1.      Contents

A trip through panama

A trip to China

Alstalia

An Essay on Mozambique

Angina Pectoris

Argentina

Arizona Concrete

Day, Richard. The Home Owner Handbook Oart through the ages

Australia

Austria

avalanches

Barbados

Botswana

Brazil

Can the United States Justify the Civil War

Canada of the United States of America

Canadian Identity

Castles

Chad

Chile

china

chinas population problem

CHINESE OCCUPATION IN TIBET

CIrculation systems over China

Climatology

Colombia

commercial fishing

Confederation And Constitution of the United States

Contrast and Comparison

Copper and Molybdenum Deposits in the United States

Culture of France

Development by ComparisonThe United States & Philippines

Disasters

Dominican Republic

DRUGS

Economia de Japon

Ecuador

Effect of he Environment on Westward Expansion

Egypt

Enviormental Risk

Facts about China

Flint Michigan

Fossil Fuel Consumption CO2 and its impact on Global Climate

Gabon An example for all of Africa

Galicia

geology of massif montgris

Germany

Go Ask Alice

Gorbachev and Perestroika

Guatemala

Guayana

History of Howe Caverns

History of The Marshall Islands

Hong Kong Immigrants in Vancouver Uneasy Partnership

how to prepare for a backpacking expiditiona

Hutus and Tutsis

Imperialism

India

Indonesia

Industry and the effects of climate in Italy

Invasion of Panama

Iran

Iraq

Ireland

Isnt It Ironic The subject is english !

Israel & Paletine The presidential Brief

Israel

Italy

JAIL SUICIDES PREVENTION

Japan 3

Japan its culture

Jomo Kenyatta his life

Korea

Lassen Peak volcano

Law of Inverse Returns

Liberia

LINCOLN NEB

Locational Analysis of Boston Pizza

Malpractice or Poor Judgement

Man and Ocean

Medical Conditions in Auschwitz

Medival Medicine

Mexico 2

Mexico

My House

My Zambezi Valley

New Zealand

Newly Independant Nation

No Coins Please

non title as you want

Normadic Herding Sami

Nova Scotia 2

Nova Scotia

Nuclear NonProliferation in the Ukraine

Oceania

Oceanography

Overview of Italy

Panama Canal 2

Panama Canal

Parking Planning

planning of a town

Project

Pyramids

Quebec

Russia

Rwanda

South Africas Energy Outlook

Spain 2

Spain Essay

Spain

Study of a 3rd World Country Ethiopia

suomen kalliopera

Sustainable Development

Thailand

The 5 Themes in Geography

The Agriculture and Economics of Peru

The Arctic Tundra

The Chisholm Trail

The Colorado River

The Egnigma Of Atlantis

the forever shifting earth

The Industrial HeartlandMegalopolis

The Maori of New Zealand

The Namib Desert

The Philippines and the World Market

The Physical and Economic Geography Of Canada

The Population Solution

The principal problems now facing Mexico City

THE RELEVANCY OF THE HEARTLANDHINTERLAND DISTINCTION IN CANA

Top of Volcano Blown of in Blast!

Tour Of France

Ukraine

Under the files

Ural Mountains

Vietnam

We have an environmental crisis because we have a people cris

What are the main contrasts to be found in Portugal

What I understand from term development

why koreans came to usa

World Demographic Development and Food Supply

2.      A trip through panama

Day 1:

We arrived at Omar Torrijos airport via American Airlines early in the afternoon. We purchased our required tourist cards (3 balboas, as US dollars are called in Panama) at the airport, then caught a taxi for the 18 mile ride to our downtown hotel.  The ride in the battered, un-airconditioned car was rather expensive (30 balboas), but the driver spoke English and was very friendly.  We arrived at the hotel and checked in.  While my dad was checking in I bought a guidebook in the hotel lobby and read up on the history of Panama City.  The original city was founded in 1519 by Pedro Arias Davila, known as Pedrarias the Cruel, because of his eradication of all but three of the local Indian tribes during his tenure in Panama.  Davila used the city as a place to store Incan gold  before it was shipped to Spain.  The original city was sacked and burned in 1671 by a group of buccaneers led by Henry Morgan.  The city was rebuilt within a year,  this time on a peninsula 18 miles away and surrounded by a strong wall.  This old Spanish city is now the in the middle downtown Panama City.

Panama City is an international melting pot and its eating choices range from American fast food to excellent internationall cuisine.  Eager to begin our sightseeing, we grabbed lunch at a nearby McDonald's after checking in then caught a bus.  The buses in Panama are a tourist attraction in themselves.  They are brightly painted, hung with fringe, and have constantly  blaring Salsa and Caracas music playing.  They are cheap (50 cents a ride). but are very crowded.  After asking several drivers "Donde va este autobus?" we finally found one going to the Plaza Independencia.  This plaza is the main square of the colonial town and is bordered on one side by a cathedral with twin mother of pearl towers that took 108 years to complete.  On two other sides it is bordered by the Archbishop's Palace, now a university and the Central Post Office.  While in the old part of Panama City we also visited the Iglesia de San Jose and saw the Golden Aaltar.  This altar was in the original Panama City and was saved from Henry Morgan's pirates by a monk who painted it black to disguise it.  When we finished touring we returned to our hotel and then ate dinner at El Pez de Ora, one of the city' famous seafood restaurants.

Day 2:

We woke early and headed out for a morning of shopping at the Mercado Publico.  I bought some jewelry and some small wooden figurines as souvenirs, but when I asked "Donde esta los sombreros de Panama?", the vendor told me Panama hats were made in Ecuador.  The hat most commonly worn in  Panama is the "pita", a narrow brimmed straw hat with black and white stripes.  The most important phrases to remember when shopping in Panama are " Cuanto cuesta esta?" and " Acceptas tarjetas de credita?"  After shopping we had Chinese food in one of the local restaurants.

After eating we went to visit Panama's most famous attraction, the Panama Canal.  The Canal was completed in 1914, and is considered one of the greatest engineering feats in the world.  We took a shuttle from our hotel to the canal and then went on a 90 minute train ride all the way across the isthmus along the canal.  The railroad we were traveling on was built in 1855 to transport '49ers who were on their way to the California gold rush and was the first "trans-continental" rail link.  At one of the train stations we got off and walked to the Miraflores Locks, sat on bleachers, and watched the ships go through the canal.  After our tour of the Panama Canal we returned to our hotel to get ready for a night of dinner and theater.  We ate dinner at an Italian restaurant then went to the Teatro National for a performance of the Folkloric Ballet.  The Folkloric Ballet features native folk dances and costumes and was very entertaining.

Day 3:

We rented a car and left Panama City headed southwest along the Pan American Highway.  First we visited the Parque Natural Metropolitana, a zoo on the outskirts of Panama with monkeys, deer, sloths, and iguanas.  We then drove toward El Valle, about 75 miles away.  El Valle is located in the center of a dormant volcano.  There we saw hot springs, botanical gardens (with square trees which scientists have been unable to explain!), and golden frogs found nowhere else on earth.  We continued down the highway passing through the towns of Penonome, the geographic center of Panama, and Nata, on of the oldest towns in Latin America.  The Interior of Panama is mostly farmland and grazing land for cattle.  We even saw some cowboys!  At night we arrived at Baquette, a village on the side of the dormant Baru Volcano, where we spent the night.

Day 4:

We began our day by visiting Volcan Baru National Park and taking a short hike to see the beautiful plants and birds.  The volcano is the highest point in Panama at 3475 meters.  After our hike we ate lunch and then drove to Chiriqui Grande where we dropped off our car.  We then caught a ferry to Bocas del Toro where we visited Bastimentos National Park. The park has pristine white sand beaches where sea turtles nest.  The coral reefs off the coast are home to more than 200 species of tropical fish.  While there we also got to visit caves containing the largest population of fruit eating bats in the world!  Later we went snorkeling of the coast of Almirante Island where we spent the night.

3.      A trip to China

I went to China at 4th April, with my grandma and grandpa. That day, we got up at 7 o*clock in the morning. We went on the ship at 9:40am. When we reached China, we saw our relation, they saw us and helped us to carry the luggage. They are very kind to us.

After about 1 hour, traveled by car, we reached home, it was about 1 o*clock, we were very hungry, they*ve already cooked the lunch for us. After lunch, we walked around in the village . When we back home, we chatted until dinner was ready. There was on toilet there, so my grandpa and me cannot eat more and more although all things were very good.

After a terrible night, we went to another village. We went in the bus about 3 hours, after we reached there, it was about 4:30pm. I don*t think we could walked around the village again. The house that we lived was designed by my grandpa, we lived happily (very happy) there. -We had water, Town gas, light, TV * * Oh, great!

We went back to Hong Kong at 8th. After a the tea break at the pipe, we got onto the ship at 4:00pm. I thought I was too full, I was seasick! We reached home at exactly 6 o*clock. My mom was already cooked the dinner for us. After we enjoyed the dinner, I went back home. At home , I had a hot bath that it was one of the best enjoys in my life.

4.      Alstalia

Australia is the world's smallest continent and sixth-largest country.  With proportionately more desert land than any other continent, Australia has a low population density.  Lying completely in the Southern Hemisphere, Australia is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the west and south and by the Pacific Ocean on the east.  These oceans merge on the north in the Arafura Sea between Australia and Indonesia and New Guinea, and on the south in the Bass Strait.  The coastline length, estimated at 19,200 km (12,000 mi), is remarkably short for so large an area, a result of the relative lack of indentation.  Major inlets other than the Gulf of CARPENTARIA and the GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT are few.

A self-governing member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia celebrated its bicentennial in 1988z. It is a federation of five mainland states (NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, VICTORIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA) and one island state (TASMANIA), as well as two territories (AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, NORTHERN TERRITORY). The country's name derives from the Latin terra australis incognita, meaning "unknown southern land," which resulted from a confusion between Australia and Antarctica on early world maps.

In many ways Australia is unusual among continents. It lacks major relief features and has a high proportion of dry land. The continent's isolation from other landmasses accounts for its unique varieties of vegetation and animal life, and for the existence of a Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture among the Aborigines. Except for Antarctica, Australia was probably the last continent to be inhabited by humans and the last to be explored and settled by Europeans. It is the only continent comprising a single nation-state.

Dutch explorers first sighted Australia in the early 17th century. Capt. James COOK explored the east coast in 1770 and claimed the land for Great Britain. In 1778 the first settlement (SYDNEY) was founded at an excellent harbor on the southeast coast. British convicts played an important role in the territory's early history. The discovery of gold and other ores attracted immigrants, but Australia remained a primarily agricultural country until World War II.

Subsequent industrialization has been rapid, and today Australia ranks as one of the world's most economically developed countries, although vast areas of the interior, known as the Outback, remain all but uninhabited.

5.      An Essay on Mozambique

The country I have picked for my project is Mozambique in south Africa, and is

located near Zimbabwe, Namibia,

Its climate in January consists of a rainy season. The rains last for about 190 days in

the north but only 120 days in the south.  In the cool season may to august temperatures

range from 16 deg c to 27 deg c (that is 60 dea to 80 dea F). In the hot season august to

November temperatures range 28 deg c to 32 deg c (85 deg f to 90 deg f ).

The country has a wealth of mineral resources , especially copper ,lead, zinc , and coal .

Copper accounts for more than 80% of this countries export earnings. The copperbelt

where four large copper mines and several smaller mines are located is where most

mining takes place it lies north of lusaka along the Zairian border . The many rivers near

the mines have valuable potential for hydroelectric power.

Its population is mostly black Africans who speak BANTU. The national language is

english. Most people are Christians, traditional local baliefs still have a strong hold on

the

village people. Also witchcraft and old customs such as marrying several wives and

paying the parents for a bride are slowly dying out in the towns. most children attend

elementary school. but only a fifth of them go to high school. It only has one university

which was founded in 1965.

Corn is the main food .Also a favorite dish is nshima, a thick porridge made from corn.

Facts about the country

People

Population : 8.745,284 m density: 12 persons per sq km.

Distribution: 43% urban , 57% rural.

Official language: English

Major religions: traditional, roman, Catholicism, and protestian.

Education

Literacy: 81% of adult population.

Universities: 1

Life expectancy: women-59  men-55.

Government

Type:republic.

Government leader: Fredrick Chiluba.

Legislature: National Assembly.

Political subdivisions: nine provinces.

Communications

Railroads: 2164 kms total

Roads: 37359 kms total

Major airports: 1

6.      Angina Pectoris

Tropical Africa: Food Production and the

Inquiry Model

Hunger is the result of disasters such as drought, floods, the

.changing of the jet stream patterns and other natural disasters

.They are beyond our control

It has been estimated that one third of the land in Tropical

Africa is potentially cultivable, though only about 6% of it is

,currently cultivated.  However, to change farming from a low-input

low-yield pattern to a high-input, high-yield pattern necessitates

the use of more fertilizer and the planting of high-yielding

.varieties of crops

There are a number of environmental factors, related mostly to

.climate, soils and health, resisting easy developmental solutions

.Rainfall reliability is closely connected to rainfall quantity

The rainfall in the equatorial heart is very plentiful and

reliable.  However, there is much less rainfall towards the outer

edges of the rain belt.  Periodic and unpredictable droughts are a

.characteristic feature of these border zones

:There are three climatic zones in Tropical Africa

,1.a region of persistent rain at and near the Equator

2.a region on each side of this of summer rain and winter

drought, and

3.a region at the northern and southern edges afflicted by

.drought

All the climates listed in the previous paragraph are modified

in the eastern parts of Tropical Africa by the mountains and

.monsoons

The soils of Tropical Africa pose another problem.  They are

unlike the soils of temperate areas.  Soils are largely products of

their climates, and tropical soils are different from temperate

soils because the climate is different.  Because of the great heat

,of the tropics tends to bake the soils, while on the other hand

the rainfall leaches them.  The combined heat and moisture tend to

produce very deep soils because the surface rock is rapidly broken

down by chemical weathering.  All this causes the food's rate of

growth to slow down or maybe even stop and as a result food

production won't even come close in catching up to the rate of

.population increase; therefore starvation and hunger is present

In the process of a flood and drought, the roots of trees are

shallow and virtually no nutrients are obtained from the soil.  The

vegetation survives on its own humus waste, which is plentiful.  If

the vegetation is cleared, then the source of humus is removed and

the natural infertility of the soils becomes obvious.  As being

another factor, this will cause the soil to produce wasteful and

.useless products which in turn will decrease the production

To conclude this essay, the climates in Tropical Africa take

a big role as being factors that could endanger or destroy the

process of plantation.  On the other hand, it could also bring good

.fortune if climatic regions are fairly good

7.      Argentina

Argentina

By: Chris Ojeda

Argentina is a South American country with a population of thirty one million people. Argentina's capital is Buenos Aires, which is one of the largest cities in South America. Buenos Aires is situated on the coast of Argentina, which makes Buenos Aires a major trade route in Argentina and in South America. Argentina's national language is Spanish and the major religion is Roman Catholicism.

Argentina is a country with much natural beauty. It has miles of beautiful beaches and is also surrounded by the majestic Andes mountains. The Andes mountains are among the highest mountains in the world. Argentina's tallest mountain is the Cerro Aconcagua.  This mountain reaches an amazing height of 22,200 ft. America's tallest mountain only reaches the height of 20,000 ft.

Argentina has a huge industrial and agricultural base. Argentina has a large amount of natural resources which includes copper, silver, coal, iron ore, uranium and petroleum. Argentina is the #1 copper producer in the world. Argentina also produces huge amounts of coal and is self sustained in petroleum products.

Argentina also grows much more food than it consumes. Its main crops include wheat, tobacco and cattle. Argentina ranks 3rd in the world among wheat exporters, right behind the United States and Canada. Argentina is also one of the largest tobacco exporters as well.

Argentina's large industrial and agricultural base makes it one of the richest countries in South America. With its rich history and its beautiful mountains and beaches, not to mention its wonderful Spanish culture, Argentina is a very special place to visit in South America.

8.      Arizona Concrete

ARIZONA CONCRETE

John McCollam

Geology 101, Section 12262

Randy Porch

20 November 1996

ARIZONA CONCRETE

According to the Mine Faculty at the University of Arizona, cement is manufactured primarily from suitable limestone and shale rocks. Arizona had two dry-process cement plants in 1969, namely the Arizona Portland Cement Company plant in Pima County, near Tucson, and the American Cement Corporation plant at Clarkdale, in Yavapai County (52-53).

The use of cementing materials goes back to the ancient Egyptians and Romans, but the invention of modern portland cement is usually attributed to Joseph Aspdin, a builder in Leeds, England, who obtained a patent for it in 1824. Currently, the annual world production of portland cement is around 700 million metric tons (Danbury).

Many people use the words concrete and cement interchangeably,  but they=re not. Concrete is to cement as a cake is to flour. Concrete is a mixture of ingredients that includes cement but contains other ingredients also (Day 6-7).

Portland cement is produced by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates along with some calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrites and usually containing one or more forms of calcium sulfate (gypsum) as an interground addition. Materials used in the manufacture of portland cement must contain appropriate proportions of calcium oxide, silica, alumina, and iron oxide components. During manufacture, analyses of all materials are made frequently to ensure a uniformly high quality cement.

Selected raw materials are crushed, milled, and proportioned in such a way that the resulting mixture has the desired chemical composition. The raw materials are generally a mixture of calcareous (calcium oxide) material, such as limestone, chalk or shells, and an argillaceous (silica and alumina) material such as clay, shale, or blast-furnace slag. Either a dry or a wet process is used. In the dry process, grinding and blending operations are done with dry materials. In the wet process, the grinding and blending are done with the materials in slurry form. In other respects, the dry and wet processes are very much alike.

After blending, the ground raw material is fed into the upper end of a kiln. The raw mix passes through the kiln at a rate controlled by the slope and rotational speed of the kiln. Burning fuel (powdered coal, oil, or gas) is forced into the lower end of the kiln where temperatures of 2600°F to 3000°F change the raw material chemically into cement clinker, grayish-black pellets about the size of 1/2-in.-diameter marbles.

The clinker is cooled and then pulverized. During this operation a small amount of gypsum is added to regulate the setting time of the cement. The clinker is ground so fine that nearly all of it passes through a No. 200 mesh (75 micron) sieve with 40,000 openings per square inch. This extremely fin gray powder is portland cement (Kosmatka and Panarese 12-15).

Dany Seymore of Show Low Ready Mix said that the cement used by Show Low Ready Mix is trucked in by Apex Freight Company and comes from the cement plant in Clarkdale, Arizona, now know as Phoenix Cement.  Their aggregate comes from Brimhall Sand and Rock in Snowflake, Arizona. Show Low Ready Mix uses Fly Ash from the A.P.S. power plant just out side of Joseph City, Arizona, in their cement. The mixtures they use are as follows:

Silicia Dioxide            Cement 21%   Ash 62%

Aluminum Trioxide                 Cement  4%    Ash 23%

Ferric Oxide                            Cement  3%    Ash  6%

Calcium Oxide                                    Cement 64%   Ash 3.5%

Mag. Oxide                             Cement 2.5%  Ash 1.2%

Sulfur Trioxide                        Cement  3%    Ash .2%

These combine to make:

1. Tricalcium silicate  C3S

2. Dicalcium silicate C2S

3. Tricalcium aluminate C3A

4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C4AF

1 and 2 make up 75% of cement.  1 and 2 plus H2O equal CSH (Calcium Silicate Hydrate) which is the glue.  Fly Ash is C3S plus C2S which equals Calcium hydrazide which is a white stuff and water soluble.  Calcium Hydrazide and Fly Ash equal CSH.

The winter and summer mixtures are different due to the weather conditions.  For winter, Fly Ash is not used because it inhibits the set time of the concrete.  Also used is accelerators to help the concrete set faster.  A material called Fibermesh is used in the concrete for reinforcement and to control cracking as the concrete sets.  Mr. Seymore also states that heat and moisture are the main components to make concrete set up.

The concrete is mixed out of the plant into the truck so the materials can be feathered together and mixed up properly.  The PSI ratings are determined by the mixture of sand, aggregate, cement, water, and chemical additives that are mixed together.  The most common mixtures for residential are 2500 to 3000 PSI.

Concrete cannot be delivered any where that is more than 90 minutes away from the batch plant, unless a chemical inhibiter is used to put the concrete to sleep until it reaches the sight of delivery. Then another chemical is added to activate the concrete.

Show Low Ready Mix mixes approximately 25,000 to 30,000 cubic yards of concrete in Show Low per year.  That is only 70 to 75 percent of the total concrete poured in Show Low.  There are a few other companies that also handle the Show Low area.

Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The paste, comprised of Portland cement, (the term APortland cement@ pertains to a calcareous hydraulic cement produced by heating the oxides of silicon, calcium, aluminum, and iron.) Water binds the aggregates (sand and gravel or crushed stone) into a rocklike mass. The paste hardens because of the chemical reaction of the cement and water.

The paste is composed of Portland cement, water, and intrapped air or purposely entrained air. Cement paste ordinarily constitutes about 25% to 40% of the total volume of concrete. Since aggregates make up about 60% to 75% of the total volume of concrete, their selection is important. Aggregates should consist of particles with adequate strength and resistance to exposure conditions and should not contain materials that will cause deterioration of the concrete.

Aggregates are generally divided into two groups: fine and coarse. Fine aggregates consist of natural or manufactured sand with particle sizes ranging up to 3/8 inches; coarse aggregates are those with particles retained on the No.16 sieve and ranging up to 6 inches. The most commonly used maximum aggregate size is 3/4 inch or 1 inch. A continuous gradation of particle sizes is desirable for efficient use of the cement and water paste.

For any particular set of materials and conditions of curing, the quality of hardened concrete is determined by the amount of water used in relation to the amount of cement .  Some advantages of reducing water content are: increased compressive and flexural strength, lower absorption, increased resistance to weathering, better bond between successive layers and between concrete and reinforcement, less volume change from wetting and drying, and reduced shrinkage cracking tendencies.  The less water used, the better the quality of the concrete, provided it can be consolidated properly.

The freshly mixed (plastic) and hardened properties of concrete may be changed by adding admixtures to the concrete, usually in liquid form, during batching.  Admixtures are commonly used to: adjust setting time or hardening, reduce water demand, increase workability, intentionally entrain air, and adjust other concrete properties (Kosmatka and Panarese 1-2).

After completion of proper proportioning, batching, mixing, placing, consolidating, finishing, and curing, hardened concrete becomes a strong, noncombustible, durable, abrasion-resistant, and practically impermeable building material that requires little or  no maintenance. Concrete is also an excellent building material, because it can be formed into a wide variety of shapes, colors, and textures for use in almost unlimited number of applications.

Works Cited

ACement and concrete.@ The 1996 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.       CD-ROM. Danbury: Grolier, 1996.

9.      Day, Richard. The Home Owner Handbook Oart through the ages

From stick figures in the sand and the earliest animals painted and carved in stone, people worldwide have reacted to the world by making images.  The fundamental goal of art, especially in the past, was to convey meaning and express important ideas, revealing what was significant to every society, by arresting images.  In recognizing the subject matter of any painting, you have to look at the artist's intentions, which are regularly connected to social conditions, national or global issues and the demands of the public.  To avoid the pitfalls of judging all art by our own personal experiences and subjective views, we have to learn the background surrounding the artist when the work was created- the social and historical conditions of the time and the philosophical views which affected the way in which the artist viewed the world. (Russell, 1984)

Art is as varied as the life from which it springs and each artist portrays different aspects of the world they know.  Briefly, it may be said that artists paint to discover truth and to create order.  The creators of art make discoveries about the wonders and beauty of nature and the dignity and nobility of man.  They give these concepts an order to help us understand life in a greater depth.  In understanding the history and style of any period of art, we have to comprehend the balance between social and political development of that particular era.  Within each and every period, development of style is affected by a response to particular philosophies, social and economic conditions, political and spiritual influences.  World Issues have been reflected in art throughout the ages, and this premise is supported by three particular periods of time.  This is clearly evident when viewing ancient art, where symbolism was an important part of society.  Also, through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, where art was a critical form of expression and finally in the modern age of art where even in looking into the works of individual artists, one can get a sense of the feelings and events of the time and the world.  Let us now examine theses three periods in detail, to support this hypothesis.

If we are aware of meaning of religious, political, or other symbols, it will better our understanding of the frame of mind of the artist.  Each piece of art is unique, a reflection of the artist's perceptions, insights and experiences.  Certain aspects of the world are often exaggerated, or eliminated, while the art reflects both the period and the artists own orientation.  Aristotle once said that "Art is the human intelligence playing over the natural scene, ingeniously affecting it toward fulfillment of human purposes." (Bronowski 64)  This wonderful world of creation began in ancient times, when people first created images to express their response to the world around them.  Various civilizations in the past painted images preparing to understand life after death.  Another favorite subject was the glorification of gods and rulers.  The subject which an artist selects for a painting depends largely upon the time in which he/she lives.  A painter painting in the middle ages would probably have picked a religious subject, for that was almost the only kind of topic portrayed at the time.  Still, outside factors of current events and different world issues would greatly effect the artists state of mind, and therefore his paintings.

As you look into the ancient past of Egypt, it is quite interesting to note the bureaucracy in the times of 3000 BC, which helps us to understand the art work accomplished in these times.  As the Egyptians were united under one central government and ruled by a pharaoh, they were organized by control through a tightly organized bureaucracy.  The Pharaoh dominated all facets of the peoples lives.  The people dreamed of afterlife as a reward for their hard work while living, and often depicted afterlife where the spirit could find pleasure wandering unseen among the living.  The palace art and architecture of these ancient kingdoms was intended to emphasize a hierarchical ordering of society, form ruler, to subject.  Egypt's tombs and temples were ornamented with paintings of great distinction.  A painting at the tomb of Theber shows floral offerings being made to the hawk god Mentu.  This is highly stylized and rich, showing the worshipping of animal gods at the time.

In Greece around the same time period, the mainland and the islands were settled by non-Greek tribes from Asia minor.  In Crete, a civilization evolved to rival the wealth and sophistication of surrounding places, like Egypt.  In later years, these people named Aninoicens had become quite wealthy from trade with the near east.  This point of trade was controversial to what they initially believed in.  The art of these new times were filled with glowing images of floral and fauna , portraying a society that had a love for nature and beauty.  Before, their painting would contain feelings of angst and bitterness.

As time progressed, the good times were limited by many wars and hostile grounds.  In 1250 BC, during the Trojan war, the minoins developed a new form of monumental art to mark the graves of the numerous dead  The size and function of these vases brought them closer to sculpture than most pottery.  These monumental vases were painted in abstract, and  geometrical patterns with no reference to the naturalness of minoin life.  Often portrayed, were scenes depicting a moment in the individuals life, or a burial scene to commemorate the dead.

As we proceed through the times and move to the fifth century, you can see that this era was dominated by the city of Athens when Athenian drama, poetry, philosophy and politics ruled.  In times of the Persian wars, naturalness of action in narrative painting and relief carving came together.  This emphasized human dignity in free standing sculptures.  Life size statues were created for the first time, most of these, including the famous Kouros and Kritos boy, stand with one foot forward, as if they were heading off to war.  Artists put into their pictures our common hopes, ideals, dreams and passions and show us their meaning and value concerning issues surrounding the times.  Creators in all the arts make fascinating discoveries about the wonders and the world along with the naturalness, movement and structure of the human form. They give these an order which enables us to see and understand the past and past life with greater depth.

Christianity spread slowly throughout the western world, becoming an official religion of the roman empire in the fourth century.  By this time, the empire was falling apart, so there was a stiff and formal style of art called Byzantine.  This style lasted for centuries, until conditions were greatly improved.

During the middle ages, extending from 500, to 1500, the church was the source of main stability in western Europe and the monasteries alone kept the artistic culture alive.  Beginning in the twelfth century, life for most people became more secure.  Towns grew,  trade excelled and industry began to prosper.  Large, quickly growing towns became centers of wealth, learning and especially art.  In northern Europe, a true gothic style developed, best known for the magnificent cathedrals and stain glass windows created in this era.  This high rise in town life, brought with it a spirit of inquiry and invention.  A famous painting created in the Byzantine style of this time was 'The Madonna of Angels' by Giovanni Anabue.  In this painting, it is noted that Mary and Jesus are on a throne surrounded by angels.  Although portrayed as lifeless, the figures begin to take on more human characteristics than ever before, for town life increased the knowledge of the artists, coming together and improving their styles.

By the latter half of this civilization, there was a shift to more gracious, enjoyable lifestyles, characterized by courtly art expressing grand splendor.  In France at this time, scholarly art took on secular elegance, while in the court of Louis IX.  Pressures of a secular society made gothic artists turn towards elegance and fashion- especially in Wells cathedral, which was then erected.  This was an architectural masterpiece commissioned by the king, with enlightening Christian murals to symbolize the wealth and good times, and to welcome the prosperous times ahead.

The development of the Flemish school of painting in the fifteenth century marked the end of the great gothic period.  This happened just in time for a rebirth in painting - the  ever famous Renaissance period.  In this period of exploration, invention and discovery, artists traveled to new lands seeking fresh ideas, also studying the world and the heavens.  Here, a culture of antiquity was rediscovered.  Artists in this period, with increased knowledge of the world, began to study anatomy, science and mathematics involving perspective and dimension.  Art was exciting, particularly in the high Renaissance, yet the times were troubled.  Discoveries in science were changing the ways man thought of himself.  The growth of wealth and the discovery of new lands had triggered a struggle for r power and many wars resulted.  The challenges which this age brought fourth, fortunately spurred a group of brilliant artists.  Younger, Holland and Flanders are some of the many well known artists of this era.

As you can now notice, as we go as far back as the European middle ages and ancient times, art was a valuable form of expression, as it depicted feelings and recorded events which were occurring in various countries.  In these times, where very few people were literate, art was an important way an individual could explain stories of the world with great expression.

Ever since the colonial times, there has been a strong tradition of realism in the United States.  George Bellows and Ben Shahn were both social realists who painted members of the working class and their problems and pleasures.  Painters like these were rejected from the art academy's and salons because of this supposedly vulgar and improper subject matter.  These wealthy, authoritative figures believed that painters should paint to represent nymphs, gods , holy images, or at the least, aristocrats.  In one of Shawn's paintings, titled 'Mine Disaster', he represented a scene of a tragedy which occurred close to his home.  He depicted a calamitous scene of a gathering of relatives waiting for news of a mining accident.  Although he was basically a realist, he included some abstract impressionism in the background to reinforce the sense of desolation and create tenseness, grief and anxiety.

Painting developed later in England than in the other European countries, partly because of the fact that both Henry the eighth and Thomas Cromwell destroyed the works of art in  English churches and cathedrals.  They believed that there were some hidden meanings, or false biblical references which they could not understand.  Contrary to the beliefs of these rulers, many artists believed that art may be the key to existence and that artwork remained one possible way of speaking truth in a world of chaos.  After the restoration of the Stuart rulers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, people of wealth in England preferred to employ foreign artists.

The Neoclassical period began in 1789.  It combined a new scientific approach and appealed to the intellectual who believed in power of reason to uplift society.  This movement became associated with republican ideas of revolution and was said to belong to the age of  "reason and revolution".( Russel 25)  Flowing this period, in the early eighteenth century, a period labeled Romanticism evolved.  In this period, confidence in reason and artificiality of court life was characterized by a great value of emotion.  Often there was an incorporated fascination with untamed nature, picturesque or exotic themes.  For the most part, times were good, life was simple and wild imagery in art reelected a carefree nature.  Realism and social protest occurred at the beginning of the nineteenth century; the inception of the industrial revolution encouraged a capitalist economy.  The paintings of this time involved social criticism of many political figures, judicial and police systems, to rebel against the changing ways.  Again, the realistic portrayals of daily life were rejected by the authoritative standards of the academy- especially the honorary  'Salon of Paris'.  This brought about an artistic rebellion called impressionism, where artists painted directly against the standards of the salon.  Suitably, they called themselves impressionists.  These artists wanted to portray the immediacy of a moment and in doing so, capture the truth of the times and the lives they lived.  There were four main influences on these artists, these were the newly introduced camera, the art of past artists, the afresh obtained, imported Japanese woodcuts and new scientific discoveries in light and color.  With the introduction of the camera, artists were no longer needed to transcribe reality, therefore they were forced to find new outlets of artistic expression.  With Japanese art to study from, there were new and exciting techniques to try and replicate.  Through this age of revolution, a growing movement towards freedom for personal expression in subject matter, techniques and style of art were signaled.

These periods of expression were merely buildups to the advanced movements and rapid changes of the art in the twentieth century.  Even before the triggering point of the times- being the first world war, many post war artists became engrossed in highly personalized interpretations- antibiotics, computerization, electronic transistors and the prospects of an atomic world.  A brief feminist movement became a passionate cause for some, combining feelings with a response to the real world.  Still, the world was preparing for the technological breakthroughs to come.

Out of the mystification of changing needs and changing material, art of the twentieth century, through creative minds, brought measures of logic into play.  Following a brief euphoria of World war one, arts in the depression became more socially conscious, realistic and nationalistic.  Realism derived from traditional American art, which was basically expressionism with strong emotional overtones, focusing on feelings involved in such somber times.  It was said that "The future of art no longer seems to lie with creation of enduring masterpieces, but with defining alternative cultural strategies."(McHall, 206)

Up until the twentieth century, painting in Canada was solely dominated by French and English styles.   This was until 1910, when the group of seven set out to develop a nationalistic style by expressing true Canadian spirit in their paintings.  The portrayal of landscapes made Canadians aware of the magnificence of their own country and fostered a pride in a particular comeliness.

During World War II, a number of European painters ventured to the United States, where they had a profound effect on young painters.  After the war, a group of these artists initialed a movement that became famous throughout the world and served as a model for artists everywhere.  This was called abstract expressionism.  The artists produced works which were noticeably larger in size, energetic in effect and incredibly individualistic in character.  Initially, these paintings illustrated war scenes and images commemorating the soldiers who had perished, but following the war, the paintings were continued to be produced, with a change in subject matter.  These works convey the strength and confidence of a powerful country, but they were also private statements proclaiming the "importance of the individual in the face of pressures for conformity and depersonalization."(comptons '96)  With this strong movement, the United states became the center of the western art world for the first time in history.

