnist for The Washington Post.  Kornheiser's purpose is not to report to the
reader an objective account of a sporting event, but rather to add humor to
topics that range in topic from the Washington Redskins ("It's Now an Off-Road
Vehicle," November 5, 1996) to his lunch-time experience the other day ("In a
Real Fix," November 3, 1996).  Kornheiser's diction, figurative language, and
tone make his columns what they are.  Often, diction, figurative language, and
tone are not common in the journalistic world, but Kornheiser's humor finds room
for them.
     Tony Kornheiser's sarcasm is almost entirely related to his diction.  He
contains the skills to take something as insignificant as a restaurant changing
on him unexpectedly and reports about it so that the common man can relate.  He
is The Washington Post's Jerry Seinfeld.  He blends the slang of the street man
with the poetic verbs and fluid adjectives of an English teacher.  For example,
in "In A Real Fixe," Kornheiser says, "George was beginning to suspect that we
had entered (doo-doo, doo-doo). . . The Nouvelle Dining Zone."  Most people who
have watched the Twilight Zone before can relate this statement as a reference
to the famous TV show, so Kornheiser's slang was effective in grabbing the
reader, even if a large majority of them have no idea what the word "nouvelle"
means.  Kornheiser uses an array of such adjectives throughout his pieces but he
does not pretend to be above his readers.  He fills his work with colloquial
speech such as his references in "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" to other
Washington Post columnists such as Michael Wilbon, and to his "Redskins
Bandwagon." (The Redskins Bandwagon was a common phrase used by Washington
Redskins fans when the team won the Superbowl in 1991).  Kornheiser assumes that
the reader is familiar with him, and that is clear in his informal diction that
is used with the reader.  It is almost to the point of a friendship, as though a
coworker was letting off his steam at work during a lunch break.
     Kornheiser's figurative speech also add to his style quite well.  The
blend of diction and figurative speech is clear as Kornheiser uses several local
allusions in his metaphors and similes that add to his "common man" image.  For
example, in "In a Real Fixe," Kornheiser compares the look of a hostess' face to
one of a nurse at St. Elizabeth's, a local mental hospital.  In that same
article he also compares his whole experience to "going down into the Metro and
finding you're on the Concorde."  His figurative language add to his sarcasm.
Anytime a metaphor or a simile is used, it is used for exaggeration purpose.
Sarcasm is funny exaggeration.  Kornheiser compared his expensive lunch meal to
"Big Red chewing gum wrapped around a pimento."  That's funny because he is
comparing such an precious meal to a piece of gum and a pimento, a $25 meal to a
25 cent meal.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle," the whole column is one giant
metaphor.  His Redskins Bandwagon (which is supposedly a vehicle that starts up
and gets ready to let fans hop on all the way to the Superbowl with the Redskins,
but if you are a Kornheiser reader, he expects you to know that already) has
turned into an "off-road vehicle" because of a Redskins crushing defeat to a
team.  His figurative language is easy to understand, and it is funny.  Always,
though, it is used in a satirical manner and it is always used to help the
reader to relate to the situation, usually in their terms.
     The most important element of Kornheiser's writing is his tone.  His
tone is extremely sarcastic, light-hearted, facetious, and sometimes derogatory
to his peers.  It is his tone which makes the diction and the figurative
language work.  If his tone were one of seriousness, there would still be the
sarcasm but it would be far less understandable.  In "In a Real Fixe," the main
theme of his story is about how uncomfortable he and his friends felt in the
fancy restaurant that had once been an eat-and-go place.  It is apparent how
uncomfortable they felt by the quotes that Kornheiser uses.  When his boss,
George, is questioned about imported water, he says that he "likes tap water."
This clearly shows the uncharacteristic situation that they are in.  His sarcasm
is shown when he refers to cold buffets he had been to before where "some guys
aren't even wearing shirts," as a joke about the dress code necessary for this
place.  When he claims that his boss, George, was nervous because "he'd [n]ever
been anywhere with fresh flowers before, other than a funeral," it is obviously
sarcastic to express the point.  It is that kind of tone that gets the reader's
reaction the best.  In "It's Now an Off-Road Vehicle" the same tone is evident.
He expresses his thoughts on Jim Kelly's age (Jim Kelly is a 37 year old
quarterback for the Buffalo Bills) by comparing Kelly's age to his own age in
terms of calling himself the "Sultan of Samarkand." When mentioning the Redskins
poor performance, he jokes that a team that cannot tackle, cannot pass, and
cannot run cannot win unless they are playing the St. Louis Rams (a notoriously
bad franchise in professional football).  It is comments like those that make
Kornheiser's columns funny.  His derogatory name calling is also humorous
because it is rare that a columnist stoops down to such a level without remorse.
In "In a Real Fixe," he refers to his boss (his boss!) as a "notoriously cheap"
man and gives a funny example of how tight his boss is.  In "It's Now An Off-
Road Vehicle," Kornheiser lashes out of fellow columnist Michael Wilbon for a
considerable length of the piece.  This derogatory tone, however, is funny not
serious, which adds to the overall facetious attire of the columns.
     It is clear that Tony Kornheiser's purpose in writing is not to inform
the reader of an event that happened.  The average person could care less what
Kornheiser ate for lunch or what he thinks about fellow reporters, but he writes
about it anyway.  He doesn't write about those topics just to write about those
topics, he writes about those topics because the average person wants someone to
relate to and they want someone to laugh with, and sometimes at, when Kornheiser
self-abuses himself.  People like Kornheiser because he is like a buddy.  He
writes about average stuff, and he is willing to stoop down to low levels to
impress.  But Kornheiser is not an average writer, he is instead a well-
practiced, intelligent one, as shown by his usage of vivid verbs, aesthetic
adjectives, and no-nonsense nouns.  If requested, Kornheiser could write a plain
summary of a football game or a basketball game, but instead, Kornheiser has his
job because he is talented.  He expects people to read his column and it is
shown in the continuation of each article.  He knows he is good and he is not
afraid to show a certain cockiness, but it is his colloquial sarcasm that wins
the readers.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Trudeau.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Trudeau: The Politics of My Way


      Unlike the United States, with its generalissimo politics-Washington,
Jackson, Grant, Eisehower- the martial arts have been conspicuously absent from
Canadian politics.  But there in one exception: in 1968 Pierre Elliot Trudeau
became the first Canadian leader to bring the gunslinger-Lone Ranger ethos to
Canadian politics.
      Trudeau introduced to Canada the refined art of single combat; it was the
politics of "Doing It My Way"-the politics of going my way or being left behind.
Single-combat confrontation implied much mor than the loner or renegade in power,
and far far less than the shaman black tricks of Mackenzie King.  Trudeau was
always far more the solo Philosopher King engaged in intellectual trial by
combat than the Magus Merlin conjuring up solutions by puffs of smoke, sleight
of hand or divine intervention.  Ouijaboard politics was the occult domain of
Mackenzie King, a man virtually devoid of policy, a political palm reader
forever checking the whims and moods of his powerful baronial-Ralston Howe, St.
Laurent-and sometimes Byronian colleagues to see how best he could placate them,
or calm them, or Heap his beatitudes upon them.
      Trudeau, from day one , was always more samurai than shaman.  Even in his
pre-leadership days, Trudeau's love of trial by combat was predominant.
Mackenzie King would have never touched the unholy trinity of divorce, abortion
and homosexuality: each one of these issues is a sleeping dog best left to lie;
each could only infuriate conservative Canada from coast to coast.  Since King
dared not touch them seriatim he certainly would not have touched them together-
in an omnibus bill.
      This, Trudeau did joyously.  The myths-makers have it at this was
Trudeau's first deliberated joust, the kingship being the final prize.  But
Trudeau had no leadership aspirations at the time; all that he had, still has,
was the love of combat for the sake of combat and religious scruples be damned.
Trudeau the Catholic zealot tackle divorce, abortion and homosexuality active
Prime Minister in this country's history, liberated the homosexual practitioners
of black acts totally abhorrent to him; ironically, in the process, Trudeau gave
irrational Canada a pretext for branding him a homosexual too.
      P.E.T. has always hated the consensus building of Mackenzie King; even the
populist following of a Diefenbaker was an anathema to Trudeau.  The single-
combat warrior "doing it my way" is always alone; he leads the people but is not
of them; like the prophet he wanders either in dessert or lush green pastures
and often, like the prophet, he watches his people march into the Promised Land
without him.  For Trudeau, being alone is to be free; victory is a consequence
of solitude; companionship an act of weakness, cronyism even wise.
      It is ironic that Trudeau, a devout Jansenist Roman Catholic, emotionally
and philosophically opposed to both divorce and abortion, should grant Canadians
greatly expanded divorce rights and their first right to legale abortion.
      Trudeau took the unholy trinity then disturbing the bedrooms of the nation
because all three were trial combat, all three required one strong man to push
them through.  In this minefield Canada's political loner had walked alone and
apparently loved it.
      Canada's other solo flyer, John Diefenbaker, may or may not have been a
renegade in power, but the input his holitics received from Senate cronies and
Kitchen cabinets was enormous.  The letters and advice that daily poured in to
the chief were a populist input that Diefenbaker slavishly adhered to.  Trudeau
was no Diefenbaker; he was neither a populist nor a renegade.  Trudeau was
simply a man who brilliantly massaged and manipulated others so that his single
will appeared to be the will of many, so that his will be always done.
      The theme of my-way politics sheds much light on the vrai Trudeau, the
Trudeau that is, rather than the Trudeau people think there is.  Trudeau has
never been the privacy-demanding recluse, the reluctant leader that herdsmen of
Canadian journalism insist he is.
      In secular life Trudeau is no trinitarian; he has chosen his oneness
because, from the earliest politics, oneness worked for him so spectacular.
Trudeau's personal handling of the constriction crisis was a "my way" all the
way.  Trudeau, the self-proclaimed socialist prophet of his people, waxed ever
so eloquently against the sins of conscription, and yet Trudeau seemingly could
not see in War measures that potential greater evil of a Canadian fascism that
surly meant permanent conscription and enslavement of all.  Equally puzzling is
the referral of Trudeau's nationalist compatriots and colleagues in the years
since to give him any credit for fighting in 1942 a good nationalist fight on
behalf of the anti-conscription, quasi-separatist candidacy of Jean Drapeau; not
so puzzling in the refusal of Angelo Saxon patriots to give Trudeau any credit
at all for joining a reserve regiment before the war. There was both a typical
Trudeau "a plague on both your houses" in all this, and even more of the
gunslinger spraying bullets on both side of the saloon bar.
      The style of the lone gunslinger was already apperant in Trudeau's early
radical posture.  Cite libre was a radical editorial collective run completely
by Trudeau. Trudeau the then internationalist and socialist shared ideological
bed and board with David Lewis, Frank Scott, Eugene Forsey and Theresa Casgrain,
but only Trudeau's CCF and NDP membership cards mysteriously do not exist today.
Even that minor bit of collectivist discipline, the proud possession of a party
card, was abhorrent to the free-wheeling independent Trudeau.
      The ideologically committed gunslinger found little in the  democratic
process to nourish him.  The social democratic Trudeau first entered the
electoral lists only only in the safest Liberal seat in the country.  Trudeau
knew that group dynamic, group participation, in not ideologically and
politically effective as when the few shape the many.
      This single-warrior syndrome explains many shifts and patterns in the
Trudeau character.  Diefenbaker revelled in the democratic panorama; Diefenbaker
failed to keep urban Canada aboard his carousel and never really got french
Canada aboard in the first place, but the Chief's strengths and weakness flowed
from the ordinary people who loved him and the sophisticates and big city people
who hated him.   P.E.T. never did deal in democratic norms; instead, the elitist
Trudeau gave Quebec's elitists the first crack at the bilingual club and
transformed the federal bureaucracy, at least on its highest levels, to be a
bilingual workplace in which the frankphone would be supreme.

                                       INTRO

      Canada, and its record of careful middle-of-the-road politics has produced
leaders who were careful and middle-of-the-road as well, until 1968 when Canada
and the world was introduced to Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau.
      He had walked and cycled through Europe, and been on the wrong side of the
bars in foreign jails.  Not your average guy.  Not your average Prime Minister.
      The future Prime Minister was the second child and the elder son of the
family.  He was born on October 18th, 1919.  At a very young age Trudeau was the
current, attacking authority and not giving a "DAMN" for the public opinion.
      In 1940 Prime Minister Trudeau entered the law faculty at the University
of Montreal.  He says that he hesitated between law & psychology, but had to
settle for law since Montreal didn't offer psychology and the war kept him in
Canada.
      As a student he enlisted in the Canadian officers Training Corps. He was
given a commission on a lieutenant, a rank he held until his retirement in 1947.

                                     LIFE
      Joseph Philippe Pierre Elliote Trudeau to say his names in order was born
an October 18, 1919.  Pierre wasn't the sort of person that you think would
become one of Canada's longest in office Prime Ministers.
      At home Pierre's mother spoke mainly English, although she was fluent in
french.  His mother provided the English balance.  Charles-Emily Pierre's
father taught him sports as Pierre was very good at them.  Pierre practised the
art of KARATE and soon became a brown belt, one below black belt.  He also knew
how to skin dive and could descend 150 feet off a cliff and come out without a
scratch.  Other than teaching Pierre sports, Charles-Emile also put together a
franchise of gas stations that grew to include 15,000 members and filling
$1,400,000 for his stations.
      As a boy, living in Montreal, he favoured the English instead of the
French and when his friends were unhappy of the French losing, Pierre was
celebrating.  Many of his teachers in primary school said that Pierre was a
headstrong individualist who involved himself frequently in fights and practical
jokes.  In 1924 or 1925 Charles-Emily, Pierre father died, and Pierre was only
fourteen years old at the time.  Since his parents were so rich he got driven to
school by a chauffeur and ran with a crowd called LES SNOBS.  As a student
Pierre joined the COTC, Canadian Officers Training Corps.  Pierre lack of self
discipline got him into trouble a lot and he was soon kicked out of the COTC.
Pierre didn't always get into trouble actually as he was a very smart kid and
one of his teachers commented that Pierre was a pupil who was good at every
subject.  In 1940 Pierre entered the law faculty at the University of Montreal.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Vampires.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Vampires
Vampires; the Undead
Although vampires are recognized to be deadly creatures and their
existence is controversial, evidence substantiates that they do indeed
exist. The teachings and the records of the past give enough proof for
sane people. Horrible things happen today, due to vampire activity.
Humans are instinctively fearful of the truth, fortune and of death; but
human fear of the fact that some incidences are actually caused by vampires
leads man to ignore the problem and thus make himself believe that
vampires do not exist. Ignoring the problem only increases its severity.
The number of vampires is probably multiplying. Vampires would most likely
one day rise against humanity, to avenge their long dead ancestors, and
turn the human population into a vampire one. People need to be aware of
the problem, and educated about vampires, maybe even taught about them in
school, so that humans can destroy the legions of the undead and live in
peace.
If the issue of vampires' existence is to be discussed, then the exact
meaning of the word vampire should be clarified. Webster's New Collegiate
Dictionary defines a vampire as "a bloodsucking ghost or reanimated body
of a dead person believed to come out from the grave and wander about by
night sucking the blood of persons asleep" (qtd. in Baumann 5). This
statement is also supported by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
Current English and Encyclopedia International (950; 6). Dictionaries and
encyclopedias usually give limited information, but in this case they
actually gave an incorrect definition. Firstly, vampires are not
"believed..." to be, but their existence has been proven. Secondly, they
do not just suck "the blood of persons asleep" but also of those who are
awake. In short, the word vampire is applied to a dead and buried person
who rises out of the grave every night except Friday, and goes about
stealthily sucking the blood of whoever is available (Crow 252). Kipling
was absolutely correct in writing that "Some of him lived but the most of
him died" (201).
Vampires have certain physical characteristics that distinguishe them
from humans. Generally, vampires are pale and skinny (Baumann 7). The
most widely known universal characteristic would be the fangs. Right
before the bloody encounter, the vampire uses its piercing eyes to
hypnotize its prey (Baumann 7). The vampire plunges these two, long, sharp
teeth into the jugular vein and sucks the blood from its victims (Baumann
7). It is well known that vampires cast no shadow nor a reflection in the
mirror (Stoker 245). A vampire can transform himself into a wolf (Stoker 245). Vampires can
also take the form of a bat to gain entry into a victim's house; It would
resume its normal form once inside (Baumann 7). Vampires, on certain
occasions, can also be seen as phantoms (Crow 252). Vampires are not
always spotted right away; but because of these morphological differences
between humans and vampires, it can be made.
Vampires have powers, but they can not always do as they wish because
their power is limited. A vampire will remain undead, as long as it feasts
on the blood of the living and is not killed (Stoker 245). A vampire can
not die like a human by the mere passing of time and the growing of age
because he can grow younger (Stoker 245). People who have died by the
hands of a vampire are at his command (Stoker 243).
A vampire "...can direct the elements: the storm, the fog, the thunder;
he can command all the meaner things: the rat, and the owl, and the bat
and the fox, and the wolf..." (Stoker 243). A vampire possesses strength
so overwhelming that it is estimated to be the equivalent of twenty people
(Stoker 243). A vampire can transform himself into a wolf, can come in
mist, can slip through hair breadth space, can see in the dark, and he can
come on moonlight rays as elemental dust (Stoker 245). A vampire can only
enter a house at first if invited, he can then come as he pleases (Stoker
246). A vampire is powerless in daytime (Stoker 246). If the undead
creature is not in its coffin, it can only transform itself at sunrise,
noon, or sunset (Stoker 246). A vampire can only pass running water at the
slack or the flood of the tide (Stoker 246). Garlic and a crucifix make a
vampire powerless (Stoker 246). A vampire with all its power still has to
abide by some of nature's laws.
No one is born a vampire; yet, one can become a vampire if certain
conditions are met. According to legend, when a werewolf dies, it
immediately becomes a vampire (Baumann 7). Priests proclaim that people
who commit serious sins leave their graves at night because their souls can
find no peace (Baumann 7). A person can be buried for months, even years
before leaving the grave (Baumann 8). People excommunicated by the church
are also liable to become vampires; so are people cursed by their parents,
and wizards, and people who commit suicide (Baumann 5). But horribly
enough, some people became vampires solely by having their blood sucked,
during life, by another vampire (Crow 252). Even after death a person can
become a vampire, that is if an animal jumps over the corpse or if a bird
flies over it (Crow 252). These undead or living corpses are doomed to
live as vampires until they could be destroyed. Certain procedures have to be employed if one desires to keep
vampires away and ensure safety from them. The most common method is
placing garlic in front of all doors and windows (Baumann 8). A person
wearing a crucifix or rosary is also supposed to be safe, so is someone
standing in a circle of holy water or salt (Baumann 8, 76). If a vessel of
holy water is thrown onto a vampire,it would be burned and scarred (Baumann
8). The same result would be achieved using Holy Wafer (Stoker 302). It
is said that placing a wild rose over a vampire's coffin would prevent him
from leaving it (Stoker 246). For people living in fear of vampires, it is
reassuring to know that they can protect themselves from them.
The best news is that vampires can be killed, but they simply do not
die as easily as a normal human. As a human dies and turns into a vampire,
it is as if it has just been born again, but as a vampire this time who has
been baptized with blood. Morning is when vampires are usually found in
their coffins; they must be killed immediately before they recruit some
more troops. There are many ways to kill a vampire such as driving a large
nail across the head, through the temples, driving a stake through the
heart, or cutting the head off or burning the whole body (Crow 252). If
the coffin is found empty, usually at nighttime, a crucifix is placed in
the grave so the vampire will not be able to get back into it; then when
the sun rises, and its rays will transform the vampire into a shapeless
pile of dust (Baumann 3). A vampire can also die if a sacred bullet is
fired into the coffin (Stoker 246). Vampires will live on and on, feasting
on the blood of the living, unless one of the mentioned anti-vampire
remedies is used. Dracula, often assumed to be a vampire, did exist; sixty years after
the publishing of Dracula, his identity has been firmly established
(Baumann 10-11). Dracula means "son of the dragon" or "son of the devil"
(Baumann 13). If it had not been for Bram Stoker, the real Dracula would
very likely have been lost to history (Baumann 13). Dracula's childhood
may explain why he "...was one of the cruelest and most barbaric rulers in
recorded history"
(Baumann 13). At eight, Dracula was imprisoned by the Turks for four years
and, as a result, he became eager for revenge (Baumann 16). Dracula was
released from prison and he ruled Walachia (Baumann 16). On one occasion,
three hundred Tartar soldiers entered Walachia; Dracula had several of
them fried in oil, made their companions eat them and he told them that
they would continue eating each other if they do not agree to fight the
Turks with him (Baumann 18). He got into more trouble with the Turks than
he could handle and fled to Hungary, but there he spent seventeen years in
prison (Baumann 18). Even though Dracula was imprisoned, he still had to
see blood flow. Guards brought him creatures and the Russian ambassador to
the Court of King Matthias (the king of Hungary) reported that: "Dracula
particularly enjoyed plucking all the feathers off chickens. He would
watch in fascination as they ran around his cell in wild circles. When the
novelty of that finally wore off, hewould slit their throats (Baumann 19)."
Dracula's long years in prison were not entirely unpleasant; the sister of
the King liked him and as a result, he was given special treatment by the
guards (Baumann 19). He ate and drank well, and he spent much of his time
in the palace because the King enjoyed showing him off to his visitors
(Baumann 19). Dracula married the Princess when he was released from
prison (Baumann 19). Dracula was killed on the field of battle by
anonymous assassin(s), who cut off his head and sent it to the Turkish
Sultan in Constantinople; it was openly displayed on a stake (Baumann 19).
"He spilled the blood of thousands of people, but he never drank any of
it. Contrary to common to popular belief the real Dracula was not a
vampire" (Baumann 13).
Although Dracula was not a vampire, the existence of vampires has
been proven. Men centuries ago signed statements saying that Arnold Paole
became a vampire because he was bitten by one during his lifetime in 1727
(Baumann 46). Within months after Arnold's death, a number of villagers
claimed that they have been haunted by him and his nightly visits left them
weak; some of them died soon afterward (Baumann 48). A party was sent to
destroy the vampire; when the grave was found and opened, Arnold's eyes
were wide open and blood stained his lips, he looked as if he died recently
(Baumann 49). As a stake was driven through Arnold's heart, the corpse
shrieked (Baumann 52). The same was done to the people who died because of
him and no more attacks were reported (Baumann 52-53). Many similar
stories are told, including ones about the Vampire of Croglin Grange and
the Vampire Shoemaker (Baumann 61-68; 32-39). For people living in the
eighteenth century, there was proven evidence of the existence of vampires. One might wonder why there is no evidence of
vampire activity today,
there is! Highgate Cemetery is an unkept and a rather frightening place in
London, England (Baumann 69). An epidemic of ghost sightings began in 1967
and still continues; there is evidence that at least one of the ghosts is
a vampire (Baumann 70). Dead foxes and rabbits were found in the Cemetery;
they had wounds around their throats and their bodies have been completely
drained of blood (Baumann 70). Manchester, President of the British Occult
Society, personally investigated the matter and found that the most
accurate description of the phantom came from a man who had been attacked
one night while walking in the Cemetery (Baumann 73). Elizabeth Wojdyla
had the symptoms of a vampire victim and contacted Manchester; she bore
the "mark of the vampire" on the side of her neck (Baumann 74-75). On
several occasions, Elizabeth went into a trance and sleptwalk to the
northgate of the Cemetery and then came back (Baumann 76). She was
attacked several times by the vampire and desperate measures were taken to
prevent further attacks (Baumann 76). The attacks stopped, which indicates
that "the ancient anti-vampire remedies still worked in the twentieth
century" (Baumann 77). The vampire, unfortunately, found another victim
"Lucy", who refuses to reveal her real name, and who developed the same
symptoms as the ones Elizabeth had (Baumann 77). Manchester believed that
if Lucy were followed sleepwalking, the vampire's grave would be found,
which is what happened; but he could not give it the vampire treatment
because disturbing a corpse was against the law (Baumann 77-81). The
entrance to the tomb was sealed (Baumann 82). Four days later, a body of a
dead man was found in the Cemetery; he had died from a vampire attack
(Baumann 82). Things that can not be explained logically still happen in
Highgate Cemetery (Baumann 82). "Twentieth-century man may refuse to
believe in vampires", says Manchester, but he insists that they are by no
means a thing of the past (Baumann 74).
People must face the fact that vampires exist and do something about
it. Vampires will not disappear if they are forgotten; that is like
asking whether a falling tree in a desolate place makes a noise or not.
Vampires and humans were probably created at the same time and for
centuries neither race became extinct, but the vampire population is
increasing and is ready to strike. It is a war that has to be fought and
humans have to take the first step which is, since the existence of
vampires has been proven, making the public believe in vampires in order to
be watchful and control them.
Works Cited
Baumann, Elwood D. Vampires. New York: Franklin Watts, 1977.
Crow, W.B. Witchcraft Magic and Occultism. Hollywood: Wilshire
Book Co., 1974.
Hornby, A.S. "Vampire." Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of
Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974.
p 950.
Rudyard Kipling. "The Vampire." Treasury of Poems. Chicago:
Book Production Industries, 1985.
p200.
Stoker, Bram. Dracula. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.
"Vampire." Encyclopedia International. 1963. ed.
p6.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Van Gogh 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	     Vincent Van Gogh
	