When looking into the lives of individual artists, you can see how events which effected them and the emotions projected by various events were revealed through paint.  Picasso is an incredibly interesting painter to study, for he had an adventurous life involving strong emotion.  Picasso played an important role in some of the many different movements of the early twentieth century.  He formed a style called his 'blue' period between 1901 and 1904 where he illustrated elements of melancholy, dominated by subjects of vagabonds, beggars, prostitutes, poverty stricken and deprived people.  He abandoned all rules of linear perspective and overlapped planes even as he went through his rose period, where his subject matter contained mostly dancers, acrobats and harlequins.

Through many more years, he experimented with increasingly analytical and geometric forms while continuing to develop a unique cubist technique, making paintings less "rigorous and austere"(cd rom).  His masterpiece , "Guernica", was his moving vision of the Spanish civil war.  It was his response to the 1937 bombing by the fascist forces of the small Basque town.  This was a great emotional/political statement, which combined violent distortion of images, with a restrained subtlety of colour.  Between two marriages, he also had a mistress named Francoise Gilot.  His meetings with Gilot inspired Picasso to create a charming series of paintings featuring mythology and including representations of fauns, nymphs and pipers- quite different from his usual style.  As Picasso remained in France throughout World war II, he was forbidden to show his work, and he joined the French communist party.  A number of his paintings then expressed the horror of the war ( The Charnel House 1945) and following this sequence, he responded to the Korean war by Painting 'War and Peace'-1952, and 'Massacre in Korea'-1951.  It is very obvious to see that the worldwide events which took place in Picasso's life time greatly effected his subject matter and his feelings.

The second world war was a watershed for art, while  Nazi occupation of Paris helped to break down the dam to be the home of modern art.  Artists fled to the United States to escape the fascism.  The success of the United States in the cold war was measured by the fact that within a decade of the end of World war II, the United States enjoyed a cultural reputation, fitting into a higher global power status.  The Soviet Union at this time was committed to crude socialist realism, suppressing other kinds of art like abstract expressionism.  In turn, the United States embodied all the U.S.S.R denied.

A trend that arose in the late 1950's was a reaction against abstract expressionism, it was labeled popart.  Rather than avoiding references to mass culture, pop artists accepted and used them.  Popular subject matter were soft drink bottles, hamburgers, gas stations, comic strips, billboards and airplanes.  In using these popular images, artists celebrated the technological culture and revealed it's insolence and cheapness.  Andy Warhol is probably the most famous pop artist.  In his work he clearly illustrates the influence of machine production.  Often his repeated portraits of identical images were based on photographs  that had been enlarged by mechanical means.  This style provides a multiplicity of views and moods of attractive women ( in most cases).  This style was supposed to represent a wild zest for life which these women possessed. " This was also meant to give the art a sense of abiding and fascinating tension."(Bronowski 14)

In modern times, nationalist art became an important topic as well as internationalism in the art world.  At any given time, in major cities worldwide, work from many nations are on show.  Even though we except the fact that the global art scene consists of a network of cosmopolitan cities, it is becoming increasingly obvious that art recognizes no boundaries in present day.  Robert Motherwell stated in 1966 that "Art is not national, to be merely an American or French painter is to be nothing; to fall to overcome ones initial environment is never to reach the human."  Even in the early part of this century, but progressing through the years, artists saw themselves as internationally linked by aesthetic and conceptual issues with universal readings.  Globalization in this case is revealed as a preferable substitute to nationalism.  It is actually dangerously misleading to label art of the past or present into national packages.  In today's world it is difficult for post colonial nations to maintain identity and integrity in the global art world.  There is no guarantee that national art will flourish in the world and raise profile, it depends on the initial economic support.  There have been small national successes, for instance in Haiti, murals were painted on the city walls to celebrate "new Haiti" in 1986.  This event bore witness to national solidarity in the face of oppression.  It brought future hopes and a vehicle for communication for a country where 90% are illiterate.(Buck, 1991)

The modern age of reason promised to resolve all problems through the application of science.  Art of this time echoed a preoccupation with technology and environment.  Today, many artists feel liberated from tradition and rules and feel free to follow any exploration, but as these artists are witness to many global events, tragedies and breakthroughs, these are often reflected in their works.  Fad and fashion are nurtured by mass media and artists struggle to do anything to capture attention.  Enormous diversity characterizes present day painting.  This diversity is characteristic of modern life, and each style reflects, questions, or analyses some aspects of contemporary society.

"Through painting, the artist expresses ideas and emotions, as well as a version of the reality he or she perceives, in a two dimensional visual form."(cd rom)  Some artists paint concrete forms with which viewers are generally familiar with and some try to create entirely abstract relationships.  The way a painting is constructed does not change the fact that as life goes on, and world events weather negative or beneficial occur, these events are reflected through the universal language of art.  To study the paintings of any age is to look in the diverse interpretations of the era in which they were produced.  Through painting, artists can give expressions of their own ideas and emotions corresponding to personal, national or global topics.  As painting depicts the lives we live, it can also quite clearly be stated that an appreciation of painting and all art forms, can also deepen and enrich the lives we live.

Daily Logs

March 19th '96

I have already had an interview with Mr. Cramm and decided to do my SIP on Art and how world issues have been reflected in art throughout the ages.  This well be an interesting project for me because I am an art major, and enjoy every aspect of art and art history.  It will be interesting to incorporate the two subjects.  Today I met with Kath Peer to set up times when she can teach me and show me some of her slides.  I also took out some art history books from the Unionville H.S. library.

March 20th '96

This morning I went to the Unionville public library and took out some more books on art history.  I began looking into them and making notes.  I have formalized an introduction and basically organized my essay (and the messages I want to convey).  I need to book another interview before I do any more, but I feel that I have a stable start to this project.

March 21st '96

Today I talked to Kath Peer for a while on her ideas for which time periods I should study, and which world issues I should look in to.  I'm going to try and set out some timelines to help.  Today I also read some of my "art in the ancient world" book- I feel I should read a bit before I start taking serious notes.

March 27th '96

Today I planned on going in for an interview, but unfortunately I missed my but, so K continued reading the history books to familiarize myself with my general topic.  So far I have read into ancient Greek and Roman art/issues and started into renaissance.  I have set dates for myself, so that I can start organizing my time and working hard to meet the deadline.

April 2nd '96

Today I managed to accomplish a lot of work on my essay.  I have read and now made notes on many interesting and informative books, and as of today, I have recorded a lot of useful material.

April 12th '96

I researched the life, art and livelihood of Pablo Picasso today.  I wanted to go into detail with a couple of famous artists lives, and I think Picasso was a great choice.  A lot of his paintings were impressions of wars and events which occurred in his lifetime- which he had very strong feelings towards.  I have almost finished my note making, and just need to look more in detail to the past century (20th) of art.

April 17th '96

Wow!  Finally I am finished a long and hard battle of note making.  This morning I went through my twenty seven pages of rough notes and highlighted them all according to the three major time areas I am focusing on.  Now I can finally get on to the easy part- the essay writing.

May 6th '96

I have spent the past three nights writing the first copy of my essay.  The notes and examples came together very nicely, and I feel that I have written a substantially good essay.  I still have to type it and edit, but most of the work is done and I feel fairly competent of what I have accomplished.

May 25th '96

My Essay is done- written, edited, spell checked and printed.  Today I organized basic notes for my presentation which will occur on the 31st of this month.  I recently spoke with my new art teacher Ms. Spittle and she has some interesting ideas about my topic, so soon I will be speaking to her again and finalizing my plans.  This has been an all round enjoyable project, and I feel that I did not need to take a large amount of quotes, or even basic ideas from books, because of the extensive knowledge I already have in art history.

Works Cited

Bevetzin, Norman.  The Arts in Canada.  Copp Clark Publishing, Toronto:  1977

Bronowski, J.  The Visionary Eye.  The MIT Press, Mass.:  1978

Buck, Louis.  Relative Values.  PBC Books, London England:  1991

Casson, Jean.  The Concise Encyclopedia of Symbolism.  Chartwell Books Inc.,New         Jersey:  1979

Clark, Kenneth.  The Romantic Rebellion.  Butler and Tanner Ltd., Great Britain: 1973

Comptons Interactive Encyclopedia.  Tribune New Media/Education Company:  1992-     1995

Osbourne, Harold.  Oxford Companion to Art.  Oxford University Press, England:  1970

10.  Australia

Most Australians are governed by three levels of government - local, state and federal. For instance,

a family living in Sydney would have the Sydney City Council (local) looking after such things as

garbage collection, park maintenance and dog controls. Australians pay their local government by

paying "rates" - paid according to the area and position of any land that you own. They would then

be governed by the New South Wales Government, which would look after such things as roads,

and the police force. Finally, they are governed by the Australian (Federal) Government, which is

involved with trade, foreign affairs and the national treasury. Both the State and Federal

Governments are paid through income tax.

Australian governments at a State and Federal level are run according to the Westminster System,

used in England. This means that there are two houses of Parliament, a lower house (The House Of

Representatives) and an upper house (The Senate). Decisions put forward and approved in the

House of Representatives must then be approved a second time by the Senate. The only exception

to this is the Queensland Government, which has only a House of Representatives.

Local governments are stationed in centre of the town or city that they provide to. State

governments are run from the state capitals, while the Federal Government sits in Canberra, in the

Australian Capital Territory.

There are six states, and two major territories in Australia. The states are: Queensland, New South

Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. The two territories are the

Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Australia also has a number of areas run by

the Federal Government (dependent areas). These include the Ashmore and Cartier Islands,

Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island, the McDonald

Islands and Norfolk Island.

Britain originally ruled Australia as a penal colony after it was discovery in 1788. However, on

January 1st, 1901, Australia's six states were unified ("federated") into one nation, formally known

(and still known) as the Commonwealth Of Australia. Australia was originally governed from

Melbourne, however in 1907 the Federal Parliament moved to Canberra, where it has been ever

since.

The biggest political debate at the moment in Australia is whether or not Australia should become a

republic. This means that Australia would be (in official terms) completely separated from its mother

country, England, and would have an Australian Head Of State. This change to a republic could

occur as early as the year 2001, exactly one hundred years after Federation.

11.  Austria

Table of Contents

Population

Culture

Tradition

Way of Life

Vegetation and Animal Life

History

Religion

Arts

Language

Education Health

Government

Climate

Trade

Resources

Agriculture

Bibliography

Austria

Austria, a small country in Central Europe famous for its gorgeous mountain scenery.  The towering Alps, and the foothills stretch across the western, southern and central parts of the country.  Broad green valleys, lovely mirror lakes and thick forest cover a good portion of the land.  Austria with no coastline shares its surrounded borders with Liechtenstein and Switzerland to the west; Germany and the Czech Republic to the north; Hungary and Slovakia to the east; and to the south Italy and Slovenia.  North-East is Vienna, Austria's capital and largest city, where about a fifth of the people live.

Population

Austria has a population of about 7" million.  Most Austrian's choose to live in  the lower east areas of the country and just south of the Danube River.  Also the capital and largest city, more than one and a half-million of the Austrian population lives in Vienna.  Other cities with more than 100,000 people living in them consist of Graz, Innsbruck, Linz, and Scuzburg.

Culture

Austrians do not like being classified as Germans, Austria is basically Germanic in language and ethnic association.  Some minorities include 40,000 Croats, 70,000 Solvenes, and a small group of Hungarians (11,000) and Czechs (5,000).  Most Austrian's live south of the Danube River.  Austrians enjoy an array of  fine foods such as a Viennese Clich otherwise known as a Wiener Schnitzel, and many fine cakes and pastries.  The average life expectancy for males is 72 and females 78.

Traditions

In May and June Vienna hosts the Vienna Festival.  This festival is a celebration of music, arts, and theater.  Austrians have a great love for music, many of the greatest composers were born and played there, many like Beethoven and other popular composers.  Operas are also very popular, and The Vienna State Opera House is the most popular for such an activity.  Festivals play an important part of Austria.  One festival takes place throughout the province of Tyrol, in the beginning of spring.  People dress up and pretend to chase the evil spirits of winter away.

Way of Life

Most Austrians living in the cities live in four and five story apartments.  Others live in single story homes, or high rises.  Clothing is very much like the style here in the U.S. but  Austrians tend to dress up more often.  On special occasions Austrian's dress in the national dress, a green trimmed, gray wool suit with  a coat and knickers for men, the women's dress consists of a dirndl; a peasant coat, a blouse, a wide Girdle, and a bright full apron.  Austrians eat elegant foods and many exquisite desserts.  Beer or wine is usually served with meals.

Austrians love the outdoors, and the many different physical features of Austria allow the people to enjoy many different types of sports.  In winter Austrians enjoy ice skating, skiing, tobogganing, bobsledding, ice hockey, ski jumping, and curling, a game in which the players slide heavy stones along the ice toward a circular target.  Summer sports include boating, fishing, hiking, mountain climbing, swimming, and water skiing.  The people also enjoy biking, camping, picnics, and soccer.

Vegetation and Animal Life

Deciduous trees, including beech, birch, and oak, are very populated in the lower altitudes.  In Alpine areas conifers extend all over.  Bare rocks and grass slops continue to the snow line.

The boar, bear, wolf, and lynx have disappeared, but red deer, chamois, marmot, and grouse still live in the protected Alpine reserves.  In the grassy flats gray goose, white tailed, and spotted eagles, and great white herons breed.  In the village of Rust, white storks return annually to their chimney nests.

History

Around 400 B.C. Celtic tribes occupied Austria.  Around 15 B.C. Rome took control from the Celtic tribes.  After the collapse of the Roman Empire many different empires took control of Austria.  In 955 the king of Germany, Otto I, took control of Austria, this empire later came to be know as the Holy Roman Empire.  In 1806 the empire ended.

The Babenberg family controlled north-eastern Austria from 976 until 1246, when the last Bebenberg duke died without an heir and the king of Bohemia seized the region.

The Hapsburgs lost the Holy Roman crown in the 1300's, but a Habsburg was once again elected emperor in 1438.  From then on, the Habsburgs held the title.

Between the 1400's and 1500's, the Habsburg emperors acquired new lands of Bohemia and Hungary, but their control was shaken by the Protestant Reformation in the 1500's and the Thirty Years' War of 1618 to 1648.  During these centuries, Austria emerged as the chief state in the empire.  The ottoman turks tried to drive Austria from Hungary and made two unsuccessful attacks on Vienna, but they were defeated in the late 1600's.

In 1806, after losing many battles in the Napoleonic Wars in the 1700's and 1800's, Emperor Francis II was forced to end the Holy Roman Empire.

During the 1800's, revolutions broke out across Europe.  Austria's minister of foreign affairs, Prince Klemens von Metternich, tried to suppress al revolutionary movements in the Austrian Empire, but in 1848, revolutionaries demanded the establishment of a constitutional government and Metternich fled.

In the late 1800's and early 1900's, Slavs in Austria-Hungary demanded the right to govern themselves.  Then, in 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Slavic nationalist movement in Serbia, killed Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungaraian throne.  In response, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which started Word War I.  Germany, Britain, Francs, Russia, and the United States helped Austria Hungary in fighting.

In 1918, Austria-Hungary was defeated.  The last Habsburg emperor was overthrown and the empire was slip into several countries.  Austria became a republic.  It adopted a democratic Constitution in 1920, but conflicting political parties struggled for supremacy.  In 1934, members of the Austrian Nazi Party killed Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, and in 1938, German troops seized Austria.  Adolf Hitler united Austria and Germany and led both countries into World War II in 1939.

After Germany was defeated in 1945, Austria was occupied by the Allies, and a government based on Austria's 1920 Constitution was established.  In 1955, the Allies ended their occupation with the understanding that Austria would not be on anyone's side in a war.

Since the 1950's, Austria economy has grown steady, and the country has been politically stable. As a neutral nation, Austria has been the site of many international meetings.

Religion

Austrian's religions consist of 84% Roman Catholic, 6% Protestant, 6% Atheist, and 4% other.  Austria and the pope have an agreement in which the Roman Catholic Church in Austria receives financial support from the national government.  But Austrians have freedom of worship, Austria also has about 12,000 Jews, must of whom live in Vienna.

Arts

For quite some time Austria has been on the of the great cultural European countries.  Austria has made some outstanding achievements in architecture, literature, and painting.  Austria's most famous and important contribution to the western culture has been music.  During the late 1700,'s and early 1800's Austria has released many Great Composers like; Joseph Hayan, Mozart, Schubert, Mahler, Wolf, and many more.  Austria's state opera house presents opera 10 months of the year.

Architecture in Austria's has some of Europe's best examples of baroque architecture.  This style has been dated back to the 1600's.  Gold, marble, and wood has pleased the sense of many people.  Painting and literature are also very important in Austria.

Language

98% of the Austrian people speak German, the nation language.  Different parts of the country speak various dialects of German.  Only about a percent of the population speaks other languages.  In Burgenland 24,000 people speak Serbo Croation and Magyar.  In Carinthia 20,000 speak Slovene, and small groups in Vienna speak Czech or Slovak.

Education and Health

The Austrian literacy rate is virtually 100%.  Between the ages of six and fifteen years of age, Austrian's are required to attend school.  The school system gives eight years of elementary school.  Outside of the rural areas, some students go to either a vocational school to train for a trade, or to a secondary school, where they prepare over an eight year period to enter a University.

Austria's standards for health care are very high.  All citizens are covered by national health insurance.  Vienna was Europe's greatest medical center in the early 20th century, known for the modern psychiatry under Sigmund Freud.

Government

The official name of Austria is Republic of Austria, Austria has a Federal Government that is made up of provinces which include: Burgenland; Cariuthia; Lower Austria; Salzburg; Sytria; Tyrol; Upper Austria; the city of Vienna; and Volaryburg.  All Austrians 19 years and older are permitted to vote.

Austrian's head of state is the President.  The President serves a six year term.  The President is allowed to serve as many terms as desired, but no more than two terms in a row.  The President may not declare war, or veto a bill passed by parliament.  The Chancellor and Cabinet run the Austrian Government.  The President appoints the Chancellor which serves as head of Government.

Austria's political parties consist of the conservative People's Party and the liberal Socialist Party, the third largest party, The Freedom Party.  In Austria, the supreme court is the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases.  Special courts judge juvenile matters, labor deputes, etc.  Austria's armed forces consists of approximately of 55,000 men.  All men 18 years old, must serve a six month term  in the army and additional time.

Climate

Altitude, wind, and mountains is the key to the climate in Western and Central Austria.  A warm, dry wind coming from the south is called a Foen.  A Foen can cause snow to thaw suddenly and result in an avalanche.  Eastern Austria tends to have a harsher and much colder climate compared to the west.  The east has cold winters, short moderate summers, and a bit of rain.  The low temperature in four major Austrian cities can range between -3.3 degrees Celsius and 2.2 degrees Celsius.  The highs for the summer can be between 17.8 and 20 degrees Celsius.

Trade

Austria's had a negative balance of trade since 1945, Although Austria has a large income from visitors.  Austria imports transport equipment, heavy machinery, fuels, foodstuffs, and raw materials.  Austria exports lumber, paper, pulp, textiles, iron, steel, electric power, and machinery.

Resources

The greatest natural resources in Austria is it's waterpower.  "Much of the potential hydroelectric capacity, however, remains to be exploited" (Prodigy 1994)  40% of the land is taken up by forests, which is used for timber.  The most important resources of Austria are magnesite graphite; iron; ore; lignite; oil, and natural gas.

Agriculture

"Two trends have characterized post war Austrian agriculture: a decline in the portion of the labor force engaged in farming and a decrease in small-scale farming, with farms of less than twelve acres either disappearing or being consolidated." (Prodigy 1994)  Some of the leading crops include barley, wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, and corn.  Meat production has risen sharply, and dairy farming is more than adequate to meet national needs.

12.  avalanches

AVALANCHES AND LANDSLIDES

Submitted to: Ms.Delgado

GEOGRAPHY

12/9/96

By

DEWAYNE REDD

OUTLINE

AVALANCHES

AND

LANDSLIDES

1. a.WHAT IS AN AVALANCHE OR LANDSLIDE?

b.EXACTLY HOW DOES AN AVALANCHES OCCUR

2. a.I TALK A LITTLE ABOUT PAST AVALANCHES                               b.PAST DEATHS FROM AVALANCHES

3. a.            CONCLUSION CLOSING OF MY REPORT

AVALANCHES

AND

LANDSLIDES

What is an avalanche? , well it's a large mass of snow and ice or of earth or rock sliding down a mountain side or a cliff.  And how does an avalanche occur, well mainly they happen by vibrations caused by movement of the earth such as an earthquake, gunfire, rainy weather, and many more.

Now I would like to talk a little about past avalanches and landslides that have occurred like the 1903 Frank landslide and avalanche that happened at the same time, in Alberta Canada it destroyed the parks canyons it's beautiful trees' it's wonderful sights and killed nearly one hundred people, and covered a small town near Alberta with ice and snow.

Another devastating avalanche incident is the 1964 Sherman slide, in which a huge avalanche was triggered by the 1964 Alaskan earthquake.  The slide spilled out onto the Sherman glacier, during the big slide several other smaller slides happened and those were the one that took lives in Anchorage, and destroyed property

There are a couple of types of avalanches and how the destroy so much this one is named "Loose Snow Avalanches"1, it starts' in a small area then grows in size and mass as it descends.Another type is the "Slab Avalanche" it actually starts in a large area of ice and snow and then begins to slide.

AVALANCHES

AND

LANDSLIDES

On September 12 of 1717 crusaded down the Troilet, Italy glacier, gaining speed on a cushion of air reaching a falling velocity of km/hr over a 3600 m fall.  Two towns were destroyed, with seven people killed and a 120 cows lost.  The slosh of an avalanche ran up the far side of the valley at a speed of 125 km/hr.

In developed areas such as ski resorts it is possible to predict avalanches because they are controlled with explosives and artillery.  In a back-country areas it is possible to predict avalanches because the forecast relies on experience of the person making the observation.  There are no computer models available to predict avalanches and therefore predictions are only accomplished by repetitive observations and knowledge of snow properties.

Due to difficulty in reliable predictions method areas of avalanche hazards must rely on controlling or altering the effects of an avalanche.

The back country explorer must be highly skilled in determining safe routes and rescue procedures over and above relying on predictions of avalanches for personal safety.

Avalanches kill people many ways but the most common cause of death is suffocation.  There is little air trapped in the avalanche and within a short period of time the victim loses consciousness and dies.  A victim can also be killed from the force of the snow slamming into the body or by traveling in the avalanches and being smashed against trees and other objects.

AVALANCHES

AND

LANDSLIDES

Knowledge can help you avoid being caught by a snow avalanche, it may help you survive if you are buried.

Snow avalanches are natural phenomena so complex one can never have all the information necessary to predict avalanche conditions with certainty.  Well this is my report on avalanches hope you learned more on avalanches but we will never know all there is to know about avalanches, sorry it's not the five pages I was lucky to find this little amount of information.

NOTES

Mears,Ronald I., Design Criteria for Avalanche Control Structures in the Runout                         Zone,June1981.

S.D., All You Ever Wanted To Know About Snow..., November 24, 1988.

Snow Avalanches from Cold Regions Hydrology and Hydraulics,Ryan, W.L.

Snow Avalanche Hazards and Mitigation in the U.S.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

World Wide Web author unknown.

Avalanche weather station author unknown.

Snow and Weather disaster station.

13.  Barbados

Barbados

Barbados is a small country located in the Caribbean Sea.

The capital is Bridgetown with a population of about 8,789.  The

head of state of Barbados is Queen Elizabeth II and she is

represented by General Dame Nita Barrow.  The total population of

the country is around 252,000.  The main language is English and

the predominant religion is Christianity.  Their date of

independence was November 30, 1966.

Barbados is the eastern most Caribbean Island.  It is about

200 miles North-North East of Trinidad and about 100 miles East-

South East of St. Lucia.  It is the second smallest country in

the Western Hemisphere.  The major urban centers in the area

include Bridgetown, Speightstown, Oistins, and Holetown.  The

land is mainly flat except for a series of ridges that rise up to

about 1,000 feet and then falling towards the sea.

The climate of the region consists of tropical temperatures

influenced by the Northeast trade winds.  The average annual

temperature is approximately 77 degrees Fahrenheit.  The daily

temperatures rarely get above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.  The dry

season is cool, while the wet season is slightly warmer.  The

main rains come during the months of July, August, September,

October, and November.  The annual average rainfall is 40 inches

in the coastal areas and 90 inches in the central areas.

The net migration into Barbados is 4.82 per 1000.  The

annual growth rate is 0.4%, which is one of the lowest in the

world.  The annual birthrate is 15.45 per 1000, and the annual

deathrate is 8.27 per 1000.  Barbados ranks fourth in the World

in population density with the overall density being 1526 per

square mile.  The whole island is inhabited, leaving no sparsely

populated areas.  The main race is Negro, which is about 92% of

the population.  The remainder of the population is consists of

Whites (3.8%), Mulattoes (3.8%), and East Indians (0.4%).  About

70% of the population is Anglican.  The other 30% belong to

various denominations such as Moravian, Methodist, and Roman

Catholic.

Barbados was once under British control from 1624.  Its

House of Assembly, which began in 1639, is the third oldest

legislative body in the Western Hemisphere.  By the time Britain

left in 1966, the island was completely English in culture.  The

British influence is still seen today in quaint pubs, cricket

games on the village greens, and in the common law.

Barbados' government is British Parliament.  The queen is

the head of state and she is represented by the governor general.

The governor general appoints an advisory council.  The executive

authority is the Prime Minister who is Owen Seymour Arthur which

came into power on September 6, 1994.  The Deputy Prime Minister

is Billie Miller who also came into power on September 6, 1994.

The democratic government works well in the country.  They have

had three general elections and one smooth transfer of power from

the Democratic Labor Party to the Barbados Labor Party.  Barbados

carries on trade with other Caribbean nations and does have

diplomatic relations with Cuba.  Their closest relations are with

the United Stated, and the United Kingdom.  Barbados joined the

United Nations is 1966.

The economy of Barbados is one of the 35 upper middle-income

countries of the world.  They have a free-market economy, but the

dominant sector is private.  Their economy is based on sugar and

tourism, but the government has encouraged a policy of

diversification in order to achieve a more stable nation.  They

also depend on a light manufacturing industry.  Their monetary

unit is the Barbados dollar.  The coins are made in 1, 5, 10, and

25 cents.  The paper money is made in 1, 5, 10, 20, and 100

dollar bills.  One U.S. dollar is equal to 2.01 Barbados dollar

(1975).

About 60% of the land is cropland.  The agriculture industry

employs 7.4% of the labor force and contributes about 8.7% to the

Gross Domestic Product.  Sugarcane makes up over half the

acreage.  Bananas are also grown, but only on a limited scale.

Sea island cotton is also grown.  All of the farmers are required

by regulations to plant at least 12% of their arable land with

some food crop.

Barbados' natural resources include petroleum, fishing, and

natural gas.  The fishing industry employs about 2,500 people and

500 small boats.  Their are no natural forests in the country.

Manufacturing contributes about 11.2% to the GDP.  Manufacturing

and mining employ about 18.9% of the labor force.  The majority

of the industrial establishments are engaged in some form of

sugar processing.  Sugar is the principal export.  The principal

imports include machinery, motor vehicles, lumber, and fuels.

Barbados' per capita income of $9,200 makes it one of the highest

standards of living of all the small island states of the Eastern

Caribbean.  Barbados is also one of the many transshipment points

for narcotics bound for the U.S. and Europe.

Some of the current issues in the country consist of the

pollution of coastal waters from the waste disposal ships, soil

erosion, and illegal solid waste disposal that threatens

contamination of aquifers.  Barbados is also plagued with natural

disasters such as hurricanes and landslides.  Their hurricane

season is between the months of June and October, which is the

same season as the U.S.

Sources

The World Factbook 1995.  Central Intelligence Agency. 1995.

The World in Figures.  Showers, Victor.  1973.  Library of

Congress.

Encyclopedia of the Third World.  Kurian, George Thomas.  1987.

Library of Congress.

World Christian Encyclopedia: A comparative Study of Churches and

the Religions in the Modern World, AD 1900-2000.

Caribbean Week.  "Barbados."  Internet.

14.  Botswana

Botswana

Botswana is a landlocked country in southern Africa, roughly the size of Texas. It covers

224,607 square miles, yet contains only 1,444,000 people, making it one the most thinly

populated countries in Africa. The eastern portion is where most people reside, because the

Kalahari Desert covers almost all the rest of the nation. Botswana's climate is a semiarid one,

consisting of very hot summers, and warm winters. Flat and rolling land make up the topography

of Botswana, with the Kalahari in the southwest.

There are several major ethnic groups in Botswana. Most Botswanans are black Africans

called Tswana, and the largest group of the Tswana are the Bamangwato. The Bamangwato

make up almost one third of Botswana's population. The majority of the Tswana are farmers.

There are also about 10,000 of the San people, or "Bushmen". Some San are hunter-gatherers,

and some are farmers. Several thousand whites are also included in Botswana's population. Most

are of British descent. Most whites earn more money then the blacks, and this causes some racial

tension. Although English is the official language of Botswana, most people speak Setswana, a

Bantu language. Eighty-five percent of Botswana's people practice traditional African religions,

while the rest are Christian. Most Botswanan children attend elementary school, but only fifteen

percent will go on to high school. The small percent of people that go to college attend the

University of Botswana in Gaborone, the nation's capital.

Great Britain once had control over Botswana. South Africa wanted Botswana, then

called Bechuanaland, as part of their country. But Great Britain refused. On September 30,1966,

Botswana was declared independent. It's official name is The Republic of Botswana. Seretse

Khama became the nation's first president.

Some of Botswana's chief resources are diamonds,copper,nickel, and salt. The economy

of Botswana was based on cattle and crop raising, but now diamond mining is controlling the

economy, despite a 25 percent unemployment rate due to slow diamond sales in 1994. In 1994,

Botswana made 1.8 billion dollars in exports of diamonds,copper, nickel, and meat. Botswana

has it's own currency: the pula. One pula is equal to about 1.8 U.S. dollars.

Botswana is run by a parliamentary republic that includes judicial, legislative, and

executive branches.You must be twenty-one years old to vote. Today, Botswana's most pressing

problems have to do with disputes between Namibia and Zambia over a small section of the

border. Also, the twenty-five percent unemployment rate must be lowered.

In conclusion, Botswana is a country that has come a long way, yet still has a long way to

go. Like every other country, it has it's problems, but Botswana would be a nice place to visit.

15.  Brazil

LOCATION OF BRAZIL

Brazil lies between thirty five degrees west longitude and seventy five degrees west longitude.  Brazil also runs between five degrees north latitude and thirty five degrees south latitude.  Brazil is located in mainly the eastern part of South America.  This country sits in mostly the southern hemisphere of the world.  Being completely on the west side of the world, Brazil is not all in the south side of the world.  With the equator running through north Brazil, a small portion of Brazil, a small portion of Brazil is in the northern hemisphere.  Brazil is bordered by a number of South American countries.  Brazil borders Uruguay to the north; Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru to the east; Bogota to the southeast; Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana to the south; and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

PLACE OF BRAZIL

The landscape of Brazil is covered with plains, plateaus, and tropical grasslands.  The plains has a fertile ribbon of lowlands, about ten through thirty miles wide which are along the country's coastline.  Behind the plains sits a huge interior plateau that runs steeply near the lowlands in front of it.  This drop forms an escarpment, steep cliff that separates two level areas.  In Brazil there is much poverty.  People make a living there by subsistence farming.  Even though they do farming subsistintly, they use much advanced farming there.  Aside from farming there is much more to there culture.  People there are involved a lot in astronomy and mathematics.  Architecture is another way of living there.  This used not only as a money making job, but private uses also.

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION OF BRAZIL

In the 1500s, the Portuguese colonist built big sugar plantations along the fertile coastal plain and port cities to ship crops to Europe.  Brazilian government has been tearing desolate slums, called favelas, down in order to improve Brazilian cities.  These favelas were replaced with public housing people could afford.  In 1955, Brazil decided to build a new capital city, 600 miles inland, called Brasilia, in order to decrease the population of the former capital Rio de Janeiro.  Between 1940s and 1950s, Brazil's government built the country's first steel mill and oil refinery.  The government also built it's firs series of dams to produce hydroelectricity in order to run industries.  During the 1970s Brazil began a large road-building project beginning at Brasilia.  At the same time Brazil developed a fuel called ethanol from sugarcane, and were clearing the Amazon to plant crops there.

MOVEMENT OF BRAZIL

Brazil was inhabited by Portuguese colonist in 1500.  Brazil's colonist brought over three hundred million African slaves to Brazil, to work on the plantations.  This continued until the late 1800s, when the practice was done away with.  During the same time, thousands of people came from many different regions like Portugal, Italy, Spain, and Japan.  They all came to work in the coffee business.  Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paul are two of Brazil's biggest populated cities.  This is because of it's mystique, beauty, and economic health.  Between 1970 and 1985 one million people had migrated to the Amazon regions and to the Brazilian Highlands because of new roads and free land grants.  These free land grants were a way of the government promoting settlement in the north.

REGION OF BRAZIL

Brazil is all part of Latin America.  It is also largely covered by the Amazon River Basin, as well as the rest of South America.  The Northeast Region has a wet and dry climate, while the Southeast Region has a humid subtropical climate.  Some affect on the climate has to do with the equator running straight through Brazil.  Besides climate there are other differences between the regions.  The Northeast is the world's biggest producer of coffee.  The major language between these regions is Spanish and Portuguese although a large number of people in the Northeast have African ancestry.  In the Southeast there are many favelas in all the major cities, which are just another way of saying desolate slums.  The other two regions aren't as detailed as the Northeast and Southeast.  The Brazilian Highlands which is where the capital is and the Amazon River Basin which covers all of Brazil.

16.  Can the United States Justify the Civil War

Can the United States Justify the Civil War

The definition of Manifest Destiny reads as:  "The belief in the 1840's in the inevitable territorial expansion of the United States, especially as advocated by southern slaveholders who wished to extend slavery into new territories."  This explanation was transcribed from the World Book Encyclopedia's dictionary.  It is directly evident that from this unbiased statement we can trace the first uprising of a separate group of people yearning to break the newly formed bond of the great United States.

Before and during the Mexican War, the people who were pushing for the claimed land once owned by innocent native americans, were always looking for a scapegoat.  They needed one way or another, a way to squirm out of taking the blame for the enslaved and murdered Mexican causalities.  There was one man, though, who would not let this happen, David Wilmot.  David Wilmot was a democrat from Pennsylvania, who was willing to revise the President's bill.  In this revision, Wilmot proposed "...neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of the territory...".  This was not well liked by the South and eventhough it was given thumbs up many times in the senate, our newly formed country was now bordered by fresh land.  The Wilmot  Proviso underwent quite a bit of pressure so that compromises could satisfy each side.

The Compromise of 1850 was soon to follow but the real catch of the same year was the Fugitive Slave Act.  This act was invented so that the slaves of slaveowners, who took them to a slave-free state on a vacation or something, could not escape.  In this act, the hardest part to understand, was that the courts were to try to give a fair trial to any runaway slaves.  This enfuriated many of the Northern abolitionists who now were going to expand the tracks of the underground railroad to help extend their efforts in the rescue of the runaways.  The point of no return, where many people knew for sure that the country would be devided between the north and the south was the ruling on the Kansas Nebraska Act.  This act was majorly contributed into by Stephen A. Douglas and probably would never have passed without his consent.  The whole idea behind the act that really got to the south was Popular Sovereignty.  This so called "specific" rule was none to specific in stating when a territory could decide when they were pro or anti slavverry.  The abolitionists were flooding the new territory with their own kind where as the southerners were just moving next door.  They were armed and ready and knew that they would have to shed blood before the voters went to the polls.

In the year of 1860, our most prized yet controversial president came into office, Abraham Lincoln.  Lincoln had many issues to cover in the begining of his term and he did not want to go aabout it in the wrong fashion.  The first thing Lincoln could have done to delay the war if not prevent it was to let the Confederates have Fort Sumter.  But because of his stubborness, the begining of the Civil War had started with no casualities but the rifles had been fired, Union against the Confederacy.

The north and the south had it's share of loud mouths who threw their weight around and they were not about to stop until they had their way.  Although these people were in the numbers of just a handful, their charismatic ways received a lot of attention that was only to feed the fire of of no compromise.  One of the major contributers to this action was John Brown.  In the year 1859, John Brown led a band of twenty two armed men into Harper's Ferry, Virginia and went on a slaying spree starting with the slaveowners families and then freeing the slaves so they could join in arms with his party.  But there is another side of the coin and that is where Dred Scott comes in the Civil War picture.  Dred Scott was a slave who was taken to Illinois by his master on a trip and taking notice to the Missouri Compromise, he sued his master to be free.  The case went to Supreme Court where he was ruled against at a 7 to 2 vote.  So this meant that there was no way that he could bring the case to Federal Court and sue.  There was quite an uproar on the decision and this made it very impossible not to foresee the coming of the Civil War.

When we look to the past and see that this hunk of rock now known as the United States was given to us to explore our frredom of religeon, who would of thought that it would be taken this far.  Brothers against brothers, families torn apart because of one little infraction, slavery.  Who would have thought that 700,000 people would die at the hands of their own countrymen, people that they fought with during the Revolutionary War so that they could be free of the monarchy of British Rule.  Now in today's perspective, we, the United States are trying to stop that from happening in other parts of our ever growing world.ritory...".  This was not well liked by the South and eventhough it was given thumbs up ma or something, could not escape.

17.  Canada of the United States of America

CANADA - OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The Canadian identity has always been difficult to define.  We, as Canadians, have continued to define

ourselves by reference to what we are not - American - rather than in terms of our own national history and

tradition.  This is ironic since the United States is continuing to be allowed by Canadians to take over our economy

and literally buy our country.  Culturally Canada has its own distinct government and institutions which differ and

are better from those in the United States, but economically the country has been all but sold out to America.  The

major cultural differences to be examined are that of Canada's strong government, institutions such as welfare and

universal healthcare, and our profound respect for law and authority.  These establishments make Canada a

separate nation from the USA.  Economically, it will be examined how Canada has become a victim to

Americanization through the purchase of Canada with our own money, the shocking statistics of Canada's foreign

ownership, and the final payment for our country, free trade.  All in all we have our own government, our own

flag, our own anthem; but are we really Canadian or a not quite United State of America?

In Canada, strong government involvement plays an immense role in  determining the destiny of its

people for the good of the society.

In Canada you are reminded of the government every day. It parades before you.  It is

not content to be the servant, but will be the master...

Henry David Thoreau, 18861

Although slightly outdated, as of 1982 47.3 percent of Canada's GNP was in government hands, compared with

38% in the United States.  Government spending in Canada was 24.4% greater than in the U.S. and if you subtract

the U.S.'s excessive national defense spending, the gap between the two countries considerable widens.2  The

United States has adopted a more Freudian "survival of the fittest" concept towards government where the rights of

the individual are predominant and industry is publicly owned and run with little help from the government.

Although there is some government control and ownership of industry in both countries it is much more common

in Canada where "the state has always dominated and shaped the ... economy."3

Of 400 top industrial firms, 25 were controlled by federal or provincial governments.

Of the top 50 industrialists, all ranked by sales, 7 were either wholly owned or

controlled by the federal or provincial governments.  For financial institutions, 9 of

the top 25 were federally or provincially owned or controlled ....4

Also, Canadian subsidies to business and employment in public enterprise were five times the level in the U.S.

Government involvement is a crutial part of the distinctness of our Canadian identity.

Similar variations occur with respect to Canada's welfare policies.  They are clearly implemented for the

good of the society, giving aid to any citizen in need.  This system is considered superior to that of the United

States where some people have no source of income whatsoever and no chance to claim welfare.  Welfare policies

have generally been adopted earlier in Canada and tend to be "more advanced in terms of program development,

coverage, and benefits".5  Another advanced Canadian institution is that of Canada's famous universal health care

system.  Although it is a complex system its highlights consist o in Canada.  For hospitals and physicians American

households paid $346, Canadians paid $33.10

It is clear that the Canadian universal system of health care is by far superior to the U.S. system.  This

may also be said true for Canadian's superior respect for law and authority.  Canada's fathers of confederation

stressed a great Canadian motto of  "Peace, Order, and Good Government" which implies control of, and

protection for the society. The parallel motto developed by America's founding fathers is "life, liberty and the

pursuit of happiness", this model suggests the upholding of the rights of the individual.  Due to the Canadian

motto being geared towards the rights and obligations of the community "the crime control model .... emphasizes

the maintenance of law and order, and is less protective of the rights of the accused and of individuals

generally".11  Due to the American 's stress on the rights of the individual "there is a greater propensity to

redefine or ignore the rules .... (there is) greater lawlessness and corruption in the United States".12  For example,

in 1987 the murder rate in Canada was 2.5 per 100,000 population; for the U.S. it was 8.3.  In the U.S. last year,

every 17 seconds a violent crime was committed; a rape every 5 minutes, a murder every 23 minutes, an assault

every 51 seconds.  Also, because it is a constitutional right for an American to own a gun, every day 15 children

aged 19 and under are killed with guns, it is the leading cause of death for people between ages of 15 and 24.

Licensed firearm dealers sell an estimated 7.5 million guns a year including 3.5 million handguns.13  In Canada

"ownership of offensive weapons or guns is considered a privilege, not a right".14  And 83.3 of Canadians show

support for a law which would require a person to obtain a police permit to purchase a gun .  Even though a

representative of the Canadian Justice department is quoted as saying "it is almost impossible to get a permit to

carry a handgun".15  Though in the U.S.A. a handgun can be purchased in less than 24 hours.

In 1992 handguns were used to murder 36 people in Sweden, 97 in Switzerland, 60 in Japan,

128 in Canada, 33 in Great Britain, 13 in Australia and 13,495 in the United States;  God Bless

America!16

Again, a major Canadian system has proven itself superior to its American counterpart.  It is surprising that

Canada's most important social institutions are far superior to those of the U.S.A. although it is well known that

the U.N. (United Nations) has chosen Canada as the best place to live in the world two years running.  These

successful institutions promote Canada's cultural identity for they can be used as models to countries around the

globe.

Americans should not underestimate the constant pressure on Canada which the mere

presence of the United States has produced.  We're different people from you and

we're different people because of you .... living next to you is in some ways like

sleeping with an elephant.  No matter how friendly and even tempered the beast, if I

can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt .... It should not therefore be

expected that this kind of nation, this Canada, should project itself .... as a mirror

image of the United States.

Pierre Trudeau (1969)17

Culturally, Canadians are Canadians but economically Canadians are Americans.  Ever since the end of

World War I the U.S. cleverly began to purchase our country.  Through foreign investment "the Americans

accumulated Canada at the unbelievable rate of a billion dollars worth yearly"18 from 1955 onward.  Not only

were they buying out Canada but they were doing it with Canadian money.  The way that they did this is through

trade profits, for instance:  Just before World War II the U.S.A. was buying goods off of us at a rate of $35 per

Canadian, we were buying goods off them at $50 per Canadian.  The difference comes to $15 per Canadian per

year in the American's favour.  Our population was 11 million at this time therefore this trade deficit translates

into a profit of $165,000,000 in the American's favour, per year, at a $15 trade deficit, with an 11 million

population ($15 x 11mil. = 165mil.).19

In 1947 our trade with the United States reach such proportions that it was draining

from us the amazing total of $70 per person per year20

In the 10 years from 1947 to 1957 Americans bought $20 billion worth of goods from us (figures are rounded),

they sold us $27 billion worth.  In other words, we handed the United States seven billion dollars.  And that same

figure (seven billions) happens to be almost exactly the amount of money the Americans "invested in Canada" in

the years 1947 - 1957.  In other words:

In 10 years American financiers took from the Canadian people seven billion dollars,

and during that very same period they used our seven billion dollars to buy up a large

portion of our country21

This did not only happen between 1947 and 1957 but if you research any year in modern trading history between

Canada and the United States you will come to the same conclusion (except the figures keep growing and growing

as time progresses).

Due mostly to the Americans purchasing our country "Canada is already the most foreign-dominated of

any industrialized country in the world".22  100% of the tobacco industry, 98%of the rubber industry, 92% of the

automotive industry, 84% of transportation, 78% of electrical apparatus industry, 78% of the petroleum and coal

industry, 76% of the chemical industry, and 75% of heavy manufacturing are foreign owned, mostly American.23

This foreign takeover has turned Canada into a branch plant economy where parent companies in the U.S. make

decisions concerning Canadian companies and Canadians rarely have the ability to reach top management

positions.  This current situation "erodes Canadian sovereignty and diminishes Canadian independence" it is also a

"threat to our power to implement decisions within our own borders - a threat no less real, though more subtle, that

if a division of Marines were marching across our border."24  Another way of describing Canada's branch plant

economy is to call it a new form of mercantilism.  We are just a colony of the United States and we are acting for

the betterment of the Mother country.

We are the servants of a new mercantilism.  The foreign subsidiary in Canada clearly

exists to further the interests of the parent corporation, whose home country in most

cases is the United States.  The hinterlands - like Canada - are to supply the

corporations with raw materials, and organize the disposition of subsequent consumer

capital goods25

Although foreign ownership creates jobs for Canadians, it does not create the top jobs, nor does it promote

economic progress or even prosperity.  It actually costs Canada $35 billion each and every year in revenue taken

out of the country.26  "Americans have drained from Canada more wealth than they have hauled out of all other

countries combined".  And the government is still allowing more and more foreign investment.  "No other country

seems prepared to tolerate so high a degree of foreign ownership as exists in Canada".27  And now, with

free-trade, it has become even easier for America to control Canada and exploit it for all America's wants and

needs.

New Democratic party leader, Edward Broadbent, referring to Brian Mulrony and free-trade between

Canada and the United States said "I can tell you that for the first time in the history of Canada, we have a man

who is Prime Minister who has, without even being asked, volunteered Canada to be the 51st state in the United

States  ...."28  This is essentially what free-trade meant for Canada.  John A. MacDonald had called free-trade

"veiled treason", and for 125 years prominent Canadian figures warned fellow Canadians that "without an

economic border we soon would not have a political border either".29  The best way to describe free-trade is to

quote some of John Turner's detailed and moving speech delivered in the House of Commons.

Mr. Speaker, we are here today to discuss one of the most devastating pieces of

legislation ever brought before the House of Commons...a bill which will finish

Canada as we know it and replace it with a Canada that will become nothing more

than a colony of the United States.  In this bill...we find that Canadians can be fined,

even imprisoned for contravening American law....Why are we now being forced to

give hasy approval to legislation which represents the largest sell-out of our

sovereignty since we became a nation in 1867?...We have given up control of our

capital markets...This deal sells out our energy, the life blood of this country...The

National Energy Board becomes nothing more than a monitoring agency...it is

Washington that is taking control of our energy resources...With this deal we have

succeeded in the fulfilment of the American Dream!  Fifty-four Forty, or Fight!

Manifest Destiny!  At long last they found a Government in Ottawa dumb enough,

stupid enough, patsies so craven in the face of American demands that they just caved

in to every request made of them...I say to the people of  Canada that this is not a

trade deal.  This is "the Sale of Canada Act..."30

When free trade was finally implicated into the Canadian society, the first three years cost 1.4 million jobs.  Archie

McLean, Vice President of McCain's Foods, testified that 100,000 to 150,000 jobs would be lost directly from free

trade in his company alone.  By September 1992, Canada had the highest number of unemployed in its history.

B.C. millionaire Jim Patterson said: "We're taking everything we've go and pushing it into the United States... I

keep telling our people to forget the border - it doesn't exist anymore".31  Free trade was obviously a bad deal for

Canada and should have been obvious when it was laid on the table.  Even the American public knew what they

were getting when they obtained the free trade agreement.  An American economic forecaster, Marvin Cetron,

wrote in his 1990 bestselling book, American Renaissance : Our Life at the Turn of the Century:

Once the free-trade agreement with the United States takes full effect, the next logical

step will be to accept politically what has already happened economically - the

integration of Canada into the United States32

In conclusion, it is evident that Canada is different form the United States within its government and

institutions and, in most cases, have a superior system, but economically Canada is owned and dominated by

America.  Benjamin Franklin once said that "the man who would trade independence for security deserves

neither."33  Canada is slowly voulenteering for the American vision of Manifest Destiny where not one gun has to

be fired.  Ex Prime Minister John Diefenbaker expressed his opinion by stating that "We are a power, not a

puppet...I want Canada to ve in control of Canadian soil.  Now if that's an offence I want the people of Canada to

say so."34   We must to several thing to break free from these restraints which ar upon us.  First, though, we must

scrap free trade, control foreign ownership, and balance our trade with the enemy - the USA.

Canada has gone form being a colony of France, to being a colony of Britan, to being

a colony of the United States.  It's time now to become a nation.35

Bibliography

1.  Berton, Pierre.  Why we Act like Canadians.  Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1982.

2.  Lamorie, Andrew.  How they sold Our Canada to the U.S.A..  Toronto: NC Press, 1976.

3.  Lipset, Seymour M.  North American Cultures.  U.S.A.: Borderlands Project, 1990.

4.  Nader, Ralph.  Canada Firsts.  Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1992.

5.  Orchard, David.  The Fight for Canada.  Toronto: Stoddart Publishing, 1993.

6.  "The center to prevent hand gun violence".  National center for health statistics, 1994.  Internet document.

7.  "The FBI Uniform Creme Reports".  The Los Angeles Times, Nov. 19, 1995.  Internet document.

8.  The Star-Spangled Beaver.  Ed. John H. Redekop.  Toronto: Peter Martin, 1971.

9.  Thomas, David.  Canada and the United States, Differences that Count.  Peterborough: Broadview Press, 1993.

Canada - of the United States of America

by:  Mat Harrison

for:  Mr. Harkins

HCN OA1

I.E. Weldon Secondary School

November 14, 1996

18.  Canadian Identity

Canadian Identity test.

By Trevor Dawson.

1: The Canadian Identity is the stuff that all Canadian's have in

common, it's like we invented hockey so that is considered part of our

identity.  We also invented Basketball  but the U.s. took that away from us

by exploting it and saying that because the man was in the U.s. it was not

Canadian, but for the people that know they realize that our identity is falling

apart because the U.s. is a much bigger country so they have more power.

2: The thing that create our identity our the sports we invented,

the way we talk (eh), the courtesy that we have towards other

countries,

the food we eat, and even the prices we have. More stuff that makes

our identity are the amount of racism in our country compared to the

U.s. , also the beauty of the land compared to the overpopulated cities

in the U.s. We have the Rocky mountains and many other clean and

famous landmarks. Also the crime rate is alot lower than in the U.s.,

and also unlike them we have free health care and a lower pollution

rate.

3: Canada to me is the best place to live in because we have beautiful

landmarks, we have free health care that helps my family alot because

of my asthma, we also have a government and a large amount of

people

that are nice to other countries and are less hated. One main thing

known about Canada is that we are a center for sports, we also have

less racism than the U.s., because if a black child walked into a school

in the U.s. 30 years ago he would be made fun of called names and

even failed by the teachers because of his skin color. But back in the

1800's black people thought of Canada as the free land.

4: I think Canada and the U.s are very different because, we have way

less violence, we have less pollution, we are more friendlier to our

neibouring countries, we have less pollution and free health care for

that matter. Most of the popular sports know in days us Canadian's

invented even though the U.s. tries to say they might have, we are

more of a free country than the U.s. and we aren't even as close to as

racist then them.

5: Canada and the U.s. are the same because, the businesses from the

U.s. are coming to Canada and putting the Canadian buissnesses

bankrupt. Also the T.v. sations from the U.s. are on almost all the T.v

channels, most of their shows and movies are twice as violent as our's

and they even try to cut down the amount of violence in the shows

before their broadcast. Also the U.s. are coming to the leagues that

started off being Canadian, and we let them because they are way more

dominant then us. Even though our violence level is lower than their's

it's getting pretty high and our gangs are multiplying very fast.

6: If Canada wants to keep a good country for the future we must, start

by cutting down the amount of pollution, also we have to clean up all

the graffiti and the bad influences painted on the walls, we also have to

try to cut down the violence level that's on T.V. because that's just

ruining  the minds of the youth. We also should be more effective

on the laws in the country like teens not smoking cigarettes or

marijuana. I think if Canada changed and showed the rest of the world

that we're perfect then the rest of the world would start to think about

themselves.

19.  Castles

English Literature

Castles Research Paper                                                                                   January 30, 1997

In medieval times, castles served as the home and fortress of a monarch or noble.  The earliest castles were built from earth and wood.  By the 12th century, most castles were built from stone.  The stones came from local mines or quarries if possible, but sometimes they had to be carried long distances by water or on ox wagons.  The roofs of castles were covered with slates, clay tiles, or wooden shingles.

Castles were built on steep hill sides or at the top of rocky cliffs.  This was for protection from attackers.  It made it harder for them to reach the castle.

Castles also had additional purposes.  They sometimes served as barracks, prisons, storehouses, armories, treasure houses, and the center for local government.  Castles sometimes had brewhouses, a laundry a huge bakers oven, workshops, dovecotes, and stables (MacDonald, p.12)

Castle walls surrounded the entire castle and were usually several meters thick.  They usually had 3 layers:  a rough stone inner shell, a  thick, solid filling of flint and rubble, and an outer layer of stone called ashlar. (MacDonald, p.8)  There was usually a walkway along the top of the walls so guards could keep watch.  Some castle walls had spaces at the top called embrassures, which allowed archers to shoot with the protection of the wall.  These openings also permitted stones or boiling water to be thrown down on the enemy.  (Encyclopedia Americana, p.790).  Towers were built along castle walls at regular intervals to strengthen them and provide area for castle workers or visitors.

Moats often surrounded castles for protection.  Some people built castles on banks of lakes or rivers and channeled water to the moat.  A drawbridge laid across the moat and could be raised if an enemy approached.

Castles had  few window, because they made the castle drafty and allowed the enemy a way inside.  Glass was a luxury until around the 15th century.  Although oiled paper shut out some of the drafts, shutters were the usual way of shutting windows.  (Encyclopedia Americana, p.791)

The castle hall was usually the single largest room in the castle.  In the early middle ages, it was common to sleep in the hall.  (Encyclopedia Americana, p.791).  In the late Middle Ages, however, the hall wasn't used as much.  People would eat by themselves in a room, usually wit a fireplace.

Castles usually seemed indestructible, but they were not.  Enemies had many ways of attacking castles.  Arrows could be made to ignite a castle when it was fired.  Attackers could make moveable towers that could help get them over castle walls.  (Encyclopedia Americana, p.790).  Walls could also be tunneled under, or undermined, but moats made this difficult.   Enemies could block off a castle from outside food, water, and help, but it could take months to starve castle defenders, so this usually wasn't successful.   Lastly, catapults could eventually batter down castle walls.

Lords of the castle sometimes had social gatherings in the castle.  People gathered in the hall for feasts and listened to music by minstrels, or wandering singers.  On special occasions, lords held jousting events in a field outside the castle.

Bibliography

1.)  Hogg, Ian.  The History of Forts and Castles.  New York:  Crescent Books, 1985.

2.)  MacDonald, Fiona.  A Medieval Castle.  New York, New York:  Peter Bedrick Books, 1990.

3.)  "Castles."   The Encyclopedia Americana.  1994 Edition.

20.  Chad

County Report

Chad is one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world because of its climate, geographic location, and a lack of infrastructure and natural resources. It's main cash crop that is helping it's economy is cotton, which accounts for 48% of exports.1 The industry of Chad is mainly based on processing agricultural products. It is run by a republican government and it's legal system is based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law. The recent president is Idriss Deby and head of government is Prime Minister Joseph Yodoyman Chad had gained its independence from France on August 11, 1960. Its national holiday is held on the same day every year.

The geography of Chad is mostly pastures and meadows. Chad is located in Central Africa and is between the Central African Republic and Libya. The total area is 1,259,200 km2, and the land area is 1,259,200 km2.2 The total size in area of Chad is slightly more than three times the size of California. The land boundaries of Chad are; Cameroon (1,094 km), Central African Republic (1,197 km), Libya (1,055 km), Niger (1,175 km), Nigeria (87 km), and Sudan (1,360 km).3 All of these countries total to 5,968 km. Chad is landlocked which has no coastline. It has no marital claims. The disputes between Chad and other countries is that Libya claims and occupies the 100,000 km2 Aozou Strip in the far north. The year around climate is tropical in the south, and desert in the north. The terrain is broad, arid plains in the center, desert in the north, lowlands in the south and mountains in the northwest. The natural resources are petroleum, uranium, natron, kaolin, and fish. The land use consists of arable land (2%), permanent crops (0%), meadows and pastures (36%), forest and woodland (11%), and other (51%).4 The irrigated land used is 100km2. Its environment is hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in the north, drought and desertification affecting much of the south, and subject to plagues of locusts.

The people of Chad rely on agriculture for survival. The total population is 5,350,971 people. The growth rate of the population is 2.13%. The birth rate is 42.21 births / 1,000 population. The death rate is 20.93 deaths / 1,000 population. The migration rate is 0% migrants / 1,000 population. Chad's death at infancy is at a great risk at 134 deaths / 1,000 live births. For infants the expectancy rate at birth is 40.41 years. The rate for males is 39.36 years and the rate for females is 41.5 years. Total fertility rate is 5.33 children born/women. The people of Chad are Chadian in nationality.  The ethnic divisions in the north are Muslim (Arabs. Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba). In the south are non-Muslims (Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, Massa). The religions of Chad are Muslim (44%), Christian (33%), indigenous beliefs, and animism (23%). The common spoken languages in Chad are Sara (spoken in south), Sango (spoken in north). The official languages of Chad are French and Arabic. There are over 100 different languages and dialects spoken in Chad. The literacy rate is at age 15 and over people can read and write French or Arabic. The total population of literacy is 30%. 42% for males and 18% for females.

Chad has a republican government. The capital of Chad is N'djamena. It's administrative divisions are 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, and Tandjile. Chad had gained its independence on August 11, 1960, from France. They had gained their constitution on December 22, 1989. Chad's legal system is based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law, it has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction. The national holiday is held on the 11th of August. The political parties and leaders of Chad are the Patriotic Salvation Movement, Idriss Deby, and chairman. There are no other political party or pressure groups. Elections were last held on July 8, 1990 and disbanded on December 3, 1990. The Executive branch in Chad's government consists of the president and the Council of State (cabinet). The Legislative branch consists of unicameral National Consultative Council (Conseil National Consultatif) but was replaced by the Provisional Council of the Republic, with 30 members appointed by President Deby on March 8, 1991. The Judicial branch consists of the Court of Appeal. The Chief of State leader is Col. Idress Deby since December 4, 1990 and the Head of Government is Prime Minister Joseph Yodoyman since August 1992. Chad is a member of ASST, ACP, AFDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, GATT, IRBD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IDB, IFAD, ILO, IMF, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IOC, ITU, LORCS, NAM, OAU, OIC, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO,  and WTO.

Chad's flag has three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flag of Andorra, which has a national cost of arms featuring a quartered shield centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France.

An overview of Chad's economy; the climate and geographic location, and lack of infrastructure and natural resources make Chad one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world. Its economy is burdened by the ravages of civil war, conflict with Libya, drought and food shortages. In 1986 real GDP returned to its 1977 level, with cotton the major cash crop, accounting for 48% of exports. Over 80% of the work force is employed in subsistence farming and fishing. Industry is based almost entirely on the processing of agricultural products, including cotton, sugarcane, and cattle.5 Chad is highly dependent on foreign aid, with its economy in trouble and many regions suffering from shortages. Oil companies are exploring areas north of Lake Chad and in the Doba basin in the south. Good crop weather led to 8.4% growth in 1991. The GDP exchange rate conversion is $1.1 billion. The national product per capita is $215. Inflation rate is 2%-3%. The budget revenues are $115 million, expenditures are $412 million, including capital expenditures of $218 million. Exports are $193.9 million, commodities are; cotton 48%, cattle 35%, and textiles 5%.6 Their partners are France, United States, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Their imports are $294.1 million and its commodities are; machinery and transportation equipment 39%, industrial goods 20%, petroleum products 13%, and foodstuffs 9%. Its partners are France, United States, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Chad's external debt is $492 million. The industrial production in growth rate is 12.9%, which accounts for nearly 15% of GDP. The electricity rate is 40,000 kW capacity in which 70 million kWh is produced, 15 kWh per capita. Industries in Chad are cotton textile mills, slaughter houses, brewery, natron, soap, and cigarettes. Chad's currency is 1 CFA franc = 100 centimes.7

The economy of Chad has very low standards. The exchange rates are communaute Financiere Africaine Francs (CFAF per US $1 - 274.06 in January 1993, 264.69 in 1992, 282.11 in 1991, 272.26 in 1990, 319.01 in 1989, and 297.85 in 1988.8 Chad's fiscal year is a calendar year.

The highways in Chad total to 31,322 km, 32 km bituminous, 7,300 km gravel and laterite, and the remainder is unimproved earth.9 Inland waterways are 2,000 km navigable. Airports total to 69. The usable airports total to 55. Permanent-surface runways  total to 5 airports. The telecommunications department in Chad is a fair system of radio communication stations for intercity links; broadcast stations - 6am, 1fm, limited television service; many facilities are inoperative; 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT earth station.

Chad's defense forces consist of the branches, manpower, and defense expenditures. In the branches there is the Army and the Republican Guard. In the manpower availability males age from 15 to 49, total count is 1,246,617; fit for military service 647,908; reach military age is 20 and annually 52,870.10 In defense expenditures the exchange rate conversion is $58 million and 5.6% of GDP.

21.  Chile

CHILE

In this project we are going to summarize the main points  concerning the history  of CHILE , its independance, and bring  the country to present day CHILE.  We are also going to mention some important facts about CHILE"S economy.

I. COLONIZATION PERIOD

CHILE  is a country located in the wester coast of South America, on the Pacific Ocean.  It is known for the famous Andes Mountain Range that covers all of Peru and part of Chile

CHILE was first discovered in 1520 by a Portuguese navigator named Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed under the flag of Spain.  It was not until 1536 that CHILE was  explored by a Spaniard named Diego de Almagro.  Almagro was an associate of Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Peru.  In 1540  a conquistador named Pedro de Valdivia made a second expedition into CHILE   He arrived in CHILE in 1541 and claimed the land under the crown of Spain.  He founded the city of Santiago in February of that year, and appointed  a Cabildo (Council)  of Conquistadores to control local affairs.

II. COLONIAL RULE

In December of 1553, Valdivia set out for the fort of Concepcion to avenge the death of three soldiers, after word had reached him that the Indians had murdered them.  He did not know the Indians had an ambush prepared for him.  Valdivia was captured and executed,  his entire army was also killed.

The Spaniards eventually dominated CHILE  During this period CHILE was a Captaincy General of Spain and supposedly governed from Peru, where Spain had a more important government because Peru was rich in Inca gold.  In reality, because  CHILE was farther away geographically, local affairs were controlled by a governor who commanded the army and each town had its own Cabildo (Council).

CHILE had plenty of wars.  The Indians refused to stay quiet.  Until the mid 1700"s, these wars against the Indians were payed for by Peru, which provided money to CHILE to maintain CHILE"S  government in Santiago and an army on the frontier.  CHILE was poor and dependent on its richer neighbor for wealth and security.

III.  INDEPENDENCE

One of the most important reasons for CHILE"S independence as well as other Latin American countries, was the emergence of a class of CRIOLLOS  (Creoles).  Creoles were American born Spaniards, who were different from the Iberians.  They developed a desire for a self-government.  The Criollos, then, began and supported a movement in order to gain independence from Spain.  The Criollos had a lot of influence in the merchant class as well as in the upper class of CHILE.  They resented Spain's trading system.  For tax reasons, all trade with Spain had to pass through Panama by land to the Caribbean and Havana, Cuba, instead of directly by ship from the port of Valparaiso.  This system was definitely one of the reasons Spain lost its American colonies.

Spain was  also facing problems in providing its colonies with a good variety of manufactured goods.  The Spanish economy was not doing well.  The colonies began buying manufactured goods from other countries, especially Britain.  The British in turn, supported Criollo political demands.

There were many other factors which also contributed to the fever of independence.  Among them was the independence of the United States from Britain, in 1776,  the overthrow of the Frnch Monarchy,  Napoleon's invasion of Spain,  and many new intellectual ideas of the times.

In the 1820's independence movements in America united against Spain.  Simon Bolivar and an army of Criollos marched south from Venezuela,  while Jose de San Martin and his Army of the Andes marched over the cordillera from Argentina into CHILE.  Bernardo O'Higgins became supreme director of the new Chilean Republic.  Formal independence of CHILE came in 1818.

IV.   20th CENTURY CHILE

During the 20th century, Chile has been throgh a few types of government, dictatorship and currently democracy.

In 1973, the military took control of president Salvador Allende's goverment. Allende was the elected president of Chile during this period. The U.S. did not wanted Allende as president of Chile for many reason, so they killed him in a millitary coup. This coup was led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte,who, at this point, became dictator of the nation. For many years, Pinochet and the military ruled Chile. Before Pinochet was the dictator of Chile, he was the chief of the army. Then he overthrowed the president, and became dictator. The U.S wanted Pinochet better than Allende, because Pinochet was someone that the U.S army could control. (Talk more about Pinochet in the oral presentation) One of the things Pinochet is mostly remembered for, was the killing of thousands of people during a protest.

Many attempts were made to overthrough Pinochet's government. Most of them failed, however. In the late 1980's, Pinochet resigned fron office because of world pressure.

After his resignation, Patricio Aylwin became president. Chile's current president is Eduardo Frei.

Today Chile is the country in Latin America that has had the greatest economic growth for the last five years.

Based on our research, we predict that Chile will continue to have a democratic government.We also think that the economy will get beter, as the democratic government is put into action. I also think that democracy will be in Chile for a long period of time

22.  china

CHINA

For Chinese people what is the advantage of having many children? They provide many hands to work and ensure that the land will be worked when the parents are old.

In the early seventies the population of China was a little under a billion. That is why in 1972 the Chinese government decided to implant the "wan xi shao" family planning program. This program allowed families to have no more than two children. By the late seventies apparently the Chinese population was still growing. Thus in 1979 the government formed a new policy that allowed families to have no more than one child. Because of this program it is known that women who give birth to daughters are abused by their husbands for not having a boy.

One of the problems with such a program is that it is difficult to enforce. This is why the government provides positive economic incentives to families, such as, preferential medical care and education. They are also given allocation of housing and land, also larger pensions. For those families who disobey the result is a reduction of 10 percent in monthly earnings and restrictions of food supplies and education.

The question the Chinese people have to ask themselves now is what will happen in the years that follow? The statistics show us that in the middle of the 21st century there will be a disadvantageous distribution of the Chinese population according to age. There will be a small group of workers that will have to support a large group of retired people.

The only way China can maintain a constant population of 1.2 billion is if married couples average less than two children for much of the 1990's.

23.  chinas population problem

China's Population Problem

The Chinese government has taken the enforcement of family planning and birthrate laws to an extreme by violating the civil rights of its citizens, which has had bad effects on the morale of its people (Whyte 161).  China's population has grown to such an enormous size that it has become a problem to both the people and government.  China, the most populous country in the world, has an estimated population of about one thousand-one hundred-thirty three point six million (Hsu 1).  Ninety-four percent of the population thrives in the eastern half of China, which composes about forty-three percent of China's total area (Hsu 1).  The eastern half of China contains its most populous cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin.  However these cities have a low fertility rate due to recent bandwagons of birth control.  The average density in the eastern half of China averages around two-hundred and thirty-six people per square kilometer, whereas the density in the west half averages around ten point six people per square kilometer (Hsu 1).  Current enforcement of Chinese laws prevents migration between provinces without proper authorization, as the citizens in the west half of China have a desire to live in a more urban life where jobs can be found easier, and the citizens in the more populous eastern half have a stronger desire to live in the more rural western China (Hsu 4).