  


  Although he is almost unknown during his brief lifetime, Vincent Willem van
Gogh, was born  Mar.  30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, the Netherlands and is today
probably the most known and appreciated representative of art.  His work became
an important bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries; and it was particularly
influential .
Van Gogh clearly showed artistic talent even as a child, but neither he or his family
imagined that painting would become his career. Instead, at the age of 16, he went
to work for Goupil and Company, an art gallery with which one of his uncles had
long been associated with; he was dismissed in 1876.  Other false starts included a
job in a Dordrecht bookstore during the spring of 1877, theological studies at the
University of Amsterdam, and from November 1878 to July 1879, service as a lay
missionary in a coal-mining district in Belgium.
  In 1880, Vincent chose art as a vocation and became dependent on his brother for
cash.  Indeed, for the next 10 years Theo, who had also gone to work for Goupil,
sent an allowance to Vincent, encouraged him to work, and wrote regularly.
Vincent's thinking during his short career (approximately 750 paintings, 1,600
drawings, 9 lithographs, and 1 etching) was documented in more than 700 letters
that he wrote to Theo and others.
  Van Gogh's early years includes all his work from 1879 through 1885.  Between
August 1879 and November 1885 he worked in Etten, The Hague--where he
received some instruction from his cousin, Anton Mauve and in Nuenen, among
other places.  In Nuenen he painted The Potato Eaters, his first important picture,
which underscores his lifelong interest in peasant subjects.
  During the winter of 1885-86 Van Gogh studied at the academy in Antwerp, where
he was forced to draw from plaster casts and to adopt academic principles that did
not suit him.  He moved to Paris, where he lived with Theo his brother.
The Paris period (March 1886-February 1888) is extremely important because it
enabled Vincent to see and to hear discussed work of virtually every major artist
there. Although van Gogh admired many. During these years van Gogh's style
shifted from the darker manner characteristic of his Nuenen period to a
postimpressionist style heavily influenced by divisionism .  Van Gogh left Paris and
moved to Arles in February 1888.  His mature work and many of his most famous
paintings date from the ensuing year.  In October 1888, Paul Gauguin came to live
and work with van Gogh.  After only 2 months, however, following the first of
Vincent's attacks of dementia, he punished himself for trying to stab a close friend
Gauguin in which he amputated his own earlobe, Gauguin left, having first
summoned Theo from Paris. Thereafter, Vincent was hospitalized  until the spring
of 1890;  he was voluntarily confined in the Asylum of Saint-Paul in Saint-Remy
from May 1889 until May 1890.  He continued to paint, however, and in June 1889
executed the Starry Night and the extraordinary Self-Portrait (Louvre).
  In the three months following his release from the hospital in May 1890, at the
village of Auvers-sur-Oise outside of Paris, Vincent produced many great pieces of
work including the Portrait of Dr.  Gachet ,Field under Thunderclouds, and the
famous Crows in the Wheatfields 
  Although Vincent had finally begun to receive critical praise, he shot himself while
he was in a mental hospital on July 27, 1890, and died two days later.  His grief-
stricken brother died only six months after. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Van Gogh.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
	     Vincent Van Gogh
	
  


  Although he is almost unknown during his brief lifetime, Vincent Willem van
Gogh, was born  Mar.  30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, the Netherlands and is today
probably the most known and appreciated representative of art.  His work became
an important bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries; and it was particularly
influential .
Van Gogh clearly showed artistic talent even as a child, but neither he or his family
imagined that painting would become his career. Instead, at the age of 16, he went
to work for Goupil and Company, an art gallery with which one of his uncles had
long been associated with; he was dismissed in 1876.  Other false starts included a
job in a Dordrecht bookstore during the spring of 1877, theological studies at the
University of Amsterdam, and from November 1878 to July 1879, service as a lay
missionary in a coal-mining district in Belgium.
  In 1880, Vincent chose art as a vocation and became dependent on his brother for
cash.  Indeed, for the next 10 years Theo, who had also gone to work for Goupil,
sent an allowance to Vincent, encouraged him to work, and wrote regularly.
Vincent's thinking during his short career (approximately 750 paintings, 1,600
drawings, 9 lithographs, and 1 etching) was documented in more than 700 letters
that he wrote to Theo and others.
  Van Gogh's early years includes all his work from 1879 through 1885.  Between
August 1879 and November 1885 he worked in Etten, The Hague--where he
received some instruction from his cousin, Anton Mauve and in Nuenen, among
other places.  In Nuenen he painted The Potato Eaters, his first important picture,
which underscores his lifelong interest in peasant subjects.
  During the winter of 1885-86 Van Gogh studied at the academy in Antwerp, where
he was forced to draw from plaster casts and to adopt academic principles that did
not suit him.  He moved to Paris, where he lived with Theo his brother.
The Paris period (March 1886-February 1888) is extremely important because it
enabled Vincent to see and to hear discussed work of virtually every major artist
there. Although van Gogh admired many. During these years van Gogh's style
shifted from the darker manner characteristic of his Nuenen period to a
postimpressionist style heavily influenced by divisionism .  Van Gogh left Paris and
moved to Arles in February 1888.  His mature work and many of his most famous
paintings date from the ensuing year.  In October 1888, Paul Gauguin came to live
and work with van Gogh.  After only 2 months, however, following the first of
Vincent's attacks of dementia, he punished himself for trying to stab a close friend
Gauguin in which he amputated his own earlobe, Gauguin left, having first
summoned Theo from Paris. Thereafter, Vincent was hospitalized  until the spring
of 1890;  he was voluntarily confined in the Asylum of Saint-Paul in Saint-Remy
from May 1889 until May 1890.  He continued to paint, however, and in June 1889
executed the Starry Night and the extraordinary Self-Portrait (Louvre).
  In the three months following his release from the hospital in May 1890, at the
village of Auvers-sur-Oise outside of Paris, Vincent produced many great pieces of
work including the Portrait of Dr.  Gachet ,Field under Thunderclouds, and the
famous Crows in the Wheatfields 
  Although Vincent had finally begun to receive critical praise, he shot himself while
he was in a mental hospital on July 27, 1890, and died two days later.  His grief-
stricken brother died only six months after. 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Vincent Van Gogh.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Vincent Van Gogh

  Although he is almost unknown during his brief lifetime, Vincent Willem van
Gogh, was born  Mar.  30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, the Netherlands and is today
probably the most known and appreciated representative of art.  His work became
an important bridge between the 19th and 20th centuries; and it was particularly
influential . Van Gogh clearly showed artistic talent even as a child, but
neither he or his family imagined that painting would become his career. Instead,
at the age of 16, he went to work for Goupil and Company, an art gallery with
which one of his uncles had long been associated with; he was dismissed in 1876.
Other false starts included a job in a Dordrecht bookstore during the spring of
1877, theological studies at the University of Amsterdam, and from November 1878
to July 1879, service as a lay missionary in a coal-mining district in Belgium.
  In 1880, Vincent chose art as a vocation and became dependent on his brother
for cash.  Indeed, for the next 10 years Theo, who had also gone to work for
Goupil, sent an allowance to Vincent, encouraged him to work, and wrote
regularly. Vincent's thinking during his short career (approximately 750
paintings, 1,600 drawings, 9 lithographs, and 1 etching) was documented in more
than 700 letters that he wrote to Theo and others.
  Van Gogh's early years includes all his work from 1879 through 1885.  Between
August 1879 and November 1885 he worked in Etten, The Hague--where he received
some instruction from his cousin, Anton Mauve and in Nuenen, among other places.
In Nuenen he painted The Potato Eaters, his first important picture, which
underscores his lifelong interest in peasant subjects.
  During the winter of 1885-86 Van Gogh studied at the academy in Antwerp, where
he was forced to draw from plaster casts and to adopt academic principles that
did not suit him.  He moved to Paris, where he lived with Theo his brother. The
Paris period (March 1886-February 1888) is extremely important because it
enabled Vincent to see and to hear discussed work of virtually every major
artist there. Although van Gogh admired many. During these years van Gogh's
style shifted from the darker manner characteristic of his Nuenen period to a
postimpressionist style heavily influenced by divisionism .  Van Gogh left Paris
and moved to Arles in February 1888.  His mature work and many of his most
famous paintings date from the ensuing year.  In October 1888, Paul Gauguin came
to live and work with van Gogh.  After only 2 months, however, following the
first of Vincent's attacks of dementia, he punished himself for trying to stab a
close friend Gauguin in which he amputated his own earlobe, Gauguin left, having
first summoned Theo from Paris. Thereafter, Vincent was hospitalized  until the
spring of 1890;  he was voluntarily confined in the Asylum of Saint-Paul in
Saint-Remy from May 1889 until May 1890.  He continued to paint, however, and in
June 1889 executed the Starry Night and the extraordinary Self-Portrait (Louvre).
  In the three months following his release from the hospital in May 1890, at
the village of Auvers-sur-Oise outside of Paris, Vincent produced many great
pieces of work including the Portrait of Dr.  Gachet ,Field under Thunderclouds,
and the famous Crows in the Wheatfields
  Although Vincent had finally begun to receive critical praise, he shot himself
while he was in a mental hospital on July 27, 1890, and died two days later.
His grief-stricken brother died only six months after.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