The Chinese have always had a large population (Hsu 1).  Even in ancient times where the population would never fall below sixty million (Hsu 1).  Later, in the eighteenth century the population rose exceedingly and China became the strongest and most economically wealthy (Hsu 1).  By the time the Qing Dynasty ruled, the fertile people of China had reached a population of three-hundred million (Hsu 1).  The birthrate in China did decline in the nineteen-fifties due to campaigning by the government on birth control (Hsu 1).  However, after the population decreased the government turned their attention to other matters while the population slowly crept up again.  Once again in the nineteen-seventies the population became an issue and it received the governments full attention.  In order that the government might resolve this problem, the "Wan Xi Shao" policy, or the "marry later, give longer spacing between children, and have fewer children" policy began to be enforced (Hsu 2).  This policy proved to have some effect but it did not stop the fertile people of China, and the population has steadily risen to the current population (Hsu 2).

The recent laws imposed on the people of China include the "One child per family law"(Hsu 2).  This law began to be enforced in nineteen-seventy-nine, so that the government might achieve its goal of reducing the rate of natural increase to five per thousand by nineteen-eighty-five, and to zero by the year two-thousand(Hsu 2).  The immense population had become straining on the economy and resources (Linden 1).  Migration to less populous areas of China became restricted so that the government might be able to control the population more effectively and easily (Hsu 4).  Currently, the "one child per family" law still exist, but it has become more flexible, in that it allows a second child but with a longer interval between the first (Hsu 2).  Through the health service programs across China, birth control pills, inter uterine devices, condoms, diaphragms , foams, and jellies had been distributed in a matter of time (C.Q.W.R. 1).  The government made life easier for those who chose to obey this law by offering incentives such as:  paid maternity leave, time off for breast feeding, free child care, free contraceptives, and paid time off for abortions and sterilization (Ehrlich 205).  Other rewards for obeying this law and not exceeding the limit included better housing and educational opportunities for their children (Ehrlich 205).  Doctors "volunteered" their services to sterilize couples who had finished childbearing, and doctors also provided free abortions at local clinics and hospitals (Ehrlich 205).  However the government has encountered resistance in rural areas and this has led to many abuses, and one of the reasons why the government has performed many coerced abortions and sterilizations (C.Q.W.R. 1).

The Chinese government has committed brutal and unjustified acts against offenders of the "one child" policy, and in general the enforcement of these laws has taken the governments undivided attention (Ehrlich 205).  Resistance by traditional citizens who mainly live in less populous areas, have received involuntary abortions and sterilizations.  China has gone to great lengths to control population, and it has involved reprogramming citizens to have smaller families and to actively use family planning (Ehrlich 205).  Family planning and policies limiting the number of children in families has received attention from many countries and issues like this requires the governments full attention and prevents them from focusing on more important affairs like scientific advancements and resolving poverty and homelessness (Linden 2).  China's family planning policies and children limiting laws can be considered as reasonable and in the interest of the people of China, but because the government takes the enforcement of these laws to such an extreme shows that they have little consideration for the Chinese citizens. Means of controlling population that infringe upon a human beings civil rights have no place among laws and should merely be taken as a suggestion by the Chinese citizens, and in no way forced upon them.

If China's population received no attention the environment and ecosystem would not be able to with stand the force of such an impact of an immense population (Linden 1). Numerous species of animals would be put in danger due to the destruction of their homes for housing needs, and some even driven to the verge of extinction (Linden 1).  Once lush green forests and jungles teaming with life would be swarming with microbes, cockroaches, weeds, and rats, all of which would thrive off of such conditions (Linden 1).  The best and most reasonable way to prevent the destruction of the environment and the overuse natural resources involves the reduction of propagation  by nearly half (Linden 1).

The Earth has encountered many problems over the years with the environment and the ecosystem, many of which relate proportionally to population size. The consideration of family planning policies and laws remains feasible to most governments, however inappropriate the people targeted might deem them. A governments position on a subject has not always proven to have  justice in the favor of its people, but in the long run proves beneficial most of the time. History has shown that previous attempts to control population have failed and recent laws enforced appear to be taken to extremes by the government. However primitive their ways of accomplishing this have shown to be, it must not be overlooked that it has proved effective in reducing China's immense population.

Works Cited

1.  "Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report" (C. Q. W. R.), June 5, 1993.

2.  Ehrlich, Paul R. The population explosion, Simon and Schauster, New

York, 1990.

3.  Hsu, Mei-Ling, "Population of China: Large is not beautiful" Focus Spring 1992:

vol. 42, no.1.

4.  Linden, Eugene. "Too Many People" Times fall 1992:  vol. 140, issue 27, p. 64.

5.  Whyte, Martin King, Urban Life in Contemporary China, The University of

Chicago press, Chicago, 1984.

24.  CHINESE OCCUPATION IN TIBET

I believe that Chinese occupation in Tibet is a tragedy that should be delt with before a total genocide of the Tibetan cultures occurs. This is a very serious topic that has been avoided since the late 1940's.

Chinese occupation in Tibet is one of the great tragedies in history.  The Communist government is trying to completely erase the Tibetan culture.  Since the Tibetan religion is Buddhism they have vowed to never hurt another living creature, and because of this they cannot fight back against the Chinese army.  Tibetans can only practice their religion under extensive government watch and thousands of monasteries have been destroyed.  Over 1.2 million Tibetans have been killed and thousands imprisoned for voicing their religious beliefs.  Tibetan women are sometimes forced to have abortions and become sterilized.  The Chinese have reeked havoc on Tibet's fragile environment through extensive deforestation and open dumping of nuclear waste.  Tibet's most sacred lake, Yamdrok Tso, is currently being drained for a Chinese hydroelectric power plant.

This problem has not been dealt with for nearly 60 years.  The United Nations has failed to punish China for any of its human rights abuses.  Major corporations from around the world continue to do business with China.  Last year, despite continuing pressure, the United States renewed China's Most Favored Nation trading status.  Unfortunately, since China represents such a potentially gigantic market, politicians are reluctant to impose any trade sanctions.

The Chinese government claims to be helping the Tibetan culture, but in reality they have created hogemy over the Tibetan people.  China has damaged the society of Tibet in such an extensive way that if Tibet ever regains its freedom, it will take many years to correct the damage inflicted by the Chinese government.  Hopefully, in the near future China will realize the great amount of suffering they have caused another human race.

25.  CIrculation systems over China

CIRCULATION SYSTEMS OVER CHINA

Introduction:

The Earth's atmosphere is in continuous motion: movement which is attempting to balance the constant differences in pressure and temperature between different parts of the globe. It is this motion which carries water from the ocean to the continents to provide precipitation and moves heat energy from the tropical regions toward the poles, warming the high latitudes. It is this circulation which plays a basic part in maintaining a steady state in the atmosphere and generating the climatic zones which characterise different parts of the earth.

China, from its latitudinal location, mostly belongs to the mid-latitudes, with a small part to the low latitudes. It is located at south of Siberia and the north of the tropical Pacific. At this distinctive location, the country is affected by the alternate seasonal expansion and contraction of the polar continental highs and tropical maritime air masses, along with the seasonal shifts of the overhead sun. These changes in the pressure systems over Asia generate the unique Asian monsoon circulation which prevails over China throughout the year.

Surface Pressure Field and Winds:

For any fluid to initiate movements, pressure gradient must exists. Therefore, for a close understanding of the circulation system that operates over China, we should start from discussing the seasonal pressure distribution at sea-level over the Asia-Pacific region, which is the driving force for the air movements in China. Most clearly to be seen, the largest difference in the atmospheric pressure occurs between winter and summer, whereby January and July can be considered as representative months.

In January, a typical cold anticyclone with central pressure above 1,040 hectopascals (hPa) developed over mid-Siberia and Mongolia (Mongolian High); while a strongly established cyclone over the north-western Pacific Ocean (Aleutian Low). Since both pressure systems practically lie in the same latitude of 50° to 55°N, a steep pressure gradient occurs which produces strong and persistent north-westerlies over Northeast China.

A third pressure system which affects China, although limited only to south-eastern China, is the equatorial Low over Australia and New Guinea. The vast territory of East China lies in the middle of the path along which the Mongolian cold air tries to rush southward into the Equatorial Low. Northerly and north-easterly flows prevail over the eastern half of China.

As a typical feature, the Mongolian High is only a rather shallow pressure system. It disappears at the 500-hPa level. West China which has a higher elevation, therefore feels little of its influence; Yunnan highlands are even predominated by south-westerlies during most of the winter.

The pressure pattern at sea-level during summer differs completely from winter conditions. In July, a strong cyclone is located over the north-western Indian-Pakistan subcontinent, with central pressure below 1,000 hPa. Although it covers an extensive area that the circulation around it affects almost all of the continental Asia, the pressure field shows a relatively weak gradient so that for China only a moderate variation of pressure is experienced.

An extensive subtropical high with pressures exceeding 1,025 hPa is situated in the western North Pacific to the east of the China coast. Because of these two intense pressure systems, the surface wind distribution over China in the summer season is characterised by southerlies in the eastern parts and easterlies over the Northwest.

In contrast with the Mongolian High in winter, the heat low in July is quite thick. In 500-hPa level, the low pressure cell still exists, which is about the highest level it could attain. Even the surface winds over the Tibet Plateau in West China are governed by the heat low during the summer season.

During winter as a whole, January experiences the strongest anticyclonic pressure field; whereas in summer, the circulation over China is predominated by the heat low centred at the Indian-Pakistan region. Long term records indicates that the period from June to September comprises the summer pattern, typified by July. The period from October to May comprises the winter circulation pattern, typified by January. (Zhang, 1992)

Monsoon:

We can conclude that the prevailing winds over most parts of China are from north, north-west and north-east in winter, whilst in summer, they follow a persistent southern direction which varies from south-westerlies to south-easterlies. This marked seasonal variation in wind direction (over 120°) is often defined as 'monsoon', which results from the seasonal variation of the thermal structure of the underlying surfaces and involves different air masses, producing noticeable effects on the weather and climate of the areas concerned.

Chinese meteorologists often define monsoon as an alternation of two kinds of air-flows with different properties: prevailing winds direction differ largely in winter and summer; since winter and summer monsoons originated in different regions, there are substantial differences in their air-mass properties; and finally, they are accompanied by various weather phenomena, thus bringing a great diversity of seasons. (Manfred, 1988)

The monsoon index , which expresses the relative strength of the alternating wind directions, is often applied as a indicator for the characteristic of the change of wind direction. For the monsoon near the surface, the area of maximum monsoon indices is found south of the Nanling Mountains at the Guangdong and Fujian coastal region. A minimum index is found over Sichuan and eastern Yunnan, but the indices increase again further west to another maximum over southern Tibet. This implies that the minimum over Sichuan and Yunnan represents a boundary area between two monsoons. Eastern parts of the area belong to the East Asian monsoon, which is well established in both summer and winter, although winter monsoon is stronger; monsoon precipitation is associated with the polar front. The parts west of the boundary are affected by the Indian monsoon, which is most noticeable in summer and rains fall mostly within the area of the summer monsoon air.

Apart from the directional variation of the monsoon, another distinctive property is the different nature of the summer and winter monsoons which is governed by their origin. Due to its origin from mid-Siberia and Mongolia, the winter monsoon can be characterised by cold and dry air masses (cP). As for every air masses, the character is gradually averaged out with increasing distance from their origin. This implies that the dry-cold character of the winter monsoon are weakened from North to South China, and that over the southern parts warmer and moister air masses of an oceanic origin may even take over the climatic condition in winter. However, due to the advancing speed of the winter monsoon, its thermal effect is still very noticeable even to the southernmost  of China. Representing a typical phenomenon of the winter monsoon, cold waves  migrate far southward throughout China and finally even invade Hainan Island. In summer, warm and moist air masses of a tropical origin (mT) prevail. They 'invade' China although their nature is gradually weakened as they are going further into the continent. The effects of the summer monsoon are negligible over West and North-west China where geographical and topographical conditions prevent the invasion of the moist and warm summer-monsoonal air.

The different nature between winter and summer monsoon air masses also leads to a clear seasonal difference in precipitation. As a general rule, winter represents a dry, summer a wet period. In summer, the front of the advancing equatorial air masses provides most of the monsoonal precipitation, while the interior air masses lead to less rainfall and fine weather which last a few consecutive days. The northward advance of the front of the equatorial air masses may 'catch-up' the retreating polar air masses in the first half of June in the middle and lower parts of the Yangtze to constitute extensive rainfall called "plum rains" (Mei-yu), which is associated with very hot and damp air, massive low cloud and depressing weather.

Temporary Disturbances:

Aside from the seasonal occurrence of monsoons, there are other periodic circulation systems which affect the climate of China. Although there are a number of them, I am intended to discuss only some of them in this section, namely the upper westerly troughs in the westerlies, the extra-tropical cyclones and anticyclones and typhoons.

Except for summer, China comes mostly under the influence of westerlies, which are divided by the Tibet Plateau and flow over China as 'northern westerlies' and 'southern westerlies'. Often come along with these westerlies are troughs and ridges of pressure systems which are transported from west to east, and some of them are accompanied by cyclones and anticyclones on the earth surface. The northern branch of westerlies which carry the majority of the troughs move to the east through Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia into Northeast China, then into the North China Sea. While advancing to the east, the troughs located at the southern part of the waves would affect Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and North China. The second branch of the westerlies come from the south of Tibet Plateau originated from the Mediterranean Sea and North Africa. These westerlies enter China and bring moist air to southern China.

Besides the Mongolia High that we have discussed, China is also influenced by a high frequency of cyclones and anticyclones. The cyclones in China are extra-tropical cyclones and some of them are related to the westerlies discussed. Most of them occur in spring and pass through China in a west-east direction. Anticyclones in China are more evenly distributed over the seasons. Their source regions are mostly Siberia and the Mongolian Plateau, and they often travel through China in a east and south-eastward direction. The extra-tropical cyclones and anticyclones bring a variety of weather to China, from rainfall to snow, and from warm, cloudy to cold, clear weather.

Typhoons  represent an important weather system in China. They are associated with gales and torrential rain in South, East and North China. Especially for the typhoon rainfall, which accounts for more than 50% of the annual total in the coastal areas of Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong Provinces, is of extreme importance to China's main agricultural regions. The typhoon season is in the period from June to November, with high concentration from July to October when the formation criterion prevail. All of the typhoon originated either from North Pacific Ocean east of Taiwan and the Philippines; and the South China Sea, they generally move in a east-west direction in the Pacific and some of them may recurve to the north-east as they approach to the coast.

Conclusion:

The climate of China is principally determined by the monsoonal nature of the area. Nevertheless, we should not forget that China's climate is also affected by other occasional disturbances that vary from season to season. Moreover, the monsoonal nature is gradually weaken from its point of origin 3/4 the air mass source region. It is therefore debatable whether or not China as a whole experiences a monsoon climate. In general, Chinese climatologist often regard Xinjiang, the central and western part of North Qaidam Basin, western part of the Tibet Plateau, northern part of Inner Mongolia as under non-monsoonal continental climate type, and the rest of the vast territory is under circulation-determined monsoon type climate.

References:

JOHN J. H. & JOHN E. O. (1993), Climatology: An Atmospheric Science, Macmillan Publishing Company: New York.

MANFRED D. & PENG G. (1988), The Climate of China, Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg.

ZHANG J. & LIN Z. (1992), Climate of China, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. & Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers: Shanghai.

26.  Climatology

What is climatology?  How does it differ from weather?  Describe the Koppen

Climate Classification and its purpose.

Climatology is one of the several branches of  physical geography, but it differs

from weather in several ways.  The term climate implies an average, or long term record

of weather conditions at a certain region.  It conveys a generalization of all the recorded

weather observations in a given area.  Weather conditions are recorded in specifics for

any given moment  in time:  the temperature, percentage of rainfall, and percentage of

humidity.  Climate on the other hand, is described in more general terms.  Humid

Equatorial climates, Dry climates, and Cold Polar climates are marked by certain

prevailing characteristics that can be mapped such as continuous snow or deserts.

One of the most popular classification systems is the Koppen Climate

Classification system, which gives different climates three letters that describe that

climate.  The Koppen Climate Classification system is comparatively simple

and is based on a triad of letter symbols.  The first (capital) letter is the critical one;  the

A climates are humid and tropical;  the B climates are very dry;  the C climates are

humid and mild;  the D climates reflect increasing cold;  and the E climates mark the

polar areas.  The first letter is followed by two more letters that further define the climate

of that region.  The second letter represents and explains the dry season:  whether there is

or isn't a dry season, whether it is a short or long dry season, and what season it comes in

Pg. 2

either a dry winter or a dry summer.  The third letter defines the temperature of different

seasons either a hot or cool summer or a cold or warm winter.

The purpose of the Koppen Climate Classification  system is to assist in the

realization of the importance of generalization, allowing you to concentrate on the big

picture unaffected by less important complexities such as trade winds and jet streams.

This methodology persists as a leading model in contemporary geography.  In fact in

recent years, geography has expanded the search for theoretical principles through the

use of laboratory-like abstractions called spatial models.  These spatial models are a

modern approach to generalization in both physical and human regional geography.

27.  Colombia

COLOMBIA

Climate

The climate, however, varies with the elevation. The low regions

along the coast and the deep Patía and Magdalena river valleys are

torrid, with mean annual temperatures of 75° to 80° F. From about

1500 to 7500 ft the climate is subtropical, and from about 7500 to

10,000 ft it is temperate. Above about 10,000 ft is the cold-climate

zone, where temperatures range from 0° to 55° F. The average

January and July temperatures in Bogotá are 58° F and 57° F,

respectively. The averages for the same months in Barranquilla are

80° F and 82° F. Throughout the year, three-month periods of rain

and dry weather alternate. Along the Pacific coast precipitation is

heavy. At Bogotá the annual rainfall averages about 40 in, and in

Barranquilla it averages about 32 in. Dry weather prevails on the

slopes of the Eastern Cordillera.

Government

Colombia has a Republican form of government.  Colombia has a

president who is elected by popular vote.  He is chosen by any

man or woman 18 years or older.  The president can serve one four

year term.  He appoints a cabinet which has to be approved by

congress.  Congress is composed of a House of Representatives

(199 members) and a Senate (112 members).

Land Area

The total land area of the country is 440,831 sq. mi.  The capital

and largest city is Bogota.

Population Characteristics, Religion, and

Language

The population of Colombia (1993 estimate) was 34,942,767,

giving the country an overall population density of about 79 per

sq. mi.  About 95 percent of the people are Roman Catholics.

Small Protestant and Jewish minorities exist.  The official

language of Colombia is Spanish.  The racial makeup of the

Colombian population is diversified.  About half the people are

mestizo (of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry), about

20 percent are of unmixed European ancestry, and about 14

percent are mulatto (of mixed black and white ancestry).  The

remaining 8 percent is made up of blacks, Native Americans, and

people of mixed race.

History

In 1538 Spanish conquistadors founded New Granada.  In 1717

Bogota became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada

which consisted of present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and

Venezuela.  In 1819 Simon Bolivar defeated Spanish troops near

Bogota and became the first president of the new republic of Gran

Colombia.

Currency

The basic unit of currency is the Colombian peso (829 pesos equal

U.S.$1; 1994).

Natural Resources

The mineral resources of the country are varied and extensive.

Colombia is the major world source of emeralds.  Other significant

reserves include petroleum and natural gas, coal, gold, silver, iron

ore, salt, platinum, and some uranium.

Compulsive Age Of Education

There isn't a standard age for the beginning of education for the

Colombian child.  All that is required is five years of education for

each student.  85% of all Colombian children over age 15 can read

and write.  To make a comparison, in the United States schooling

begins at age 5 and is mandatory to age 16.

28.  commercial fishing

COMMERCIAL FISHING

Commercial fishing is a worldwide enterprise that involves the capture of marine and freshwater fish and shellfish and their preparation for market. Fishing equipment ranges from small boats whose nets are cast and hauled in by hand to factory ships equipped with the most advanced technologies for finding, harvesting, and preparing  huge amounts  of fish. These large catches are very costly, however, not only in the price of their equipment  and fuel, but also in the depletion of fishery resources their use brings about.

The major portion of the total fish harvest consists of  few fish species, which are divided into two primary groups. Pelagic species - those which live in the near-surface layers of the oceans,  this  include several species of herring, tuna, salmon, anchovies, pilchard, sardines, menhaden, and mackerel. Demersal species - fish that live in the near-bottom layers of the ocean, this includes  cod, sole, halibut, haddock, hake, and flounder. Large catches are also made of a group of fish classed commercially as SHELLFISH - shrimp, lobster, scallops, oysters, clams, crabs, mussels, and squid. WHALING was once a major part of the fishing industry. Overfishing has endangered many whale numbers, however, and the field has lessened in importance.

Almost all large pelagic and demersal fish catches are made over or near the continental shelf, the underwater plateau around the continents and large islands. In these waters temperatures, water depths, and the currents that influence the amounts of available food create an environment that is highly favourable to the existence of large schools of fish.

The animals living in and on the bottom of the continental shelf serve as additional food sources for demersal fish. Also, most species spawn on continental shelves, and the main nursery grounds of many species are also in coastal regions. The main fishing grounds are located on the wider continental shelves of the mid and high latitudes. The single most important area is the North Pacific, where as much as one-quarter of the world's fish catch is taken.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY

Prehistoric people were hunters and food collectors, and they found much of their food in lakes, rivers, and shallow coastal ocean waters. Shellfish were the most accessible food , and the large shell heaps found around the first fishing technique, the use of bare hands.

During 10,000-6000 BC,  certain cultures that depended almost entirely on a diet of fish developed primitive fishing technologies. The Scandinavian Maglemosian culture used stone-pointed fishing spears, antler and bone harpoons and fishhooks, and lines and nets woven of bark fiber. Improved equipment increased the size of catches, and preservation techniques were developed for drying, smoking, salting, and pickling fish. As larger boats were built, fishing craft adventured farther into the oceans, and sea fishing developed into a well-defined business, with settlements whose main occupation was catching fish.

Early ocean fisheries were confined to the coastal regions of settled areas and to the Mediterranean Sea, which had been the traditional fishing grounds for large numbers of fish species, especially tuna. Slowly, the rich fishing regions of the Atlantic Ocean and the North and Baltic seas began to be exploited. The opening of these new fishing grounds had a significant influence on the spread of trade during the Middle Ages and on the establishment of new trade routes - for example, the herring fisheries in the southern Baltic and North seas that helped to establish the HANSEATIC LEAGUE.

The opening of the fishing areas around Nova Scotia and Newfoundland had a serious effect on European history. First fished by the French in the early 1500s, by the beginning of the 17th century the North Atlantic fisheries had become the main source of New World wealth for England.

PRINCIPAL FISHERIES

The most important world fisheries are located in waters less than 400 m  in depth. Major fishing grounds are in the North Atlantic including the GRAND BANKS and the Georges Banks off the New England coast, the North Sea, the waters over the continental shelves of Iceland and Norway, and the Barents Sea; in the North Pacific, specifically the Bering Sea, the Gulf of Alaska, and the coastal areas around Japan; and off the coasts of China and Malaysia. Other important fishing grounds are found off the coasts of the southeastern United States, Chile, Peru, Argentina, and the Falkland Islands, and off the coasts of Namibia and South Africa.

More than one-half of the marine fish catch in the United States is taken in the Northeast Pacific and in Alaskan coastal waters. In 1993 the total of all the Atlantic fisheries given slightly more than 18 percent, with the Gulf of Mexico fishery adding another 16 percent. Pollock, shrimp, sockeye salmon, and snow crab are the most valuable catches - and these, with the exception of shrimp, are all Northeast Pacific fish. Haddock landings off the New England coast decreased in the 1980s because of overfishing. The cod fishery in the Northeast Atlantic collapsed in the early 1990s for the same reason.

The profitable king crab fishery in the Bering Sea broke down in the 1980s, and much of the crab fleet was changed to trawlers, which yielded higher catches of Pacific cod and pollock in joint venture fisheries with foreign processors, who were mainly Japanese and Russian.

The local fisheries of the African coast, and many of those found elsewhere in the tropics, remain undeveloped. The main limiting factors are: first, the narrowness of the continental shelf, which doesn't allow  the numbers of demersal fish, and the existence of a straight coastline that doesn't offer many  possibilities for good harbors; second, the high temperatures, which affect the keeping quality of the fish catch; and third, limited access to the interior, making marketing difficult. Fish landings from these areas are usually dried, smoked, or salted immediately.

FISHING TECHNOLOGIES

In most modern, commercial fishing fleets the most common fishing vessel is the trawler, equipped with a diesel engine and outfitted with a variety of equipment for fish finding and capturing. Factory ships are huge, operated by crews of 500 to 650 and accompanied by their own fleets of smaller ships called catcher boats. Some factory ships can remain at sea for months at a time and can process and store huge amounts of catch. Nations engaged in large-scale, distant-water fishing operate factory ships. Some of these nations have invested heavily in many of the factory ships owned by U.S. firms. Coastal fleets commonly use smaller vessels that deliver their catch to processing plants on shore.

Sophisticated electronic equipment, such as sonar, is used to detect the presence of fish schools and to verify water depths and the roughness on the ocean bottom. Airplanes and helicopters scout scattered schools of pelagic fish.

Fish Harvesting

The standard methods of catching fish involve either nets, hooked lines, or traps. Pelagic fish are most often harvested using purse seine nets, which are set in a wide circle around the school of fish and then closed and drawn up. Straight drift or gill nets - whose mesh is just large enough to allow the heads of fish to pass through while trapping them at their gills - are used to catch salmon, tuna, cod, and other fish. Demersal fish may be caught in otter trawl nets pulled along the ocean bottom or netted with beam trawls that are used in more shallow waters, mainly for shrimp.

In halibut fishing, hooked groundlines, called long lines, may reach lengths of many miles, with baited hooks attached at intervals of 6 to 9 m. Floating long lines are used primarily in tuna and salmon fishing, and so are trolling lines, shorter lines towed behind a moving boat. Lights may be lowered into fresh waters to attract fish, which are then sucked up into the ship by vacuum pumps.

Beginning in the early 1980s, Japanese, Taiwanese, and South Korean fishing fleets began to use a new fishing technique to make large-scale squid catches in the North Pacific. Huge, 15m deep drift nets made of unbreakable nylon, each stretching 90 m, were lowered off the boats each evening. Together, the nets from a single boat formed a great wall just under the surface of the ocean. The nets drifted all night, catching any sea creatures that happened to swim into their meshes - not only the squid, but amounts of other fish and ocean mammals such as dolphins and seals. Drift-net assemblies began to be used to make catches of other commercial fish in addition to squid. The accidental catch, called "by-catch" in the trade, was thrown away. Large-scale drift-net fishing declined after a UN resolution that went into effect in 1993.

Fish Processing

Fishing vessels that make their catches close to port store fish in crushed ice or in refrigerated sea water. Large fishing vessels on long trips are equipped to keep their catch edible by storing it in refrigerated facilities or by quick-freezing it. A fully equipped factory ship will also have machinery on board for fish filleting and freezing or canning. Fish fillets are frozen at sea into large blocks weighing up to 45 kg, these are later reprocessed on shore into individual portions. Some ships may also have facilities for drying and grinding fish into fish meal.

MAJOR FISHING COUNTRIES

By the early 1990s, China had emerged as the nation with the largest fish catches, totalling  16.5 million US tons in 1992. The Chinese catch is largely from fish farming.  Japan is second, with about 9.4 million US tons. Peru is next, with a catch of 7.5 million US tons. Chile, Russia, and the United States follow, in that order. India, with a catch of 4.6 million US tons, is the seventh-largest fishing nation. The Pacific countries of Indonesia, Thailand, and South Korea complete the list of the ten main fishing nations. Britain, once a major fishing country, is now only a minor player, having caught only 895,000 US tons in 1992.

OVER-FISHED FISHERIES

In 1948 the total world fish catch was about 19 million metric tons. The total catch rose to over 60 million metric tons by 1970, almost 77 million metric tons in 1972, and in 1989 - a record year - over 110.2 million US tons. The 1992 total was 108 million US tons. Despite the huge size of total world catches, fisheries scientists believe that the sustainable limits to the landings of many important commercial species of marine fish were reached long ago. Decreasing catches of valuable fish, such as cod and haddock, were payed for by capturing less desirable species that would have been thrown out in the past - pollock, pilchard, whiting.

In 1994 the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) announced that 13 of the world's 17 major ocean fisheries are overfished. Overfishing, the harvesting of a species to a point where it can't reproduce itself in serious numbers, is in large part responsible for the decline of cod, haddock, halibut, herring, several species of tuna, and whale. Not enough of these fish remain in the seas to maintain spawning stocks; the fishing industry has been consuming its capital.

Technology is one reason for the huge increase in fish landings since the 1960s. Catches were so rich that private industry and governments both poured money into higher quality fishing fleets. Since the 1980s, for example, the European Union quadrupled its support for fishing, subsidizing the building of new boats and arranging for member countries to exploit fishing grounds in other members' jurisdictions. Since 1975, the number of trawlers on the high seas has increased by 30 percent, and the major fishing nations now suffer from overcapacity: the European Union could land its present catches with only half its present fleet.

In addition to overfishing, other factors play a part in the diminishing stocks of commercial fish species. Some are beyond human control. Most are traceable to human activity. For example, developing human populations along the world's coasts have added to the pollution of inland rivers and streams; estuaries and lagoons that previously sheltered and fed juvenile fish have been filled in and developed. Almost three-quarters of the species in the US fisheries must live in estuaries at some stage in their growth.

By-catch, the netting and killing of unwanted fish, is another factor in the shrinkage of fish stocks. The dolphin and porpoise kill in tuna fishing became well known to canned-tunafish buyers in the 1980s, and the methods in which purse seine nets are used in the tuna fisheries were changed as a result. However, in the US shrimp fishery alone, an estimated 172,000 US tons of juvenile fish are thrown out each year, contributing to a noticeable decreases in the populations of snappers and groupers in the Gulf of Mexico. The estimated by-catch in Alaskan fisheries amounts to over one-half million US tons a year. Worldwide, as much as 30 percent of the fish caught may be wasted as by-catch.

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

As early as the 1890s it was acknowledged that fishery resources are limited and that they must be managed through international agreements. In 1902 the International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was formed by the major European fishing countries. The founding of ICES led to many conventions for the regulation of fisheries by quotas and by mesh size of nets, in order to obtain "maximum sustainable yields" - the highest yields consistent with the maintenance of fish stocks. Until recent years, such conventions were effective in the Northeast Atlantic, although they did not operate as well in other regions. The extension of national jurisdictions over fisheries resources to a 200-naut-mi (370-km/230-mi) zone, beginning in the 1970s, further limited the effectiveness of many international conventions.

In the United States the Magnuson Fisheries Conservation and Management Act of 1976 placed all marine resources from three to 200 naut mi offshore under US jurisdiction. Management is effected through eight regional fisheries councils whose members come mainly from the industry. Each council has the power to set quotas for the commercial fish species living within its jurisdiction in order "to achieve optimum yield from each fishery on a continuing basis," and to prepare recovery plans when they have decided that overfishing is depleting stocks. In addition, the councils have granted permits to foreign countries to harvest specified quantities of certain fish species in return for a fee. Countries that have fished under US license included Japan, South Korea, the former USSR, and Poland. In their desire to maintain the prosperity of the fleets within their regions, however, the councils have not been harsh in their recognition of depleted stocks, the quotas they set, or their preparations for stock recoveries. In 1994, however, the New England Fisheries Management Council began a process that will lead to closing commercial fishing in the Georges Bank for a number of years.

Fishing in international waters has also proved difficult to control. While it is believed, for example, that most nations have obeyed the UN moratorium on drift-net fishing, monitoring compliance remains an unsolved problem. The US Navy's Sound Surveillance System, a 48,000-km network of undersea cable, is capable of tracking drift-net operations, but budget considerations may eventually force the sound surveillance system shutdown.

29.  Confederation And Constitution of the United States

The Central Government

The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution are both alike

and different in some ways. Let's start out with the similarities. Firstly,

both the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution have a Legislative

Branch of Government and a Congress. Secondly, they both made changes to the

government before them. In this, I mean that when the Articles of Confederation

were being written, they used the English Government as a base, and improved

from there. They didn't want the president to be too powerful, like the king.

The Constitution made changes to the Articles of Confederation by making a

stronger government, rather than a weaker one. Thirdly, both governments had

the power to coin money, but the Articles of Confederation didn't use that power.

Now let's get to the differences. For one thing, under the Articles

of Confederation, you must need a unanomous vote under all states to make an

amendment, while in the Constitution, you only needed a majority of two

thirds of the Senate and the House of Representatives to pass it. For another,

under the Articles of Confederation, each state in congress had only one vote,

while under the constitution, the states had two votes in the senate, (where

every state is equal) and one vote per representative in the house of

representatives (where the states had representatives according to population).

And for the last thing, under the Constitution, the government could regulate

trade, make laws, and the states were more like one firm union of states.

Under the Articles of Confederation, it was competely the opposite.

30.  Contrast and Comparison

Comparison/Contrast Essay

The country lifestyle and city lifestyle have a lot of differences, so we saw them such as work, the

enviroment and the entertaiment. Let me tell about these below.

The first difference is work. Both of them people usually work , but how they work different . To

begin with, farmers work outside and harvest. Employee of the company work inside and work on

machine. Second, the country has small markets and the city has big markets. The third way, is the

people in country don't need more money. Everytime, they need to buy something , they can trade

each other such as rice,potato.etc...But the people in the city make more money because they need

more thing such as food, fish,etc..

Next, it is the environment . The two places have different environments. First, the country is quiet,

but the city is noisy . Second, the country has clear climate and few vehicles ; but the city has

pollution and too many vehicles. Finally, one has cows and their life is peaceful , but the other

doesn't have cows and their life is stressful.

Finally, of it is the entertaitment. They have very big different . The people in country have few friend

, but the people in the city have a lot of friends, Next, the country has a few theatre but the city has

a lot of theatre. Third, the country doesn't have college but the city has a lot of colleges.for example,

the people in the country go to the city to learn.

All of it told above such as work, enviroment, entertainment usually show the different between of

them. The country is quiet but the city is bustling. All in all,. the both of them have special qualities.

31.  Copper and Molybdenum Deposits in the United States

Copper and molybdenum resources were not recognized as valuable commodities until economic needs demanded the collection and processing of these minerals in large amounts.  The most expansive deposits of copper and molybdenum occur in massive low grade ores and are found in intrusive porphyry formations, although many smaller sized but higher grade ores are located in non-porphyry areas.  The nation has abundant domestic copper ore reserves but because of many detrimental economic factors much of the copper used by the U.S. industry is imported.  Molybdenum ore is profuse and exports of it are high to fulfill the needs of foreign demand.

Copper was first used by people around 4000 B.C. in the manufacture of tools because of its malleability and later became an important additive in harder, more useful metals such as bronze (copper+tin; 2500 B.C.) and brass (copper+zinc; 0 A.D.).  The growth of copper production in the United States has been a relatively recent occurrence.  North American French explorers knew of sources of native copper in the region of Lake Superior and the area natives had copper jewelry and ornamentation.  Earnest copper mining began in Simsbury, Connecticut about 1709 and copper was actually exported to England after a source was discovered in New Jersey around 1719. In later times domestic copper resources did not satisfy national needs until the discovery of gold in California shifted the focus of mineral exploration westward and strikes of rich copper ores occurred in Tennessee and the Cordilleran base regions.  The Civil War caused copper demand to increase greatly in order to manufacture cartridges and canned goods, this resulted in the openings of numerous copper mines of which more than 90% were in the Lake Superior area giving an important advantage to the Union armies.  Major copper production districts then shifted to Montana and Arizona in the early 1890's.  Production increased to reach peak levels of 900,000 tons a year during World War I and in 1970 1,600,000 tons of copper were produced but recent levels are lower, fluctuating between 1-1.5 million tons a year.  Technology has aided in increasing production efficiency wich resulted in spectacular resource development in the U.S. and around the world.

Molybdenum has been a major mineral since 1898 when it was discovered to harden steel as an additive and useful in compounding chemicals and dyes.  Substantial mining began in 1900 in the southwest but the demand was so low that activity ceased in 1900.  In 1906 the molybdenum industry boomed and with the dawn of WWI the need for quality steel further increased the necessity for this important additive.  The highest production levels occurred during the early 1980's when 68,000 tons were mined, current levels are lower mirroring the copper production curve because more than half of the molybdenum produced is a by-product of the copper industry.

There are many different types of copper and molybdenum deposits in the world all containing different categories of ores.  The classes are divided into two main groups, porphyry and non-porphyry intrusives, which in turn branch off into several sub-groups.  Both copper and molybdenum can be classified using the two main groups but each mineral has unique sub-groups.

The first of the porphyry copper lodes is the type from which the group takes its name, the copper porphyry.  San Manuel, Arizona is the location of the first copper porphyry, a stockwork of veinlets in hydrothermally altered intrusives with closely spaced phenocrysts in a microaplitic quartz-feldspar.  The intrusive ranges in age from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic and in composition from tonalite to granite. Ore is found in stockwork veinlets and random grains in the intrusive and surrounding fractures.  The ore includes chalcopyrite, pyrite, and sometimes molybdenite, magnetite, and gold.  Green and blue copper carbonates and silicates developed into weathered outcrops overlying enriched zones containing chalcocite and other sulfides.  There are 31 U.S. porphyry copper locations with an average grade of .54% copper ranging from a low of .31% to a high of .94%.

Another type of porphyry is the copper-gold porphyry in Dos Pobres, Arizona composed of a stockwork of chalcopyrite, bornite, and magnetite veinlets in porphyritic intrusions.  The igneous associations of the copper-gold porphyry around the world include tonalite, monzogranite, coeval dacites, andesite flows, and tuffs of ages from the Triassic in British Columbia to the Quaternary in the South Pacific.  The ore zone in Arizona is bell shaped and localized at the top of a volcanic intrusive center with the highest ore grades located in the upward branching stock.  Ore minerals include a network of veinlets, scattered grains of bornite, chalcopyrite, and traces of native gold, electrum, sylvite, and hessite bordering altered wallrock of inner quartz and an outer propylitic zone.  Dos Pobres is the only copper-gold deposit in the U.S. out of the forty located worldwide with median grades of .5% Cu, .38 g/t Au and 1.0 g/t Ag with small amounts of molybdenite.

A third sub-group of the porphyry type of copper deposit is the copper-molybdenum porphyry characterized by the site at Sierrita, Arizona.  The location is a stockwork of veinlets and erratic grains of chalcopyrite in native rocks near a porphyritic disturbance.  The porphyry is of an age from the Mesozoic to the Tertiary, ranging in consistency from a tonalite to monzogranite and developed as dikes, stocks and breccia pipes containing sparse phenocrysts.  The ore minerals consist of chalcopyrite, pyrite and molybdenite.  Ore grade is metered by the close spacing of veinlets and the ore zone is sometimes the site of a magnetic low because of the displacement of magnetite.  Surface rocks are profoundly leached creating a layer of supergene copper below the leached zone.  There are six copper-molybdenum sites in the U.S. and 10 others in the world.  The median size is 500 million tons with the average grade being .42% Cu, .016% Mo, .02 ppm Au and 1.2 ppm Ag.

There are some considerable districts which are unique and contain geological features of several deposit types, such as the site in Bingham, Utah.  The area contains stockwork veinlets and scattered ore minerals in an altered igneous rock.  The intrusives are of an early Tertiary age and occur as stocks and dikes in a highly faulted and folded carbonate, as well as a hydrothermally altered craton shelf.  Peripheral copper-gold bearing skarns are located in metamorphosed carbonates along the porphyry contact zone.  The ores contain sphalerite, galena, silver, manganese, pyritic copper and native gold.  Median tonnage for the jumbled arrays of minerals vary greatly from site to site around the world but the production levels in Bingham can give some idea of the productivity of these areas. Production through 1972 is as fallows; 11,856,600 t Cu, 504,700 kg Au, 2,473,000 t Pb, 1,038,000 t Zn and 8,421,000 kg Ag.

The first of the porphyry molybdenum deposits is a site in Climax, Colorado.  The granite- high F porphyry is an umbrella-shaped stockwork of molybdenite, quartz, and fluorite in a Tertiary aged granite porphyry composed of 75% SiO2 cut by dikes and breccias.  Molybdenite, quartz, fluorite, and sometimes K-feldspar, pyrite, wolframite, casserite, and topaz compose the ores of the porphyry and occur mainly in fractures or scattered grains.  Due to glacial erosion there is little sedimentary or metamorphic rock cover at Climax.  From nine sites worldwide a grade and tonnage level can be drawn up with a median size of 200 million t and an average grade of .19% Mo.  Climax itself has produced over 430 million tons of ore with a recovery of 832,000 t of Mo, over 38% of the worlds total, with a projected reserve of about 1 million t of Molybdenum.

The second type of porphyry molybdenum deposit is a calc-alkaline-low F porphyry location in Buckingham, Nevada.  The intrusive ranges in age from the Mesozoic through the Tertiary and is composed of porphyritic tonalite, granodiorite, or monzogranite with deposits of quartz-molybdenite veinlets.  The ore minerals found in Buckingham are molybdenite, pyrite, and occasionally scheelite, chalcopyrite, and argentian tetrahedrite controlled by close-spaced fractures.  When weathered the site produces yellow ferrimolybdenite and secondary copper minerals.  A median size for this type is 94 million t and a median grade of .085% Mo.

Non-porphyry systems account for about 1/3 of the world's copper supply.  The minerals are mainly found as strata-bound ores in sedimentary rocks, volcanogenic massive sulfides, and as Ni-Cu ores in mafic intrusives.  Keweenaw, Michigan is the location of the first type of non- porphyry copper deposit, a volcanogenic-sedimentary red bed.  In the overlying clastic sediments are copper sulfides and below in thick basalts there are native copper and copper sulfide locations within host rocks ranging from shallow marine interlayered basalt flows to interbedded red bed sandstones.  The most common ore horizons are fragmentary and porous amygdular layers, flow- top breccias, and faults in the basalts and overlying carbonates containing deposits formed in the Proterozoic, Triassic, Jurassic or Tertiary ages along a continental rift zone near a marine interface of a former equatorial position.  These deposits include native copper and some silver in the flows and Cu2S minerals along the fractures.  Copper distribution was regulated by the host rock permeability and fracturing of basalt flows and sedimentary beds.  Some copper nuggets are found in stream beds due to weathering of the site.  Michigan copper districts produced more than 5.95 million t of copper with an average grade of 1.48%, Kennecott accounted for about 618,000 t of this total.

Skarn deposits occur in Carr Fork, Utah and Copper Canyon, Nevada. The former is a porphyry bordering the Bingham, Utah site while the latter is associated with barren stock.  Copper Canyon is a skarn bordering a weakly mineralized granitic and breccia pipe intrusive, which invades carbonate strata, containing chalcopyrite, pyrite, and some hematite, magnetite, bornite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite and many other minor minerals.  Alteration of the wallrock resulted in the formation of diopside and andradite in the central section, wollastone and tremolite in the outer, and marble in the peripheral zone.  Ores are found in irregular or tabular bodies in the clastic rocks near the intrusion and breccia pipes that cut the skarn which are weathered to form copper carbonates, silicates, and an iron-rich gossan.  This type of deposit has a median size of .56 million t and an average grade of 1.7% Cu.

The next type of non-porphyry copper deposit is a vein located in Butte, Montana.  Over 8 million t of copper has been produced at this mine in addition to large amounts of silver, gold, zinc, manganese, and lead.  Vein deposits are associated with replacement deposits and with other sites that are peripheral to some porphyry copper deposits.  The polymetallic deposits at Butte are found in a quartz monzonite stock as wells as in pegmatite and quartz porphyry dikes.  The stock was introduced along a continental rift during the Cretaceous orogeny.  The veins have an average width of 6-9 m but can increase in size up to 30 m wide in the central zone.  From 1880 to 1972 9 million t of Cu, 245,000 t of Zn, 1.9 million t of Mn, 43,000 t of Pb, 23 million kg of Ag, and 102,000 kg of Au have been recovered from Butte.

The fourth example of a non-porphyry occurs in Superior, Arizona.  In addition to copper there are also deposits of gold, silver, sphalerite, and galena.  The ores are found in a series of disconnected shoots in host rocks of shattered carbonate, quartzite, and diabase which lye in two shear zones.  The main ore minerals are pyrite, bornite, chalcopyrite, and enargite.  Gold and silver are associated with malachite and chrysocolla in an iron oxide gangue.  Approximately 311,000 t of copper with a median grade of 6.3% was produced from 1911 - 1943.

Another unique type of site is the massive sulfide labeled kuroko-type with locations in West Shasta, California and Crandon, Wisconsin.  The rocks are marine volcanogenic of felsic to intermediate composition and include copper- and zinc-bearing massive sulfides.  The ages of the deposits stretch from the Archean to the Cenozoic and consist of marine rhyolite, dacite, lesser basalt, along with mudstones and shales.  Mineralization occurred along a marine volcanic-derived hot spring along island-arc belts indicated by greenstones of ancient accreted marine terrains.  The deposits are distinguished by an upper stratified (black ore) zone, a lower stratiform (yellow ore) zone, and an underlying dispersed stockwork feeder zone.  The black ore is pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and occasionally galena, barite, tetrahedrite, and bornite.  Yellow ore is composed of pyrite and chalcopyrite, with occasional sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and magnetite.  The stockwork veinlets are pyrite, chalcopyrite, gold, and silver.  Massive ore is found in a center of felsic volcanics near local fracturing associated with hot-springs, organic mudstones, pyritic siliceous shale, sulfide clasts, and breccia fragments.  A median deposit size is 1.5 million t with an average grade of 1.3% CU, 2.0% Zn, .16% g/t Au, and 13 g/t Ag, based on 432 deposits worldwide.

In White Pine, Michigan there is a sediment-hosted dissemination which is located in shales, carbonates, sandstone/quartzite, and red beds.  Deposits of copper-bearing shales, siltstones, sandstones, carbonates, evaporates, conglomerates, and dolomites formed along the boundaries of shallow marine basins.  They range in age from the Proterozoic to the Mesozoic and occur along intercontinental rifts and passive continental margins.  The ore minerals are chalcocite and other Cu2S minerals which replaced pyrite, bornite, and silver.  The ores were controlled by a low pH environment, an abundance of sulfur, sediments, and petroleum.  Reserves plus production at White Pine is approximated at 8 million t of Cu with a median grade of 1.2%.  In other locations there is strong association with thick evaporate beds.

The final example of a non-porphyry copper deposit are the magmatic segregations or disseminations in mafic rocks located in Duluth, Minnesota and Stillwater, Montana.  The Duluth mine is characterized by a Cu-Ni-PGE type which includes erratically distributed sulfides associated with the basal portions of layered intrusions in a cratonal rift zone.  Ore minerals include pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, cubanite, and platinum group minerals (PGE).  Ages of the deposits go from the Precambrian to the Tertiary.  Stillwater is of a Ni-Cu type in a large mafic to ultramafic intrusive containing nickel and copper sulfides.  These deposits also range from the Precambrian to the Tertiary.  They are located in cratonal shield terrains and include ore minerals of pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, cobalt sulfide, and PGE.

The non-porphyry molybdenum deposits account for less than 5% of the total Mo mined in the United States.  The first type is the vein deposit in Questa, New Mexico.  It is a small but very rich molybdenum-quartz vein formed along fractures and contact zones of porphyritic aplite dikes.  The deposits have a biotite granite pluton underneath them, a shallower aplite intrusive, and porphyry dikes which disrupt a Tertiary volcanic field, the molybdenum deposit is found in the aplite intrusive.  The vein consists mainly of molybdenite and quartz with the central part of the vein containing fluorite, rhodochrosite, quartz, and calcite from being reopened locally.  The ores were controlled by the three intersecting shear systems forming and reopening during intrusive surges.  Oxidation has occurred on the surface and ferrimolybdenite and molybdenum-bearing limonite is joined by manganese oxides.  The median grade is about 5% with 9,072 t of molybdenum having been produced.

The second type of non-porphyry molybdenum deposit is the skarn found in Pine Creek, California.  Molybdenum and copper are produced here from a scheelite-bearing skarn which was formed by pyrometasomatic replacement of calcareous sedimentary rocks to marble and skarn assemblages along an intrusive granite.  The median grade of the ore ranges from .6% to 1% Mo. The ore was controlled by the geometry of the contact between the intrusive rocks and the marble layers.  The scheelite was formed during the early contact metamorphism with sulfides being produced by the subsequent hydrothermal alteration.

The final type is the pegmatite and sediment-hosted molybdenum deposits which occur in pegmatites and stratabound sedimentary rocks of little value.  The bodies contain erratically distributed crystalline rosettes and flakes of molybdenum but are rarely ore grade.  Some areas around the country may contain concentrations of significant amounts.

32.  Culture of France

AIDS/HIV

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, better known as AIDS, is

caused by the incurable HIV virus.  AIDS is a deadly disease that deteriorates

the immune system.  There are two groups of HIV (human

immunodeficiency virus), HIV-1 that occurs throughout the world and HIV-2

that mainly occurs in Africa.  The HIV virus enters the white blood cells and

takes over the reproductive system of that cell and uses the system to

reproduce itself.  The white blood cell dies and the new HIV cells infect other

white blood cells and repeat the process.  The Person with the disease will eventually die because the white blood cell dies off tottally.

AIDS VIRUS

If you have become infected with the AIDS disease you may not have

any symptoms of the disease for the next ten years.  People with the HIV virus usually look and feel healthy and may not even know that they are infected.  Even though they don't look or feel sick, they can still infect others.

When the symptoms do start to happen they can be like the ones of many common sicknesses such as swollen glands, coughing, fever, and diarrhea.  It is usually characterized by severe weight loss and fatigue.          The AIDS disease makes the less serious conditions harder for your body to control or get rid of because of  the loss of many of the white blood cells in your body.  The most common causes of death for the people with AIDS are pneumonia and Kaposi's sarcoma.  Kaposi's sarcoma which shows up as purple lesions on the skin and tumors known as B-cell lymphomas have affected 70% of the infected people.

AIDS is transmitted in three main ways.  Intimate sexual contact such

as having vaginal, anal or oral sex with someone who is infected with HIV is

the most common.  While direct contact with infected blood, like sharing needles for injecting drugs, HIV also can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during pregancy or childbirth.  Although some people speculate, you cannot receive the disease from kissing on the cheek and it is very unlikely that you could get HIV even from open mouth kissing, you also cannot get the disease/virus from close hugging, touching, cuddling, and massages as long as there isn't any open cuts or abrassions.  HIV also cannot be contracted from using toilet seats,telephones, drinking fountains, straws, spoons, or cups or mosquitoes, air, food, water, coughs/sneezes, sweat or tears.

AIDS is a life and death issue.  To have the AIDS disease is a sentence

of slow but defininate death. There currently is no cure or vaccine for this disease but there are drugs that have been proven effective in slowing the

spread of this deadly disease like AZT the first chemical shown to be partially effective in reducing clinical symptoms and controlling viral replication was developed in 1986-87.  Scientists say that a safe, effective vaccine against HIV may be at least a decade or more away, mainly because HIV changes structure quickly, producing different types.  A lot of types of the AIDS virus have been isolated, and it looks like the disease is contunually  changing in its genetic looks and so, its closes up against what a person's immune system can make antibodies.    We know enough about how the infection is transmitted to protect

ourselves from it.  But too few people are hearing the AIDS message.

Maybe many just don't like or want to believe what they hear, preferring

to think that AIDS "can't happen to them."  Like other communicable

diseases, AIDS can strike anyone.  AIDS doesn't just occur in certain social

groups of people.  We all have to protect ourselves from this infection and learn about it in time to take good enough precautions.  Taking the right actions, no one needs to get AIDS.  Now is the time to take charge against the AIDS disease by using good precautions such as using condoms made of latex rubber.  People have to remember, that the most reliable person in charge of preventing you from getting AIDS, is yourself!

In 1990, the World Health Organization brought to attention that 203,599 cases of AIDS were reported worldwide by the end of 1989, and estimated the actual number of cases to have been 600,000.

Viral Structure -

33.  Development by ComparisonThe United States & Philippines

The Philippines and the United States are very two populated place but still very different in many ways. The United States has more job opportunities than the Philippines. So, there more successful people in America today.

In the Philippines, the percentage of arable land is 34% mean there is plenty of manufactured goods, clothing, and lumber there. The birth rate is 35.9 per 1,000 population per year. The death rate is 7.8 per 1,000 population per year. In the Philippines, most households have maids to do there chores. The house owners work so many hours a day that they need  house sitter that will take care of the house and kids. The population in the Philippines is around 59.9 Million which is fairly large for the land capacity of the Philippines . At the Philippines, there are 15 telephones per 1,000 population and 114 televisions per 1,000 population. The Philippines exports manufactured goods, clothing and lumber while they import petroleum products, machinery, and raw materials. Also in the Philippines, there are a lot of young people compared to the United States. 42% of the population is under 15. At the Philippines, females live to an average of 65.5 years old while the men live to an average of 61.8 years old.

The United States is a hole different place in many ways. The population of the united states is around 248.7 Million. The United States Exports Machinery, food(Miscellaneous), and Chemicals. And they import Petroleum, petroleum products, and motor vehicles. People in the United states tend to live longer than the people in the Philippines. Females live around to the age of 78.3 while the males live around to the age of 71.4. There are 769 telephones per 1,000 population and 769 televisions per 1,000 population. There is 21% arable land in the United states. Many people have moved to the United States seeking for a better life. At the United states, there are 3,679,192 square miles of land. The birth rate is around 16 per 1,000 population per year. And the death rate is around 8.7 per 1,000 population per year.

Now know this information, The United States and the Philippines are two very different places to live. I, my self, have been to the Philippines and experienced how people live there. I found it very hard to live there because of the hot and humid weather. But the sites you can go to are just unlimited.

34.  Disasters

This being my senior project I wanted to look at a topic that I found interesting. Even though I find most topics in the fields interesting, none catch my attention better than natural disasters. I have always found disasters intriguing and have wanted to know more about them. The disaster that I found most interesting were Hurricanes. The thought of those storms with their power gives me the chills. Ever since I was in the middle of Hurricane Bob when I was vacationing with my family off the coast of Virginia and we were asked by the state police to evacuate our house, I wanted to learn more about hurricanes. Since that I have been able to take classes that enabled me to learn more about hurricanes. That is why I have decided to take the focus of my paper towards hurricanes. Furthermore, I am going to look at the economical affects that hurricanes have on the United States. There are many reasons why I chose to use this variable. The main reason is I couldn't think of another topic that fit into everyone's lives and had an effect on everyone.

The hurricane year is broken up into two seasons. They are referred to as early season and late season. The early season starts June first and runs to September 10. The late season starts on September 10 and runs to the end of November. The date of September 10 is the midway point between the two seasons. This is the date that separates early season from late season. This leads me to what my research was about. I am writing about the differences between early season and late season hurricanes and how they effect the variable that were mentioned earlier in the paper. I feel that late season hurricanes cause more economic loss than early season hurricanes.

I will start by taking about what a hurricane is and how they are formed. Then I will discuss where they are formed in relation to the seasons and why in these places. Next I will talk about the paths that these hurricanes take in regards to the seasons. Then I will compare storms of each season from different years starting in 1988 and ending in 1995. Next I will give a brief history about some of the biggest storms to ever hit and how they compare to the window of years I researched. The data from all the years storms in terms of loss of both variables will come next followed by the reasons for this. Finally a summary will end my research.

The research of my paper will involve storms that form in the Atlantic Ocean and effect The United States and its neighbors. The main reason that I have decided to research this part of the world and not look at the rest of the world is I live in this part of the United States and have been part of one of these storms. Also the data was much easier to research. Most people think of the Atlantic when they think of hurricanes.

The first priority is to find out what exactly a hurricane is. A hurricane comes from the West Indian word hurricane, meaning "big wind" (New Orleans, weather). A hurricane forms in the tropics around warm water. It starts as a disorganized storm  in the ocean. When it starts to become more organized, it will be put into the first of three classifications. The classification is tropical depression. The National Hurricane Center will get a letter to help classify the storm. When the winds of the storm reach 40mph it will go into the second classification, tropical depression. The service will give it a name at this point. The name is pre-determined based on a list that recycles every six years. The list of names for the next few years are on figure one. A name will only not appear on the list if it is retired. Finally, if the storm's wind reach 70mph, it would be classified as a hurricane. The "eye" of the hurricane is the center of the storm. This area of the storm is calm with no clouds. Around the eye the storm goes in a counter-clockwise motion. These walls are the most dangerous part of the storm. This is where the worst weather is( New Orleans, Weather). One thing that I remember from class was learning that The Northwest corner of the storm has the strongest winds while the Southeast corner has the weakest. The reason is the Northwest corner adds the actual speed of the storm to its winds while the Southeast corner subtracts the same amount wind. So if the storm was moving at 20 mph and the winds of the storm were 100mph, the NW winds would be 120mph while the SE winds would only be 80mph.The hurricanes are categorized into five categories seen in figure two.

The hurricane forms in steps. It start with a low pressure area. The air is pulled inward by the low pressure. The rotation of the Earth causes a deflection of wind to the right, causing the storm to move in a counter clockwise position. The winds on the surface accelerate near the center of the storm and is warmed up by the contact with the water(Britt, Ion Science). Here are the steps to the storm gaining strength:

1: High winds spiraling inward through bands of thunderstorms

2: whip up ocean spray, which increases evaporation. The storm begins feeding on itself, using the evaporated warm water as additional energy.

3: Rising air near the center of the storm condenses, creating heavy downpours and releasing heat that lifts the air further. This causes pressure to drop at the surface, pulling in more air and strengthening the storm.

4: Air rises to about 50,000 feet where most of it is propelled outward, making room for more rising air.

5: Some air sinks back into the center, warming it and creating the nearly cloud-free eye.( Britt, Ion Science).

These are the steps involved in the making of a hurricane from normal climatic conditions, but there are many other things that can contribute to hurricanes from not being formed. One of them is El Nino. This is a warm-water pattern of the coast of Peru. It does not happen every year. The warm water causes winds to move towards the Atlantic Ocean and act a  shield and block the formation of a hurricane( Grey, CSU).There many other weather formations like this that could effect hurricane formation, but are unpredictable when they are going to happen.

Where the hurricane forms is important to the process of the project. This is not the major deciding factor, but has significance to the amount of damage. After looking at all of the maps at the Purdue site, I came to the conclusion that more of the early season hurricanes start to form in the Caribbean area while more of the late season hurricanes start on the western coast of Africa(Purdue). There are definitely exceptions to this, but for the most part it holds true.

In 1988 There was one hurricane that was formed in the Gulf of Mexico and it was an early season hurricane. The other hurricanes that year were all late season and all originated off the coast of Africa. 1989 had two early season hurricanes that were formed in the Atlantic and two that were formed in the Caribbean area. The hurricanes that were formed in the late season were all formed in the Atlantic. For the rest of my research time, there were only five exceptions top the rule. After I found where the hurricanes were formed I wanted to see when they were all formed so I chose to look at the amount of hurricanes that were formed in each season for each year that I was researching. I also was looking at the category that the storms were in. I found the following data.

1988 was the first year that I looked at. This year fits the mold perfectly. The early season had one out of the five hurricanes in the year. It was a category one. The late season have four hurricanes including one of the big ones during the time period my research covered. Gilbert reached a pressure of 888mb. It was a category 5. There were two other storms that were category 4. This year there was a definite difference between the two seasons this year.

1989  had seven hurricanes in all. Three were early season, none greater than category 2, one that stretched across both seasons, with was a category one, and three late season hurricanes, categories one, four and five. The category five hurricane was Hugo. Both seasons having three hurricanes, but the late season having larger storms.

1990 was a fairly quiet year. The early season had 4 hurricanes, one of which was the highest rated storm, Gustuv which was a category three, but never made landfall, it just moved up the Atlantic. The late season had four as well, none of which formed into a major storm. This was the weakest year in my study for hurricanes.

The next year was 1991. This year had four storms. The early season had one hurricane, a category three, but was a category one when it finally hit land. The late season had a category four and two other storms. Again, this was not the most active year for hurricanes.

1992 is the year that through a wrench into the equation. The early season had only one hurricane, but it was a category five. Andrew was a huge storm. The late season had three storms, none were higher that a category three.

1993 was a banner year for the point of more late season hurricanes. There were four hurricanes in this year, all late season. None were too large, category three the highest, but all were late season.

1994 was another weak year. Five storms, four of which were in the late season, but none were over a category two. This was a mild season building up to one of the most active seasons ever recorded.

1995 was the most active season of my research. There were eleven hurricanes, five in the early season, one of which was a category four. Felix didn't touch down on land. The late season had six storms. Two category four storms and two category three( Purdue).

The time period that I researched had some active years and some slow years, but one thing is for sure, the late season was more active than the early season overall. With the exception of Andrew, All of the major storms that were researched came in the late season. Hugo and Gilbert were two huge storms that held true to what I tried to prove. These three hurricanes were the centerpiece to my research. These were some of the biggest storms of all time. The reason that Andrew was such a big storm was it came from the Atlantic. It was one of the few exception, but it was a big exception. Hurricane Camille was another exception. It came in 1969 and was of the strongest storms ever. These major storms are so major because even though they account for only 20% of the landfall of these storms they account for 70% of the damage done by major storms(Landsea,1993). This is a major statistic. It is obvious to see why these storms are such a marvel.

The track of the storm leads to the economic data. The Atlantic hurricanes have three major tracks. They can go through the Caribbean and up through the Gulf of Mexico towards New Orleans and Texas, our they can go toward the bottom of Florida in an almost parallel fashion or they can get caught up in the Gulf Stream and hook up the United States Eastern Seaboard. Most of the early season hurricanes follow the first path, while the late season hurricanes follow the other two paths predominantly(Miller,23).The problem is that if a late season does take the first path it could be just as harmful. The major factor about economical loss is the track taken. The first track goes through a part of the world that is not as rich as some of the other world. Also, when it hits the United States, the storms are going to hit some of the poorest states in the United States. Thus the real estate down there will not be as much. This is the exact opposite for the Atlantic coast of the United States. There are many areas that could get hit. Many resorts and heavily populated areas that would mean millions of dollars in damage. Hurricane Hugo caused 7 billion dollars in damage to the city of Charleston, SC alone( Reiter). This was a classic late season hurricane. Andrew was the only hurricane in my research that completely through off the late season theory, but it did take the right track. It hit the southern part of Florida that caused 20 million dollars in damage. The good part is that if it had moved 20 miles to the north it would have caused an estimated 70 billion dollars worth of damage in the Miami area( Reiter). Another point to this is this quote from Reiter, " Applied Insurance Research estimates that in a worse-case scenario , based on the reality of past hurricanes, damage could reach $52 billion in New Orleans, $104 billion in New England and $106 in southeast Florida." What he is saying is that if the worst storm that had ever hit before came today, this would be the damage that would be caused.

The track taken and the season that the hurricane came in work together. This is the major point of this project is to show that the season and the track are critical in economical loss. After Andrew, the economical loss by the other storms in the early season do not come remotely close to adding up to the total of Andrew. That is why Andrew throws the wrench in. It was the largest storm in terms of economical loss, while the rest of the early season hurricanes didn't amount to much. The late season hurricanes caused more damage. There wasn't another Hugo to destroy a city, but the estimated total from the rest of the late season hurricanes was over $ 27 billion( Reiter).

Another reason that the late season had more damage was the season had more hurricanes and also had more that touched on land. One of the largest early season hurricanes was Felix of 1995. It never hit land. The average landfall category for early season (excluding Andrew) was 1.8. The average for the late season was 2.6( Purdue). Many more hurricanes that are not significant brought this number down, but because there were so many, it averaged out.

After looking at all of the data, I feel that I am not completely right about my theory, but found some good solid evidence. The biggest problem with the project is that it is very hard to predict the climatic patterns of the Earth. If it was easy, my project would have come out one hundred percent. I am pleased with the work that I have done and was happy to research the material. I enjoyed learning about hurricanes and how they work. I feel that most major hurricanes fall in the late season and that they take one of the two major tracks. This causes more economical damage than if it were to follow the other track in the early season. I hope someday the climate will be much easier to predict.

35.  Dominican Republic

Mike Bengs

So. St.  B3

Jan. 7th , 1997

Dominican Republic

The Dominican Republic is located on the island of Hispanola located in the Caribbean Sea.  It takes up about 2/3 of the island which it shares with Haiti.  Dominican Republic's total area is 48,734 square kilometers.  The Dominican Republic Jas a tropical maritime climate.  The temperatures are moderated though by the ocean currents and year-round trade winds.  The average temperature is around 720F and 800F, it hardly ever drops below 600F and it also hardly ever riser above 900F.  It isn't uncommon though to get frost in the higher elevations.  Dominican Republic's rainy season is between May and November rainfall is the heaviest in the north and east of the country.  Although agriculture is the most important resource in the Dominican Republic it has many mineral resources.  Some of these resources are nickel being the leading export as well as bauxite, gold, and rock salt.

The population of the Dominican Republic is around 7.8 million.  Close to 40% of that population is under the age of 16.  More and more Dominicans are migrating to the cities for a better chance at life.  This has greatly effected the rural population by shrinking it steadily.  About half of the total population is located between Santiago de los Caballeros and San Pedro de Macoris.

Another 1/3 of the population is located in the capitol city of Santo Domingo and between the cities of La Romana and San Cristobal.  The annual growth rate is estimated to be at 1.71% for the next couple of years until the year 2000.  Mulattos form the largest ethnic group in the Dominican Republic being roughly 73% of the population.  The next largest group is 16% Caucasian and 11% Black.  The life expectancy from birth is for males 65 years and for females 69 years.  Out of 100,000 live births 61.4% of the babies die.

The start religion for the Dominican Republic is Roman Catholicism.  Over 90% of the population is Catholic.  Free public education is offered through the high school level and attendance is mandatory through the 6th grade.  A lot of the Dominicans don't finish school for various reasons.  Although 3/4 of the residents start school only about 1/3 finish.  Some of the urban families send their children to private schools called colegios.  As for after high school there is universities and trade schools.

The Dominican Republic currently has about 1 telephone per every 24 people in the country.  There are roughly 16 million long distance calls and 5 million international calls made in the country every year.  There is 11,400 Km of roads in the Dominican Republic and 49% of that amount of roads are paved.

There is a railway in the Dominican Republic but it seldom transports people.  The railroad is mainly used for the transportation of sugar.

The system of government used is Parliamentary democracy and the head of state and head of government is President Joaquin Balaguer.  The Vice President is Carlos A. Morales Troncoso.  There are three major political parties in the Dominican Republic.  They are: the Social Christian Reformist Party, the Dominican Revolutionary Party, the Dominican Democratic Party, and the two minor parties: the Movimiento Popular Dominicano and the Movimiento de Intergracion Democratica.

The military is headed by the President as supreme commander.  The total strength of the armed forces is around 20,800 people.  Out of those people 13,000 belong to the Army 4,000 belong to the Navy and 3,800 belong to the Air Force.  The national military expenditures were estimated to be 61 million in 1989 which was 1.2% of the GDP.  The US has a sort of alliance with the Dominican Republic supplying them with goods and helping the country when things get rough.

The currency used in the Dominican Republic is the Dominican Republic Peso.  The per capita income rate is about 790 American dollars a year.