The most dedicated leader of the revolution, and future leader of the Bolshevik Party in Russia, was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov. He was born in 1870 in Simbirsk, Russia, a small town on the Volga River, to a family of hereditary nobles that were not wealt
but quite comfortable. Vladimir Ulyanov, who would later change his name to Lenin, was the third of seven children. His oldest brother, Aleksandr, was hanged in May of 1887 for having joined in a plot to kill Czar Alexander III. The czar signed a warra
to have the five student conspirators executed. A year earlier, Vladimir's father had died. Because of these cicumstances Vladimir experienced extreme grief. He died of a stroke in January of 1924 at his villa outside Moscow. I chose Vladimir Lenin to ite about because I felt that I didn't truly understand what part he played in the Bolshevik takeover of Russia. In fact, I didn't even understand what role he played in Russia, though I did know that he was associated with communism in some way. At the University of Kazan, where Lenin majored in law, Lenin was expelled after only three months for taking part in a student protest meeting. He went on to work in a law office in St. Petersburg, where he joined the Social Democratic Party. In late February 1917 riots broke out in Saint Petersburg. A group of individuals assumed formal governmental powers and declared itself the Provincial Government of Russia on March 1. Lenin took the reins of the Bolshevik Party shortly after the Bolsh
ik Revolution which overthrew this Provincial government. Lenin instantly created to pieces of legislation. One of them withdrew Russia from World War I. The other one nationalized personal property. From 1918 to 1921 Russia was torn by a civil war betw
n the White armies and the Red Army of the Soviet government. In the summer of 1918 the Soviet government, under Lenin's leadership, launched the Red Terror, a brutal campaign aimed at eliminating political opponents among the civilian population. The g
ernment also introduced a series of economic policies in an effort to put socialist principles into practice and to respond to Russia's pressing economic needs. However, these policies only weakened economic output.Widespread strikes and uprisings broke
ut in cities and rural areas, and by early 1921 mass unrest was threatening the stability of the Soviet government. What was your affect on history?
Even though my ideas have been abandoned in a great majority of the world's nations, I feel in some small way that I have contributed to history. Whether that contribution was positive or negative is left for future generations to decide. My achievemen
lies in the drive of my life, communism. It has been the one idea that has kept me going through the few years that I have inhabited this planet, the idea of a classless society. However the complete picture of my design did not take off until after I h
died, I am the un-denied leader of communism, taking it from mere theory into workable practice.
By pressing communist philosophies into the government I effectively removed the restraints to modernization and industrialization imposed by the former monarchy. (McNeal 68). Thus, I effectively changed the course of Russian history. However even the lshevik party seemed to drift away from my control during my lifetime. Several years after my death a member of the Bolshevik party remarked that, "Had Vladimir lived very much longer he most likely would have landed in jail" (McNeal 68). To tell you th
truth, I believe it. However, even though the party changed drastically from its conception the principle, that the party was to be an elite force meant to guide the people, still remained dominant. And along with that is the belief that those who rejec
the current party line are class enemies. Outside the party there can only be enemies; within, only true believers.
But overall the foundation of the Bolshevik party was laid by myself, and I can be attributed with most of it's earlier success. I was very good at manipulating the public while still following their will. One of the reasons why this was possible was b
ause of communism's flexibility. The main idea being that there was only a few basic premises--such as an elitist party, the division of the world into proletariats and capitalists, and the idea that the proletariats would eventually win--the communists
ay otherwise choose any course of action they wanted to, and getting complete obedience from it's supporters at every turn. " The historical Lenin was a political genius who founded a party, provided it with a body of dogma, maneuvered it into power, an
transformed it into an effective dictatorship" (McNeal 68). What effect did your brother's execution by Czar Alexander III have on your life?
The death of my brother deeply grieved me. My brother was someone who I could look up to. The thing that made my brother's death particularly hard was the fact that my father had died only fourteen months earlier, and I was now the man of the house. My
rother, Alexander, was arrested at St. Petersburg University as the leader of a group of students who had decided to "execute," the czar. (McNeal 5). However this did not lead me to become involved in the revolutionary circles. Russia at that time, even
hough deeply involved in western Europe could still be classified as a country that had only been influenced by western Europe, and not completely part of these group of countries. Thus Russia took the status of eastern countries, such as India, China, d Africa, which can be characterized as elites of non-western societies. Within each of these countries there seems to be a group of people that are highly influenced by western Europe, taking as their own many philosophic, political, and social ideas. ese people, which drive themselves to better their country with these ideals usually find themselves outcasts. In other words, the majority of the people in these nations would rather keep traditional methods of government in place. However, these few e
te in every country which has embraced western Europe will not be convinced that their country is working well, and become increasingly frustrated with the rest of their nation. The answer is revolution.
The thing that made Russia a perfect place for these western European ideas was the fact that there really was a problem in Russia. Czar Nicholas I admitted himself that, "I know absolutely nothing about matters of state," (Sherrow 34). And people no l
ger trusted the czar. Thus, the stage was set for a new Russia. My brother, though I did look up to him, was not the soul reason that I became involved in the rebellion.
How do you think the Bolshevik Party changed your life?
The Bolshevik party did not change my life. The Bolshevik party was my life. A fellow revolutionary wrote of me, "There is no other man who is absorbed by the revolution twenty-four hours a day, who has no other thoughts but the thought of revolution,
nd who, when he sleeps, dreams of nothing but the revolution," (Sherrow 42). Had there not been a need for revolution, I could very well have ended up being an unfulfilled lawyer my whole life. For being a lawyer was my first profession. I was admitted the law faculty of Kazan University in 1887, to be expelled four months later for a minor student demonstration. In 1890 the authorities, through much pleading by my mother, allowed me to become an external student of law. I then took several tests in . Petersburg, getting the highest possible scores on each one of them, and I was allowed to practice law in Samara. However, I drifted away from the occupation, instead enjoying the company of revolutionaries (McNeal 6). So, instead of becoming a lawye
that no one would ever have heard of, I became the leading force in the fight against the czarist government. Looking back on it now, what would you say would have made communism more effective in Russia?
Before the revolution the country was in poverty. After the revolution, the country was still in poverty, in fact, it was probably worse off. Communism would have been stronger from the beginning, had Russia not been involved in World War I. Lots of re
urces and people were invested in that war, whereas in fact they were needed at home. The Bolsheviks tried to end the Russian involvement in the war, but by doing so had to give up large land holdings which were painstakingly annexed to Russia by the cz
in the last 300 years. (McNeal 62). Other than that, there was really only minor changes that could have helped us out. Such as having a certain amount of oil at one time, which was later discovered. Small things like that.
If you were Joseph Stalin, what would you have done differently?
The thing that a lot of people do not realize about me, is that a lot of my beliefs coincided with that of Stalin's. Stalin's philosophy being only slightly more radical than that of mine. Had I remained in control of Russia it could almost be assured at very similar actions would have been taken to expand communism. In fact, I was even more fanatical about spreading communism, than Stalin. Pure Marxists believed that communism would start in industrialized nations and then expand itself to encompass
eveloping nations. However, this was not the case in Russia. Russia at the time of the Bolshevik revolution was far from an industrial powerhouse. In fact, it could best be described as a developing country, except there was very little developing. To c
pensate for this discrepancy in the communist movement, I believed that Russia was an example for the rest of the world -- that other nations would follow in a movement of revolutionary socialism which would encompass the globe. Stalin, after a couple o
years found that only a few developing nations were following in the communist movement. These few nations that were reverting to communism, were only switching their governments under the threat of communism. Thus, the USSR was born through these inten
onal acts of spreading communism. However, I was a more powerful leader to motivate my country into taking over most of Eur-Asia.
Most certainly my domestic policies would have fallen short of Stalin's. (Hingley 166). One reason why this would have happened was because I had led them into communism. I had led the people of Russia to freedom, and they admired me for it. They would
ave been more subservient. I was also a true Bismarck of Russia. I knew what small things to give people to make them happy. That is one of the reasons I was such a good revolutionary, I was able to fuel people's fire. Conversely, I could also quench th
fire, so as to make it die down.
What exactly did you wish NEP (New Economic Policy) to achieve? The first thing that I did when I came to preside over Russia was to nationalize land. What NEP was going to do was give people private land holdings and allow the people to sell their profits, instead of the government taking them over. This legislati
was enacted right after the Whites rebelled in Russia. NEP was really only a reform to stop the people from rebelling. This tactic was much the same as in Germany, under Bismarck.
Near the end of your life you realized that there were some problems within the party. Why did you suddenly decide that there were problems within the system?
I realized that once I was gone that the two sides of the party, one led by Trotsky and the other by Stalin, would have nothing in common because the platforms of these two communists were so different. I knew that the communist goals that I had tried uphold would be destroyed. While I was in office I was trying to make Russia prosper under communism. Once I was involved less in communism's affairs and realized that I was going to die soon, I started thinking of what "The Party" would be like after died. Suffice to say, it didn't look good. ". . . . the two outstanding leaders of the present Communist Party can inadvertently lead to a split, and if our Party does not take steps to avert this, the split may come unexpectedly," (Lenin 1)
W O R K S C I T E D
Hugley, Ronald. RUSSIA: A Concise History. London, Thames and Hudson Ltd.1972.
Lenin, Vladimir. The Testament. Boston, Halshall, Inc. 1997
McNeal, Robert H., The Bolshevik Tradition. Englewood, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc. 1975.
Sherrow, Victoria. Life during the Russian Revolution. San Diego, Lucent Books, Inc., 1998.
 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Walt Disney.TXT
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1816
Disney Productions is one of the leading entertainment businesses, bringing tremendous profits not to mention the joy it brings many people. It has not always been this easy for Disney however. It took the mind of one man to bring it to what it is today, and that's mans name is Walt Disney. Walt Disney's life was devoted to the arts and entertainment almost from birth. However, Walt's fortunes and fame didn't take form until his creation of Mickey Mouse. Walt Disney was born on December 5, 1901 and was the fourth child of Elias and Flora Disney. He was an extremely talented child, exhibiting tremendous creativity at such a young age. Walt began drawing pictures in the 1st grade and continued until the day he died. Another of his exceptional talents was acting. Walt relished each opportunity to perform on stage or in class. While in elementary school "on Lincoln's Birthday every year until he graduated, Walt was hauled from class to class by the principal to give the Gettysburg Address." (Fisher, 18) Walt got bored with school however and dropped out at the age of 16. He immediately got a job as a waiter on a train line and kept this job until the U.S. entered the war. Walt had a great desire to join the army, but was rejected because he was to young. Since he still desired to have some role in the war he became a volunteer with the Red Cross. Within a week he was sent to the front and didn't return for one to two years. When Walt returned from he war he told his father that he wanted to become an animator, but his father did not approve. Walt ignored his father's advice and enrolled in art school. Walt attended art school for several months in both Missouri and Kansas City and then later found a job at an advertising firm in Kansas. There he met a talented artist named Ubbe Iwerks. Ubbe was a great animator and he and Walt became good friends. Walt and Ubbe worked all day for the advertising company, but at night they studied the art of animation and experimented with ways to make animation smoother by using light and a camera. Walt soon quit his job at the advertising firm because he was not satisfied with the work he was doing. He found a job in Kansas City at a Film Ad Company. Walt was quickly fired from this job and having nowhere else to go, he returned home. Walt and his brother Roy decided to form their own business available jobs didn't allow them the creative freedom they deserved. They found a little place to set up their own studio on Hyperion Ave. in Hollywood. If their business were successful, it would be the first studio in the city strictly for producing animation. Walt and Roy got their studio up and moving within a few weeks and hired several animators. They first produced a mini-series called Alice that played in the previews of movie theatres, but they knew it wouldn't compare to Felix the Cat. Walt felt something was missing at their studio and realized a need for a master animator. Walt quickly called upon his old friend, Ubbe Iwerks. Ubbe was convinced and headed straight to Hollywood. With Walt creating stories, Ubbe producing spectacular animation and Roy taking care of finances they had a perfect formula. Walt often worked late at night. "Mice gathered in my wastebasket when I worked late at night. I lifted them out and kept them in little cages on my desk. One of them was my particular friend." (Disney qtd. in Fanning, 53) Walt first drew the mouse up late at night and named it "Mortimer," but Roy was not fond of this name. However Walt was too stubborn to change it. Roy talked to Walt's wife, Lillian, and she eventually got him to change it after days of pleading. In fact, it was Lillian who ultimately named the mouse "Mickey." They first put Mickey in the short animation called, Plane Crazy, named after Lindbergh's flight across the world. Immediately after that short feature Walt got the idea to combine sound with the animation. This was extremely difficult to do and it took Walt several attempts to find the perfect composer. Since they were extremely low on money Roy told Walt to forget sound for awhile and try later, but Walt sound now. Steamboat Willie was their first success and with sound on its side the film attracted many audiences and Disney Productions had caught its first break. In 1932 Walt thought the addition of sound was great, but with color it would be even better. Walt called Technicolor and asked to acquire the exclusive rights to put the Technicolor process into all of his films. Surprisingly Technicolor accepted, but wanted a large fee for exclusive rights. Walt explained the opportunity to Roy in the following way. "Why should we let a few dollars jeopardize our chances? I think this is Old Man Opportunity wrapping at our door. Let's don't let the jingle of a few pennies drown out his knock." (Disney qtd. in Fanning, 57) Walt and Roy decided to pay the fee then began producing Mickey Mouse films in color. Disney Productions was the only animation business to produce color films for two years and during that time earned huge profits. From the profits of the new colorful Mickey Mouse, Disney Productions built a new studio designed by Walt. It was an animators dream. Walt's new animated studio was the perfect setting to set his latest idea, Snow White. It was the first animated movie to actually be a feature presentation. One night Walt sat all his animators down at a table and told them the story of Snow White. His animators found the story fascinating, but wondered how they were going to make an actual feature length movie with cartoons. When Walt was about half way done with the movie he realized that he did not have a distributor to release his film. Walt hired a man by the name of Pat Powers; he was the best distributor they could afford at that time. Snow White was finally released and the money was rolling in, but not all of it. Walt and Roy noticed royalty money was not being paid in accordance with their contract. They looked to Pat Powers for the answer. When Walt confronted Pat Powers about the lower royalties, Powers just shrugged jokingly as if Walt didn't know how to run a business. He then asked Disney if he could buy out his company, but Walt was not about to give up his business. Powers then overwhelmed Walt with the news that he had offered Ubbe Iwerks his own animation business and Ubbe accepted. Walt was furious and immediately purchased Ubbe's part of the Disney Productions business in cash. Ubbe received 3,000 dollars at the time and today would be worth more than 500 million dollars. Walt eventually got his past dew royalty payments and his total earnings from Snow White were over 8 million dollars. The film earned Walt Disney an academy award, the first animated feature to be honored in such a way. After Snow White's lengthy, successful time in theatres WWII started and Disney Productions entered a difficult time. Walt had a 4.5 million-dollar debt in his hands and didn't know how to get rid of it. To make things even worse, Pearl Harbor was bombed and Disney's studio was used as an anti-aircraft base. The anti-aircraft base was removed in a month nonetheless, but Disney's studio didn't stop in the war effort. Instead they were used to advertise war bonds and other governmental positions. This slowed Walt's business drastically, but the government offered Walt an opportunity to travel to S. America as a diplomat and they would pay off all his debt. Walt accepted and enjoyed the experience. There he found new ideas for future films. Walt returned home from S. America and trouble was brewing in his studio. When war had broken out, Disney Productions had stopped production on two films Bambi and Fantasia. These movies were then released near the end of the war, but they made no profit just more debt and Disney animators were not provided bonuses as they were promised. Walt was oblivious when he heard the news. He had thought his new studio would have solved all these problems, but unfortunately the animators didn't find it to be the paradise Walt did. Not seeing bonuses in their paychecks, Disney animators went on strike. To solve this problem, Walt elected to sell stock in his company and it sold immediately. Walt was now out of debt, but he had a new idea, an expensive idea. Walt now had Disney Land on his mind and wouldn't stop thinking about it till it was created. " Disney Land really began when my 2 daughters were very young. Saturday was always 'Daddy's Day' and I would take them to the merry-go-round and sit on the bench eating peanuts while they rode. And sitting there, alone, I felt that there should be something built, some kind of family park where parents and children could have fun together." (Disney qtd. in Fanning, 98) Disney Production could not afford this idea though and Walt had determined that making another movie would not raise sufficient capital to finance the project. Walt decided to approach the networks to produce a weekly Disney show. The American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) jumped at the chance to have a Disney show on weekly and in turn ABC would fund the construction of Disneyland in its' entirety. Roy was not thrilled with the idea of building a theme park, but loved the idea of a TV show. "It seemed to him (Roy) that every time the studio started to get a little bit ahead Walt found a way to get them back in red." (Fanning, 70) Now with ABC's money and Roy's support Walt needed to find a place to build his park. He found 200-acre lot in Anaheim, California and purchased it immediately. Construction was completed and the park opened in 1955 and by that time Disney Productions was a financial success. People were so anxious to be the first ones in Disneyland that when only 15,000 tickets were sold for opening day 33,000 people showed up, half of them had counterfeit tickets. Certainly, Walt Disney was a man of vision. A man who had the creativity to develop ideas and then have the patience and perseverance to carry them out. Walt Disney showed courage and the desire you need to build a successful life. Even when all odds were against him, he still was able to find a way to conquer his dreams. He taught us many things and I hope we remember this man not only for his cartoons, but also for his work ethics and the contributions he made to society. Bibliography Fanning, Jim. Walt Disney. New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers, 1994. Fisher, Maxine P. Walt Disney. New York, NY: A First Book, 1988. Greene, Katherine, and Greene, Richard. The Man Behind The Magic. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1991 Schroeder, Russell. Ed. Walt Disney, His Life In Pictures. New York, NY: Disney Press, 1996.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Walt Whitman 4.TXT
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                                                                               Walt Whitman
Walt Whitman wasn't a very big fan of war.  He thought everything about it was negative.  We can see this in his poetry.
In "Beat! Beat! Drums!", he expresses his feelings toward war using symbolism.  The drums and the bugles are examples of two symbols.  He is using these objects as representing war.
Whitman starts off each stanza with the same line every time.  "Beat! Beat! drums! - blow! bugles! blow!"  He uses this symbolism of war to show the effects it has on the world.
The drums and the bugles are always interrupting things.  This is seen clearly in the first stanza.  The drums and bugles are interrupting the church and the farmer can't be peaceful.  Whitman continues this symbolism throughout the rest of the poem.
Whitman also speaks of how he doesn't like the war in other poems of his.  He does this in "The Wound-Dresser."  He speaks of the war as his strangest days.  They were long days of sweat and dust.  The reader can tell by the explanations by Whitman that he doesn't appreciate war.
He also talks about the people who got wounded from the war.  He feels bad for them and wants to save them desperately.  This shows that he dislikes the war because he felt there was no need for them being injured.  If it wasn't for the war, the people wouldn't be that way.  He doesn't state these beliefs directly, however it is easy to see through his words.
Walt Whitman mentions his dislike of war throughout his poems.  He may do this indirectly but his message is abundantly clear.  He is obviously anti-war and has only negative aspects of it.  He hates the idea of war and shows it in his poetry.

                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        

                                                                                                                                                          








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Walt Whitman.TXT
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                                                                               Walt Whitman
Walt Whitman wasn't a very big fan of war.  He thought everything about it was negative.  We can see this in his poetry.
In "Beat! Beat! Drums!", he expresses his feelings toward war using symbolism.  The drums and the bugles are examples of two symbols.  He is using these objects as representing war.
Whitman starts off each stanza with the same line every time.  "Beat! Beat! drums! - blow! bugles! blow!"  He uses this symbolism of war to show the effects it has on the world.
The drums and the bugles are always interrupting things.  This is seen clearly in the first stanza.  The drums and bugles are interrupting the church and the farmer can't be peaceful.  Whitman continues this symbolism throughout the rest of the poem.
Whitman also speaks of how he doesn't like the war in other poems of his.  He does this in "The Wound-Dresser."  He speaks of the war as his strangest days.  They were long days of sweat and dust.  The reader can tell by the explanations by Whitman that he doesn't appreciate war.
He also talks about the people who got wounded from the war.  He feels bad for them and wants to save them desperately.  This shows that he dislikes the war because he felt there was no need for them being injured.  If it wasn't for the war, the people wouldn't be that way.  He doesn't state these beliefs directly, however it is easy to see through his words.
Walt Whitman mentions his dislike of war throughout his poems.  He may do this indirectly but his message is abundantly clear.  He is obviously anti-war and has only negative aspects of it.  He hates the idea of war and shows it in his poetry.

                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        

                                                                                                                                                          








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\WAYNE GRETZKY.TXT
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	COMPARE TWO BIOGRAPHIES OF WAYNE GRETZKY

	In this essay, I need to compare two biographies of a famous
person. I will plot out the difference and compare the two books 
considering point of view, bias, aim, omission, interest and 
interpretation. This person is my hero and idol. He is one of the great 
player in the history of hockey. He set the all-time NHL scoring record 
in 26 seasons and got four Stanley cup in a row from 1984-1988. He is 
Wayne Gretzky, the most brilliant and talent hockey player in this 
century. Ichose the "Gretzky and Taylor" and "Gretzky with Rick Reilly.
	The book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly was an autobiography. It showed 
how Wayne Gretzky from his AHL to a famous NHL player. In this book, 
there were a lot of Gretzky's childhood. We knew that Wayne Gretzky could 
skate at two years old. He was well known by people at six. When he was 
ten, he was signing autographs and had a national magazine article 
written about him. A thirty- minutes national television show done on him 
at fifteen. It also talk about Gretzky's hero when he was a kid. He was a 
funny guy. He was Gretzky's hockey instructor. He was also his lacrosse, 
baseball basketball and cross country coach. He was not only coach, but 
also trainer and chauffeur. Gretzky called him dad, his name was Walter. 
However, in the book "Gretzky and Taylor", it did not  show anything in 
Gretzky's childhood. It was started when Gretzky became the NHL player, a 
member of Edmonton Oiler's rookie. How he became the hall of the frame. 
The description of this book was very interesting. The writer show the 
thing through the game. For example the first chapter was talking about 
the 1984 Stanley Cup final between the Edmonton Oilers and New York 
Islander. 
	"Wayne," he said, "don't worry about not scoring so far. Just make 
sure that when you do get a  goal for us is a big one. " (Page 15 Gretzky 
and Taylor ) From this conversation, we could know what had happen at 
that time. So, there was different between the point of view of those two 
books. 
	Although this two books had the different point of view, they both 
had the same aim. They also showed to young people that worked hard was 
the only source  of success. In the book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly", 
Gretzky showed his talent when he was young. He was national knew at six. 
There was even a wild rumors  that the New York Rangers were going to buy 
the entry Brantford Pee Wee franchise, so that they had the right to take 
him when he turn the greater. But behind the success, did you know how 
much Gretzky put on the hockey. In the winter, Gretzky would get in the 
mourning, skated from seven o' clock to eight- thirty, went to school, 
came back home at three thirty, stayed on the ice until his mother ready 
the dinner, ate in his skater, then went back out until nine o' clock. On 
Saturday and Sundays, he would have games played with his neighborhood. 
So looked how much times that Gretzky put on the practice and that time 
he was six. Also in the book "Gretzky and Taylor", because of Brantford, 
the home of Wayne Gretzky. He left home at fourteen. He moved to Toronto, 
playing with the Toronto Young Nationals, Junior B. The years in Toronto 
were no way for a kid. He was lonely, living without family. But why 
Gretzky chose to do this? It was because he could go to school and nobody 
knew who he was and he would play better hockey. So now we can see how 
Gretzky was so successful.
       We could clearly see the omission between these tow book. It was 
because the "Gretzky and Taylor" was published in 1984, there was a great 
omission in Gretzky's life. This thing happened in 1988, the Edmonton 
Oilers wanted to tread Gretzky to L.A. Kings. That was the most important 
trade in the NHL. The book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" was published in 
1900. So it had some more detail in this event. After the Oilers had won 
the fourth Stanley Cup in last five years. The owner of the Oilers Nelson 
Skalbania wanted Oilers to go public, so he could raise money easily. In 
order to go public, he had to get Gretzky out of the personal service 
contract and make Gretzky property of the team. Because Skalbania knew 
what he needed wasn't more Stanley Cups. He didn't need to sell more 
ticket. His arena was already sold out. He need cash. So, now Gretzky 
became a LA. Kings after this huge deal in the NHL history.     Talking 
about the bias, I didn't think there had a lot of bias in this two books. 
I could only find a little bias in the book "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" it 
was because this book was a autobiography, it may had a little  bit 
subjective. The part that a felt subjective was the huge deal. In the 
book, it only had people who supported Gretzky to give their comments, no 
one was on the side owner .May be the thing was what the people had said, 
but you should also had the comment of other side. So that people can 
compare by themselves.
	Both two books were very interesting, not only the words but a lot 
of pictures. These pictures could make the books more interested but also 
gave readers the image how Gretzky played hockey. And the interpretation, 
both two books had some statistic in the back. It showed how many goals, 
assists, points and many other statistic of Wayne Gretzky. (see note 1)  
	 Compare of these two books, I could find both very interested and 
excllent. However, I thought the "Gretzky with Rick Reilly" was a liitle 
bit better than the other because of the more specify details.