The average inflation rate is 1.7%.  Of the total land area of the Dominican Republic 49% is classified to be farmland used for agriculture.  The agriculture in the country produces 15% of the GDP.  The main industry of the Dominican Republic is food processing of all kinds of different products but mainly sugar.  The manufacturing accounts for 17% of the GDP.

The Dominican Republic's main imports are petroleum, petroleum products, foodstuffs, and machinery.  The countries main exports are sugar and ferronickel.  The US is the Dominican Republic's main trading partner but it also trades with Venezuela, Mexico, and the Netherlands Antilles.

36.  DRUGS

HONDURAS

Have you ever wanted to travel to a beautiful country far from where your

at now.  To visit a land full of many different customs and where culture is put

into a whole new perspective.  Well if this is what you have dreamed of take your

Spanish class and fly or drive down to a friendly neighbor Honduras!  Now lets

learn about our travel.

"Size And Population"

About 90% of the population is mestizo (people of Spanish and Native

American ancestry); the remainder are Native Americans, blacks, and whites.  The

population is about 60% rural.  In 1995 the estimated population was 5,968,000.

"Physical Landscape And Location"

Except for two coastal strips, Honduras is a plateau, consisting of broad,

fertile plains broken by deep valleys, and traversed by mountain ranges in a

northwestern to southwestern direction.  Most of the country's rivers drain to the

Atlantic Ocean.  Forests cover about 31% of the land.

"Culture And Customs"

The Native American and Spanish strains in Honduran cultural history is

visible in the awesome architecture.  Fine Arts in Comayagua, the old capital has

long been a custom to our southern neighbors.  in northwestern Honduras is a

ceremonial center of the Old Empire of the Maya and one of the most important

archaeological sites in the entire western hemisphere.

"Type Of Government"

The constitution of Honduras was formed in 1982.  Under the Constitution,

the people elect a president and the members of the legislature serve four-year

terms.  Presidents can only serve one term.  The cabinet is appointed by the

president.  The military has allot of the influence in the government of Honduras.

Military leaders are completely responsible for its national security policies and

they can veto any of the presidents appointments to the cabinet.  Military leaders

have often taken complete control of the government in the past.

"Education"

In this country education is free and compulsory for children between the

ages of 7 and 12.  Although the literacy rate stands at 73% the government pledges

to raise it.  The Pan American Agricultural School, financed by the United Brands

Company of the United States, is near the capital.

"Language"

Spanish is the official language and is spoken by nearly all the Honduran

people.  English is spoken by some people in the north, and the Native Americans

have retained their languages.

"Religion"

About 85% of the people are Roman Catholic.  Protestants constitute a

small minority.

"Type of Currency"

The unit of currency in Honduras is the lempira, which is divided into 100

centavos.  6.91 lempiras equal $1.00 to the US as of 1993.  Government controlled

municipal Bank and national Agricultural development Bank provide credit for

developmental projects.

"Agriculture"

About 16% of the total land area of Honduras is arabel, most of it on the

coastal plains.  The leading cash crop are coffee and bananas and plantains.  Other

important crops include sugarcane and palm oil.  The principle food crops are

corn, beans, and rice.  Citrus fruit and pineapples also are grown.

"Medical Information"

In recent years public health services in Honduras have been made more

accessible through an increase in modern health units.  Also through the

development of community participation in health programs.  These programs

have resulted in malaria control, improved sewage, and increased medical

personnel.  Unfortunately, malnutrition, inadequate housing, and infant diseases

are still a problem.

"Climate"

The climate of Honduras is Tropical but is tempered by the higher

elevations of the interior.  Coastal regions are warmer and the humidity can

become high.  This all added together gives the Honduras nation an average 80

degrees F. or 26.7 degrees C.

Well now that you have taken the time to learn a little bit of facts of the

Great Latin country of  Honduras, I hope you will take some time to visit this rich

cultured country.  I am confident that you will enjoy this awesome experience!

37.  Economia de Japon

JAPÓN ECONOMÍA

La modernización de Japón fue beneficiada por la abundante y mal pagada mano de obra que existía en el Meiji. El país comerciaba principalmente con artículos baratos y derivados del carbón.

En 1950 surgió el "milagro económico japonés" que dependía principalmente de la importación de energía (petróleo) , inversiones, el ahorro y la ayuda de las grandes empresas.

Japón compensa en gran parte la insuficiencia de su agricultura con la pesca, la cual se ve beneficiada por la longitud de sus costas, y las aguas ricas en plancton.

Aunque la pesca de la costa es practicada en su mayoría por pequeñas empresas artesanales, lo esencial de la captura se hace por medio de barcos grandes que operan en mares de todo el mundo, cabe mencionar que por este motivo, el país ocupa el puesto número 1 a nivel mundial, en acuacultivos. Además el país ocupa primer lugar mundial en la producción de: Vehículos de turismo, Vehículos comerciales, Motos, Construcción naval, Televisores y Magnetoscopios.

El sector primario ocupa las labores de agricultura y pesca, el sector secundario de la economía se basa en la industria y más de la mitad de la población activa se dedica a los servicios.

La industria japonesa está controlada por un número reducido de grupos poderosos, que en realidad son los antiguos llamados zaibatzu reconstruidos desde 1950. Sus principales empresas transnacionales son Toyota y Nissan; en la industria automotriz, Hitachi y Matsushita; en los ensambles eléctricos, y Nippon Oil en la industria petrolera (tratamiento y comercialización del crudo importado).

En este país, donde el capitalismo impera, el Estado se muestra flexible por medio del MITI (Ministerio de Comercio Exterior y de la Industria). El Estado se muestra abierto a sugerencias y aportaciones que puedan dar las empresas privadas para los modelos económicos que se desarrollaran en el país.

Uno de los más recientes éxitos japoneses radica en el desarrollo de tecnología de punta: electrónica, informática, óptica e incluso relojería ya que el Japón logró desplazar a Suiza en este ámbito.

La exportaciones del país representan no mas del 15% del valor de la producción nacional, a pesar de que Japón ya está casi nivelado con Alemania que es considerado el segundo exportador mundial.

Los principales socios comerciales con que cuenta  Japón son: Estados Unidos, La Unión Europea y el sudeste asiático (Corea del Sur, Taiwan, Singapur y Hong Kong).

Las organizaciones económicas a las que está asociado este país son: FMI (Fondo Monetario Internacional), APEC (Foro de Cooperación Económica de Asia Pacífico), OECD (Organización para la cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico). Además pertenece a las Naciones Unidas, el GATT/OMC (Organización Mundial del Comercio).

En cuanto a bloques mundiales, Japón está dentro del grupo de los 5 (Francia, Estados Unidos, Alemania, Japón e Inglaterra), la función de este grupo es denominar juntas entre el ministerio de finanzas y el Banco Central, el de los 7 (igual al anterior, sólo de agregan Canadá e Italia) y el de los 10 (igual al de los 7 incluyendo ahora a Bélgica, Holanda y Suecia). Además de ser el dirigente del  bloque del Este Asiático, el  cual está conformado por los 4 tigres asiáticos (Taiwan, Corea del Sur, Hong Kong y Singapur) además de la República Popular de China.Este país pertenece también a la llamada Cuenca del Pacífico, países que colindan con oriente asiático y los del litoral del pacífico.

A pesar de su crecimiento económico, Japón no ha afectado su calidad de vida ni el bienestar de la población. El "culto a la empresa" obliga a grandes sacrificios que en otros países desarrollados no se llevan a cabo.

La riqueza minera es importante y posee una verdadera tradición que se remonta al siglo XVII,  cuando  los portugueses exportaban del país 600 barriles de oro puro cada año, y que también los holandeses realizaban comercios similares. Las valiosas minas de oro de Sado han quedado agotadas después de aquella explotación que se prolongó durante centenares de años.

La producción minera de mayor importancia es la del carbón, de unos 55 millones de toneladas métricas por año, aunque este volumen de producción resulta muy inferior al de los grandes países industriales y es una de las fallas de la economía japonesa. Siguen en valor dentro de la minería el hierro, cobre, zinc, piritas, plomo, azufre, estaño, plata y cromo. Pero Japón resiente gran deficiencia de mineral de hierro y de los principales metales industriales, salvo el cobre. Se han encontrado yacimientos petrolíferos, pero su explotación no cubre las necesidades nacionales, y llega solamente a 760,000 toneladas al año.

Es un país altamente industrializado, que aprovecha sus recursos naturales para el desarrollo de su propia mecanización mediante la construcción de presas y centrales generadoras de fuerza hidroeléctrica, alcanzando progresos que nada tienen que envidiar al mundo occidental. La producción de energía eléctrica asciende a unos 139,000 millones de kilovatios-hora al año, de los cuales más de la mitad proceden de plantas hidroeléctricas.

Las condiciones topográficas no permiten un aprovechamiento mayor al 16% del territorio en las tareas agrícolas, y éstas constituyen la verdadera actividad económica nacional, a pesar de la mala condición de la superficie disponible.

El principal cultivo es el del arroz (50% del área aprovechable), que es el alimento nacional. La cosecha anual pasa de los 16 millones de toneladas, gracias a los altos rendimientos, que figuran entre los mejores del mundo, aunque sin llegar a los máximos de España e Italia. A pesar de que siempre se deben traer del exterior cantidades importantes para suplir el desequilibrio del mercado.

La producción arrocera ha aumentado apreciablemente en los últimos años, igual que la de otros cereales, mediante el uso de fertilizantes y campañas contra las plagas, lo que antes no se realizaba. Otros cultivos intensos corresponden al trigo, soya, algodón, cáñamo, tabaco, papas, betabel, caña de azúcar, té y cítricos, especialmente. La cría del gusano de seda es una de las principales ocupaciones agrícolas en la zona central, llegando la producción de seda natural a unas 18,500 toneladas por año.

Pocos países han alcanzado, dentro de sus condiciones, el alto progreso industrial de Japón, hasta ocupar uno de los primeros lugares del mundo. Prueba de eso, es el hecho de que su primera industria es la textil, de algodón, aunque tiene que importar la materia prima de los Estados Unidos y la India. Sin embargo, luego de cubrir sus propias necesidades exporta hilados y tejidos en gran cantidad.  A esta industria (algodón, seda, lana, cáñamo, lino, yute y fibras artificiales), siguen las industrias metalúrgica pesada, papel, productos químicos, cerámica, juguetes, fósforos (muy importante), maquinaria, laca, etc.

La industria pesquera japonesa extrae aproximadamente de 4 a 5 millones de toneladas anuales, volumen que se elevó en años anteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial hasta rebasar los 6 millones de toneladas. Esta enorme cantidad de peces y mariscos representa un elemento vital en la dieta, ya que junto con el arroz son el producto de mayor consumo; pero después de cubrir el mercado nacional, quedan grandes excedentes exportables, a más de reservar a la exportación las clases finas (atún, cangrejos, langostas y salmón) que se envían incluso a los Estados Unidos de América.

A finales del siglo XIX, Japón comenzo  rápidamete a adoptar la forma corporativa de organización, esto a medida que se fue industrializando. Su económia se ha ido solidificando a manera que se esta conviertiendo en una de las comunidades internacionales  más estables.

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial se produjo un descenso lógico en la actividad industrial, que en 1946 llegó solo al 21% de la capacidad productiva anterior al conflicto; pero para 1949 ya se había recuperado en un 80%, y al termino de 1952 no sólo la vuelta a la normalidad de pre-guerra era completa, sino que superaban muchos índices de 1939.

A partir de 1953 se reanudó la navegación japonesa con sus líneas propias a Europa y América, lo que ha vigorizado la producción industrial del país.

Desde 1985 Japón se ha convertido en el crediticio más grande del mundo, debido a que no cuenta con una deuda externa ya que su financiemiento proviene del sector privado. Estados Unidos en el más grande deudor.

Para Mayo de 1996 la Balanza Comercial de Japón arrojaba un superábit de 17.52 millones de dolares . El déficit comercial de la Balanza de pagos  1996 cerró en un 5%  de la deuda total del país, y la deuda interna no muy abajo del 100%. Por lo tanto, se concluye que habrá incentivos para la inversión extranjera, lo cual podría balancear el programa de financiemiento del gobierno japonés, ya que actualmente su financiamiento es netamente interno.

La economía japonesa, es cerrada a mercados internacionales, el porcentaje de exportaciones del 96 fue del 81.91% mientras que sus importaciones, basadas en materias primas y productos industriales principalmente, fue solo del 18.09%

Ha habido una serie de actos en el mercado financiero japonés en el último año. Hay evidencia de que la economía japonesa comenzó su recuperación y su mercado financiero a estabilizarse. Además, el gobierno tiene un plan de disponer del fondo público de las arrendadoras. Y los mercados financieros están preocupados por el suministro de recursos económicos para el gobierno general para el año fiscal de 1997.

La pausa relativa que este país experimenta en la expansión, puede ser determinante para guiar la economía japonesa hacia un crecimiento cualitativo.

Parte del éxito del crecimiento económico tan rápido de Japón se debe a la cultura niponesa de devoción al trabajo, esto implica largas jornadas de trabajo, periodos casi nulos de vacaciones y la fidelidad  a éste.

Bibliografía:

+ Atlas Alfabético Larousse, Autores varios

+ PC Globe Economía de Japón, CD ROM

+ Enciclopedia Compton's 1996, CD ROM

+ Asia Pacífico 1993, El Colegio de México

+ Capital social y económia global, Francis Fukuyama, Este País - Febrero 1996-

+ http//:www.ict.co.jp/www-economy

+ http//:www.wto.org.com

+International Financial Statistics, Fondo Monetario Internacional, Febrero 1997.

38.  Ecuador

Ecuador

Ecuador is the small country in Latin America. The conditions in Ecuador are not anywhere near what we expect and get everyday.  There are numerous active volcanoes and many earthquakes that cause much damage.  The economic situation is not good and health problems are many.

The per capita income for the year is only about $ 1,070.  This is caused in part by the government which tried to stimulate growth by imposing strict budgets, devaluing the currency, and increasing taxation of the people.  The currency of Ecuador, the sucre, is not very valuable.  It takes 2,146 of them to equal one US dollar.  The inflation rate is an alarming 49%, and the economic growth is an even more astonishing number, 2.5%.  Oil, Ecuador's main export, is expected to be depleted by the early part of the 21st century.  This will make conditions even worse.

Although the literacy rate is currently rather high, there are no schools in the rural areas, and school is only required until the age of 14.  Malnutrition is extremely common.  Most children get about what we eat for lunch for the entire day.  The work rate among children is high.  Cholera is a big problem in Ecuador; Abourt 650 people died of it last year.  The infant mortality rate is also high, although it has lowered drastically in the past three years.  Only 16% of the roads are paved and many houses do not have running water or electricity.

People are trying to improve these conditions in any way they can.  The man who started the clinic is trying to help the children.  He will use the money for medical supplies, food, clothes, or bedding.  Trying to run a hospital/clinic is hard in Ecuador and he and his helpers will surely appreciate your money.  Consider the conditions described in the report when you are asked to give to this cause or a similar one.

39.  Effect of he Environment on Westward Expansion

As the country grew and expanded, the American people where always one to push their bounds. In 1763, we proudly, defied England's proclamation of the year, and settled west of the Appalachian mountains. A little later, the westward people pushed Indians, animals, and society to a place where no American person had gone before. But all the while, one important factor determined where they transported themselves, where they settled, and what they did when they got there. This factor, the environment, profoundly affected the settlers way of life, and other factors, such as the Indians and the railroad, only aggravated a pre-existing condition.

The settlers of the late 1800's had only one way to get to the west- along the pre-existing routes established by the courier-de-bois, Spanish settlers, and the Indians of the past. These routes, which flowed through the only passable areas of the Rockies, naturally led to Oregon and California, which caused an increase in the population of these regions at the time. These trails, such as the Oregon Trail to the north, the Mormon and Spanish Trail to the south, and the California and Overland trails in between were very rough and bumpy, making the trek no easy task.

On the home front, the environment played an important role on the family life as well.. Women had a more prominent role in society as we shifted from the urbanized east to the more agrarian west. They were expected to do more than they did in the past, such as make the clothing everyone in the family wore, while the man was off toiling in the desert in search for food. With an increased sense of independence, women had gained rights to vote and proprietorship. But with this increased sense of independence came the added responsibility of being the family doctor, chef, and provider of family comfort and support. Women even faced the grim possibility of giving birth on the trail.

The environment also affected the health of the people who lived in the west. In the middle of the desert, with scarce sources of food and water, the people and environment became one. With the water remote and out of hand, the emigrants faced higher incidents of dysentery and diarrhea, which stemmed from their inappropriate water supplies.

The environment also molded another aspect of our westward ancestors- their style of architecture and development. In the east, where the land was expensive and hard to find, people generally built towards the heavens. But in the lands west of the Mississippi, where the land was found easily and very cheaply, the people generally built outward with buildings no taller than two stories. Perhaps we should of learned from the Indians of the past, who built in natural recesses in the mountains to provide natural protection and shade.

But other factors also played a role in westward movement, although it's influence wasn't as imposing as the environment. The people that already lived in those areas, the Indians, naturally fought against these white faced foes to keep the land that was once theirs. But other factors also played an important role. The railroad, for instance, would ultimately decide which areas would become populated or not as this form of transportation became a more comfortable mode of movement.

In conclusion, one can now see the extreme influence the environment played on the westward settlers of the past. Not only did it influence where and how they settled, it affected their way of life, livelihood, and general mood. While it may be said that external factors such as the Indians and the railroad changed the direction of westward movement, it was ultimately the environment that would decide where and how the people settled.

40.  Egypt

EGYPT

The majority of people have various ways of viewing cultures.  Because

of close-mindedness and lack of cultural education, people have a difficult

time interacting with different societies.  I feel that people shouldn't

stereotype because this might lead to misjudgment.  For example, I have

personally experienced this type of stereotyping of my Egyptian culture.

Although people view Egypt as a plain desert with camel riders, my

experience from living there shows Egypt to be a developing civilized country

with a great history .

People think about Egypt in this manner because of the media.  The

news primarily exposes the uncivilized parts of the country.  For instance, the

well known news broad-casting channel CNN showed the circumcising of a

young girl on the television screen.  This is a harsh way to introduce a culture

to people.  Often, CNN shows cases of the Egyptian desert with camel riders.

This narrow perspective influences the society's view of  our culture.

Another example is an article in the National Geographic magazine

about Egypt (written by Peter Throux in April 1993).  The writer described

the country as smoggy, dirty, over-populated and with traffic problems.  The

article introduced Egypt as a superstitious culture which was graphically

proven in a picture shown in the article.  This picture showed the head of a

woman with the body of a snake. This picture gives the reader the impression

that Egyptians believe in black magic.

Whenever the media introduce a culture, they should mention all the

positive and the negative aspects of that specific culture.  For instance,

whenever you watch a program about the United States of America back

home, you see only sky-scrapers and big luxurious cities.  This doesn't

portray the entire United States.

In reality, Egypt is a mixture of well educated and uneducated people.

I have lived there for many years and from experience, I think it's an

interesting country.  Egypt has the Nile River which supports the cities

around it with water and green areas.  In Egypt, the government encourages

the people to move away from the cities and start agricultural communities

with great facilities.  This encouragement helps provide more agricultural

areas and more jobs for the Egyptian people.  This enrichment has stabilized

the currency for six years and has also improved the growth of the national

income.  In Egypt, there are the "pyramids" which are symbols of the

Egyptian pride.  Temples, churches and mosques show a great art of design.

These buildings are not just constructions, they are decorations and a history

for all generations.  This history has motivated the Egyptians to continue their

modern progresses.  It has also influenced  the Egyptian traditions.  For

example, the Egyptian ancestors passed down many traditions.  These

traditions emphasize respect for elders and family.

In conclusion, my view is that culture has it's good and bad qualities.

The negative ones in the Egyptian culture are the traffic, extensive paper

work (with certified signature), hard-to-find housing and beggars.  This

occurs because of the over population problem.  The Egyptian government is

trying to fix this problem by doing everything possible.

I wish every person could view the Nile River at night, the historical

sites (such as the pyramids) and the beaches of the red sea, to fully

understand the beauty of nature in this part of the world.  Egypt is mentioned

in the holy book Quran as a secure country with generous people living in it. I

wish everyone could see the world with an open mind, rather than with an eye

of ignorance and prejudice.

41.  Enviormental Risk

The 20th century, especially in the second half, has been one of rapid change in the Earth's environment. The impact of humans on the physical form and functioning of the Earth have reached levels that are global in character, and have done so at an increasingly mounting speed. 20 years ago the environment was seen as posing a threat to the future of humanity as death rates from natural hazards had increased dramatically since the turn of the century. The Earth though has always been plagued by natural disasters. Now, with the world population growing at a rapid rate more people are living in hazard prone areas. Events which may have gone unnoticed previously, only become hazards when there is intervention with humans and their lifestyle. With the discovery of the ozone hole in the 1980's attention was now more focused on the threat humans were posing to the environment. With scientific evidence to back up pessimistic predictions of our future, most people, through media coverage, political pressures and general concern now see the environment as being truly threatened by human progress and in desperate need of help.

Natural hazards have been defined as "...extreme geophysical events greatly exceeding normal human expectations in terms of their magnitude or frequency and causing significant damage to man and his works with possible loss of life." (Heathcote,1979,p.3.). A natural hazard occurs when there is an interaction between a system of human resource management and extreme or rare natural phenomena (Chapman,1994). As McCall, Laming and Scott (1991) argue, strictly speaking there is no hazard unless humans are affected in some way. Yet the line between natural and human-made hazards is a finely drawn one and usually overlapping. Doornkamp ( cited in McCall et al, 1992) argues that many hazards are human induced or at least made worse by the intervention of humans.

In the 1970's, natural hazards were an important subject of topical study, as the nature of their impact on human populations and what they valued was increasing in frequency at quite a rapid rate (Burton, Kates, White, 1978). During the 75 years after 1900 the population of the earth increased by a staggering 2.25 billion people. People who needed land on which to live and work. As the population rose people were dispersed in more places and in larger numbers than before. The predominant movement of people being from farm to town or city (Burton et al,1978.). It is this growing world population, Burton et al (1978) suggest, that is the main reason behind why hazards are increasing and were seen to pose such a threat to humankind in the 70's. While the average number of disasters remained relatively constant at about 30 per year, death rates climbed significantly.

As the growing world population requires the cultivation of land more prone to hazards, more people and property are thus exposed to the risk of disaster than ever before, and as Stow (1992) argues, the death toll inevitably rises. An example that shows the concern that humans faced from the environment can be exemplified by the Bangladesh cyclone of 1970, which killed approximately 250,000 people. Although part of the reason for so many deaths can be put down to a then poorly understood process, land-use can also be implicated. Because of a rising population, land in Bangladesh was reclaimed by the government and held against the sea. People in large numbers were then encouraged to occupy the area. An area which turned out to be one of great risk. Major disruption was inevitable Burton et al (1978) argue whenever population was in the path of such forces. Had reasonable measures been taken in advance of the storm, the material damage, loss of life and social dislocation could have been seriously reduced.

In the 1990's we live in an information age. Today we have remarkable monitoring and predictive capabilities for natural hazards. The use of advanced telecommunications and emergency management, together with the exploitation of geographic information systems in hazard mitigation has greatly reduced the extent to which natural hazards are seen as a threat to people in the 90's (Chapman et al, 1994). Loss of life and property from natural disasters  continue to rise though as the population of the world rises and puts more demands on the environment for land resources. White (1974) argues that environmental risk may be considered to be primarily a function of the value systems of a society. How dangerous a natural hazard is, is not measured in absolute terms but in how dangerous it is perceived to be. 20 years ago, technology hadn't advanced to the level at which natural hazards could be properly understood and prepared for (Perry,1981). Chapman (1994) argues that in technologically advanced societies we have "...greatly accepted the hazards inherent in the comforts of life that technology provides and learned to live with hazards." (p.156).In the 1970's, using Heathcote's (1979) definition, "normal human expectations"  were lower than they are today therefore causing such concern for the environmental threat to humans.

20 years ago it was the spectacular, rapid onset, intensive hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones and floods that caught the media headlines and caused concern for the future of humankind from the environment. Today it is the slow onset, pervasive hazards that have caught the attention of the whole world, and in the long term pose more threat than the intensive hazards (Chapman,1994). Space exploration has given us an awareness that it is human activity that is contributing to this long term threat and the future of the planet as a whole (McCall,1992).

It has been suggested that when the history of the 20th century is written, environmentalism will be judged to be the single most important social movement of the period (Brenton,1994). While the threat from humans to the environment has been an issue for some time, the conflict has been sharpened by the emergence of new concerns; ozone depletion, global warming, loss of biological diversity and the destruction of the rainforests. Prior to the late 20th century the main insults to the environment were evident, people could see smog and pollution and notice animals missing from the forests. These new issues involve a new type of danger to the environment (Suzuki,1990). Dangers which are much less visible and often will not materialise for years to come. It is primarily because of scientific predictions that we know about them and without science would have probably gone largely unrecognised until it was too late for action to be taken (McKibben,1989). These new dangers are ones that can be measured and enumerated by scientists. The belief that the earth has been seriously damaged and is being damaged more rapidly than ever before is a far more prevalent and respectable belief than ever before. It is a belief that is growing in popularity (Meyer and Turner,1995). Johnson, Tayor and Watts (1995) point out that:

"... increasingly the assumption that the earth is being

improved requires a defence and an explanation, while

the assumption that it is being dangerously degraded

requires none." (p.304).

Coping with global environmental change has come to appear one of humankinds most pressing problems.

Perhaps the most powerful representative of this new 'global consciousness' has been as Brenton (1994) suggests, the 'Earthrise' photograph taken by the Apollo II in 1969. As people are able to see the earth as a whole for the first time, they are also able to see more clearly that  which ecologists have always stated, that everything on the earth is tied to everything else (Pearce,1995). Since it's capture , the 'earthrise' photograph has been extensively exploited by  exponents of the 'fragile planet' view of the human experience. Between 1970 and 1990 global population rose from 3.7 billion to approximately 5.3 billion people. Energy consumption grew even faster, while nuclear production of electricity rose twentyfold. The number of vehicles more than doubled and by the early 1990's people were consuming about 40% of the entire global 'natural product' from the photosynthesis of plants (Brenton,1994). Tropical rainforests have been devastated and the productivity of more than 1.2 million hectares of land has been lowered by human activities. 20% of the CO2 in the atmosphere has been put there by humans, largely through C.F.C production, and it has been C.F.C's that have created one of the most disturbing changes to the environment, that of the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer and the theory of global warming (McKibben,1987).

Ozone is a molecule of oxygen, made up of three oxygen atoms and it's existence is essential for many life supporting systems. Ozone occurs at two levels in the atmosphere; the stratosphere and the troposphere. In the stratosphere it is concentrated into the 'ozone layer', and it is this concentration that protects the earth from U.V radiation from the sun, taking out 90% of U.V rays. It's depletion was first recognised in 1985, when a gaping hole was found over Antarctica. By 1989 it became clear that C.F.C's and halons were indisputably implicated in the collapse over Antarctica, that ozone had diminished over heavily populated areas of the world and that further significant depletion would occur if extreme action was not taken to stop ozone-depleting substances (Kevies,1992).

Apprehension of global warming on the other hand, rests on the theory that high concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere trap radiation reflected from the earth, creating a 'greenhouse effect'. This then leads to an increase in temperature in the region close to the planets surface. The current attention given to the climatic impacts of CO2 owes much to the weather of the 1980's (Schnieder,1989). The 80's were already the warmest on record, when the hot spring and summer of 1988 came along, bringing with it drought, crop disasters and fire hazards. Suddenly the 'greenhouse effect' was given major consideration by Press front pages, T.V networks, celebrity benefits and in political circles. Schnieder (1989) notes that in 1988, nature did more for the notoriety of global warming in 15 weeks than anyone else was able to do for the previous 15 years. How much of this warming is due to an increase in CO2 though and what the actual consequences will be is a debatable subject (Pearce,1995). Although climatic change is occuring, why it's occuring is not known for certain. Pearce (1995) argues though, that even if the science of global warming turns out to be incorrect, it is not worth the risk to do nothing about it. McKibben (1990) declares that to doubt that the warming will happen because it hasn't yet appeared is"... like arguing that a woman hasn't yet given birth and therefore isn't pregnant." (p.12).

As the 20th century draws to a close, a general awareness is spreading around the globe that human activity can and is causing serious damage to the environment. Slogans such as 'think locally,act globally' and 'the earth is one but the world is not' adhere to the principal that, everything is tied to everything else. Problems on land become problems at sea and in the environment. Humans now realise that it is they that pose the threat to the environment, rather than the environment being a threat to humanity. The danger is shining through the sky, with overwhelming evidence that the earths ozone layer is being destroyed by human-made chemicals far faster than any scientist had predicted. The threat is no longer just to the future, the threat is here and now.

REFRENCES

Brenton, T. (1994). The Greening of Machiavelli: The History of International Environmental Politics. Earthscan Publications, London.

Burton, I., Kates, R.W. and White,G.F. (1978). The Environment as Hazard. Oxford Uni. Press. New York..

Chapman, D.M. (1994). Natural Hazards. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.

Heathcote, R.L. (1979). The Threat from Natural Hazards In Australia in R.L. Heathcote and B.G. Thom (eds): Natural Hazards in Australia. 3-12, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.

Kevies, D.J. (1992). Some Like it Hot. New York Review of Books. 39:31-39.

McCall, G.J.H. (1992). Natural and Man Made Hazards: Their Increasing Importance in the End 20th Century World in G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. 1-4, Chapman and Hall, London.

McKibben,B. (1990). The End of Nature. Penguin, Middlesex.

Meyer, W.R. and Turner, B.L. (1995). The Earth Transformed: Trends, Trajectories and Patterns in  R.J. Johnson, P.J. Taylor and M.J.Watts (eds): Geographies of Global Change. 302-317, Blackwell, Oxford.

Pearce, D. (1995). Blueprint 4: Capturing Environmental Value. Oxford Uni. Press, New York.

Perry,A.H. (1981). Environmental Hazards in the British Isles. Allen and Unwin. London.

Schnieder, S.H. (1989). Global Warming: Are We Entering The Greenhouse Century ?. Sierra Club Books, New York.

Stow, D.A.V. (1992). Preface in  G.J.H.McCall, D.J.C.Laming and S.C.Scott (eds): Geohazards: Natural and Man Made. i-ii, Chapman and Hall, London.

Suzuki,D. and Gordon, A. (1990). It's a Matter of Survival. Harvard Uni Press, Harvard.

42.  Facts about China

Facts about China

1.)21% of China's population live in urban areas and 79% live in rural areas.

2.)China's national anthem is the "The East is Red."

3.)The capital of China is Beiming or else Peking.

4.)The name of the currency in China is Yuan.

5.)The life expectancy in China for males is 65.5 and for females is 69.5.

6.)The literacy rate in China is 80%

7.)The main religions in China are Atheistic, Buddhism, and Daoism.

8.)In the 5fh century AD the Chinese had calculated the value of pi more than 10 decimal places.

9.)Gunpowder first blew up iun Alchemist's furnace around 800Ad and was quickly put to military use.

10.)China's official name is People's Replubic of China (PRC).

11.)China's total population is more than 1,000,000,000 which makes up more than 1/5 of the world's population.

12.)China cover's 3.7 million square miles.

13.)China's three largest cities are Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin. They are not part of any province.

14.)The Chinese language has more than 50,000 different words.

15.)The Chinese have problem's making typewriters.

16.)The Chinese read their books from top to bottom, and from right to left.

17.)Pottery is one of China's most famous kinds of arts.

18.)The Forbidden City is inside Imperial City. Imperial City is inside the Inner City. The Inner City is inside Peking.

19.)China is the third largest country in area after Russia and Canada.

20.)In 1949 communists took power of China.

21.)Ther are 3400 off shore islands.

22.)The earlist recorded history of China is 3500 years ago.

23.)The great paddlefish, giant panda, Chinese water deer and the salamander are in China, but extinct elsewhere.

24.)It is estimated that there are more than 35 cities in China with a population of more than one million.

25.)Mount Everest is 29,028 feet high and is the highest point on Earth.

26.)About 3/4 of all people are farmers.

27.)China has the world's oldest civilization.

28.)The Chinese invented gunpowder, paper, porcelain, and silk cloth.

29.)About 94% of China's population belong to the Han nationality.

30.)China has the biggest army, but not the strongest.

31.)The Great Wall of China was built to keep enemies out of China. It is about 4,000 miles long.

32.)The Peking Man lived in China about 500,000 years ago.

33.)The Chinese people call their country Chung-kuo.

34.)Until recently, China was cut off by either mountains, The Great Wall of China or else water.

35.)In 1979 the US and China endded a 30 year break between the two countries.

36.)Most people in China eat rice.

37.)Most people in China live crowded in the eastern third of the country.

38.)The Communist Party are trying to overcome poverty by the year 2000.

39.)China's flag was adopted in 1949.

40.)About 35 million people belong to the Communist Party.

43.  Flint Michigan

A strong culture is one that has dependency upon itself along with outside resources.  The economy is hard if nearly impossible to predict, and this puts severe strain on a community that is dependent on one employer.  Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Flint are examples of these types of communities.  When a manufacturing process or company pulls out of a city, many problems arise. Flint is a city which has had a significant portion of an industry leave.  GM used to be the heart of Flint, until the decision to downsize was made.  This caused approximately 40 thousand of the 80 thousand GM employees to loose their jobs.  Recently there was a debate pitting two sides of an issue.  The question consisted of the decline of General Motors in Flint.  Is it a catastrophe or does it provide an opportunity for the community.  Members of the panel included Bill Donahue (pro-opportunity), Larry Thompson (pro-opportunity), Dorothy Reynolds (catastrophe supporter) and Ruben Burks (catastrophe supporter).

In the beginning, there were many advantages of having GM as the dominate employer in Flint.  The quantity of GM jobs in Flint provided for an economic boom town in the 1960's and 1970's. Money from General Motors trickled down from the workers to every part of the economy of Genesse county. The population was on the rise which meant more homes, roads, and businesses.  It was all to good to be true.  When Roger Smith (then President of GM) decided to relocate numerous jobs from the Buick City, it was time for Flint to pay the piper.  The large dependency on GM brought upon a rapid decline in the economy unparalleled by any city in United States history.