----------------
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Welles.TXT
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History of Cinema
Term Paper


                                                                               Orson Welles

	The term 'genius' was applied to him from the cradle, first by the man who would vie with Orson's father to nurture the talent all agreed resided in the fragile boy.(Leaming, 3)
	George Orson Welles was born in Kenosha, Wisconsin on May 6, 1915. He was the second son of Richard Head Welles, an inventor, and his wife Beatrice Ives, a concert pianist.  His mother was the child of a wealthy family.  She had been brought up to revere artistic achievements, and began playing the piano, professionally, only after her marriage broke up when Orson was six.  A local doctor, Russian-Jewish orthopedist named Maurice Bernstein, who was a passionate admirer of Mrs. Welles, on first sight of the infant Orson declared him to be without a doubt a genius.  Bernstein showered Orson with gifts and virtually took over the direction of his life, to such an extent that Orson called him 'Dadda'.
When Orson was four, his father moved his family to Chicago, possibly to get away from Bernstein's attentions.  This plan failed when Bernstein almost immediately followed them.  Through Bernstein who was always forcing him to perform, and through his mother musical talents, the young Orson quickly came into contact with Chicago's musical society and walked on in the Chicago Opera's production of 'Samson and Delilah', then in a more important role of Butterfly's love-child Trouble in 'Madame Butterfly'.  He also got a temporary job dressed up as a rabbit at Marshall Fields.
	Shortly after Orson's sixth birthday his parent's formally separated, his father taking off and his mother remaing to pursue her music ambitions in Chicago.  Welles live most of his time with his mother and Dadda Bernstein, but regularly traveled with his father on holidays.
	His health effectively kept him out of school until he was eleven, so he had acquired a lot of cultural groundings at home with his mother and the doctor.  Fears that he might prove ungovernable like his brother Richard, who had been expelled from school by the age of ten and subsequently banished from home, brought him in 1926 to enrollment in the Todd School for Boys at Woodstock, Illinois, a few months after his mothers death from a liver condition at the age of forty-three.  The school was ideally equipped for the nurturing of a young wayward genius.(Taylor)  It was run by the proprietor, a terror rejoicing in the name as 'the King'.
	Todd School had something of a tradition in drama, though mainly lightweight revues, nativity plays and such.  In this department Orson soon got his own way.  He was before long adapting, directing and starring in:  'Doctor Faustus', 'Everyman', 'Le Medicin Malgre Lui', 'Julius Caesar' with Orson as Cassius, 'Dr. Jekkyl and Mr. Hyde', with Orson as both.  He also built and managed a large puppet theater, writing his own melodramatic scripts and directing his assistants with the utmost authority.
		As he moved into his teens Orson was already well on his way to becoming a legend. Everybody seemed to be convinced that he was extraordinary, and quite possibly a genius in the making.  But for all his outward reassurance, the child lived in a constant fear of not living up to his parent's expectations.  "I always felt I was letting them down.  That's why I worked so hard.  That's the stuff that turned the motor."(Leaming, 6)  He would do anything for their approval.  He remembers that when he was very young his parents sent him on errands to the other side of town.  Terrified to go off alone, but wanting to please them, the child repeatedly forced himself to do as they asked without flinching.  " I was taught to feel secure, it was not in my character."
	It is important in looking at Welles's arrival in Hollywood and his extraordinary contract his agent Arnold Weissburger managed to get out of RKO to be quite clear what the 'it' was.  What Welles had done was to hit the headlines with amazing consistency.  From the black Macbeth onwards, Welles had shown an uncanny knack, not only of delivering enough quality to keep the intellectual audiences returning, but also of doing it in the most public and newsworthy way, so that he was a name and had achieved a notoriety even with millions who had never had the chance to sample his work.  The talent was worth gambling on, even in Hollywood.(Taylor, 41)
	And that sort of gamble is just what Schaefer and RKO decided to take.  The very nature of Welles's contract, which tied him to make two films, the first by 1940, the second by 1941.  Getting paid $100,000 for the first, and $125,000 for the second, plus percentages of the profits after RKO had made back that initial investment of $500,000 per picture.  Orson would produce, write, direct, and appear in both of these pictures which was news in itself, and supported his public image of the wonder boy.  In early February of 1939 Orson began to work on the idea which was to become a milestone in motion picture history, 'Citizen Kane'.  To help him he hired Herman J. Mankiewicz, successful screenwriter, and more immediately a regular writer for the Welles radio shows and collaborator on "The Smiler with a Knife" script.
	Apart from anything else, there are very clear autobiographical connotations in Welles's picture of Charles Foster Kane.  The most obvious is the naming of young Kane's kindly, protective guardian as Bernstein, like Welles's own.
	Citizen Kane was them, and is now, essentially a film-makers film. there was possibly nothing in the film that was absolutely unprecedented.(Taylor,57 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Wendell Phillips 4.TXT
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	Wendell Phillips was born on November 29, 1811.  He was a well-known American reformer. His career of attempting to reform American society spanned 47 years.  He put most of his energy into opposing slavery and supporting women's right's, labor reform, and temperance.  In 1865 he attacked the Constitution. He attacked it because it supported slavery.

	He had married Ann Terry Greene. Greene had been taught by William Lloyd Garrison.  Garrison and Phillips became friends.
	As the Civil War approached he became more and more certain that violence must be employed to abolish slavery.  When the war came he was at the head of the emancipation movement.

	In the years after the war Wendell Phillips demanded that actions be taken to protect blacks and loyal whites in the South.            He also became more involved in workers rights.  His speeches and lectures soon became published.  On February 2, 1884 Wendell Phillips died. 

	In conclusion I believe that a soldier would be a good symbol for Wendell Phillips. It would be a good symbol because soldiers fight hard for what they believe in. This is what Wendell Phillips did. 
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Wendell Phillips.TXT
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	Wendell Phillips was born on November 29, 1811.  He was a well-known American reformer. His career of attempting to reform American society spanned 47 years.  He put most of his energy into opposing slavery and supporting women's right's, labor reform, and temperance.  In 1865 he attacked the Constitution. He attacked it because it supported slavery.

	He had married Ann Terry Greene. Greene had been taught by William Lloyd Garrison.  Garrison and Phillips became friends.
	As the Civil War approached he became more and more certain that violence must be employed to abolish slavery.  When the war came he was at the head of the emancipation movement.

	In the years after the war Wendell Phillips demanded that actions be taken to protect blacks and loyal whites in the South.            He also became more involved in workers rights.  His speeches and lectures soon became published.  On February 2, 1884 Wendell Phillips died. 

	In conclusion I believe that a soldier would be a good symbol for Wendell Phillips. It would be a good symbol because soldiers fight hard for what they believe in. This is what Wendell Phillips did. 
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Werner Heisenberg 4.TXT
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				Werner Heisenberg

	One cannot fully appreciate the work of Werner Heisenberg unless one examines his contributions in the context of the time in which he lived.  Werner Karl Heisenberg was born in Wuerzburg, Germany, on December 5, 1901, and grew up in academic surroundings, in a household devoted to the humanities.  His father was a professor at the University of Munich and undoubtedly greatly influenced young Werner, who was a student at the Maximilian Gymnasium.
	  Heisenberg had the opportunity to work with many of the top physicists in the world including Niels Bohr and Max Born.  Like many of the top physicists of the time Heisenberg received his doctorate at an early age.  In Heisenberg's case he received it at the young age of twenty three.  Heisenberg was not just a researcher.  He was also a professor and author.  During his career he taught at many prestigious universities, including the Universities of Leipzig, Goettingen, and Berlin.  He also wrote many important books including, Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, Cosmic Radiation, Physics and Philosophy, and Introduction to the Unified Theory of Elementary Particles.  In 1932 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in Quantum Mechanics.  
	With the Nazi's in power, and World War two on the horizon it was inevitable that his German heritage would play a crucial role in his career.  Before Germany's blitzkrieg on Poland Heisenberg decided to make one final visit of his friends in the West.  Many tried to convince him to stay and accept a professorship at Columbia, but Heisenberg declined.  He felt that it was his duty to preserve the foundation of science in Germany during the war.  He also believed that by staying in Germany during the war, he could help individual German scientists.  In fact, he did offer jobs to Jewish scientists when they were fired from their posts at other universities.  As time passed, Heisenberg found that he was powerless to protect his friends.  Heisenberg himself was personally attacked, and his appointment at the University of Munich was blocked.  For over a year Heisenberg was attacked in the SS newspaper, which referred to him as a "white Jew."  The attack became so threatening that Heisenberg's mother, who had a slight connection to Himmler's family, wrote to Himmler's mother asking Himmler to intercede.  Himmler personally cleared Heisenberg of the charges leveled against him a year later, but he was told to study science and avoid discussing  scientists.  The strain of the investigation surely affected Heisenberg's creativity.
	During the war Heisenberg worked on the German A-bomb project along with a number of other German scientists.  It has been proposed in the novel Heisenberg's War, written by Thomas Powers, that Heisenberg deliberately sabotaged this project to keep the bomb out of Hitler's hands.  After the war was over, all of the scientists in Germany working on the A-bomb project, including Heisenberg, were interned in England to be questioned about their work on the project.  
	Heisenbergs nationalism eventually ruined many of his academic friendships.  His close relationship with Neils Bohr was destroyed by his decision to remain in Germany during the war.  His failure to be more specific about his stand in whether or not to seriously work to develop a German bomb played an important part in his inability to reestablish ties with friends who moved to the West.  The creative interaction with many leading scientists prior to the war was not resumed at the war's end.
	Heisenberg's most important finding, the Uncertainty Principle is the corner stone of Quantum Mechanics.  However, many advances in Quantum Mechanics had to be made before Heisenberg found it.  Everything started with Rutherford's model of the atom.  Consisting of a positively charged central nucleus, surrounded by orbiting planetary electrons.  Around the same time that Rutherford was discovering the basic structure of the atom, Plank did some important work also.  Finding that energy from an oscillating particle is emitted not continuously, but in packets of energy he developed the Quantum Theory of Radiation.  From this came the universal constant h which played a large role in Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.  Neils Bohr then made a new model of the atom, which combined both Rutherford's and Plank's work.  This new model accounted for known patterns of atomic radiation as seen in spectra.  However, what Bohr wrote on paper about the electron activity and what other physicists were observing were two different things.  Bohr had developed his quantum theory of the atom by discarding the idea of a classical frequency associated with the orbit of an electron, but he still retained the concept of the classical orbit.  Heisenberg went one step further and discarded the concept of the orbit itself.  Rather than the classical idea of the position and the motion, or momentum, of the electron at each instant in time, Heisenberg introduced his square arrays or matrices, which depict the electron  as existing simultaneously in all possible Bohr orbits.  After Heisenberg's discovery, the classical concept of the electron as a particle was no longer justifiable.  
	Heisenberg was led to these revolutionary ideas by his insistence on utilizing only those quantities in a theory that are directly observable.  Since the orbit of an electron is not observable, it can have no place in a theory.  Only the spectral lines are observed, and, since these involve pairs of orbits, all quantities that are used to describe the electron inside the atom should be associated with such pairs.
	Such thinking led to Heisenberg's matrices.  One of the important features of matrices is that it is not commutative.  If the array representing the position of an electron is q and an array representing its momentum is p, then the product pq is not the same as the product qp.  
	This showed Heisenberg that the uncertainty relationship is purely an algebraic consequence of his matrix theory.  If you picture the product pq as representing a measurement of the position of the electron followed by a measurement of its momentum; qp, on the other hand, represents the measurement of the momentum of a particle followed by at the measurement of its position.  That these two sets of measurements give different results simply means that the measurement of the momentum of a particle destroys our knowledge of its position, and vice versa.  It follows that it is impossible to obtain or to have precise knowledge of the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously; this is the essence of the uncertainty principle.
	Its significance for the structure of the atom is that we have no way of determining the orbit of an electron inside the atom observationally.  As Heisenberg pointed out in his analysis of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, an electron can be observed inside an atom only with a gamma-ray microscope which, because of the short wavelength of gamma rays, has a high resolving power.  This microscope shows us where the electron is at any moment, but at least one gamma-ray photon must be reflected from the electron.  In this very process the electron is knocked out of the atom.  It is senseless then to speak of its orbit.
	Although the uncertainty relations can be derived mathematically from theory, it is much more instructive to derive them from the physical picture.  This method shows clearly the interrelationship between the wave and the particle.  In fact, it is clear from Heisenberg's analysis that wave and particle are complementary aspects, as are position and momentum.  It was from considerations such as these that Bohr developed his theory of complementarily, which is essential for an understanding of modern atomic theories.
	The uncertainty relations completely change our ideas of causality.  If we cannot determine the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously to any desired degree of accuracy, we cannot determine its future course.  We can solve equations for the motion of the particle.  However, these solutions can tell us its future history only if at some moment in the past or at the present instant we know its position and momentum.  The farther we try to look into the  future, the less accurate our predictions become because our present uncertainty, however small leads to greater deviations from the predicted pattern of the motion as the time increases.  We can understand this situation by considering the lunar missile probes carried out by the United States and Soviet Union.  To hit a target as gar away as the moon involves extreme accuracy in aiming the rocket and giving it the correct initial momentum; if we wish to hit targets at greater distances, our accuracy will have to be increased considerably because the further the distance, the greater the multiplication of any initial error.
	Today we use the term quantum mechanics for the entire mathematical scheme that is used to treat problems in atomic, nuclear, elementary-particle, and field physics.  The mathematics of quantum mechanics stems directly from Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and is a consequence of his uncertainty principle.  If anyone were to prove his uncertainty principle wrong the foundations of quantum mechanics would fall.  
	Heisenberg spent the final years of his career trying to derive the properties of such elementary particles as electrons, protons, and so on, from a departure from quantum field theory by having the field itself construct its own particles.  Unfortunately, this approach led to a very complex mathematical formulation which some say spoiled the great beauty of quantum mechanics.














 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Werner Heisenberg.TXT
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				Werner Heisenberg

	One cannot fully appreciate the work of Werner Heisenberg unless one examines his contributions in the context of the time in which he lived.  Werner Karl Heisenberg was born in Wuerzburg, Germany, on December 5, 1901, and grew up in academic surroundings, in a household devoted to the humanities.  His father was a professor at the University of Munich and undoubtedly greatly influenced young Werner, who was a student at the Maximilian Gymnasium.
	  Heisenberg had the opportunity to work with many of the top physicists in the world including Niels Bohr and Max Born.  Like many of the top physicists of the time Heisenberg received his doctorate at an early age.  In Heisenberg's case he received it at the young age of twenty three.  Heisenberg was not just a researcher.  He was also a professor and author.  During his career he taught at many prestigious universities, including the Universities of Leipzig, Goettingen, and Berlin.  He also wrote many important books including, Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory, Cosmic Radiation, Physics and Philosophy, and Introduction to the Unified Theory of Elementary Particles.  In 1932 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in Quantum Mechanics.  
	With the Nazi's in power, and World War two on the horizon it was inevitable that his German heritage would play a crucial role in his career.  Before Germany's blitzkrieg on Poland Heisenberg decided to make one final visit of his friends in the West.  Many tried to convince him to stay and accept a professorship at Columbia, but Heisenberg declined.  He felt that it was his duty to preserve the foundation of science in Germany during the war.  He also believed that by staying in Germany during the war, he could help individual German scientists.  In fact, he did offer jobs to Jewish scientists when they were fired from their posts at other universities.  As time passed, Heisenberg found that he was powerless to protect his friends.  Heisenberg himself was personally attacked, and his appointment at the University of Munich was blocked.  For over a year Heisenberg was attacked in the SS newspaper, which referred to him as a "white Jew."  The attack became so threatening that Heisenberg's mother, who had a slight connection to Himmler's family, wrote to Himmler's mother asking Himmler to intercede.  Himmler personally cleared Heisenberg of the charges leveled against him a year later, but he was told to study science and avoid discussing  scientists.  The strain of the investigation surely affected Heisenberg's creativity.
	During the war Heisenberg worked on the German A-bomb project along with a number of other German scientists.  It has been proposed in the novel Heisenberg's War, written by Thomas Powers, that Heisenberg deliberately sabotaged this project to keep the bomb out of Hitler's hands.  After the war was over, all of the scientists in Germany working on the A-bomb project, including Heisenberg, were interned in England to be questioned about their work on the project.  
	Heisenbergs nationalism eventually ruined many of his academic friendships.  His close relationship with Neils Bohr was destroyed by his decision to remain in Germany during the war.  His failure to be more specific about his stand in whether or not to seriously work to develop a German bomb played an important part in his inability to reestablish ties with friends who moved to the West.  The creative interaction with many leading scientists prior to the war was not resumed at the war's end.
	Heisenberg's most important finding, the Uncertainty Principle is the corner stone of Quantum Mechanics.  However, many advances in Quantum Mechanics had to be made before Heisenberg found it.  Everything started with Rutherford's model of the atom.  Consisting of a positively charged central nucleus, surrounded by orbiting planetary electrons.  Around the same time that Rutherford was discovering the basic structure of the atom, Plank did some important work also.  Finding that energy from an oscillating particle is emitted not continuously, but in packets of energy he developed the Quantum Theory of Radiation.  From this came the universal constant h which played a large role in Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.  Neils Bohr then made a new model of the atom, which combined both Rutherford's and Plank's work.  This new model accounted for known patterns of atomic radiation as seen in spectra.  However, what Bohr wrote on paper about the electron activity and what other physicists were observing were two different things.  Bohr had developed his quantum theory of the atom by discarding the idea of a classical frequency associated with the orbit of an electron, but he still retained the concept of the classical orbit.  Heisenberg went one step further and discarded the concept of the orbit itself.  Rather than the classical idea of the position and the motion, or momentum, of the electron at each instant in time, Heisenberg introduced his square arrays or matrices, which depict the electron  as existing simultaneously in all possible Bohr orbits.  After Heisenberg's discovery, the classical concept of the electron as a particle was no longer justifiable.  
	Heisenberg was led to these revolutionary ideas by his insistence on utilizing only those quantities in a theory that are directly observable.  Since the orbit of an electron is not observable, it can have no place in a theory.  Only the spectral lines are observed, and, since these involve pairs of orbits, all quantities that are used to describe the electron inside the atom should be associated with such pairs.
	Such thinking led to Heisenberg's matrices.  One of the important features of matrices is that it is not commutative.  If the array representing the position of an electron is q and an array representing its momentum is p, then the product pq is not the same as the product qp.  
	This showed Heisenberg that the uncertainty relationship is purely an algebraic consequence of his matrix theory.  If you picture the product pq as representing a measurement of the position of the electron followed by a measurement of its momentum; qp, on the other hand, represents the measurement of the momentum of a particle followed by at the measurement of its position.  That these two sets of measurements give different results simply means that the measurement of the momentum of a particle destroys our knowledge of its position, and vice versa.  It follows that it is impossible to obtain or to have precise knowledge of the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously; this is the essence of the uncertainty principle.
	Its significance for the structure of the atom is that we have no way of determining the orbit of an electron inside the atom observationally.  As Heisenberg pointed out in his analysis of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, an electron can be observed inside an atom only with a gamma-ray microscope which, because of the short wavelength of gamma rays, has a high resolving power.  This microscope shows us where the electron is at any moment, but at least one gamma-ray photon must be reflected from the electron.  In this very process the electron is knocked out of the atom.  It is senseless then to speak of its orbit.
	Although the uncertainty relations can be derived mathematically from theory, it is much more instructive to derive them from the physical picture.  This method shows clearly the interrelationship between the wave and the particle.  In fact, it is clear from Heisenberg's analysis that wave and particle are complementary aspects, as are position and momentum.  It was from considerations such as these that Bohr developed his theory of complementarily, which is essential for an understanding of modern atomic theories.
	The uncertainty relations completely change our ideas of causality.  If we cannot determine the position and the momentum of a particle simultaneously to any desired degree of accuracy, we cannot determine its future course.  We can solve equations for the motion of the particle.  However, these solutions can tell us its future history only if at some moment in the past or at the present instant we know its position and momentum.  The farther we try to look into the  future, the less accurate our predictions become because our present uncertainty, however small leads to greater deviations from the predicted pattern of the motion as the time increases.  We can understand this situation by considering the lunar missile probes carried out by the United States and Soviet Union.  To hit a target as gar away as the moon involves extreme accuracy in aiming the rocket and giving it the correct initial momentum; if we wish to hit targets at greater distances, our accuracy will have to be increased considerably because the further the distance, the greater the multiplication of any initial error.
	Today we use the term quantum mechanics for the entire mathematical scheme that is used to treat problems in atomic, nuclear, elementary-particle, and field physics.  The mathematics of quantum mechanics stems directly from Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and is a consequence of his uncertainty principle.  If anyone were to prove his uncertainty principle wrong the foundations of quantum mechanics would fall.  
	Heisenberg spent the final years of his career trying to derive the properties of such elementary particles as electrons, protons, and so on, from a departure from quantum field theory by having the field itself construct its own particles.  Unfortunately, this approach led to a very complex mathematical formulation which some say spoiled the great beauty of quantum mechanics.














 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Who The Hell Is Connie Chung.TXT
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1332
JMC 101, Section 101 Who the Hell is Connie Chung? How does one go from being called "America's sweetheart" to being labeled a "shameless tabloid whore" (Revah 10)? Connie Chung knows. Co-anchoring the CBS Evening News with Dan Rather and hosting her own Eye to Eye, she was once on top of the broadcast journalism world, yet all good things must come to an end. Connie Chung had a glorious rise and a dramatic fall. Connie Chung began her career as an assignment editor and on-the-air-reporter at a local Washington, D.C. television station WTTG. But her big break came in 1971, when the Federal Communications Commission began pressuring television networks to hire more minorities and women. Chung applied at CBS's Washington bureau. She once told Daniel Paisner, "They had only one woman at CBS News at the time, and I think they wanted to hire more. So, they hired me, they hired Leslie Stahl, they hired Michelle Clark, and they hired Sylvia Chase.... In other words, a Chinese woman a black woman, a nice Jewish girl, and a blond shiska. And so they took care of years of discrimination." (Moritz 107) Chung covered George McGovern's presidential campaign in 1971 and accompanied Richard Nixon on trips to the Middle East and the Soviet Union in 1972. In 1976, she became a news anchor for KNXT, the local CBS television station in Los Angeles. There, her salary went from about $27,000 a year to an estimated $600,000, making Connie Chung one of the country's highest-paid local news anchors in 1983. She received many honors, including an award for best television reporting from the Los Angeles Press Club in 1977 and Local Emmys in 1978 and 1980. (Moritz 108) In 1984, Chung, eager to return to reporting national politics, was asked to anchor NBC News at Sunrise. Of course, she did not let this opportunity pass her by. Chung's "new job....also included serving as a political correspondent for the NBC Nightly News program, anchoring the network's Saturday evening news, and doing three prime-time, ninety-second news casts a week" (Moritz 108). Chung's "status as a rising network star was reaffirmed when, in November 1983, she made the first of many appearances on the Today show as a substitute for anchorwoman Jane Pauley" (Moroitz 108). Connie Chung announced in March 1989 that she would rejoin CBS after her NBC contract expired in May. She was to anchor a revamped West 57th Street and the CBS Sunday Night News, and to be one of the main substitute anchors for Dan Rather on the CBS Evening News. This agreement was worth nearly $1.5 million a year. (Moritz 108) On September 23, 1989, Saturday Night with Connie Chung made its CBS debut. The hour-long show, however, was not well received by critics. Chung was criticized for the show's shifts from documentation to re-creation--- it was too confusing for the audience. Her show was "not considered real journalism." (Brunsdon 329) In 1993, to raise the Evening News ratings, CBS paired Connie Chung with Dan Rather as his co-anchor. Reuven Frank, who was once a network executive for CBS, said in his article "Connie Chung at the Circus": I was repeatedly advised by station managers to improve my news ratings as they had: 'Give them a good-looking girl to look at.'....If I'm right, then Chung was chosen co-anchor because she is an attractive woman....I do not mean to deny that she is an established journalist with more than 20 years experience. But that is not why she was picked. Sexism got her the job (21). This was the first step to Connie Chung's downfall. Controversy arose after the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995. Rather was vacationing in Texas at the time, so Chung, unskilled in the ways of field reporting, was sent to cover the tragedy. During her coverage, Chung managed to offend some Oklahoma viewers by questioning the city's fire chief about the community's ability to handle the crisis. After only three days, CBS brought Chung back to New York. Steve Wulf, a reporter for Time magazine made the remark that, "The only good thing to come out of her assignment was that the proceeds from T shirts asking WHO THE HELL IS CONNIE CHUNG? went to the disaster relief efforts" (83). Not long after returning to CBS, Chung hosted her own show, Eye to Eye with Connie Chung. On this program, Chung interviewed sensational subjects, such as Tonya Harding. This network news magazine is what ultimately led to her downfall, involving only a simple five-letter word. In a television interview with Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich's mother, which was to be edited into a profile of the incoming Speaker, Connie Chung is said to have violated all journalistic morals. Under lights and cameras, Mrs. Gingrich was coaxed into revealing what she thought would stay between Chung and her: CHUNG: Mrs. Gingrich, what has Newt told you about President Clinton? MRS. GINGRICH: The only thing that he ever told me is that he's smart. That he's an intelligent man. That he's not very practical, but he's intelligent. [Pause] I can't tell you what he said about Hillary. CHUNG: You can't? MRS. GINGRICH: I can't. CHUNG: Why don't you whisper it to me, just between you and me? MRS. GINGRICH: "She's a bitch." About the only thing he ever said about her... (Frank, "Celebrity" 20) Gingrich was outraged at the way Chung had set his mother up. Had Connie Chung violated journalistic rules by deceiving the Speaker's poor old mother? In reporting on her interview on CBS Evening News the day after, Chung pointed out that during the interview Mrs. Gingrich frequently "broke into a stage whisper," indicating she knew her remarks would be used. Many journalistic authorities and critics agreed with the Speaker, saying that Chung had violated her off-the-record record understanding by using her quote on-the-record. (Hurley 13) "Though CBS aggressively publicized the comment, the network was somewhat tepid in her defense" (Wulf 83). Not long after the Gingrich interview, ratings for both the Evening News and Eye to Eye began to slump. Research showed that viewers were still angry with Chung over the Gingrich incident, and the affiliates were demanding immediate action. (Green 52) What else was there to do but let the anchorwoman go? She was brought in to raise ratings, yet because of her, they only suffered. Thus, that was the end of Connie Chung's career. She had survived on top for what was a surprisingly long time for television---over 20 years---but it was all too good to be true. Her warm personality, charm, and good looks could only get her so far. In the end, she was no longer seen as "America's sweetheart," who had worked so hard to cover political campaigns and other important issues. She was merely a "shameless tabloid whore," who would trick sweet little old ladies into revealing their own personal secrets just to get a story. Works Cited Brunsdon, Charlotte, Julie D'Acci, Lynn Spigel, eds. Feminist television Criticism: A Reader. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997. 329. Frank, Reuven. "Celebrity Journalism." The New Leader v78. 30 January 1995. 20-21. Frank, Reuven. "Connie Chung at the Circus." The New Leader v78. 8-22 May 1995: 20-21. Green, Michelle. "Anchor Away." People Weekly v43. 5 June 1995: 50-52. Hurley, Deborah. "The Whisper Heard Round the World." The Quill (Chicago, Ill.) v83. March1995: 13. Murowitz, Charles, ed. Current Biography Yearbook 1989. The H.W. Wilson Company: New York, 1989, 1990: 106-110. Revah, Susan. "It's a Jungle Out There in Cyberspace." American Journalism Review v17. March 1995: 10-11. Wulf, Steve. "Weighing Anchors." Time v145.15 May 1995: 83.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Why are there poor people .TXT
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	Looking back on my childhood, I realize how lucky I was to be blessed with the family I have.  Knowing what I know now, I have come to understand that not every kid had the same life that I had.  Not every child had a living room full of gifts on Christmas morning, or a family to share a birthday with.  I was lucky enough to have all of the luxuries that so many children yearn for.  So many children take for granted the fact that they eat three meals a day, while so many others are lucky to find a scrap of bread in a dumpster.
	It wasn't until I was about nine or ten when I realized that there were poor people in the world.  My family and I had been on our annual trip to New York City to see the Christmas play at Radio City.  I didn't understand why all these people kept asking my dad to spare them some change, or why a family was searching through the dumpster.  I asked, "Daddy, why is that man sleeping on the street?"
	My dad spent a long time explaining to me that not everybody had the same life as our family did.  Some kids parents didn't have jobs to go to every day, or cars to take them wherever they needed to go, and not every family in the world had breakfast, lunch, and dinner every day.  He told me that I was very lucky to have all the things that I had, and that millions of kids in the world would die to have the life I had.  I was still very confused about the whole situation.  Why wasn't every family like ours?  What did those people do wrong?  My dad just said that was life . . . some people are lucky, and some people aren't.  
	At first, I  thought that all poor people were the same, but I later found out that anybody can be poor.  Through the years, I learned that not all people are born into poverty, that some people can become poor over time.  People can have steady jobs and eventually layoffs occur or seniority rules.  Innocent people who do their job and does it well can be knocked right out of their position.  It doesn't matter if it hurts that person or their family.  
	So many children grow up, taking for granted all of the luxuries that they were lucky enough to have.  As a child, it's very difficult to stop and realize that there are so many underprivileged people in the world, and if they could maybe then they would realize how lucky they really are.

	 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Faulkner 4.TXT
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William Faulkner's  Yoknapatawpha County, with Jefferson as its county seat, is both a mythical and actual place.  Yoknapatawpha  county is 2400 square miles in area and has a population of 15,611 persons.  Jefferson has an actual jail, town square, old houses, and Old Frenchman's Place, even a railroad.  Faulkner's  "Yoknapatawpha County" is in reality Lafayette County, and "Jefferson"  is actually Oxford.  The  Faulkner family lived there since before the Civil War.  This is where most of his stories take place.  He pondered the family history and his own personal history; and he used both in writing his stories.  (American Writers; 54)
     Faulkner born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897.  In 1902 they moved to Oxford ("Jefferson"), the seat of the University of Mississippi.  His father, Murray C. Falkner, (the u was added to the family name by the printer who set up William's first book, The Marble Faun) ran a livery stable and a hardware store.  Later he became business manager of the University.  Maud Butler was his mother and Murray, John, and Dean were his three brothers. (American Writers; 55a)
     Faulkner's great-grandfather was William C. Falkner.  He was born in 1825.  He was a legendary figure in Northern Mississippi.  Many details of his life have shown up in Faulkner's writings.  He was twice acquitted of murder charges.  He was a believer in severe discipline and was a colonel of a group of raiders of the Civil War.  He began as a poor youngster trying to take care of his widowed mother, but ending his career as the owner of a railroad and a member of the state legislature.  He was killed by his former railroad partner shortly after he had defeated the other for a seat in the legislature.  There is a statue of William C. Falkner facing his railroad today. (American Writers; 55b) 
     J. W. T. Faulkner was a lawyer, a banker, and assistant United States attorney.  He was an active member of "rise of the "rednecks"", the political movement that gave greater suffrage to tenant farmers.  The people of Oxford say he had and explosive temper. (American Writers; 55c)
     The  characters Colonel Sartoris and Bayard Sartoris portray Faulkner's great-grandfather and grandfather.  These characters show up in many of his stories such as Sartoris and The Unvanquished.  They are a part of the Old South legend and they play an important role in the saga of Yoknapatawpha. (American Writers; 55d)
     William was a poor student.  He left highshool in the tenth grade to work in his grandfather's bank.  He liked to read, and wrote some poetry of his own.  He also tried painting.  The towns people said he was a moody boy, and seemed as a puzzle to them.  He began a friendship with Phil Stone in 1914.  Phil was a young lawyer.  This gave him a chance for literary discussions and helped acquaint him with such rising reputations as Conrad Aiken, Robert Frost, Erza Pound, and Sherwood Anderson. (American Writers; 55e)
     William was underweight and only five feet tall.  Because of this, he was turned down by the United States Army.  He did, however, join the Royal Flying Corps in Toronto, Canada, and a cadet.  On December 22, 1918, the date of demobilization, he became an honorary second lieutenant.  He was often preoccupied with both the events and the implications of World War I, like most other writers of his age.  Many of his earlier books deal with this. (American Writers; 55f)
     As a veteran, he was allowed to enroll at the University of Mississippi.  There he studied English, Spanish, and French, but he was only in residence for one full academic year.  He took a job in a bookstore in New York City, but he soon returned to Oxford.  He did odd jobs such as a carpenter of house painter for two years, then became postmaster at the university.  He soon resigned, saying in his letter of resignation, " I will be damned if I propose to be at the beck and call of every itinerant scoundrel who has two cents to invest in a postage stamp."  This same year, 1924, The Marble Faun was publicized, a book of poems.  Stone had subsidized its publication. (American Writers; 55g)
     Faulkner decided to go to Europe by means of New Orleans.  Once he reached Now Orleans, he ended up staying for six months.  He wrote a few sketches for Times-Picayune entitles "Mirrors of Charles Street," contributed to the Double Dealer, and important "little magazine," and became friends with Sherwood Anderson.  At that time, Anderson was one of the most admired of American writers.  Faulkner also wrote his first novel, Soldier's Pay, which Anderson helped him get published.  He and Anderson remained friends despite differences in temperament and despite Faulkner's having written a parody of Anderson's style in Sherwood Anderson and other Famous Creoles, a volume of drawings by William Spratling, one of his Mew Orleans friends.  In his book there is a drawing by Spratling of Faulkner and himself sitting at a table painting, writing, and drinking.  On the wall there is a sigh reading "Viva Art".  Beneath Faulkner's chair are three gallons of corm liquor.  In June 1925, Faulkner and Spratling shipped on a freighter for Italy and a walking trip through France and Germany. (American Writers; 56a)
     Faulkner went back to New York in March 1926, for the publication of Soldier's Pay.  Thematically the novel comes to very little, but the young man had obvious talent.  Soldier's Pay received favorable reviews, and its publisher signed a contract for a second novel.  Faulkner went off to Pascagonla, Mississippi, to write it. (American Writers; 56b)
     Mosquitoes, published in 1927, used New Orleans as a setting.  Mosquitoes says that "actions are more important than words and doers are more important than talkers."  It is a satirical novel.  One of the characters, Dawson Fairchild, is based on Anderson.  One part of his book contains a series of "tall tales" which Faulkner later said he and Anderson had worked up together.  Mosquitoes was less well received than Soldier's Pay. (American Writers; 56c)
     While writing Sartoris, Faulkner had also been working on The Sound and the Fury.  They were published within a few months of each other.  Sartoris marks the end of an apprenticeship.  The Sound and the Fury is the work of a major writer. (American Writers; 57a)
     In June of 1927, Faulkner married Estelle Oldham and settled down to a career as a writer.  Within a ten year span he wrote and published most of what has come to be regarded as his major work.  He made trips to Hollywood to work on movie scripts, he made trips to New York, but he mainly resided in Oxford.  Sanctuary brought him notoriety.  Critical acclaim, however, came more slowly.  Oddly, the French recognized Faulkner's power more quickly and more widely than Americans did.  In 1946, Malcolm Cowley published his influential Portable Faulkner.  At this time all of Faulkner's books were out of print and there had been very little serious criticism devoted to Faulkner.  Valuable studies began in 1946, and now there is hardly a critical or scholarly journal that has failed to devote article after article to Faulkner.  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1950.  Faulkner, accompanied by his daughter, went to Sweden.  Many other awards followed, including Pulitzer prizes for The Town and The Reivers.  Faulkner visited European countries, especially France, spent some weeks in Japan in 1955, and made occasional public appearances in the United States.  In 1957, he was a writer in residence at the University of Virginia.  Three weeks after being thrown from a horse, he died, from a heart attack, in Oxford, Mississippi.  July 6, 1962.  (American Writers; 57b)

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Faulkner.TXT
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William Faulkner's  Yoknapatawpha County, with Jefferson as its county seat, is both a mythical and actual place.  Yoknapatawpha  county is 2400 square miles in area and has a population of 15,611 persons.  Jefferson has an actual jail, town square, old houses, and Old Frenchman's Place, even a railroad.  Faulkner's  "Yoknapatawpha County" is in reality Lafayette County, and "Jefferson"  is actually Oxford.  The  Faulkner family lived there since before the Civil War.  This is where most of his stories take place.  He pondered the family history and his own personal history; and he used both in writing his stories.  (American Writers; 54)
     Faulkner born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897.  In 1902 they moved to Oxford ("Jefferson"), the seat of the University of Mississippi.  His father, Murray C. Falkner, (the u was added to the family name by the printer who set up William's first book, The Marble Faun) ran a livery stable and a hardware store.  Later he became business manager of the University.  Maud Butler was his mother and Murray, John, and Dean were his three brothers. (American Writers; 55a)
     Faulkner's great-grandfather was William C. Falkner.  He was born in 1825.  He was a legendary figure in Northern Mississippi.  Many details of his life have shown up in Faulkner's writings.  He was twice acquitted of murder charges.  He was a believer in severe discipline and was a colonel of a group of raiders of the Civil War.  He began as a poor youngster trying to take care of his widowed mother, but ending his career as the owner of a railroad and a member of the state legislature.  He was killed by his former railroad partner shortly after he had defeated the other for a seat in the legislature.  There is a statue of William C. Falkner facing his railroad today. (American Writers; 55b) 
     J. W. T. Faulkner was a lawyer, a banker, and assistant United States attorney.  He was an active member of "rise of the "rednecks"", the political movement that gave greater suffrage to tenant farmers.  The people of Oxford say he had and explosive temper. (American Writers; 55c)
     The  characters Colonel Sartoris and Bayard Sartoris portray Faulkner's great-grandfather and grandfather.  These characters show up in many of his stories such as Sartoris and The Unvanquished.  They are a part of the Old South legend and they play an important role in the saga of Yoknapatawpha. (American Writers; 55d)
     William was a poor student.  He left highshool in the tenth grade to work in his grandfather's bank.  He liked to read, and wrote some poetry of his own.  He also tried painting.  The towns people said he was a moody boy, and seemed as a puzzle to them.  He began a friendship with Phil Stone in 1914.  Phil was a young lawyer.  This gave him a chance for literary discussions and helped acquaint him with such rising reputations as Conrad Aiken, Robert Frost, Erza Pound, and Sherwood Anderson. (American Writers; 55e)
     William was underweight and only five feet tall.  Because of this, he was turned down by the United States Army.  He did, however, join the Royal Flying Corps in Toronto, Canada, and a cadet.  On December 22, 1918, the date of demobilization, he became an honorary second lieutenant.  He was often preoccupied with both the events and the implications of World War I, like most other writers of his age.  Many of his earlier books deal with this. (American Writers; 55f)
     As a veteran, he was allowed to enroll at the University of Mississippi.  There he studied English, Spanish, and French, but he was only in residence for one full academic year.  He took a job in a bookstore in New York City, but he soon returned to Oxford.  He did odd jobs such as a carpenter of house painter for two years, then became postmaster at the university.  He soon resigned, saying in his letter of resignation, " I will be damned if I propose to be at the beck and call of every itinerant scoundrel who has two cents to invest in a postage stamp."  This same year, 1924, The Marble Faun was publicized, a book of poems.  Stone had subsidized its publication. (American Writers; 55g)
     Faulkner decided to go to Europe by means of New Orleans.  Once he reached Now Orleans, he ended up staying for six months.  He wrote a few sketches for Times-Picayune entitles "Mirrors of Charles Street," contributed to the Double Dealer, and important "little magazine," and became friends with Sherwood Anderson.  At that time, Anderson was one of the most admired of American writers.  Faulkner also wrote his first novel, Soldier's Pay, which Anderson helped him get published.  He and Anderson remained friends despite differences in temperament and despite Faulkner's having written a parody of Anderson's style in Sherwood Anderson and other Famous Creoles, a volume of drawings by William Spratling, one of his Mew Orleans friends.  In his book there is a drawing by Spratling of Faulkner and himself sitting at a table painting, writing, and drinking.  On the wall there is a sigh reading "Viva Art".  Beneath Faulkner's chair are three gallons of corm liquor.  In June 1925, Faulkner and Spratling shipped on a freighter for Italy and a walking trip through France and Germany. (American Writers; 56a)
     Faulkner went back to New York in March 1926, for the publication of Soldier's Pay.  Thematically the novel comes to very little, but the young man had obvious talent.  Soldier's Pay received favorable reviews, and its publisher signed a contract for a second novel.  Faulkner went off to Pascagonla, Mississippi, to write it. (American Writers; 56b)
     Mosquitoes, published in 1927, used New Orleans as a setting.  Mosquitoes says that "actions are more important than words and doers are more important than talkers."  It is a satirical novel.  One of the characters, Dawson Fairchild, is based on Anderson.  One part of his book contains a series of "tall tales" which Faulkner later said he and Anderson had worked up together.  Mosquitoes was less well received than Soldier's Pay. (American Writers; 56c)
     While writing Sartoris, Faulkner had also been working on The Sound and the Fury.  They were published within a few months of each other.  Sartoris marks the end of an apprenticeship.  The Sound and the Fury is the work of a major writer. (American Writers; 57a)
     In June of 1927, Faulkner married Estelle Oldham and settled down to a career as a writer.  Within a ten year span he wrote and published most of what has come to be regarded as his major work.  He made trips to Hollywood to work on movie scripts, he made trips to New York, but he mainly resided in Oxford.  Sanctuary brought him notoriety.  Critical acclaim, however, came more slowly.  Oddly, the French recognized Faulkner's power more quickly and more widely than Americans did.  In 1946, Malcolm Cowley published his influential Portable Faulkner.  At this time all of Faulkner's books were out of print and there had been very little serious criticism devoted to Faulkner.  Valuable studies began in 1946, and now there is hardly a critical or scholarly journal that has failed to devote article after article to Faulkner.  He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1950.  Faulkner, accompanied by his daughter, went to Sweden.  Many other awards followed, including Pulitzer prizes for The Town and The Reivers.  Faulkner visited European countries, especially France, spent some weeks in Japan in 1955, and made occasional public appearances in the United States.  In 1957, he was a writer in residence at the University of Virginia.  Three weeks after being thrown from a horse, he died, from a heart attack, in Oxford, Mississippi.  July 6, 1962.  (American Writers; 57b)