The removal of jobs from GM caused many problems in Flint.  Dororthy Reynolds gave many statistics which proved how much the decline of GM hurt Flint.  She pointed out that since the removal of GM jobs, Flint has become the 2nd most dangerous city in America while being the 6th most segregated. The lack of economic development since the early 1980's  has also had a terrible impact on the children of Flint and Genesse county.  Thirty percent of the children in Genesse county live at or below the poverty level where the graduation rate in the schools has shrunk to 57%.  Mrs. Reynolds also pointed out the fact that only three new home developments have been started in the last 18 months.  Ruben Burks was also invited to share his opinions on the catastrophe surrounding Flint.  Unfortunately for the audience, his relationship with the United Auto Workers was at a level to where he couldn't expand on his negative GM opinions.

The other side of the issue brought Bill Donahue and Larry Thompson to the podium.   First to speak was Mr. Donahue.  He brought several points of opportunity for Flint.  The first point concentrated on the stabilization of GM employment in Genesse county.  Secondly, he pointed out the need to diversify the economy.  His third point was to align the schools, colleges, and churches to work together for the common goal.  Larry Thompson also had several points of his own on the opportunity that Flint possess.  Again, the need to diversify the economy was a major point.  He pointed out that the finger pointing between the two sides is not productive and is actually inhibiting Flint from looking past what happened in the early 1980's.  Mr. Thompson's quote of "Growing as a person is when you suffer some sort of loss" provides the opportunistic attitude that is lacking in the Flint.

Both sides presented arguments that supported their respective feelings.  It would be great if the majority of the citizens of the county possessed some sort of opportunistic attitude.  For instance, the diversification of the economy will be very difficult as many of the former GM workers will not be willing to work for less than $18 dollars an hour.  Unfortunately, many of the new jobs, when and if they come to Flint, will pay quite a bit less than General Motors.  The inclusion of the poor community will also take time as many of the lower class would prefer to milk the welfare and public assistance programs.  Perhaps the only sure thing about Flint is that it will take time to heal the wounds left by the General Motors Corporation.

44.  Fossil Fuel Consumption CO2 and its impact on Global Climate

Fossil Fuel Consumption, CO2 and its impact on Global Climate

Background:

At the beginning of human history, we had to satisfy our energy needs (for food, heat and movement) by using our own muscle power and gathering or hunting naturally available plants, animals and wood. Each stage in the evolution of human society (the development of farming, domestication of animals, harnessing of wind and water power) increased the average per capita energy use, but it was the Industrial Revolution and the exploitation of fossil fuels which marked the transformation of societies into the energy-intensive economies of today.

Since the eighteenth century the industrialising countries have come to rely on non-renewable energy resources, and at present about 80 per cent (Myers, 1994) of the world's commercial energy is derived from oil, coal and gas. Although it has been observed that  the growth of energy consumption is closely correlated with the increases in gross national product thus our economic development, the major sources of energy (that is fossil fuels) are 'stock resources'. Fossil fuels are consumed by use and the current consumption patterns are non-sustainable. It is recognised that energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources will be needed to sustain economic growth.

The quantity of ultimately recoverable fossil fuels is limited by geology and remains a matter of suspicion, but the view of the 1970s that scarcity was imminent is still popular. It is the 1973 Oil Crisis marked the transition from abundant, low-cost energy to an era of increasing prices and scarcity. Today concerns over scarcity have been overtaken by the question of whether human beings can afford to meet the environmental costs of continued fossil fuel consumption. One of the most widespread concern related to global climatic changes.

Introduction:

Climate represents normal weather condition of an area over a period of many years. This is in contrast to weather which is the day to day changes in the atmosphere. It is now realised that our global "climatic normals" had fluctuated in the past millions of years which was nowhere related to human activities. Nevertheless, with the increasing human population and our reliance on fossil fuels since the last century, we have definitely 'participated' in the climatic changes which are taking place to a certain extent.

Since the Stockholm Conference in 1972, more and more attentions have been drawn to the issue of global warming, which is the increase in global temperature caused by the atmospheric greenhouse effect. We have greenhouse effect because some trace components of our atmosphere re-absorb and retain certain wavelengths of heat radiated from the Earth's surface, and the burning of fossil fuels have increased the tropospheric concentration of all of these compounds, especially carbon dioxide # (CO2).

The Greenhouse Gas 3/4 CO2: A Product of Fossil Fuel Consumption:

'Pollution' of the atmosphere from the consumption of fossil fuels has many effects. Perhaps the best know are modifications that have led to changes in carbon dioxide.

In some ways carbon dioxide cannot be classified as an air pollutant as it is reasonably abundant in the natural atmosphere (0.03%), and it is a basic product of all fossil fuel consumption. Although the chemical reaction in combustion of fossil fuels is not always simple, it can be summarised as the release of the carbon combined with atmospheric oxygen atoms to form carbon dioxide. This process is often referred as respiration, such that:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + heat (r) 6CO2 + 6H2O

Here, we see that carbon dioxide is not an impurity, as a matter of fact, life on the earth is somehow depending on this gas, either directly through photosynthesis (plants) or indirectly via the food-chain (animals). Nevertheless, this gas plays  an important role in the heat balance of the earth, because of its distinctive heat-storage properties.

We often refer carbon dioxide as a 'greenhouse gas', as the name implies, it is a kind of material that would absorb and retain heat. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is transparent to the sun's short-wave radiation, which is primarily in the ultra-violent and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (l=0.1-1 mm). After the incident radiation has penetrated the atmosphere and been absorbed by the earth's surface, the earth re-radiates the thermal energy; however, because the earth's surface temperature is relatively low, the wavelengths of the terrestrial radiation are now in the infrared (l=4-20 mm). Carbon dioxide strongly absorbs radiation in the 7 to 14-mm wavelength region, which overlaps with the peak of intensity of the outgoing radiation. The net effect of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is to prevent some of the thermal energy from escaping from the earth; hence, it leads to a heating of the atmosphere. In general, the more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more heat that will be trapped, and a warmer atmosphere will result.

Change in Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Warming:

The burning of peat, coal, petroleum or natural gas (all carbonaceous materials) virtually returns the atmospheric carbon that had been removed hundreds of million years ago by trees and plants in their process of photosynthesis. Thus in a sudden, relatively brief span of time, less than two centuries, the contemporary atmosphere has become burdened with vast additional quantities of a strong infrared absorber, because of the utilisation of fossil fuels in this period. It is believed that the level of carbon dioxide has been increasing. Measurements of the CO2 concentration have been carried out at an observatory on Mauna Loa, whose data is most quoted and most complete. Observations show a steady rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide of about 1 ppm per year over the past quarter of a century. At the South Pole station, the upward CO2 trend closely parallels that at Mauna Loa (Kraushaar, 1988). Forecasts based on the current rate of fossil fuel consumption suggest that by the year 2065 the CO2 concentration will increase from its present value of 350 ppm to a value of 600 ppm. It has been estimated that the pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide have been as low as 260-70 ppm by volume (Goudie, 1994). Thus, it appears that the industrial world is increasing the atmospheric CO2 contents by an appreciable amount.

It is arguable that the increase in CO2 concentration may not be induced by fossil fuel consumption since the carbon cycle is always operating, it could be due largely to a reduction of the biomass. However, Kraushaar and Ristinen suggested that the net biotic pool of CO2 has not been modified sufficiently to account for the carbon dioxide increase. They said that, "Although there has been cutting of forests, there has also been intensive agriculture established by irrigation of land that was previously not very productive." and the combustion of fossil fuels is that major source of the increase in atmospheric CO2. Moreover, as the amount of fossil fuels consumed each year is approximately known, the CO2 released can therefore be estimated. Together with the level of CO2 concentration obtained in various stations in the earth, it is calculated that 52% of the 14 billion tones of carbon dioxide is being retained in the atmosphere per year; and 37% sinks into the oceans, whereas the depositional locations of the remaining 11% remain mysterious at present (Kraushaar, 1988).

The next question comes with the effect of these carbon dioxide increases on global climate and here is where the controversy lies. Vostok ice-core data suggest a close correlation between CO2 levels and mean surface temperature over the past 160,000 years (Benarde, 1992), but scientist still cannot figure out whether carbon dioxide leads temperature shifts or temperature changes leads CO2  shifts. There may even be a third factor provoke both CO2 and temperature changes. Moreover, the upward trend of the contemporary global warming only lasts for 15 years (Tolba, 1992). There have been much fluctuation on temperature before 1900. For example, in Europe, particularly low temperature normals have been experienced during the period 1430 to 1850 A.D. Therefore, 'global warming' could just be another natural fluctuation in temperature. At present time, using our current understanding on the atmosphere that based on hypothesises and models, we cannot yet make accurate predictions on the future climate.

Conclusion:

Although there are still many problems regarding the relationship of carbon dioxide and global climatic changes and even global warming itself, there is little question that climate (temperature) and CO2 are inextricablely linked (from the ice-core studies) and the temperature of the earth has been increasing over the last decade. More on that, it is a fact that the burning of fossil fuels do release infrared-absorbing carbon dioxide to our atmosphere. Therefore, it is just a logical conclusion that the greenhouse is here, as it always does. It appears that there is excessive heating within the greenhouse which is induced by our increasing rate of fossil fuel consumption, and the problems that lies behind global climatic change are far reaching . Perhaps, the real limit to our fossil fuel consumption will be the CO2 problem but not the size of the resource. A Chinese proverb says that "prevention is better than cure." Approaches to energy conservation could be the key.

Bibliography:

Benarde, M. A., 1992, Global Warning... Global Warming, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 52-65.

Goudie, A., 1994, The Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 301-7.

Kraushaar, J. J. & Ristinen, R. A., Energy and Problems of a Technical Society, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 394-400.

Myers, N., 1994, The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management, London: Gaia Books Limited, 96-113.

Tolba, M. K., 1992, The World Environment 1972-1992, London: Chapman & Hall, 61-71.

45.  Gabon An example for all of Africa

Gabon:An Example For All of

Africa

The country of Gabon is praised as being one of the most successful countries in Africa.

Gabon is a very diverse country in many ways.  There are a variety of different tribes that call

Gabon home.  Also, the land differs through out the county.

Gabon is one of the smaller countries of Africa with the area of 267,670 square miles.

Comparatively, this is the almost the same size as Colorado.  The terrain of this tiny country

consists of narrow coastal plains; a hilly interior; and Savannah in the east and south.  Much of

the interior is rain forests and is not arable.  Only 1% of the land is arable  The remaining land is

either meadows, permanent crops, or other land forms.  (The World Fact Book 1995)

Gabon is one of the most thinly populated countries in Africa.  It has a population of

approximately 1,155,000 (July 1995 est.)  There are 11 people per square mile.  The majority

of the Gabonese are of ages 15-64 years.  The average life expectancy is 55.14 years.  Women

live to be around 58, while men are usually around 52 when they die.  This is why only 5% of

the population is older than 65.  The infant mortality is lower than many other African countries,

92.4 per 1,000 live births.  (The World Fact Book 1995)

As in most African countries, there are many Bantu tribes make up the ethnicity of the

country.  There are four major tribal groups.  The Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, and the Bateke.

(The World Fact Book)

The largest of these tribes is the Fang.  They live mainly in the northern area of Gabon.

Many years ago they were considered the fiercest warriors of the area.  Now, they dominate

many of the countries governmental positions.  (World Book Encyclopedia page  )

One of the earlier tribes that is since gone was the Omyene.  They lived along the coast.

The Omyene are important because they were the first of the natives to meet the European

traders and missionaries.  They played an important role of keeping peace with the Europeans.

(World Book Encyclopedia, 1992 page 2)

Along with there being so many different ethnic backgrounds, there are many religions as

well.  The major religion is Christian,75 % of the population.  About 1% of the population is

Muslim.  The remaining 24% are animists.  These include all of the tribal practices.  (The World

Fact Book)

One of the reasons why Gabon has been so successful is that it has a stable government.

It is a republic and has multiple political parties.  The capitol, Libreville ( aprox. 275,000

people), is where all of governmental issues are taken care of.  (1996 World Almanac pages

764-65)

This is where the National assembly, Gabon's legislative branch, meets.   Also this is where the

president lives.  President Omar Bongo has been president for 29 years.  He has been getting

reelected every 7 years since 1967.   ( Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government 1996,

page 146)

As president, Mr. Bongo has many different jobs.  He serves not only as chief

administrator but also as Head of the State.  In order to help him to govern the country well he

gets to choose a council of ministers.  Also out of the 120 representatives in the National

Assembly, 9 are appointed by the president.  The others are voted in by the people. The

president can also adjourn the Assembly for up to 18 months in order to rule alone.  ( World

Book Encyclopedia 1992 page 2)

Gabon has a peaceful history.  They were first discovered by the Portuguese in the mid

15th century.  The Portuguese didn't settle though.  But during the 19th century France started

gaining interest in Gabon.  The first French settlement was in 1839.  In 1848, Gabon became

part of the French Congo.  It wasn't until 1957 when Gabon became a French republic.  Less

than five years later, on August 17, 1960, full independence was granted by the French to the

Republic of Gabon.  That same year the first president was elected. (Clement's Encyclopedia

of World Government, 1996 pg. 146)

Yet another reason for Gabon's success is its economy.  Gabon is an oil-rich country.

Oil accounts for 80% of their exports.  Besides petroleum, substantial timber resources and

expansion of its agriculture section has allowed Gabon to grow economically.   (Call and Post

(Cincinnati) 12/1/94 pp.PG.)

Gabon exports much of its natural wealth.  The United states and France are the major

trading partners of Gabon.  The top commodities are crude oil, timber, and manganese.  The

major imports are foodstuffs, chemical products, and petroleum products.  The major partners

for imports are France and other African countries.  (World Fact Book, 1995)

The labor force is made up of 120,000 salaried workers.  65% of the people work in

the agriculture field.  30% work in industry and commerce  The top industries in Gabon are food

and beverage, lumbering, textiles, and petroleum refining.  The major agricultural cash crops are

cocoa, coffee, and palm oil.  Livestock raising has yet to develop but, there is a small fishing

industry.  (World Fact Book 1995)

The currency of Gabon, the CFA Franc, is not worth much compared to the dollar.  The

exchange rate was for every US dollar there is 529.43 CFA Francs in 1995.  The per capita

income is twice as much as most other African countries, $4,800.  This means that the average

Gabonese household will make 2,540,784 Francs per year.  (The World Fact Book 1995)

Despite its small size, Gabon is one of the most advanced and extensive air transport

networks.  They have a total of 69 airports.  Thirty eight of these airports have paved runways.

Even though the runways may be paved, many of the roads are not.  Out of the 7,500

kilometers of highway, only 560 kilometers are paved.  The remaining of the roads are crushed

stone or earth.  (The World Fact Book 1995)

Gabon may seem like paradise, but it does have some problems.  There has been a

recent outbreak of the Ebola virus, the first in Gabon's history.  The outbreak started in a remote

rain forest  area near the town of Booue, in central Gabon.  It started when a family of 18 shared

a meal of chimpanzee meat.  It had spread slowly to 14 other friends and family starting in July.

Luckily, the virus was contained by the swift action taken by the Gabonese government.  They

prevented the disease from spreading by supplying the local hospitals with proper equipment.

This has been the only major problem in the past year, besides Maritime boundary disputes with

Equatorial Guinea. (Newsday, 10/12/96, pg. 6)

No other nation in Africa, possibly the whole world, has under gone such a spectacular

change in the twentieth century- from mud huts to mini-sky scrapers.  Gabon's future looks very

bright.   Soon enough they will be one of the leading countries of the world.

Bibliography

1."Gabon." Clement's Encyclopedia of World Government.  1996 ed.

2."Gabon."  Netscape. Internet.  http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/95fact/gb.html

Accessed December 15, 1996.

3."Gabon."  The 1996 World Almanac and Fact Book.  pp. 764-65. 1996 ed.

4."Gabon." The World Encyclopedia.  1995 ed.

5.Garrett, Laurie.  "Ebola Again This Time in Gabon."  Newsday.  12 October 1996:  6.

6. LeVine, Victor T.  "Gabon."  Encyclopedia Americana.  1995 ed.

46.  Galicia

Galicia

Galicia is located in the green northwestern part of Spain.  If it was not for Santiago de Compestela, Galicia may not have been known as well as it is.  As it is some os Galicia's provinces are not even known to tourists, and probably will never be.  Unlike the rest of Spain, Galicia looks much like Ireland.  Which attracted the Celts during their exploration.  The landscape is lush and filled with pine and eucalyptus.  Galicia also has some of the best beaches in all of Spain.

Gallegos (Galicia's people) are very different from other Spanish people and seem to almost be a different race.  They have a whiter pailer complextion, and have blond hair.  They are also different in the things that they do for entertainment.  They don't have any of the high-tech theatures, or the night life of Madrid.  They are more interested in music, poetry, land, family, witchcraft, death, and superstition.  They spend a lot of time thinking about things and why they are the way that they are.  They usually are not prejudice to any outsiders, and willing listen to their ideas.  People believe that many of these traits came from the Celts who came in 1000 B.C.  and ruled until A.D. 137.  They seem to have many things in common with the Irish and the Scots because of this.  Including a bagpipe-like instrument called a Gaita.

The language of Galicia is different from the rest of Spain also, they speak a variation of Castillian which has  some French tones as well as Portuguese.  They have their own favorite foods also, which consist mainly of seafood.  Some of their specialty dishes are: merluza (hake), cigalas (prawns), camarones (small shrimp). chipirones (little squid), langostines (crayfish), vieiras (scallops), percebes (goose baracles), and trout and other local fish.  Most of their dishes are served either in casseroles or broiled, or steamed, or rolled into crepes called empanadas.  In the winter months, the dishes are served with meat instead of seafood.  Usually the meat is rabbit, or game.  Although ham, pork, and sausages are also served.  Cheese is also another specialty of Galicia, a entire meal can be made up of just cheese, and not be boring!  Many Gallegos have cheese and peasant bread for their lunchtime meal every day.  For desserts, the Gallegos make excellant pastrys and sponge cakes, which are not found in any other part of Spain.

Wine is probably the greatest thing that Galicia has to offer to the world, often said to be one of the best wine makers of the world.  Albarino is probably the best wine from Galicia, it is said to be Spains long awaited white-wine.  It is one of the most interesting wines in Spain, and rapidly becoming one of the most expensive.  The growing area for Albarino is around the town of cambados, on the Atlantic coast in the Pontevedra province.  To be called Albarino, the wine must be made from 100% Albarino grapes.  Albarino is a dry, elegant, acidy wine, and has a very flowery smell.  It is usually produced in small lot by Gallego artisans, which causes it to be so expensive.  Not long ago it was limited to Galicia, but now a few businesses have begun to distribute it to other parts of Spain.

Galicia is also known for its religious festivals and every parish has a festival for its patron saint once evey year.  Since their are almost 4,000 parishes in Galicia you are very likely to be able to visit one when visiting.  During these festivals, you can purchase crafts, talk to neighbors, and listen to live bands.  Some of the more popular festivals are: Los Maios, celebrated in May, and Magosto, celebrated in November.

The cathedral of Santiago is one of the major sites in Galicia, which is located in the plaza de Obradoiro.  It is a huge 17th century baroque cathedral with two huge towers that seem to reach to heaven inself.  In the afternoon sun, the cathedral seems to glow a bright gold color whcih is caused by a buildup of a lichen over the years.  The churches centerpiece is a statue of Saint Janes on top of the main altar at the front of the central nave.  At the back of the statue, there is a staircase that leads up to the statue.  Many pilgrims walk up the staircase to touch the statue.  Beneath the retable is a narrow passageway that leads to the crypt which is built into the foundation of the 9th century church that used to be there.  The remains of the saint and his disciples are in silver caskets there, and people go down to pay respect to him often.  Back in the main part of the the church, the high vaulted inside creates a sensational feeling that is undescribable is felt.  A gigantic censer hangs in front of the altar, and on holidays it scents the entire church with incense.  The censer was built on such a large scale to try to cover up the horrible smell of all the pilgrims after traveling to the cathedral.  It is so heavy that eight full grown men are required to swing it.  The chapels lining the walls of the church are filled with rich altars, tombs, and various works of art.  The reliquary chapel, located off the right name just inside the cathedral contains valuable urns, and statues.  The treasury contains silver, gold, and brinze crucufixes from various centeries, statues of Saint James, and jewelery.  Upstairs, ther are Flemish tapestries from the 17th century and a dozen from the 19th century based on the cartoons of Goya.  Finally after exiting the cathedral, you'll find many beautiful doors, and archways.  Be sure to see the Puerta de las Platerias, a romanesque doorway, with carvings of king David and the creation of Adam and Eve.

The Hostal de los Reyes Catolicos is a finely hotel furnished that would make excellant accomidations if funds allow.  It is located right on the Paza de Obradoiro, double rooms are currently around 32,000 pesetas a night during high season, and 25,000 pesetas off season, which isn't too bad considering how expensive rooms in Paris and London are.  The lobby is filled with antiques as well as some of the bedrooms.  Paintings decerate the hallways and rooms, which have all been recently refurbished.  Many of the rooms have casement windows that open onto a courtyard.  The courtyards of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John are a beautiful place to take a early morning walk.  There are two restaurants in the hotel, one casual, one more expensive and more formal.  The formal one has a mideivel look to it and has high vaulted ceilings.  The living room provides a wonderful place to wait for a seat in one of the tow restaurants or a nice place to have an after dinner drink.  While there be sure to have the breakfast buffet.  It includes dishes from all over as well as local favorites.  A good place to end the day is on the stone bench that is in front of the Hotel, it provides a lovely view.

Shopping in the old town is also a good idea for spending a day.  There is no need to worry about getting lost and many international and local crafts can be found all over the area.  There is a large bookstore that carries English-language books and newspapers which is a good place to start off the shopping day.

If you would like to spend a day at the beach, the Isla De Arousa is an excellant island to spend it at.  It is serviced by frequent ferry service from Vilanova, and has many beautiful beaches and also excellant sportfishing.  It is the largest Island in Galicia and is also the closest.

Getting around Spain is fairly easy, the most expensive, but easiest way is to rent a autoemobile, there is a good network of roads going to every part of Spain starting at the Plaza Del Sol in the center of Madrid, which is also the geographic center of Spain.  If you wish to save money the bus is also another good alternative, Spain has a very good network of public bus systems that go almost anywhere you would want to go.  The train is also a very good way to travel.  Europe is famous for its train system and A person can get anywhere he or she wants to go by train.  Spains trains are fairly comfortable and travel at reasonably fast speeds so you can get where you want to get quickly.

47.  geology of massif montgris

Declaration

This report entitled "The Geology of the Massif Montgris" was composed by me and is based in my own work.  Where the work of others has been used, it is fully acknowledged in the text and in captions to tables and illustrations.

Signed   ...........................................

Date  ...............................................

Chapter 1.0

Abstract

This is a study of the Massif Montgris, it is based on evidence gathered in the field over 21 days of field work.  To supplement this data I have looked at papers and works by previous visitors to the Montgris.  The units within the area are from the Upper Cretaceous the Tertiary and the Quaternary.  I aim to give an overall guide to the geology on a smaller scale than has previously been accomplished. This study is mainly aimed at correctly dating the units of limestone using micropalaeontological data.  The micropalaeontological data has also given light into the palaeoenvironment/geography during deposition.

Chapter 2

Introduction

2.0.1 Introduction

Between the  24th  of June and the 24th of July 1995 Glen Burnham and I ventured to Catalunya.  More precisely to Torroella de Montgris.  Torroella is in the North East of Spain, just inland of the Mediterranean sea.  This remarkable old  town lies at the foot of the rather imposing Massif Montgris.

Locally known as "El Montgris" (literally the grey Mountain) the massif rises up over the town and dominates the skyline.  Torroella sits on quaternary conglomerate deposits.  These are easily eroded, hence the valley between Pals (10Km to the south) and Torroella is extremely flat.  The valley is bisected by the river El Ter, which flows at a leisurely pace from the foothills of the Pyrenees.  The river flows to the south of Torroella and winds it's way to its conclusion in the Playa de Pals (6Km east of Torroella).

El Montgris has been known to humans since prehistoric times.  It has some large caves on its slopes that  served as a shelter to prehistoric man.  The area was very popular with the Romans who cultivated the local area, built roads and towns (many of which still stand to this day) such as Peretelada to the south adjacent to Pals.

Since the time of the Romans Torroella has grown into a thriving market town.  It has always had close links with the Montgris which until recently still served a purpose as a shelter, not , however, against the elements but against Pirates and marauders from the sea.  In fact, on top of the Muntanya Santa Catherina stands the remains of a thirteenth century castle (the last castle ever built in Spain).

El Montgris has provided for  the local commerce  since it was first settled.  The local people value the Mountains greatly and still use them today.  The rock from which our dwelling was made was quarried from the mountain, the castle rock was quarried on the mountain.

2.0.2 Aims of Study.

When I first considered the Montgris as a project area I realised that information would be sparse and that the project would be more complicated than a similar project in the U.K because the environment is so very different and resources would be a great deal more difficult to access (due to the language barrier).  I also realised the project would probably be very different to the proposal.

Before Glen and I left England we attempted to research the Massif Montgris through the usual channels in order to get an idea of what we would be facing.  The research lead to a few vague leads, we new the rock was sedimentary and most likely limestone.  Having visited the area previously I could recall a little about the rocks but was certain of their sedimentary nature.

Our first lead came from an unexpected source.  My parents had vacationed in the area and upon my request had asked locally about any information pertaining to the Geology.  The result was that they brought back a research map that dated the Massif as Cretaceous but suggested it was composed of 1 massive bed.  We loosely agreed our study areas and arranged our projects accordingly.  The local guide books and map had supplied us with information about the palaeontology (macro fossils) which suggested the rock was full of bivalves, brachiopods, corals and belemnites.

Before leaving we were unable to unearth much more information BUT seemingly at the last minute we were able to make contact with Dr. David Brusi from the Universidad de Gerona(departament del geophysica) who reassured us that upon our arrival in Spain he would brief us on geology of El Montgris.

Therefore, with very little in the way of successful research we traveled to Spain.  Upon our arrival we immediately made our way to the city of Gerona and to the University.  Our meeting with David Brusi and his team proved very productive indeed as they gave us a couple of papers about the area as well as providing us with a geological map of the Montgris.  The most important information they gave us was about our working environment and how to "survive".

2.0.3  Methodology.

Previously, we have been taught to outcrop map.  These skills were honed in the inhospitable environment of the Highlands of Scotland, where one can actually draw outcrops onto the map.  It was, therefore, it was the intention to use this technique over approximately 6km2  .

In order for this mapping technique to work you have to know what it is you are looking at.  With this knowledge in mind one set out to spend most of the first week exploring the area and identifying the different strata, and their relationships.  This as you will see proved most difficult for various reasons.  The plan had been to have the Muntanya de Santa Catherina as common ground, but after 3 or 4 days we came to the conclusions were made that there was a need for safety equipment.  There were reports of packs of wild dogs patrolling the area also the terrain was at best rugged and challenging and at worst moderately dangerous.  On top of all this  it was understood that work would have to be completed in temperatures of up to 40  0  Celsius, every day with the possibility of hotter/muggier weather to come.

Each day would begin with plotting a starting position, when the castle was obscured an estimated position would be used to locate a specific point.  Most dip/strike readings are estimated as there were not many bedding planes level enough to use the compass clinometer accurately .  The local geological map (296-2-2[78-24]) gave an indication to the geological relationships present, however, even though the map is a 1:25,000 it is quite ambiguous with the position of some boundaries and faults.

In order to cross reference the different strata, samples were taken and labeled.  So further samples could be identified.  This was assisted by the geological map and by referring to the map it was possible to take samples away from faults and boundaries to ensure correct identification.

Chapter 3

The Rocks

This is an in depth study into the locations, ages and natures of the rocks that were studied.  These have included both observations from the field and later observations made in response to new evidence, which was forthcoming after  thin sections of the different units were made in the laboratory.

Whilst in Spain Glen and I only had each other to consult on the more difficult matters of El Montgris.  This led to a subtle stagnation of ideas towards the end of the trip.  Therefore, on our return we were most grateful for the assistance of various members of the faculty  in gently pointing us in different directions which proved to be pivotal.   I have attempted to bring together various different sources of data in the study of the individual rock types.

Limestone diferention between facies variations was exceedingly difficult in the field.  Therefore, it was necessary to use external references these resources have been the 1994 1:25,000 scale geological map of Torroella de Montgrí produced by the Servei Geol?gic de Catalunya.  This provided gives basic framework in the field and also a foundation with which to begin research upon the return to England.  The main tool in discovering the nature of the rocks was micropalaeontology.  The mainstay of this evidence is the study of the Foraminiferida within the thin sections of each unit.  The most useful resource in this respect was: Loeblich A. R. Tappan H., Foraminiferal Genera and their classification plates 1988 Van Nostrand Reinhold.

This book gives an accurate correlation and measuring device.  It gave in all cases a link between the framework in the map and the actual rocks we encountered.  This in turn has allowed us to build up a stratigraphy as well as helping to formulate our ideas with respect of the structural relationships within the Massif.  In addition to all the less obvious links it gave a very exact view of the palaeoenvironment during deposition.

Chapter 3.1

The Rocks

Grey Limestone

3.1.1 Location

The grey unit occurs at the very base of the limestone succession.  In the area that was mapped the grey unit is found adjacent to the underlying thrust plane.  The unit is best exposed within the study area on the south slope of Mt. Santa Caterina between the 170-200m contours.  The unit is also supposed to appear on the south slope of MontPlà, also within the area under study.  Evidence for this outcropping is less obvious and difficult to locate.

3.1.2 Age/Thickness

The grey unit is thought to be as being from the Turonian stage.  Subsequent data has confirmed this evidence to corroborate this with microfossil data.

As for thickness, the unit appears to be up to 45m thick.

3.1.3 Field Description

This was one of the first units encountered, as with the red limestone. This unit was grey on the surface and slightly darker when a fresh surface was made.  As with the red unit it effervesces on the application of dilute hydrochloric acid, thus showing it to be of carbonate nature.  Another correlation to the red unit was the fact that veining increased in coverage, the closer you get to the North-South faults.

It should be noted that most of the information about grey was collected on Mt. Santa Caterina.  The unit was for the most part very accessible there because of paths made by tourists/shepherds over recent years.  The grey was no different to the other units in as much as it has been attacked by surface erosion.  This has left it in the early stages of karstification.  The grey did not have many joints within it therefore it was nearly impossible to measure the dip/strike.  The grey unit is cut by two faults with north east south west orientation in Mt. Santa Caterina.

3.1.4 Orientation

The few dip/strike readings showed the grey to have a dip direction opposite to that of the red.  In this bed there was evidence of an an

48.  Germany

The Marquis de Sade's Attitude Towards Women

The Marquis de Sade was an author in France in the late

1700s.  His works were infamous in their time, giving Sade a

reputation as an adulterer, a debaucher, and a sodomite.

One of the more common misrepresentations concerning Sade

was his attitude toward women.  His attitude was shown in

his way of life and in two of his literary characters,

Justine and Julliette.

The Marquis de Sade was said to be the first and only

philosopher of vice because of his atheistic and sadistic

activities.  He held the common woman in low regard.  He

believed that women dressed provocatively because they

feared men would take no notice of them if they were naked.

He cared little for forced sex.  Rape is not a crime, he

explained, and is in fact less than robbery, for you get

what is used back after the deed is done (Bloch 108).

Opinions about the Marquis de Sade's attitude towards

sexual freedom for women varies from author to author.  A

prevalent one, the one held by Carter, suggests Sade's work

concerns sexual freedom and the nature of such, significant

because of his "refusal to see female sexuality in relation

to a reproductive function."

Sade justified his beliefs through graffiti, playing

psychologist on vandals:

In the stylization of graffiti, the prick is

always presented erect, as an alert attitude.

It points upward, asserts.  The hole is open, as

an inert space, as a mouth, waiting to be filled.

This iconography could be derived from the

metaphysical sexual differences:  man aspires,

woman serves no function but existence, waiting.

Between her thighs is zero, the symbol of nothingness, that

only attains somethingness when male principle fills it with

meaning (Carter 4).

The Marquis de Sade's way of thought is probably best

symbolized in the missionary position.  The missionary

position represents the mythic relationship between

partners.  The woman represents the passive receptiveness,

the fertility, and the richness of soil.  This relationship

mythicizes and elevates intercourse to an unrealistic

proportion.  In a more realistic view, Sade compares married

women with prostitutes, saying that prostitutes were better

paid and that they had fewer delusions (Carter 9).

Most of Sade's opinions of women were geared towards

the present, in what they were in his time.  He held

different opinions, however, for how he envisioned women in

the future.  Sade suggests that women don't "fuck in the

passive tense and hence automatically fucked up, done over,

undone."  Sade declares that he is all for the "right of

women to fuck."  It is stated as if the time in which women

copulate tyrannously, cruelly, and aggressively will be a

necessary step in the development of the general human

conscious concerning the nature of copulation.  He urges

women to copulate as actively as they can, so that, "powered

by their hitherto untapped sexual energy they will be able

to fuck their way into history, and, in doing so, change it"

(Carter 27).

Women see themselves in the reflection form Sade's

looking glass of misanthropy.  Critics say that Sade offers

male fantasies about women in great variety, along with a

number of startling insights.  He is said to put pornography

in the service of women (Carter 36).

The Justine series, consisting of six editions, was one

of the most infamous and well known series written by Sade.

While the series had several editions, the storyline

remained basically the same throughout, though becoming more

verbose in each edition.

Two characters emerge from the Justine novels:  Justine

and Juliette, who are sisters orphaned at an early age.