 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Marshall The Epitome Of Chivalry.TXT
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2529
Address the proposition that William Marshall was not only a premier exemplar of chivalry, the 'perfect knight', but was also the greatest courtier of his age. William Marshall is considered by many to be the epitome of knighthood and chivalry, as well as being an outstanding ambassador, during the turbulent twelfth and thirteenth centuries of England. From a virtually obscure beginning, William evolves into one of the most dominant stately figures of the time in England. During his brilliant military and political career, William served as knight for the courts of Kings Henry II, Richard (the Lion-hearted), and John. William was born around 1147 to John Marshall and Sybil of Salisbury during the reign of King Stephen. His father, John Marshall, served as a court officer and eventually earned the status of a minor baron. John Marshall was a shrewd soldier and a skilled negotiator. He was the premier example of lordship in William's life. William's relationship with his father would be brief and he would never experience him beyond his childhood. John Marshall died in 1165. John would leave a legacy behind that would influence William's life and spark the future of his outstanding career both as a soldier and a courtier. At age thirteen William was sent to William De Tancarville, to begin his military training for the knighthood. William De Tancarville was known throughout Europe as one of the grander patrons of knighthood. In the Tancarville household, William would learn courtliness in addition to all other prerequisites found in a professional soldier of the day. After six years of being a squire in the Tancarville Household, Marshall was knighted in 1166. In 1170, King Henry II appointed William to the head of his son's mesnie or military household. William was responsible for protecting, training, and maintaining the military household for Prince Henry. In 1173, William knighted the young Henry, becoming his lord of chivalry. During this time period, Marshall earns many victories on the tournament field and here he first establishes himself as one of the most prolific and gallant knights of the time. During these tournaments, Marshall began to create and mold friendships with the most powerful and influential men of the day. In 1183, during a rebellion against his father, Prince Henry contracted dysentery. As his health rapidly deteriorated, Prince Henry gave William his cloak, which had a Crusader's cross stitched on it, and made him promise to deliver it to the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. William pledged to fulfill his request. Prince Henry died shortly there after. Afterward, Marshall traveled to the holy-land to deliver the prince's cloak. He remained in Jerusalem for two years. Upon his return to England, Marshall is welcomed into the King's military household. War, counsel and command were now his daily life. William is a common figure in the court and currently does not have a prominent status. Marshall faithfully serves King Henry II during the last years of his reign. The King has two heirs to the throne in Richard and John. This presents a problem of sorts for Henry. Richard, the most capable and competent, appears destined to descend the throne. Henry would prefer John in succeeding him as king, however he realizes that Richard is by far the most qualified and prolific of the two. Toward the end of Henry's rule, Richard rebels against his father, joining Phillip II of France. The two begin a series of battles against the King. During this time period, William remains faithful to Henry. Marshall inevitably realizes that his current enemy may well become his future king. This conflict does not influence William's fidelity for his King. His loyalty to Henry remains in tact and is not compromised despite the fact that treason might have seemed advantageous to him at the time. These wars coupled with his bitter relationship with Richard take a heavy toll on the King. In 1189, Henry's health gradually deteriorates until he eventually dies. Despite their past differences, Richard returns home to England for his father's funeral and to assume his birthright of the throne. The count, soon to be king, was already turning in his mind the execution of the grand plan that was to become the Third Crusade. After he becomes king, Richard has a meeting with Marshall. Richard decides to retain Marshall into his own military household. Richard also decides to fulfill a promise to Marshall from his father. Henry had promised William the title of Lord of Striguil. This title also included for Marshall the marriage of Isabel de Clare. Richard raised Marshall to the higher circles of power. In 1189, William Marshall becomes an official magnate. Richard appreciates the loyalty and integrity that Marshall possessed while serving under his father. He also recognizes that Marshall's skill and knowledge are superior and practically unmatched in this field. Richard entrusts the security of his kingdom to Marshall, along with a few other individuals, while he is away on the Third Crusade. Richard remained in the Holy Land for about five years. He returns to England in 1195. For the rest of Richard's reign William Marshall was deeply engaged in the business of the court, and for the most part he spent the five years in France. King Richard's rule over England ended abruptly. He was killed while trying to besiege a small castle. On his deathbed, Richard left his kingdom to his younger brother John. John was not a successful or efficient king. Many territories of the kingdom were lost to France during John's reign. This didn't prevent William from prospering during John's reign. Marshall acquired many lands during this time period, as well as the prestige that accompanies being a large landowner. It is during the reign of King John that Marshall earns the official title Earl of Pembroke. John levied heavy taxes on England and reserved the right to dispense punishment as he saw fit. John became extremely unpopular with the barons of that age. Eventually, these events all contributed to John being forced to sign the Magna Carta, the first basic document of the British constitution, which eventually lead to the creation of the English Parliament. Loyalty to the king during this time was most difficult for Marshall. After a rebellion by the Barons, John grew ill beyond reconciliation. He died in 1216. This was the third king that Marshall had seen buried during his service to the England. Henry III was to be the next King of England. William was chosen by his peers as the regent for the nine year old Henry III. This reestablished royal rule in England. Marshall watched over the noble household and cared for the young king until his own death on May 14, 1219. William served faithfully under three kings and served as regent for a fourth. His loyalty and honor were never compromised. His oaths of fealty and innate sense of honor governed his entire life. Because of his commitments, William Marshall will remain the most outstanding knight of the Middle Ages. WORKS CITED Crouch, David. 1990. William Marshall Court, Career and Chivalry in the Angevin Empire. Longman Publishing, New York. Address the proposition that William Marshall was not only a premier exemplar of chivalry, the 'perfect knight', but was also the greatest courtier of his age. William Marshall is considered by many to be the epitome of knighthood and chivalry, as well as being an outstanding ambassador, during the turbulent twelfth and thirteenth centuries of England. From a virtually obscure beginning, William evolves into one of the most dominant stately figures of the time in England. During his brilliant military and political career, William served as knight for the courts of Kings Henry II, Richard (the Lion-hearted), and John. William was born around 1147 to John Marshall and Sybil of Salisbury during the reign of King Stephen. His father, John Marshall, served as a court officer and eventually earned the status of a minor baron. John Marshall was a shrewd soldier and a skilled negotiator. He was the premier example of lordship in William's life. William's relationship with his father would be brief and he would never experience him beyond his childhood. John Marshall died in 1165. John would leave a legacy behind that would influence William's life and spark the future of his outstanding career both as a soldier and a courtier. At age thirteen William was sent to William De Tancarville, to begin his military training for the knighthood. William De Tancarville was known throughout Europe as one of the grander patrons of knighthood. In the Tancarville household, William would learn courtliness in addition to all other prerequisites found in a professional soldier of the day. After six years of being a squire in the Tancarville Household, Marshall was knighted in 1166. In 1170, King Henry II appointed William to the head of his son's mesnie or military household. William was responsible for protecting, training, and maintaining the military household for Prince Henry. In 1173, William knighted the young Henry, becoming his lord of chivalry. During this time period, Marshall earns many victories on the tournament field and here he first establishes himself as one of the most prolific and gallant knights of the time. During these tournaments, Marshall began to create and mold friendships with the most powerful and influential men of the day. In 1183, during a rebellion against his father, Prince Henry contracted dysentery. As his health rapidly deteriorated, Prince Henry gave William his cloak, which had a Crusader's cross stitched on it, and made him promise to deliver it to the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. William pledged to fulfill his request. Prince Henry died shortly there after. Afterward, Marshall traveled to the holy-land to deliver the prince's cloak. He remained in Jerusalem for two years. Upon his return to England, Marshall is welcomed into the King's military household. War, counsel and command were now his daily life. William is a common figure in the court and currently does not have a prominent status. Marshall faithfully serves King Henry II during the last years of his reign. The King has two heirs to the throne in Richard and John. This presents a problem of sorts for Henry. Richard, the most capable and competent, appears destined to descend the throne. Henry would prefer John in succeeding him as king, however he realizes that Richard is by far the most qualified and prolific of the two. Toward the end of Henry's rule, Richard rebels against his father, joining Phillip II of France. The two begin a series of battles against the King. During this time period, William remains faithful to Henry. Marshall inevitably realizes that his current enemy may well become his future king. This conflict does not influence William's fidelity for his King. His loyalty to Henry remains in tact and is not compromised despite the fact that treason might have seemed advantageous to him at the time. These wars coupled with his bitter relationship with Richard take a heavy toll on the King. In 1189, Henry's health gradually deteriorates until he eventually dies. Despite their past differences, Richard returns home to England for his father's funeral and to assume his birthright of the throne. The count, soon to be king, was already turning in his mind the execution of the grand plan that was to become the Third Crusade. After he becomes king, Richard has a meeting with Marshall. Richard decides to retain Marshall into his own military household. Richard also decides to fulfill a promise to Marshall from his father. Henry had promised William the title of Lord of Striguil. This title also included for Marshall the marriage of Isabel de Clare. Richard raised Marshall to the higher circles of power. In 1189, William Marshall becomes an official magnate. Richard appreciates the loyalty and integrity that Marshall possessed while serving under his father. He also recognizes that Marshall's skill and knowledge are superior and practically unmatched in this field. Richard entrusts the security of his kingdom to Marshall, along with a few other individuals, while he is away on the Third Crusade. Richard remained in the Holy Land for about five years. He returns to England in 1195. For the rest of Richard's reign William Marshall was deeply engaged in the business of the court, and for the most part he spent the five years in France. King Richard's rule over England ended abruptly. He was killed while trying to besiege a small castle. On his deathbed, Richard left his kingdom to his younger brother John. John was not a successful or efficient king. Many territories of the kingdom were lost to France during John's reign. This didn't prevent William from prospering during John's reign. Marshall acquired many lands during this time period, as well as the prestige that accompanies being a large landowner. It is during the reign of King John that Marshall earns the official title Earl of Pembroke. John levied heavy taxes on England and reserved the right to dispense punishment as he saw fit. John became extremely unpopular with the barons of that age. Eventually, these events all contributed to John being forced to sign the Magna Carta, the first basic document of the British constitution, which eventually lead to the creation of the English Parliament. Loyalty to the king during this time was most difficult for Marshall. After a rebellion by the Barons, John grew ill beyond reconciliation. He died in 1216. This was the third king that Marshall had seen buried during his service to the England. Henry III was to be the next King of England. William was chosen by his peers as the regent for the nine year old Henry III. This reestablished royal rule in England. Marshall watched over the noble household and cared for the young king until his own death on May 14, 1219. William served faithfully under three kings and served as regent for a fourth. His loyalty and honor were never compromised. His oaths of fealty and innate sense of honor governed his entire life. Because of his commitments, William Marshall will remain the most outstanding knight of the Middle Ages. WORKS CITED Crouch, David. 1990. William Marshall Court, Career and Chivalry in the Angevin Empire. Longman Publishing, New York.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Shakespear.TXT
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William Shakespear

Born on April 23, 1564 in Stratford-Upon-Avon, England.  His father John 
Shakespeare and his mother Mary Arden.  W.S. was able to attend grammer 
school and learned Greek and Latin classics (this is comparable to college
education today).  At age 14 his father lost the family fortune and remained
poor until his death

At 18 he married Anne Hathaway in 1582.  She was 26 years old.  They had 
three children Suzanne(1583) and the twins Hamnet and Judith(1585).

In his mid-twenties he left Stratford(supposedly because of poaching on the 
Queen's land) for London.  His first job with Richard Burbage's men was as 
an osler; next an actor.

No one knows what he was doing during 1585-1592.

By 1592 he had become known in London as an actor and playwright; his rise
was rapid.

Queen Elizabeth 1 supported the arts and the theater.

In 1592 a plague closed the theaters(Shakespeare wrote poetry during this 
time to support himself).  In 1593 a brief reopening of the theater happened.
In 1594 theaters reopened.

The troupe became the Lord Chamberlain's Men set up on a servant co-op
structure.  Requirements for actors:

1. loud voice
2. sing and play instruments
3. good swordsman
4. good memories

During this time he wrote many comedies:  Comedy of Errors first of any 
status.

Histories were written in support of the gov't.  This is where they were
receiving much of the financial support so they wanted to keep the gov't
(Queen) happy.  W.S. was a major stockholder in the theater.

1597-bought New Place in Stratford(2nd largest house)

1599-Lord Chamberlain's Men bought land and built the Globe Theater in 
Southwark(South Bank of the Thames River).  W.S. owned 1/10th

1603-Queen Elizabeth died.  King James took reign of England.  He loved the 
arts more than the queen.  The name was changed from Lord Chamberlain's Men 
to the King's Men.

1608-Added to the Globe Theater by buying the Black Friars Theater and giving
performances there also.  W.S. owned 1/7th

1613-Fire at the Globe during a performance of Henry 8th; rebuilt within a 
year.  Left comedies and histories to write tragedies soon after the Globe 
reopened.

Sonnets-published in 1610 but circulated earlier.

First Tragedy: The Tragedy of Hamlet

Late plays: Cymbeleneand and Winter's Tale became bitter, ironic, and sad
(much as his mood was changing toward the latter parts of his life.)

The Tempest: last play written as a posible farewell to the theater

He wrote 37 plays throughout his life.

1612-retired as a country gentlemen to New Place in Stratford

1616-wrote his will(by himself)

1616-April 23,1616 - died on the day and the month he was born

1623 - first folio was done by two of the men who admired him from his
company at the Globe.
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Shakespeare 2.TXT
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843
William Shakespeare was a great English playwright, dramatist and poet who lived during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Shakespeare is considered to be the greatest playwright of all time. No other writer's plays have been produced so many times or read so widely in so many countries as his. Shakespeare was born to middle class parents. His father, John, was a Stratford businessman. He was a glove maker who owned a leather shop. John Shakespeare was a well known and respected man in the town. He held several important local governmental positions. William Shakespeare's mother was Mary Arden. Though she was the daughter of a local farmer, she was related to a family of considerable wealth and social standing. Mary Arden and John Shakespeare were married in 1557. William Shakespeare was born in Stratford in 1564. He was one of eight children. The Shakespeare's were well respected prominent people. When William Shakespeare was about seven years old, he probably began attending the Stratford Grammar School with other boys of his social class. Students went to school year round attending school for nine hours a day. The teachers were strict disciplinarians. Though Shakespeare spent long hours at school, his boyhood was probably fascinating. Stratford was a lively town and during holidays, it was known to put on pageants and many popular shows. It also held several large fairs during the year. Stratford was a exciting place to live. Stratford also had fields and woods surrounding it giving William the opportunity to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon which ran through the town allowed him to fish also. Shakespeare's' poems and plays show his love of nature and rural life which reflects his childhood. On November 28, 1582, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway of the neighboring village of Shottery. She was twenty-six, and he was only eighteen at the time. They had three children. Susana was their first and then they had twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, died in 1596. In 1607, his daughter Susana got married. Shakespeare's other daughter, Judith, got married in 1616. In London, Shakespeare's career took off. It is believed that he may have become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. By that time, he had joined one of the city's repertory theater companies. These companies were made up of a permanent cast of actors who presented different plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on admission from their audience. Scholars know that Shakespeare belonged to one of the most popular acting companies in London called The Lord Chamberlain's Men. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group from 1594 for the rest of his career. By 1594, at least six of Shakespeare's plays had been produced. During Shakespeare's life, there were two monarchs who ruled England. They were Henry the eighth and Elizabeth the first. Both were impressed with Shakespeare which made his name known. There is evidence that he was a member of a traveling theater group, and a schoolmaster. In 1594, he became an actor and playwright for Lord Chamberlain's Men. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theater. He also was a part owner of the Blackfriars Theater as of 1609. Shakespeare retired to Stratford in 1613 where he wrote many of his excellent plays. There are many reasons as to why William Shakespeare is so famous. He is generally considered to be both the greatest dramatist the world has ever known as well as the finest poet who has written in the English language. Many reasons can be given for Shakespeare's enormous appeal. His fame basically is from his great understanding of human nature. He was able to find universal human qualities and put them in a dramatic situation creating characters that are timeless. Yet he had the ability to create characters that are highly individual human beings. Their struggles in life are universal. Sometimes they are successful and sometimes their lives are full of pain, suffering, and failure. In addition to his understanding and realistic view of human nature, Shakespeare had a vast knowledge of a variety of subjects. These subjects include music, law, Bible, stage, art, politics, history, hunting, and sports. Shakespeare had a tremendous influence on culture and literature throughout the world. He contributed greatly to the development of the English language. Many words and phrases from Shakespeare's plays and poems have become part of our speech. Shakespeare's plays and poems have become a required part of education in the United States. Therefore, his ideas on subjects such as romantic love, heroism, comedy, and tragedy have helped shape the attitudes of millions of people. His portrayal of historical figures and events have influenced our thinking more than what has been written in history books. The world has admired and respected many great writers, but only Shakespeare has generated such enormous continuing interest. My source states explanations rather than opinions on why Shakespeare's contributions to literature are so vast. My source devoted thirty pages to William Shakespeare. Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into three major categories. These are comedy, tragedy, and history. Three plays which are in the category of comedy are "The Comedy of Errors", "The Taming of the Shrew", and "The Two Gentlemen of Verone". Three plays which are in the category of tragedy are "Romeo and Juliet", "Titus Andronicus", and "Julius Caesar". In the category of history, three plays are "Henry V", "Richard II", and "Richard
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\William Shakespeare.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
William Shakespeare


Born on April 23, 1564 in Stratford-Upon-Avon, England.  His father John
Shakespeare and his mother Mary Arden.  W.S. was able to attend grammer school
and learned Greek and Latin classics (this is comparable to college education
today).  At age 14 his father lost the family fortune and remained poor until
his death

At 18 he married Anne Hathaway in 1582.  She was 26 years old.  They had three
children Suzanne(1583) and the twins Hamnet and Judith(1585).

In his mid-twenties he left Stratford(supposedly because of poaching on the
Queen's land) for London.  His first job with Richard Burbage's men was as an
osler; next an actor.

No one knows what he was doing during 1585-1592.

By 1592 he had become known in London as an actor and playwright; his rise was
rapid.

Queen Elizabeth 1 supported the arts and the theater.

In 1592 a plague closed the theaters(Shakespeare wrote poetry during this time
to support himself).  In 1593 a brief reopening of the theater happened. In 1594
theaters reopened.

The troupe became the Lord Chamberlain's Men set up on a servant co-op structure.

 Requirements for actors:

1. loud voice 2. sing and play instruments 3. good swordsman 4. good memories

During this time he wrote many comedies:  Comedy of Errors first of any status.

Histories were written in support of the gov't.  This is where they were
receiving much of the financial support so they wanted to keep the gov't (Queen)
happy.  W.S. was a major stockholder in the theater.

1597-bought New Place in Stratford(2nd largest house)

1599-Lord Chamberlain's Men bought land and built the Globe Theater in
Southwark(South Bank of the Thames River).  W.S. owned 1/10th

1603-Queen Elizabeth died.  King James took reign of England.  He loved the
arts more than the queen.  The name was changed from Lord Chamberlain's Men to
the King's Men.

1608-Added to the Globe Theater by buying the Black Friars Theater and giving
performances there also.  W.S. owned 1/7th

1613-Fire at the Globe during a performance of Henry 8th; rebuilt within a year.
 Left comedies and histories to write tragedies soon after the Globe reopened.

Sonnets-published in 1610 but circulated earlier.

First Tragedy: The Tragedy of Hamlet

Late plays: Cymbeleneand and Winter's Tale became bitter, ironic, and sad (much
as his mood was changing toward the latter parts of his life.)

The Tempest: last play written as a posible farewell to the theater

He wrote 37 plays throughout his life.

1612-retired as a country gentlemen to New Place in Stratford

1616-wrote his will(by himself)

1616-April 23,1616 - died on the day and the month he was born

1623 - first folio was done by two of the men who admired him from his company
at the Globe.



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
613
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a remarkable musician and composer. Mozart was born in Salzburg Austria in 1756. By the age of four it was evident that he possessed tremendous musical talent and music memory. His father Leopold who was a master violinist and composer decided to enroll young Wolfgang in harpsichord lessons. At age five Mozart was composing music and by age six he had mastered the keyboard. By his early teens, he had mastered the piano, violin, and harpsichord and was writing symphonies and operas. Amadeus is a drama of the 18th century in Vienna Austria, starring Tom Hulce as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Murray Abraham as Salieri, Elizabeth Berridge as Constanze Mozart, and Jeffery Jones as Emperor Joseph II. It is a biographical film that is as much about Salieri as it is about Mozart. Amadeus is a portrait of Salieri and the overwhelming jealousy he had for Mozart. From the time Salieri was a little boy he was consumed by music. He wanted nothing more but to be a legend in the music world, but Mozart is portrayed as a college preppy who is rude, arrogant and extremely talented. Although he is extremely talented it is also obvious he wants to be a common man in society. After attempting to commit suicide Antonio Salieri finds himself in a mental institution. He once was a court composer for Emperor Joseph II. He had written forty operas of his own and Mozart was his living idol. Unlike Mozart's' father, Salieri's father did not like music and did not support his efforts. While a patient in the institution the story of Amadeus is related by Salieri to a priest. He tells him of his jealousy for Mozart and his distrust of God, because God gave Mozart all the talent and did not pass that talent to him. Salieri's downfall occurred when Mozart was invited to the royal manner of Emperor Joseph II and simply astounded everyone. Salieri is immediately overwhelmed with jealousy. Mozart seems to lead a rebellious life but his operatic works simply overwhelmed the royalty and higher ups. At age twenty-six Mozart married Constanze against his fathers will. After his marriage, finances were extremely tight, due to the fact he was a poor businessman he eventually led a life of poverty. Due to the fact his wife Constanze was subjected to a plot of sabotage by selling Mozart's music to Salieri. When she became pregnant the lady that stayed with them and cared for the family was also involved in an attempt to pass his music on to Salieri. Both attempts were quite risky since Mozart never made additional copies of his works. Prior to the birth of their first child Mozart's father moved in with them. He and his father never had a good relationship and this was obvious after his father passed away. Mozart carried the guilt of his father's death and this was typified by the writing of a requiem that is almost intimidating. In comparing the customs of that time period to that of today it is very obvious, the operas and symphonies were attended only by royalty and the very elite. While wigs were a societal emblem signifying wealth and royalty. At age thirty-five Mozart passed away. In probably my favorite scene, on his deathbed Mozart dictates the music in his head to Salieri. This scene alone portrays his genius IQ level. In his short life he composed over 600 works, including 21 stage and opera works, 15 masses, over 50 symphonies, 25 piano concertos, 12 violin concertos, 27 concert arias, 17 piano sonatas, 26 string quartets, the list is never ending. I really didn't feel there was a plot to the film, like some people I don't understand opera and at the first I was lost. The music plays a very important role in the movie, but I thought there was too much. There is a scene in the first act that describes my feelings of the movie, after Emperor Joseph II had watched his first Mozart opera, he said he liked it but there were too many notes. The movie was well done but I didn't understand what the point was.
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Woman of the Year 1953 Queen Elizabeth II.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

 
Woman of the Year:  1953-Queen Elizabeth II

	From the day  she was born, the life of Queen Elizabeth II shows that she deserved to receive the title "Woman of the Year."  She had practical intelligence since she was a kid and she respected peoples opinions.  
	Queen Elizabeth II was born on April 21, 1926 at the London home of her mother's parents, Lord and Lady Strathmore. She was baptized at Buckingham Palace and  named Elizabeth Alexandra Mary five weeks later.
	Elizabeth's father was Albert, the Duke of York.  He was the second son of  King   George V.  When his dad died in 1936, his brother was supposed to become king but he resigned.  So he became king. Her mother was Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon.  She was a member of the Scottish aristocracy.  Her sister Margaret Rose was born on August 21, 1930, when she was 4 years old in Glamis Castle.   Her grandparents were George V and Queen Mary, and Lord and Lady Strathmore. 
	Elizabeth and her sister were homed schooled.  She was taught by Miss Marion Crawford, a young Scottish woman.  At the age of 5, she usually woke up at 6 a.m. and went out for riding lessons.  After that, they had lunch, lessons in French, voice and piano.  In the afternoon she would play in the garden, usually with her sister and Miss Crawford.  She became heiress to the throne at the age of ten.  She had to learn court etiquette and diplomatic practice from her grandmother, Queen Mary.  She studied the geography and history of the Commonwealth countries and the U.S.  Elizabeth went to Eton College for private lessons in law.  She was training for future duties.   Being a princess was not easy.  She had to prepare for a hard life, never make mistakes, never look bored and never be sick if possible.
	Elizabeth grew up at the families London home, a large Victorian House on 145 Picadilly and at the Royal Lodge in Windsor Great Park.  When her dad became King they moved to Buckingham Palace.  It was more like a museum than a house.  Elizabeth spent their holidays with their grandparents on both sides.  When she spent it with the Strathmore it would sometimes be at the Glamis Castle.  It was a rugged, rambling old Scottish fortress.  "It looked like something out of a child's adventure stories-paradise of echoing rooms, long passage and mysterious stairways." (Trease 1953, 231)  Elizabeth enjoyed exploring the castle when she was young.  She was 13 when World War II occurred.  A year later bombs started falling on London.  Elizabeth and her sister had to go to safety at the fortress of Windsor Castle.  She returned to London on October 13, 1940.  She then joined the woman's branch army and took training as an automobile driver and mechanic.
	Prince Philip was an officer in the Royal Navy during World War II.  He met Elizabeth in the war.  Later he dropped the title of prince to become a British citizen.  He took his mother's family name, Mountbatten.  On November 20, 1946, Philip and Elizabeth were married at Westminister Abbey.  There first kid was born on November 14.1948.  His name was Prince Charles Philip Arthur George and was later known as Prince of Wales.  They also had Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise on August 15, 1950, Prince Andrew Albert Christian Edward on February 19, 1960, and Prince Edward Antony Richard Louis on March 10, 1964.
	Elizabeth and Philip were on a tour in Kenya when her dad died on February 6, 1952, and she automatically became Queen Elizabeth II.  She was not just Queen of England but Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and more.  They considered her a Queen but she did not have power over them (Trease 1953, 234).  Queen Elizabeth the II had no political power.  Some of her duties as a queen was constitutional work (opening the Parliament), entertainment of foreign dignitaries, giving tours of Britain and the commonwealth.  But most of all, she had to be someone the people could look up to without anyone gossiping or criticizing her (McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography 1973, 569).
	In 1953, this shy, dedicated and determined 26-year old queen was selected Woman of the Year.  She was chosen because she was a symbol of faith.  She was also a reminder of a great pass and was a sign of a good future. Queen Elizabeth II represented in her person all that they hold best in the British way of life (Time Almanac 1994, 7).  Another reason was she had a close relationship between her people.  She was willing to listen to them and willing to let them participate in decisions like the one against stiff conservative prejudice.  Her goal was "to find the proper balance between simplicity and richness-where she would lend majesty to her people-but not outrage those who demand a more democratic example." (Time Almanac 1994, 5).  The opinion of a London editorialist said "It may well be that we here in Britain, by accident rather than design, have stumbled back to the original, the true and abiding function of monarchy, which lay in the magical power of kings...to represent, express and effect the aspiration of the collective subconscious." (Time Almanac 1994, 4).
	The Queen Elizabeth Island named in honor of Queen Elizabeth II.  It is located in Canada, north of Lancaster Sound and Melville Sound.  The total amount of land added up is about 160,000 square miles.
	People may think that princes or princesses are spoiled when little, but they aren't.  They had to prepare for a hard life ahead of them, when they become king or queen.  They had to find a way to communicate to the people and make them listen.  Queen Elizabeth II found a way-by being willing to listen to them and allowing them to take part in decisions.  She won the hearts of her people and the title "Woman of the Year."
 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Woman of the Year.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Woman of the Year:  1953-Queen Elizabeth II


	From the day  she was born, the life of Queen Elizabeth II shows that
she deserved to receive the title "Woman of the Year."  She had practical
intelligence since she was a kid and she respected peoples opinions.
	Queen Elizabeth II was born on April 21, 1926 at the London home of her
mother's parents, Lord and Lady Strathmore. She was baptized at Buckingham
Palace and  named Elizabeth Alexandra Mary five weeks later.
     Elizabeth's father was Albert, the Duke of York.  He was the second son
of  King   George V.  When his dad died in 1936, his brother was supposed to
become king but he resigned.  So he became king. Her mother was Lady Elizabeth
Bowes-Lyon.  She was a member of the Scottish aristocracy.  Her sister Margaret
Rose was born on August 21, 1930, when she was 4 years old in Glamis Castle.
Her grandparents were George V and Queen Mary, and Lord and Lady Strathmore.
	Elizabeth and her sister were homed schooled.  She was taught by Miss
Marion Crawford, a young Scottish woman.  At the age of 5, she usually woke up
at 6 a.m. and went out for riding lessons.  After that, they had lunch, lessons
in French, voice and piano.  In the afternoon she would play in the garden,
usually with her sister and Miss Crawford.  She became heiress to the throne at
the age of ten.  She had to learn court etiquette and diplomatic practice from
her grandmother, Queen Mary.  She studied the geography and history of the
Commonwealth countries and the U.S.  Elizabeth went to Eton College for private
lessons in law.  She was training for future duties.   Being a princess was not
easy.  She had to prepare for a hard life, never make mistakes, never look bored
and never be sick if possible.
	Elizabeth grew up at the families London home, a large Victorian House
on 145 Picadilly and at the Royal Lodge in Windsor Great Park.  When her dad
became King they moved to Buckingham Palace.  It was more like a museum than a
house.  Elizabeth spent their holidays with their grandparents on both sides.
When she spent it with the Strathmore it would sometimes be at the Glamis Castle.
 It was a rugged, rambling old Scottish fortress.  "It looked like something out
of a child's adventure stories-paradise of echoing rooms, long passage and
mysterious stairways." (Trease 1953, 231)  Elizabeth enjoyed exploring the
castle when she was young.  She was 13 when World War II occurred.  A year later
bombs started falling on London.  Elizabeth and her sister had to go to safety
at the fortress of Windsor Castle.  She returned to London on October 13, 1940.
She then joined the woman's branch army and took training as an automobile
driver and mechanic.
	Prince Philip was an officer in the Royal Navy during World War II.  He
met Elizabeth in the war.  Later he dropped the title of prince to become a
British citizen.  He took his mother's family name, Mountbatten.  On November 20,
1946, Philip and Elizabeth were married at Westminister Abbey.  There first kid
was born on November 14.1948.  His name was Prince Charles Philip Arthur George
and was later known as Prince of Wales.  They also had Princess Anne Elizabeth
Alice Louise on August 15, 1950, Prince Andrew Albert Christian Edward on
February 19, 1960, and Prince Edward Antony Richard Louis on March 10, 1964.
	Elizabeth and Philip were on a tour in Kenya when her dad died on
February 6, 1952, and she automatically became Queen Elizabeth II.  She was not
just Queen of England but Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and more.
They considered her a Queen but she did not have power over them (Trease 1953,
234).  Queen Elizabeth the II had no political power.  Some of her duties as a
queen was constitutional work (opening the Parliament), entertainment of foreign
dignitaries, giving tours of Britain and the commonwealth.  But most of all, she
had to be someone the people could look up to without anyone gossiping or
criticizing her (McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography 1973, 569).
	In 1953, this shy, dedicated and determined 26-year old queen was
selected Woman of the Year.  She was chosen because she was a symbol of faith.
She was also a reminder of a great pass and was a sign of a good future. Queen
Elizabeth II represented in her person all that they hold best in the British
way of life (Time Almanac 1994, 7).  Another reason was she had a close
relationship between her people.  She was willing to listen to them and willing
to let them participate in decisions like the one against stiff conservative
prejudice.  Her goal was "to find the proper balance between simplicity and
richness-where she would lend majesty to her people-but not outrage those who
demand a more democratic example." (Time Almanac 1994, 5).  The opinion of a
London editorialist said "It may well be that we here in Britain, by accident
rather than design, have stumbled back to the original, the true and abiding
function of monarchy, which lay in the magical power of kings...to represent,
express and effect the aspiration of the collective subconscious." (Time Almanac
1994, 4).
	The Queen Elizabeth Island named in honor of Queen Elizabeth II.  It is
located in Canada, north of Lancaster Sound and Melville Sound.  The total
amount of land added up is about 160,000 square miles.
	People may think that princes or princesses are spoiled when little, but
they aren't.  They had to prepare for a hard life ahead of them, when they
become king or queen.  They had to find a way to communicate to the people and
make them listen.  Queen Elizabeth II found a way-by being willing to listen to
them and allowing them to take part in decisions.  She won the hearts of her
people and the title "Woman of the Year."



 
















f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Woodrow Wilson 4.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Wilson, Woodrow







Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States (1913-21), secured a



legislative program of progressive domestic reform, guided his country



during WORLD WAR I, and sought a peace settlement based on high moral



principles, to be guaranteed by the LEAGUE OF NATIONS.











Early Life and Career







Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born in Staunton, Va., on Dec. 28, 1856. He was



profoundly influenced by a devoutly religious household headed by his



father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, a Presbyterian minister, and his mother,



Janet Woodrow Wilson, the daughter of a minister. Woodrow (he dropped the



Thomas in 1879) attended (1873-74) Davidson College and in 1875 entered the



College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), graduating in 1879.



Wilson studied (1879-80) at the University of Virginia Law School, briefly



practiced law in Atlanta, and in 1883 entered The Johns Hopkins University



for graduate study in political science. His widely acclaimed book,



Congressional Government (1885), was published a year before he received



the doctoral degree. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson; they had three



daughters.







Wilson taught at Bryn Mawr College (1885-88) and Wesleyan University



in Connecticut (1888-90) before he was called (1890) to Princeton as



professor of jurisprudence and political economy. A popular lecturer,



Wilson also wrote a score of articles and nine books, including Division



and Reunion (1893) and his five-volume History of the American People



(1902). In 1902 he was the unanimous choice of the trustees to become



Princeton's president. His reforms included reorganization of the



departmental structure, revision of the curriculum, raising of academic



standards, tightening of student discipline, and the still-famous



preceptorial system of instruction. But Wilson's quad plan--an attempt to



create colleges or quadrangles where students and faculty members would



live and study together--was defeated. Opposed by wealthy alumni and



trustees, he also lost his battle for control of the proposed graduate



college.







The Princeton controversies, seen nationally as a battle between



democracy and vested wealth, propelled Wilson into the political arena.



George Harvey, editor of Harper's Weekly, with help from New Jersey's



Democratic party bosses, persuaded Wilson to run for governor in 1910.



After scoring an easy victory, he cast off his machine sponsors and



launched a remarkable program of progressive legislation, including a



direct-primary law, antitrust laws, a corrupt-practices act, a workmen's



compensation act, and measures establishing a public utility commission and



permitting cities to adopt the commission form of government.







Success in New Jersey made him a contender for the Democratic



presidential nomination. Although Wilson entered the 1912 Democratic



National Convention a poor second to Speaker of the House Champ Clark, his



strength increased as Clark's faded, and he won the nomination after 46



ballots. Offering a program of reform that he called the New Freedom,



Wilson ran against a divided Republican party. In November, with only 42



percent of the popular vote, he won 435 electoral votes to 88 for



Progressive candidate Theodore Roosevelt and 8 for the Republican



candidate, President William Howard Taft.







 



Progressive as President







By presenting his program personally before the Democratically



controlled Congress, employing personal persuasion as well as patronage,



and appealing to the American public with his stirring rhetoric, Wilson won



passage of an impressive array of progressive measures. The Underwood



Tariff Act (1913), the first reduction in duties since the Civil War, also



established a modest income tax. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) provided



for currency and banking reform. Antitrust legislation followed in 1914,



when Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act and the CLAYTON



ANTI-TRUST ACT. In 1915, Wilson supported the La Follette Seamen's bill,



designed to improve the working conditions of sailors. The following year



he signed the Federal Farm Loan Act, providing low-interest credit to



farmers; the Adamson Act, granting an 8-hour day to interstate railroad



workers; and the Child Labor Act, which limited children's working hours.







In foreign policy, Wilson was faced with greater problems than any



president since Abraham Lincoln. He attempted to end U.S. dollar diplomacy



and promote the mediation of disputes. He rejected a loan to China on the



grounds that it impaired Chinese sovereignty, and he helped thwart Japanese



designs on the Chinese mainland. He approved Secretary of State William



Jennings BRYAN's efforts to minimize the danger of war through a series of



"conciliation treaties" and joined him in an unsuccessful attempt to



negotiate a Pan-American pact guaranteeing the integrity of the Western



Hemisphere. In attempting to deal with revolutionary Mexico, Wilson first



sought to promote self-government by refusing to recognize the military



usurper Victoriano HUERTA and forcing him to allow free elections. When



Huerta resisted, Wilson tried to force him out by ordering (April 1914)



limited American intervention at Veracruz and by supporting



constitutionalist Venustiano CARRANZA. Mediation by Argentina, Brazil, and



Chile helped to prevent a general conflict and led to Huerta's resignation



in July 1914.







A year later, Wilson recognized Carranza's provisional government, and



in 1916 he intervened again after Carranza's rival, guerrilla leader Pancho



VILLA, had raided a town in New Mexico, killing several Americans. In 1915



and 1916 he reluctantly sent troops to Haiti and Santo Domingo to establish



U.S. protectorates.







After the outbreak of the European war in August 1914, Wilson



struggled with considerable success to fulfill the obligations of



neutrality, to keep trade channels open, and to prevent any abridgement of



U.S. rights, all in the face of the British blockade of Germany and the



latter's introduction of submarine warfare. He warned Germany in February



1915 that it would be held to "strict accountability" for the loss of



American lives in the sinking of neutral or passenger ships. After the



LUSITANIA was sunk in May 1915 (with the loss of 128 Americans), he



negotiated with such firmness that Secretary Bryan, fearing a declaration



of war, resigned in protest. In September 1915, Wilson won pledges from



Germany to provide for the safety of passengers caught in submarine



attacks, and in May 1916 the Germans agreed to abandon unrestricted



submarine warfare.







Running on his record of reform and with the slogan "He kept us out of



the war," Wilson sought reelection in 1916 against Republican Charles Evans



Hughes. The president won a narrow victory, receiving 277 out of 531



electoral votes.







 



Wartime Leader







When Germany renewed all-out submarine warfare in 1917, Wilson severed



diplomatic relations. In April he asked Congress for a declaration of war,



asserting that "the world must be made safe for democracy."







As war president, Wilson made a major contribution to the modern



presidency as he led Americans in a spectacular mobilization of the



nation's resources. Establishing a series of war agencies, he extended



federal control over industry, transportation, labor, food, fuel, and



prices. In May 1917 he forced through Congress a Selective Service bill



under which 2.8 million men were drafted by war's end. He sought and



received legislative delegation of increased powers, thus leaving for his



successors the precedents and tools to meet future crises.











Wilson the Peacemaker







From 1914, Wilson had sought ways to mediate the conflict. In 1915 and



1916 he sent his advisor and confidant, Col. Edward M. HOUSE, to Europe to



work toward a negotiated peace and postwar cooperation. In the spring of



1916, Wilson joined the call for a postwar association of nations; on Jan.



22, 1917, he called for a peace without victory and reaffirmed his support



for a league of nations.







With the United States in the war, Wilson hoped to have a stronger



influence on the peace settlement. On Jan. 8, 1918, he presented his



FOURTEEN POINTS, a comprehensive statement of war aims. It became at once a



war weapon and a peace program, inspiring the peoples of the Allied powers



while undermining the confidence of the Germans. Germany made its peace



overture in the hope of obtaining just treatment under Wilson's proposals.







Wilson headed the American delegation to the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE.



He erred seriously, however, by not developing bipartisan support for his



peace plans; he did not appoint a prominent Republican to the delegation,



and he called on voters to reelect a Democratic Congress in 1918 as a vote



of confidence. Most contests were decided on local issues, and when



Republicans captured both houses of Congress, his leadership seemed



repudiated.







Wilson was hailed as a hero upon his arrival in Europe. At the



conference (January-June 1919) Allied leaders Georges CLEMENCEAU, David



LLOYD GEORGE, and Vittorio ORLANDO favored a traditional settlement. Wilson



worked tirelessly for a peace along the lines of his Fourteen Points; only



his shrewd bargaining prevented even harsher terms from being imposed on



Germany. Wilson characterized the Versailles Treaty as the best obtainable



compromise and put his hopes in the League of Nations, an integral part of



the treaty, as the institution through which inequities could be later



rectified.







Senate Republicans, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, refused to approve the



peace treaty without significant modifications of the U.S. commitment to



the League. Wilson accepted some compromise but then turned to the people.



In a national speaking tour he eloquently defended the League and U.S.



membership as essential to lasting world peace. Long months of exhausting



labor had weakened the president, however, and he collapsed on Sept. 25,



1919, following a speech in Pueblo, Colo.







A week later Wilson suffered a stroke that left him partially



incapacitated for the remainder of his life. From his bed he continued to



oppose severe restrictions to the League. The Senate, meanwhile, rejected



the treaty in November 1919 and March 1920. Wilson urged that the 1920



presidential election be a referendum on the League. Republican Warren G.



Harding, who had established a reputation as an opponent of the League, won



in a landslide.







In December 1920, Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for 1919. The



former president and his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, whom he



married in 1915, after the death of his first wife, continued to make their



home in Washington, D.C. Wilson died there on Feb. 3, 1924.











Bibliography: Baker, Ray S., Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters,



8 vols. (1927-39; repr. 1968); Bell, Herbert C. F., Woodrow



Wilson and the People (1945); Blum, John M., Woodrow Wilson and



the Politics of Morality (1956); Bragdon, Henry W., Woodrow



Wilson: The Academic Years (1967); Cooper, John M., The Warrior



and the Priest (1983); Ferrell, Robert H., Woodrow Wilson and



World War I: Nineteen Seventeen to Nineteen Twenty-one (1986);



Heckscher, August, Woodrow Wilson (1991); Latham, Earl, ed.,



The Philosophy and Policies of Woodrow Wilson (1975); Levin, N.



Gordon, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (1968); Link, Arthur



S., Wilson, 5 vols. (1947-65), Woodrow Wilson: A Brief



Biography (1963), and Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World,



1913-1921 (1982); Hirst, David W., et al., eds., The Papers of



Woodrow Wilson, 55 vols. (1966-86); Walworth, Arthur, Woodrow



Wilson, 3d ed. (1978).











NAME: Woodrow Wilson







28th President of the United States (1913-21)







Nickname: "Schoolmaster in Politics"







Born: Dec. 28, 1856, Staunton, Va.







Education: College of New Jersey (now Princeton University;



graduated 1879)







Profession: Teacher, Public Official







Religious affiliation: Presbyterian







Marriage: June 24, 1885, to Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914);



Dec. 18, 1915, to Edith Bolling Galt (1872-1961)







Children: Margaret Woodrow Wilson (1886-1944); Jessie Woodrow



Wilson (1887-1933); Eleanor Randolph Wilson (1889-1967)







Political Affiliation: Democrat







Writings: George Washington (1896); A History of the American



People (5 vols., 1902); Constitutional Government in the United



States (1908); Papers of Woodrow Wilson (1966- ), ed. by Arthur



S. Link, et al.







Died: Feb. 3, 1924, Washington, D.C.







Buried: National Cathedral, Washington, D.C.







Vice-President: Thomas R. Marshall







Cabinet Members:^ Secretary of State: William J. Bryan



(1913-15); Robert Lansing (1915-20); Bainbridge Colby (1920-21)



Secretary of the Treasury: William G. McAdoo (1913-18); Carter



Glass (1918-20); David F. Houston (1920-21) Secretary of War:



Lindley M. Garrison (1913-16); Newton D. Baker (1916-21)



Attorney General: James C. McReynolds (1913-14); Thomas W.



Gregory (1914-19); Alexander M. Palmer (1919-21) Postmaster



General: Albert S. Burleson Secretary of the Navy: Josephus



Daniels Secretary of the Interior: Franklin K. Lane (1913-20);



John B. Payne (1920-21) Secretary of Agriculture: David F.



Houston (1913-20); Edwin T. Meredith (1920-21) Secretary of



Commerce: William C. Redfield (1913-19); Joshua W. Alexander



(1919-21) Secretary of Labor: William B. Wilson 








































f:\12000 essays\biographies & people (629)\Woodrow Wilson.TXT
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++


 



Wilson, Woodrow







Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States (1913-21), secured a



legislative program of progressive domestic reform, guided his country



during WORLD WAR I, and sought a peace settlement based on high moral



principles, to be guaranteed by the LEAGUE OF NATIONS.











Early Life and Career







Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born in Staunton, Va., on Dec. 28, 1856. He was



profoundly influenced by a devoutly religious household headed by his



father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, a Presbyterian minister, and his mother,



Janet Woodrow Wilson, the daughter of a minister. Woodrow (he dropped the



Thomas in 1879) attended (1873-74) Davidson College and in 1875 entered the



College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), graduating in 1879.



Wilson studied (1879-80) at the University of Virginia Law School, briefly



practiced law in Atlanta, and in 1883 entered The Johns Hopkins University



for graduate study in political science. His widely acclaimed book,



Congressional Government (1885), was published a year before he received



the doctoral degree. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson; they had three



daughters.







Wilson taught at Bryn Mawr College (1885-88) and Wesleyan University



in Connecticut (1888-90) before he was called (1890) to Princeton as



professor of jurisprudence and political economy. A popular lecturer,



Wilson also wrote a score of articles and nine books, including Division



and Reunion (1893) and his five-volume History of the American People



(1902). In 1902 he was the unanimous choice of the trustees to become



Princeton's president. His reforms included reorganization of the



departmental structure, revision of the curriculum, raising of academic



standards, tightening of student discipline, and the still-famous



preceptorial system of instruction. But Wilson's quad plan--an attempt to



create colleges or quadrangles where students and faculty members would



live and study together--was defeated. Opposed by wealthy alumni and



trustees, he also lost his battle for control of the proposed graduate



college.







The Princeton controversies, seen nationally as a battle between



democracy and vested wealth, propelled Wilson into the political arena.



George Harvey, editor of Harper's Weekly, with help from New Jersey's



Democratic party bosses, persuaded Wilson to run for governor in 1910.



After scoring an easy victory, he cast off his machine sponsors and



launched a remarkable program of progressive legislation, including a



direct-primary law, antitrust laws, a corrupt-practices act, a workmen's



compensation act, and measures establishing a public utility commission and



permitting cities to adopt the commission form of government.







Success in New Jersey made him a contender for the Democratic



presidential nomination. Although Wilson entered the 1912 Democratic



National Convention a poor second to Speaker of the House Champ Clark, his



strength increased as Clark's faded, and he won the nomination after 46



ballots. Offering a program of reform that he called the New Freedom,



Wilson ran against a divided Republican party. In November, with only 42



percent of the popular vote, he won 435 electoral votes to 88 for



Progressive candidate Theodore Roosevelt and 8 for the Republican



candidate, President William Howard Taft.







 



Progressive as President







By presenting his program personally before the Democratically



controlled Congress, employing personal persuasion as well as patronage,



and appealing to the American public with his stirring rhetoric, Wilson won



passage of an impressive array of progressive measures. The Underwood



Tariff Act (1913), the first reduction in duties since the Civil War, also



established a modest income tax. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) provided



for currency and banking reform. Antitrust legislation followed in 1914,



when Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act and the CLAYTON



ANTI-TRUST ACT. In 1915, Wilson supported the La Follette Seamen's bill,



designed to improve the working conditions of sailors. The following year



he signed the Federal Farm Loan Act, providing low-interest credit to



farmers; the Adamson Act, granting an 8-hour day to interstate railroad



workers; and the Child Labor Act, which limited children's working hours.







In foreign policy, Wilson was faced with greater problems than any



president since Abraham Lincoln. He attempted to end U.S. dollar diplomacy



and promote the mediation of disputes. He rejected a loan to China on the



grounds that it impaired Chinese sovereignty, and he helped thwart Japanese



designs on the Chinese mainland. He approved Secretary of State William



Jennings BRYAN's efforts to minimize the danger of war through a series of



"conciliation treaties" and joined him in an unsuccessful attempt to



negotiate a Pan-American pact guaranteeing the integrity of the Western



Hemisphere. In attempting to deal with revolutionary Mexico, Wilson first



sought to promote self-government by refusing to recognize the military



usurper Victoriano HUERTA and forcing him to allow free elections. When



Huerta resisted, Wilson tried to force him out by ordering (April 1914)



limited American intervention at Veracruz and by supporting



constitutionalist Venustiano CARRANZA. Mediation by Argentina, Brazil, and



Chile helped to prevent a general conflict and led to Huerta's resignation



in July 1914.







A year later, Wilson recognized Carranza's provisional government, and



in 1916 he intervened again after Carranza's rival, guerrilla leader Pancho



VILLA, had raided a town in New Mexico, killing several Americans. In 1915



and 1916 he reluctantly sent troops to Haiti and Santo Domingo to establish



U.S. protectorates.







After the outbreak of the European war in August 1914, Wilson



struggled with considerable success to fulfill the obligations of



neutrality, to keep trade channels open, and to prevent any abridgement of



U.S. rights, all in the face of the British blockade of Germany and the



latter's introduction of submarine warfare. He warned Germany in February



1915 that it would be held to "strict accountability" for the loss of



American lives in the sinking of neutral or passenger ships. After the



LUSITANIA was sunk in May 1915 (with the loss of 128 Americans), he



negotiated with such firmness that Secretary Bryan, fearing a declaration



of war, resigned in protest. In September 1915, Wilson won pledges from



Germany to provide for the safety of passengers caught in submarine



attacks, and in May 1916 the Germans agreed to abandon unrestricted



submarine warfare.







Running on his record of reform and with the slogan "He kept us out of



the war," Wilson sought reelection in 1916 against Republican Charles Evans



Hughes. The president won a narrow victory, receiving 277 out of 531



electoral votes.







 



Wartime Leader







When Germany renewed all-out submarine warfare in 1917, Wilson severed



diplomatic relations. In April he asked Congress for a declaration of war,



asserting that "the world must be made safe for democracy."







As war president, Wilson made a major contribution to the modern



presidency as he led Americans in a spectacular mobilization of the



nation's resources. Establishing a series of war agencies, he extended



federal control over industry, transportation, labor, food, fuel, and



prices. In May 1917 he forced through Congress a Selective Service bill



under which 2.8 million men were drafted by war's end. He sought and



received legislative delegation of increased powers, thus leaving for his



successors the precedents and tools to meet future crises.











Wilson the Peacemaker







From 1914, Wilson had sought ways to mediate the conflict. In 1915 and



1916 he sent his advisor and confidant, Col. Edward M. HOUSE, to Europe to



work toward a negotiated peace and postwar cooperation. In the spring of



1916, Wilson joined the call for a postwar association of nations; on Jan.



22, 1917, he called for a peace without victory and reaffirmed his support



for a league of nations.







With the United States in the war, Wilson hoped to have a stronger



influence on the peace settlement. On Jan. 8, 1918, he presented his



FOURTEEN POINTS, a comprehensive statement of war aims. It became at once a



war weapon and a peace program, inspiring the peoples of the Allied powers



while undermining the confidence of the Germans. Germany made its peace



overture in the hope of obtaining just treatment under Wilson's proposals.







Wilson headed the American delegation to the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE.



He erred seriously, however, by not developing bipartisan support for his



peace plans; he did not appoint a prominent Republican to the delegation,



and he called on voters to reelect a Democratic Congress in 1918 as a vote



of confidence. Most contests were decided on local issues, and when



Republicans captured both houses of Congress, his leadership seemed



repudiated.







Wilson was hailed as a hero upon his arrival in Europe. At the



conference (January-June 1919) Allied leaders Georges CLEMENCEAU, David



LLOYD GEORGE, and Vittorio ORLANDO favored a traditional settlement. Wilson



worked tirelessly for a peace along the lines of his Fourteen Points; only



his shrewd bargaining prevented even harsher terms from being imposed on



Germany. Wilson characterized the Versailles Treaty as the best obtainable



compromise and put his hopes in the League of Nations, an integral part of



the treaty, as the institution through which inequities could be later



rectified.







Senate Republicans, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, refused to approve the



peace treaty without significant modifications of the U.S. commitment to



the League. Wilson accepted some compromise but then turned to the people.



In a national speaking tour he eloquently defended the League and U.S.



membership as essential to lasting world peace. Long months of exhausting



labor had weakened the president, however, and he collapsed on Sept. 25,



1919, following a speech in Pueblo, Colo.







A week later Wilson suffered a stroke that left him partially



incapacitated for the remainder of his life. From his bed he continued to



oppose severe restrictions to the League. The Senate, meanwhile, rejected



the treaty in November 1919 and March 1920. Wilson urged that the 1920



presidential election be a referendum on the League. Republican Warren G.



Harding, who had established a reputation as an opponent of the League, won



in a landslide.







In December 1920, Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize for 1919. The



former president and his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt Wilson, whom he



married in 1915, after the death of his first wife, continued to make their



home in Washington, D.C. Wilson died there on Feb. 3, 1924.











Bibliography: Baker, Ray S., Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters,



8 vols. (1927-39; repr. 1968); Bell, Herbert C. F., Woodrow



Wilson and the People (1945); Blum, John M., Woodrow Wilson and



the Politics of Morality (1956); Bragdon, Henry W., Woodrow



Wilson: The Academic Years (1967); Cooper, John M., The Warrior



and the Priest (1983); Ferrell, Robert H., Woodrow Wilson and



World War I: Nineteen Seventeen to Nineteen Twenty-one (1986);



Heckscher, August, Woodrow Wilson (1991); Latham, Earl, ed.,



The Philosophy and Policies of Woodrow Wilson (1975); Levin, N.



Gordon, Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (1968); Link, Arthur



S., Wilson, 5 vols. (1947-65), Woodrow Wilson: A Brief



Biography (1963), and Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World,



1913-1921 (1982); Hirst, David W., et al., eds., The Papers of



Woodrow Wilson, 55 vols. (1966-86); Walworth, Arthur, Woodrow



Wilson, 3d ed. (1978).











NAME: Woodrow Wilson







28th President of the United States (1913-21)







Nickname: "Schoolmaster in Politics"







Born: Dec. 28, 1856, Staunton, Va.







Education: College of New Jersey (now Princeton University;



graduated 1879)







Profession: Teacher, Public Official







Religious affiliation: Presbyterian







Marriage: June 24, 1885, to Ellen Louise Axson (1860-1914);



Dec. 18, 1915, to Edith Bolling Galt (1872-1961)







Children: Margaret Woodrow Wilson (1886-1944); Jessie Woodrow



Wilson (1887-1933); Eleanor Randolph Wilson (1889-1967)







Political Affiliation: Democrat







Writings: George Washington (1896); A History of the American



People (5 vols., 1902); Constitutional Government in the United



States (1908); Papers of Woodrow Wilson (1966- ), ed. by Arthur



S. Link, et al.







Died: Feb. 3, 1924, Washington, D.C.







Buried: National Cathedral, Washington, D.C.







Vice-President: Thomas R. Marshall







Cabinet Members:^ Secretary of State: William J. Bryan



(1913-15); Robert Lansing (1915-20); Bainbridge Colby (1920-21)



Secretary of the Treasury: William G. McAdoo (1913-18); Carter



Glass (1918-20); David F. Houston (1920-21) Secretary of War:



Lindley M. Garrison (1913-16); Newton D. Baker (1916-21)



Attorney General: James C. McReynolds (1913-14); Thomas W.



Gregory (1914-19); Alexander M. Palmer (1919-21) Postmaster



General: Albert S. Burleson Secretary of the Navy: Josephus



Daniels Secretary of the Interior: Franklin K. Lane (1913-20);



John B. Payne (1920-21) Secretary of Agriculture: David F.



Houston (1913-20); Edwin T. Meredith (1920-21) Secretary of



Commerce: William C. Redfield (1913-19); Joshua W. Alexander



(1919-21) Secretary of Labor: William B. Wilson 








































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Zora Neale Hurston Zora Neale Hurston was a phenomenal woman. At the height of her success she was known as the "Queen of the Harlem Renaissance." She came to overcome obstacles that were placed in front of her. Hurston rose from poverty to fame and lost it all at the time of her death. Zora had an unusual life; she was a child that was forced to grow up to fast. But despite Zora Neale Hurston's unsettled life, she managed to surmount every obstacle to become one of the most profound authors of the century. Zora Neale Hurston was born January 7, 1891 in Eatonville, Florida, the fifth of eight children to Reverend John Hurston and Lucy Potts Hurston. Zora was extraordinary person. When her mother died she was able to stay strong. Her father, didn't have enough love in his heart to hold on to his daughter, she was casted out of the house by her estranged father; in addition, to being neglected Hurston, dealt with the periodic moving, against society expectations Hurston survived her harsh childhood. At the age of thirteen, Zora Neal Hurston's life came to a halt. The woman who she would look to for understanding, support, protection and encouragement, her mother, died. From that point she had no direction in her life. She started Clark 2 writing just to keep herself from emotional and physical loneness. Hurston was devastated by the death of her mother (Howard 3). After the death of Zora's mother, Hurston was sent to Jacksonville to go to school. Two months after school started Zora received news that her father had remarried. Zora's father was never close to her, nevertheless she would come to respect and admire him. In her eyes, Hurston saw her father as a remarkable man who had beaten tough odds to make something of himself. Zora was never to return home from school; unfortunately she didn't have a choice, since the school would not adopt her, as her father wanted them to. "Without Lucy Hurston to spur him on, he seemed content with what he had already accomplished, not only unwilling to assume new responsibilities but eager to lighten the load" (Witcover 35). With the little interest that the new Ms. Hurston took in the ambition of her husband or his children Zora Neale Hurston left home never to return. Zora found herself being passed from relative to relative. For the first time in her life she learned what poverty was like, how people "could be slave ships in shoes" (Hemenway 17). The constant relocation prompted Zora to go to work. Most of the jobs Hurston landed as maids and waitresses didn't last long, due to her independent attitude. Hurston spent the next five years wandering from one job to another, living from hand to mouth, never able to afford new clothes or, even worse, books. Hurston, finally found a break when she became a wardrobe girl in the Gilbert and Sullivan theatrical troop. For eighteen months, she traveled with them feeling like a part of their family. With the assistance of one of the actresses, Zora Clark 3 entered Morgan Academy in Baltimore, MD (The high school division of what is now Morgan State University) in the fall of 1917(Howard 5). For the first time in her life, Zora Neale Hurston found a sense of accomplishment. Not only did she get her high school diploma, but she also went to college. During a time of racial oppression and Americans returning from World War I she managed to maintain various jobs to pay for her education. Morgan Academy was just the beginning of her extensive education. Howard University and Barnard College are where she obtained her degrees. In the fall of 1919, Zora Neale Hurston became a freshman at Howard University. Hurston studied intermittently at Howard for the next five years; the institution she would proudly call "The capstone of the Negro education in the world." Hurston enjoyed college life even though she was a decade older than other freshmen. With the assistance of college professors Georgia Douglas Johnson and Alain Locke, Zora began to write short stories. These stories brought her to the attention of Charles Spurgeon Johnson, the sociologist and shaker and mover of the Harlem Renaissance. He invited Hurston to New York to try her fortune as a writer. Zora wasn't in New York long before she was met eminent black writers and sophisticated white writers, who invited her to dinner parties and nightclubs. It was at the Opportunity dinner party where Hurston met Annie Nathan Meyer who saw a brilliant mind beneath Zora's flashy exterior (Howard 4). Clark 4 Zora Neale Hurston obtained a scholarship from Ms. Meyer to attend Barnard College (the woman's division of Columbia). In the fall of 1925, Hurston began classes. Zora was Barnard first African American student. While at Barnard Hurston met Dr. Franz Boas, a professor at Columbia. Boas saw Hurston as an exceptionally gifted woman with on unusual background. He introduced Zora to anthropology. (The science of humankind and culture). In 1928, Hurston graduated from Barnard with a Bachelor Degree (Hemenway 62-63). Zora Neale Hurston was a remarkable, widely published black woman of her day-the author of more than fifty articles and short stories as well as four novels, two folklore, an autobiography and some plays. She is well known for her greatest book Their Eyes Were Watching God. Zora started writing short stories when she was in college. By the time of her death, she had written numerous of stories and articles in a variety of magazines, newspapers, and college papers. She wanted to tell stories about men and women, about love and hate misunderstandings, about marriage and life and life's possibilities, about selfhood and ultimately nationhood (Howard 6). Between 1934 and 1948 Zora Neale Hurston published seven books. Two Folklore Mules and Men and Tell my Horse, four novels Jonah's Gourd Vine, Moses, Man, of the Mountain, Their Eyes Were Watching God, Seraph on the Suwanee, Dust Tracks on a Road was her autobiography (Witcover 114). Clark 5 Of all the books that were written by Zora Neale Hurston Their Eyes Were Watching God was by far the most famous of her masterpieces. Today it stands as one of the most important pieces of fiction writing by a black woman. Zora was eccentric; she walks brightly among us today as a heroin (Howard 98-99). Zora Neale Hurston was an outstanding woman. Although she had to struggle, Hurston was a hard working young lady that was determined to make it in life. Zora was able to finished high school and attend college. Zora also became a famous writer who wrote and published many plays and books throughout her career. Zora gained fame and lost it all at the time of her death. She was a remarkable woman who will never be forgotten.