These two characters represent the opposite poles of

womanhood in Sade's mind.  Justine is the innocent, naive

type who gets mistreated throughout her life.  Juliette is

Sade's ideal woman, being uninhibited in her sexual conduct

and in her life, murdering and copulating at whim.  She,

naturally, does well in life (Lynch 41-42).

The story of Justine is a long and tragic one, taking

the naive young girl abroad, where she is used and discarded

by man and woman alike.  This is due to the fact that she is

a good woman in a predominately male world.  "Justine is

good according to the rules concerning women laid down by

men."  Her reward is rape, incessant beatings, and

humiliation (Carter 38).

Justine's first encounter in life is with a priest who

tries to seduce her instead of offering her the assistance

she seeks.  Next, she encounters a financier named Dubourg.

He abuses her and makes her steal.  Dubourg is rewarded for

the vices he has by getting a lucrative government job

(Lynch 47).

Justine soon is received by Du Harpin, an expert in

making loans, plotter of the robbery of a neighbor, who is

utilizing Justine as a intermediary.  Justine is arrested as

a result of Du Harpin's misdeeds.  She is soon released by a

woman named Dubois, who engineers their escape via setting

aflame the prison (Lynch 42).

Dubois leads Justine to an encounter with her brigand

friends, led by Coeur-de-fer (French for Heart of Iron).

They rape Justine between raids in which she doesn't

participate.  During one of their raids, they rob and beat

Saint-Florent.  Justine helps Saint-Florent escape.  He

promptly expresses his gratitude by raping her and stealing

the little money she had (Lynch 42).

Justine is left abandoned and distraught in the woods.

She happens upon a youthful count named Bressac in the

middle of a homosexual act with one of his servants.  Rather

than killing her then for her indiscretion, Bressac brings

her home and forces her to assist with his plan to murder

his wealthy aunt.  Justine flees after four years with

Bressac (Lynch 42).

She is soon hired by a "surgeon" who is better

described as a vivisector, who practices his science on his

daughter and on young children.  Justine, feeling pity,

attempts to save Bressac's daughter, is caught, and is

branded as a common criminal (Lynch 42).

Justine's cycle of misfortunes continue for some time.

She is visited once again by Dubois and twice by

Saint-Florent, both of whom incriminate her in something not

of her doing.  She finally finds her long-lost sister,

Juliette, who she recites her life's story to.  Her sister

grants her freedom.  She lives for a short time afterwards,

shortly disfigured by lightning and eventually killing her

(Lynch 43).

Juliette, sister of Justine, lives a different life

altogether.  Her early life revolves around her tutors, who

introduce different trades.  Her first tutor was Mme.

Delbene, a libertine, who introduces infliction of pain for

pleasure.  Mme. Delbene's final affirmation to Juliette was,

"Oh, my friend, fuck, you were born to fuck!  Nature created

you to be fucked" (Lynch 52).

Her next mentor is Mme. de Lorsange, who brings an

introduction to theft, a supplement to carnal pleasure.

Under Mme. de Lorsange's tutelage, Juliette becomes a

skilled thief, robbing many.  Here Juliette learns the

intricacies of being antiethical (Lynch 53).

Juliette's next learning experience comes from

Noirceuil, a believer in the duality and balance of virtue

and vice in people.  He is a totally independent individual.

He justifies himself by tracing immorality through

antiquity.  He arranges a transvestite wedding, where he

dresses up as a woman and Juliette dresses like a man.  He

later violates Juliette's seven-year-old daughter, roasting

her alive afterwards with her mother's permission.

Noirceuil is awarded a position in the ministry (Lynch 53).

Juliette later becomes involved with Saint-Rond, a

minister and king's favorite.  He introduces her to the

Society of Friends of Crime.  Justine is initiated by being

asked questions about her sexual activities (both past and

present).  Her last oath uttered upon entrance in the

Society read,"Do you swear to forever live in the same

degeneracy [as you have all your life]?"  She replied yes

(Lynch 53).

Sade's two aforementioned characters represent two

factors in Sade's life:  reality and fantasy.  Reality, in

Sade's eyes, is Justine.  Innocence without prosperity, an

image of woman.  Juliette represents fantasy.  She is what

Sade expects and hopes the woman of the future will

resemble: uninhibited, free, equal (Lynch).  So says

Gullaume Appolinare in Lynch:

Justine is the old woman, subjugated, miserable,

and less than human; Juliette, on the contrary,

represents the new woman he glimpses, a being we

cannot conceive of, that breaks loose from

humanity, that will have wings and will renew

the universe.

Sade justified his writings and feelings by saying,

"Flesh comes to us out of history, so does the repression

and taboo that governs our experience of flesh."  He cites

flesh as verification of itself, rewriting the Cartesian

cognito, "I fuck therefore I am" (Carter, 11).

Sade punished virtue in his writings.  Women are the

representation of innocence to him, which isn't too far from

how his contemporaries felt.  By punishing Justine in his

novels, he isn't punishing woman, simply the innocence that

woman represents.

While Sade believed that the woman with which he was

copulating was simply there to serve his needs, he also felt

it could (and should) work the other way around.  It is as

if he is saying, "Just because I use you, it doesn't mean

you can't use me."  Sade couldn't be a sexist in the modern

sense, simply because he advocated free sexuality so much.

He saw the women of his time and was troubled by it.

In turn, he wrote about these women, represented in Justine.

The woman he saw in the future were a bolder, free-spirited

kind, represented in Juliette.  It was the promise of this

new genre of women he looked forward to and was enlightened

by.

In short, Sade disliked subjugated women and liked

empowered women.  He liked women closer to his own persona.

Sade was probably the first pornographer, and as such,

caused quite an uproar.  Most of the judgements made about

Sade by critics were reflexes, made without taking in the

full spectrum of what he was, what he wrote, and what he

did.  The judgement of Sade by the populus, therefore is one

more severe than it should be.

49.  Go Ask Alice

Go Ask Alice

Have you ever had a problem? I'm sure you have because everybody

sometime in there life does. The book I read Go Ask Alice by an anonymous

author is all about problems, conflicts, and how to deal with them.

I would give a lot of information on the author if that was possible, but

the author is anonymous so I can not do so.

From the very first page I had a hunch that this book was about a drug

addiction problem. "SUGAR & SPICE & EVERYTHING NICE; ACID &

SMACK & NO WAY BACK" (page 1). That was a very moving quote for

me. I am not sure exactly why but I guess because it shows how dangerous

drugs can be.

This book is based on a true diary of a young girl who got mixed up in

the drug world.

Alice bought a diary because she had a big secret that she could never

tell any of her friends. It really only ended up being that a boy named Roger

she was in love with stood her up and she would be to embraced to tell her

friends. She makes a big deal out of it, I can already tell she is dramatic.

Her birthday is only five days apart from mine, that is a weird

coincidence.

From September 19 through September 25 she goes on about how

nothing every happens in her life. She does not enjoy her teachers, subjects

and school. She thinks everything is losing interest and everything's dull. I

think she just is going through the "teenager blues".

Julie Brown had a party but she didn't go because she gained seven

whole pounds. I don't think that seven pounds is a big deal.

On September 30th her father was  invited to be the "Dean of Political

Science at --------- ". She says that she is gonna become a new person by

time she gets her new house and that it is gonna be so great. Good maybe

now she will quit crying about her dull life. She says that she is gonna

exercise every morning, eat right, clean my skin (what she never had a bath

before), be optimistic, cheerful and positive. Why couldn't she of just done

all that in the house she lived in before she moved.

Sorry I am being so negative, but this girl is a little cry baby and she is

to dramatic.

On October 10th I found out that she has siblings named Tim and

Alexandia that she is gonna stay with while her parents go house hunting.

They bought a Spanish type house and they took pictures. She said it

will take three or four days for the pictures to get back. That kind of gives

you some perspective on the time period because now a days it only take an

hour.

She went on a diet and lost three pounds but her mother will no longer

let her diet because she thinks that it was not healthy for her.

She wishes she could be like her mother someday. She wonders what

it is like to "going all the way" and she wishes she could talk to her mother

about things like that.

So far the conflict has not been stated.

All of Alice's relatives met at her old house for Christmas. Alice felt

wanted. She wishes that she could always feel that way.

They finally got moved in there new house on January fourth.

There she goes again crying about how her first day of school was

miserable and how she gained 15 pounds. She made no friends, nobody

talked to her, and everybody stared at her and made her uncomfortable.

Both of her siblings made friends there own age.

She finally made a friend named Beth. They have a lot of things in

common.

There is only about two months of school left. Gerta is going to a

Jewish camp for the summer and Alice is not having much fun so she

decided that she wants to go to her grandparents for the summer.

She went to her grandparents for the summer. She has been really

bored because all she has been doing is readying books all summer. She has

been reading a book a day. I wish I could read a book a day. It took me

about three weeks to read this one.

She was in town and she ran into Jill Peters who invited her to a party.

Alice has been wanting to be friends with her for a long time.

I 'm a little confused because Alice says that she has always wanted to

be friends with her, but she is at her grandparents house. How can that be

unless her grandparents live near where she used to.

Alice went to the party (July 10th). Jill brought out some glasses of

soda. Alice did not want to look stupid so she followed what everybody else

was doing, sipping the soda. Suddenly her palms started to get sweated,

everybody was starring at her, and the room got quiet. She thought that they

were trying to poison her. A strange feeling swept over her which strangled

her, suffocated her and made her muscles tense. When she opened her eyes

she noticed that it was Bill who had but his arm around her. Bill said "But

don't worry, I'll baby-sit you. This will be a good trip. Come on, relax, enjoy

it, enjoy it." in a slow record like voice set on the wrong speed. Then he

started to kiss her. She heard his voice repeating over and over in a slow

motion echo type voice. Then she started laughing histaricaly and wildly. She

thought of the most funny and absurd thing in the world. Then she saw the

shifting patterns in the ceiling. She laid her head in Bill's lap and watched the

changing patterns and great fields of red, blue and yellow colors. She tried to

share the experience with the others but she couldn't put it in two words and

all she could do is laugh. Trains of thought were coming to her. She

discovered the true language used by Adam and Eve but it slipped out of her

grasp before she could tell about it. She laid down and started to absorb the

music physically. She could feel, smell and see the rhythm of the music. She

felt that she possessed the wisdom of the ages but she could not describe it.

She looked at the magazine on the table and saw it in a hundred dimensions.

She closed her eyes and felt that she was floating in a sphere, in another

world or in another state. Her breathe rushed away from her like she was in a

fast elevator drop. She felt that she was part of the music, table and of the

book. She started to dance in front of the whole group and enjoyed every

second of it. She heard the neighbors breathing and the Jell-O in there

refrigerator next store.

Later Jill told me that there was LSD in the soda that she was drinking.

Wwwwwoooooooooooooowwwwwwwwwww!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!

That was weird!

Now I feel I have reached what is gonna lead into being the conflict;

drug addiction.

She has heard all of the terrifying stories about using drugs but she still

wants to experiment and try pot. Now she thinks that drugs are not bad and

that all the books written about drugs were written by uninformed, ignorant

people like her parents who have never tried it.

That is here whole damn problem. She thinks that drugs are okay, but

there not. They can cause serious damage.

She feels like Alice in Wonderland. She and I wonder if Lewis G.

Carrol was on drugs too.

She went out with Bill. He introduced her to Torpedo's and Speed.

She said it was like she was riding a shooting star but better.

Her grandfather had a heart attack (July 23rd)! He is okay. Alice stayed

home with him and helped help her grandmother help him (what a tongue

twister).

Bill asked her to a party on August 13th. She accepted and tripped at

the party. She said it was better than last time. She sat for hours examining

her hand. Watching the cells and blood vessels.

She also lost her virginity to Bill last night. She sort of regrets it

because she always was gonna wait for Roger. She is scared she might be

pregnant.

Yup, I was right. That was the start to her drug addiction problem.

Roger stopped by. They got to talking and it ends up that Roger is

going to military school. They said they would write each other and then

Roger kissed Alice.

Alice is so mad at her self for sleeping with Bill and not waiting for

Roger.

Before she left she took some of her grandfathers sleeping pills. So if

she wants to get away from her problem she can go to sleep.

She flew home on August 14th and eventually used all the pills so she

got her doctor to prescribe her tranquilizers.

The setting of the story is not listed in the book. Because they can't

publish it without permission. Yes, the setting does play a role in her conflict

because  if she would not of went to her grandparents none of this would of

happened.

All is going well in her life for a while, until she meets a girl named

Chris at a boutique downtown.

Her and Chris become friends and she introduced her to hearts

(uppers) because Roger has been to busy to write her anymore and she is

depressed.

She got her a job at the store she worked at.

Chris introduced Alice to her collage friends, Ted and Richie.

Ted (Chris's date) got Alice to smoke pot and hash (September 26). She felt

greater than she ever had before and noticed the detail and depth of

everything.

Alice fell in love with Richie. But he would never let her make love to

her when they where not on drugs. Richie and Ted stopped paying as much

attention to there girlfriends as they used to.

Alice and Chris always talk about how the "establishment (society)" is

so bad and how they hate there parents.

Richie and Ted were drug dealers who had Alice and Chris sell drugs

to people for them while they where at there classes.

On day Alice sold some acid on a stamp to a seven or eight year old

kid. Alice and Chris decided to stop selling drugs so they where going over

to Ted and Richie's apartment to tell them. When they walked in the door

they found there two butt-buddied boy friends making love.

That is so nasty it made my stomach hurt when I read it.

They where using them to sell drugs the whole time.

Since Alice and Chris were both fed up with there parents, the

Establishment, and there X-boyfriends, and using drugs they decided to

move to California and leave it all behind them (October 19th).

They left a note telling about Ted and Richie and where they hid all

there supplies.

They got a crummy apartment in San Francisco (October 26). They

each got a job at a boutique. Chris got hers working at place where famous

celebrities shop for a lady named Sheila and Alice got a job for a guy named

Mr. Mellani who was like a father to Alice.

On night Sheila and her boyfriend Rob had a party that Alice, Chris

and bunch of celebrities where gonna be at (November 23). During the party

they got passed a joint and they stupidly smoked it after having quit for so

long. After everybody left Sheila and Rob introduced them to heroin (bad

mistake). They all got high and enjoyed it. Later they came to find out that

Sheila and Rob both took turns raping and playing perverted games with

them.

When they found out they left town and moved to Berkeley. With all

there money they bought a store, fixed it up as a house/store, and opened

there own little boutique. All was going well. Alice called her Mom and they

sent two plane tickets back (December 23). We decided to go back. Alice

made up with her family and had a great Christmas and the same went for

Chris.

Alice started back at school and kids where asking her to buy drugs

and she told them that she didn't do them anymore. Kids kept bothering her

about it.

Alice and her family have been going on trips every chance they get.

Alice has been off drugs for a little while when she meets a girl named

Doris at a doctors office. They go smoke pot and get stoned.

Her and Doris get a place and become hookers for money so they can

buy drugs. There lives become so messed up over drugs I'm not even gonna

go into it.

She keeps talking about how she is in such a hellhole, her life sucks,

and she wants to kill herself. It would all just stop if she quit using drugs. It's

simple die or live. You choose. God it makes me so mad thinking about how

stupid somebody could be.

Her grandfather had a stoke and died (May 1)!

She just met somebody named Alice.

I have been writing this all the way through the story. I thought that the

main character who wrote the diary was Alice.

She buys a new diary symbolizing her getting a new life, a fresh start,

another chance to succeed.

She is clean and back at home and going to school.

She met a boy named Joel that she falls in love with.

Her grandmother died (July 16).

School got out and there was a party where there would be drugs at

but she didn't go.

She was given acid in a peanut and she had a bad trip. It drove her

insane so she started pulling out her hair, stabbing herself and mentally falling

apart.

She was put in a mental hospital.

Later she was released.

She decided that when this diary filled up she was not going to get

another because is old enough and mature enough to be able to talk to other

people instead of keeping it all bundled up in a little book.

Epilogue: She died three weeks after deciding not to keep another

diary of a drug overdose, it is not known if it is premeditated,

accidental or what.

50.  Gorbachev and Perestroika

The history of the Soviet Union is complicated and fascinating.  In the course of only seventy

years this country has seen the development of the totally new system of state, economic growth, the

growth of hopes for the "brighter future", and then the sudden and expected by no one collapse of

the whole system leading to chaos, wars, and confusion.  One period is especially important in order

to realize how did things finally started to change after the seventy years of blindly pursuing the

dream of communism which left the Soviet Union in a very bad economical and moral state, and this

period is called perestroika, Russian for restructuring.  The main figure behind this process which

began in 1985 is Mikhail S. Gorbachev who became General Secretary of the Communist Party of

the Soviet Union Central Committee in March 1985.  The three books that concentrate on the

"Gorbachev phenomenon" were all unfortunately written before perestroika was finished, so they do

not analyze the consequences that it had for the Soviet Union as well as for the whole world .  On

the other hand, all three of these books do a good job in explaining the changes that took place in

the course of  the first three years after Gorbachev came to power and why were these changes

necessary.

The first book "Gorbachev" was written by Zhores A. Medvedev in 1986 and hence the

author is concentrating on the first year of the new course in Soviet history.  The book itself basically

consists of two parts: the first part where the author describes the "making of a General Secretary",

and the second part entitled "Gorbachev in power" which describes Gorbachev's first year in the

office.  The first part of the book gives a lot of background information which allows the reader to

see the stages in development of the Soviet leader from childhood and youth to second-in-

command.  One thing I found to be particularly interesting in Medvedev's description of Gorbachev's

youth and that is the theory that living with a Czech intellectual for five years changed the future

Soviet leader in such a way that he became more "westernized" which "indirectly provided the Soviet

Union with a new style leader".  Medvedev says that during the time from 1950 to 1955 when young

Gorbachev attended the Moscow State University and had to share the room with a Czech student

Zdenek Mlynar he was "profoundly influenced" by the "culture and attitudes of a traditionally

Western nation".  This influence lasted for years and the fact that Gorbachev has become

"westernized" in his appearance, manners, dress and the "image he projects of tolerance and cordial

behavior, all the small signs which mark him as different from the usual Komsomol and Party boss",

is according to Medvedev due to a great extent to the fact that Mlynar was Gorbachev's roommate

(Medvedev, 1986, p. 43).

Although the first part of the book is certainly interesting and important I would like to

concentrate on the second part of the book since it is directly deals with the subject that interests me

most, that is the years when Gorbachev was in power and the development of the new course in the

Soviet life called perestroika.  From just reading the first paragraph it is obvious that the author

approves of the new leader.  Medvedev writes: "For the first time in Soviet history, the leadership

succession has meant more than the arrival of a new leader and the possibility of the implementation

of the new policies.  The Gorbachev succession marks the appearance of a new political generation

which differs from the old guard in style, knowledge and historical vision....Gorbachev represents a

younger post-war political generation, a generation which started its professional Party or state

career during the more liberal Krushchev era" (p. 165). Medvedev quotes some of the very

enthusiastic Western newspaper comments which called Gorbachev a "bright, incisive, brisk-

mannered man", with "high intelligence, considerable organizational abilities, political acumen".

According to the author no previous Soviet leader had received so much immediate publicity and

such an enthusiastic welcome from the general public.  "Gorbachev's popularity was closely linked to

his energetic, charismatic, competent and obviously intelligent personality", says Medvedev which

led to this immediate acceptance of Gorbachev as leader (p. 183).  Inspite the fact that Gorbachev's

new style was popular, some of his methods found less favor.  A lot of his actions were purely

administrative, imposed from above without any discussion and seemed coercive and disciplinarian

to some people, especially to intellectuals who expected liberalism.  Medvedev seems to justify

Gorbachev's first decrees since they were "not designed to impress intellectuals, but rather aimed at

improving a sick economy" (p. 184).

It was very interesting to read about the "battle against the bottle" which Gorbachev started

immediately.  For him vodka was a "public enemy number one", the cause of increasing crime, poor

productivity, an increasing number of problem children of alcoholic parents, reduced life expectancy

and alcohol-related health problems, all of which created a heavy burden on the national economy.

Some of the measures that were taken by the government were increasing the drinking age from 18

to 21, alcohol could no longer be sold in ordinary food stores, special wine shops would not be

permitted to sell any alcohol before 2 PM, stiff sentences were introduced for private stills.  But the

anti-alcohol campaign quickly has became unpopular and "has created a degree of social tension"

which led to the canceling of the whole campaign by the government (p. 189).

During his first year Gorbachev made some big changes in the agricultural sector of the

Soviet Union.  The decision was made to allocate annually from one million to one million two

hundred thousand allotments to citizens.  Medvedev sees this decision as "Gorbachev's second

personal initiative which had a real practical and positive impact on the quality of people's lives.  The

garden co-operatives reduced the pressure slightly on state retail sales of vegetables and fruit,

particularly in small towns" (p. 201).

As for the domestic policy, according to Medvedev, Gorbachev's first year in power was

marked by "unprecedently large changes in the personnel of the Politburo and government and the

rapid formulation of economic targets and methods of economic development for the next 15 years.

In all other respects, however, the changes in domestic policy were merely cosmetic" (p. 208).

Policies were better presented, the style was more modern, but there was little in the contents.

Gorbachev has introduced very few social and political changes in his first year in office.  Medvedev

argues that this was due to the fact that Gorbachev, as a professional Party official understood that

liberalization or democratization may turn against him (which is exactly how everything worked out

some five years later, but of course Medvedev did not know this for sure back in 1986).  Also

Gorbachev's new team had absolutely no desire to make the system more liberal.

In the last chapter Medvedev talks about Soviet new diplomacy which was created by

Gorbachev in his first year in the office.  First of all, Gorbachev's charm, sense of humor, prompt

responses, attempts to find convincing arguments "suddenly introduced the human factor into East-

West confrontation which in itself served to reduce tension.  Gorbachev clearly did not resemble a

person who was waiting for the opportunity to drop a nuclear bomb on the West" (p. 228).  For

Gorbachev two main issues were the problem of the arms race and Afghanistan, where the war had

gone for two long and there was no end in sight.  Gorbachev wanted to accelerate economic

development and the main task of his diplomacy was the reduction of the cost of the foreign policy

and that meant substantial arms reductions.  In his book Medvedev makes an assumption that the

Soviet government would not withdraw its troops from Afghanistan and Gorbachev will be aiming

for a "quick military end to the war" - assumption that proved to be wrong .  On the other hand the

author is right when he predicts the gradual thawing of the Soviet-US relations, thawing that started

in Geneva with Reagan-Gorbachev negotiations and continued throughout Gorbachev's rule.

In his conclusion Medvedev makes a statement that "it has been abundantly clear that

Gorbachev is neither a liberal nor a bold reformist.  He prefers small modifications, administrative

methods and economic adjustments to structural reform ... it is a mistake to expect too much from

Gorbachev" (p. 245).  This statement, as we all know, quickly proved to be wrong.

The second book titled "The Gorbachev Phenomenon" was written by Moshe Lewin in

1988, two years after Medvedev published his work and therefore it gives the reader a better

perspective on what happened while Gorbachev was in power.  Lewin's book is structured very

similar to the first book that I described above.  It also consists of the two parts: one deals with the

history of the Soviet Union before 1985, and the second part, entitled "The New Course" discusses

the changes that took place in the country after Gorbachev became the General Secretary.

Right from the start the author says that the Soviet Union is on the "verge of important

changes in the way it conducts its affairs, maybe in the way it is run ... Russia is now entering a

crucial new stage and is therefore, in many respects, just a beginner" (Lewin, 1988, p. 1).  Lewin

follows Medvedev's steps in describing the new Soviet leader and uses all kinds of approving terms

such as "bright", "intelligent" and "incisive".  But unlike Medvedev Lewin makes an argument that the

main reason for perestroika was not the individualism of Gorbachev but rather the crisis that had

been created by the mechanisms of economic management that had emerged in the 1930's and were

still powerful.  He also talks about the enormous role of the people who were "placing pressure on

the governing model, insisting that each sphere of action receive the attention it needed and that new

institutions and new methods be created to serve the new social forms.  The system needed to

loosen up" (p. 112). The answer to people's pressure Gorbachev began his new line which was

characterized by an appeal for frankness.  The leaders were ready to face the truth and report to the

country that the system was in a bad shape.  This was particularly true about the economy.  As the

Party Congress put it : "The production relations that exist currently, the system of husbanding and

managing, emerged, in substance, in conditions of extensive economic development.  Gradually they

became obsolete, lost their stimulating power and turned, in many ways, into a hindrance" (p. 115).

This new line did not stop with criticisms of the management of the economy.  Ideology and

ideological life were also described as being in shambles.  The leaders admitted that Soviet people

did not believe official statements and ideological dogma was a powerful obstacle to the country's

development.  This was the beginning of the new page in the history of the Soviet Union which

became known all over the world as glasnost.

Together with the appeal for glasnost - a slogan but also a pledge to ease censorship and

facilitate the access to information - there was a call for uskorenie, a "speeding up of the pace of

economic development, especially technological progress".  Lewin can not comprehend how some

Western observers can still claim that nothing really happens, that "there is no well-defined program,

notably for economic reforms".  Such statements are "sheer obstinacy", according to the author since

ideas for change are being debated, implemented, and tested.  And the fact that no comprehensive

program has been announced seems rather as a good sign to Lewin, since "for what single program

could fill the bill?" (p. 116-117).

As against Medvedev, Lewin does not spend much time describing "the battle against the

bottle".  He sums everything up in one sentence instead of two chapters and has a different view of

the successfulness of this initiative: "Although many predicted failure, the government stuck to its

guns, gained public support for its aims and the anti-drinking campaign has achieved some success.

This was clever and promising opening" (p. 116).

Lewin's conclusions about the changes in the agricultural sector and foreign policy are very

similar to that of Medvedev. The author talks about how the center would ease its control, how

government would give more freedom in the choices that people involved in producing the

agricultural goods can have.  Lewin underlined the importance of Gorbachev's decision to allocate

allotments which led to the bigger interest of the Soviet people in working the land which ultimately

led to the increase in agricultural production.  Lewin also mentions the better Russian-American

relations which was due to the fact that Gorbachev was ready for discussions with the American

president and has chosen such international policy that led to the slowing down of the arms race and

the reduction of the accumulation of arms.

As for the domestic policy Lewin has a different position than Medvedev, this is  due to a

large extent to the fact that Lewin is writing his work two years after Medvedev.  "Glasnost,

democratization, self-government in the workplace, orientation to the social sphere, social justice,

human rights, and respect for human individuality" - reforms in these areas took place after three

years of Gorbachev in power and influenced domestic policy a lot according to Lewin (p. 119).

At the very end of the book Lewin makes a statement that proved to be so true after the

couple of years since this work was published.  "The old system is still in place and its supporters,

deeply disturbed by the perestroika, will certainly resist change.  The reformers are not assured of

victory: they will have to fight hard for it, go for bold new moves.  Their failure would be terribly

costly for the USSR and could well produce negative repercussions worldwide.  The world is now

watching Moscow attentively and with good reason" (p. 153).  It is hard to believe that these words

were written eight years ago....

The third book is probably the most important one since it is the work of the man who is

directly responsible for the changes that took place in the Soviet Union and who is also responsible,

although indirectly, for the changes that took place in the whole Eastern Europe.  Gorbachev wrote a

book entitled "Perestroika. New Thinking for Our Country and the World" back in 1987, two years

after he became the new Soviet leader. In this book the author tries to answer the question of what

is perestroika? Why does the Soviet society need it?  What are its substance and objectives?  What

does it reject and what does it create?  How is it proceeding and what might be its consequences for

the Soviet Union and the world community?  In other words, all the questions that were raised and

discussed by Medvedev and Lewin but answered by the originator.

Perestroika, according to Gorbachev, is an "urgent necessity arising from the profound

processes of development in our socialist society.  This society is ripe for change.  It has been long

yearning for it" (Gorbachev, 1987, p. 17).  Perestroika was caused by all sorts of problems that the

Soviet Union had accumulated over the seventy years.  First factor was a slowing economic growth

which caused "a country that was once quickly closing on the world's advanced nations began to

lose one position after another".  At the same time the gap in the efficiency of production, quality of

products, scientific and technological development ... began to widen, and not to our advantage".

All this eventually led to an economic deadlock and stagnation that paralyzed Soviet society.

Declining rates of growth affected other aspects of the Soviet life, for instance the social sphere,

which began to lag behind other spheres in terms of technological development, personnel, know-

how and quality of work.  Gorbachev also mentions a gradual erosion of the ideological and moral

values of Soviet people as another argument for the need of restructuring.  People did not believe in

the government because of the many promises that it made and never accomplished; because the

needs and opinions of ordinary working people, of the public at large, were ignored.  There was a

process of decay in public morals; "the great feeling of solidarity with each other that was forged

during the heroic times of the Revolution, the first five-year plans, the Great Patriotic War and

postwar rehabilitation was weakening" (p. 21-22).  Gorbachev also talks about alcoholism, drug

addiction and culture alien to Soviet people, which "bred vulgarity and low tastes and brought about

ideological bareness".  This statement about "alien to us" culture reminded me of how this fight

against "degeneration" which American movies and other media brings was carried out - how people

were hiding the fact that they have the VCR, how it would be almost impossible to get a videotape

with an American movie but people would still manage to get it "through a friend of a friend" and

then watch it, which as Gorbachev puts it "bred vulgarity and low tastes".  Considering all the

problems the government made "the only logical conclusion" that the country was verging on crisis.

This conclusion was announced at the April 1985 Plenary Meeting of the Central Committee, "which

inaugurated the new strategy of perestroika and formulated its basic principles" (p. 24).

Gorbachev gives a plan of perestroika, its component parts which include:  overcoming the

stagnation process, breaking down the braking mechanism.  It means mass initiative.  "It is the

comprehensive development of democracy, socialist self-government, encouragement of initiative,

improved order and discipline, more glasnost, criticism in all spheres of the society; respect for the

individual". Perestroika is also the intensification of the Soviet economy, development of the

principles of democratic centralism and encouragement of socialist enterprise.  It also means "the

elimination from society of the distortions of socialist ethics, implementation of the principles of social

justice.  It means the unity of words and deeds, rights and duties".  But Gorbachev does not forget

to include Lenin and says that "the essence of perestroika lies in the fact that it unites socialism with

democracy and revives the Leninist concept of socialist construction both in theory and in practice"

(p.34-35).

Gorbachev also gives his evaluation of perestroika.  He is writing this book two and a half

years after the new line was launched and his assessment is as follows: "perestroika is just getting of

the ground. So far we have only been shaping the mechanisms of acceleration" (p. 64).  The real

work for him is still ahead and the main task is to get the whole society involved in the process of

restructuring.

In conclusion Gorbachev spends a lot of time talking about "new political thinking", new

Soviet foreign policy which should benefit international relations, especially Soviet-American

relations and provide for "nuclear-free, non-violent world".  The main task of the Soviet foreign

policy is to move "from suspicion and hostility to confidence, from a balance of fear to a balance of

reason and goodwill, from narrow nationalist egoism to cooperation" (p. 254).  Gorbachev feels that

the not only the Soviet Union but the whole world needs restructuring, a fundamental change - this,

of course, does not come as a surprise, if we remember that since 1917 first Bolsheviks and than

communists wanted to make this "fundamental change".

The three books that were discussed above were all written by different authors and in

different times but still basically they all have the same approach.  Medvedev and Lewin both

approve the new leader of the Soviet Union and give all kinds of good adjectives to describe him

such as "bright" and "intelligent".  They both are optimistic about the future of the country although

make it clear that this is only a beginning of the story to follow and since the perestroika just started

at the time they were writing their works they can only speculate about what would happen to the

country.  As for Gorbachev he is probably the most optimistic about the new line which is not

surprising since he is the leader and leaders should radiate with confidence.  He is also the best

source for finding out what perestroika is all about, its goals and its origins.  Of course now in 1996

many of his statements sound unfounded, even funny but when we read his work we have to keep in

mind that back in 1985 Gorbachev's ideas sounded new and revolutionary, destined to change the

Soviet Union and even the whole world  - which did in fact happen.

The question whether Gorbachev's perestroika was a failure or a success does not have an

easy immediate answer.  Some scholars argue that the reforms that lasted from 1985 to 1990

caused the collapse of the Soviet Union, leaving the country on the verge of crisis, with economy in

chaos and no certain future.  Joan E. Spero, the author of the book "The Politics Of International

Economic Relations", is the supporter of this point of view.   In the chapter entitled "The Failure of

Perestroika" she shows by using different examples, such as economical progress, stability of the

country and so on, that Gorbachev failed to achive the objectives of perestroika (Spero, 1996,

p336).  Although I agree that Gorbachev did not achieve some of the goals stated in his book

"Perestroika", I believe that perestroka was a success to a certain extent.  First of all, he did achieve

some of the objectives.  For instance, after the reforms the society did become more open thanks to

glasnost.  People for the first time since 1917 could say what they really thought and not what was

"good for the party".  People also gained access to all sorts of information which was previously

denied to them.  Children in schools and students in colleges could finally learn the history as it was

and not as it was seen by the Communist party.  Another major success of  perestroika was the

increasing openness of the country to the West which led to a considerable improvements in East-

West relations.  This also led to the gradual reduction of arms and considerable decline in defense

spending  in the Soviet Union as well as in the United States.  Considering these and other positive

results of perestroika I would have to disagree with those people who say that it was a complete

failure.  The restructuring that took place in the Soviet Union has many dimensions - some are

positive, some are negative.  One-sided view which Joan E. Spero and other scholars advocate is

not correct, since it concentrates only on the adverse effects of perestroika, completely ignoring all

the positive effects that it had.

51.  Guatemala

Guatemala es un país en la región del sur de la centroamérica.  Centroamérica está en el hemisferio del norte cerca del ecaudor.

La frontera de Guatemala, del norte al oeste, es México.  Belize, el golfo de Honduras, Honduras y el Salvador están al este.  También al sudoeste y el sur de Gautemala está el Océano Pacífica.

Tolimán, una montaña cerca del lago de Atitlan, y Volcán Tajamulco son en los altiplanos.  Este país tiene dos cadenas de montañas.  Sierra de las Minas, en el este, es una cordillera pequeña.  Altiplanos en el sur empiezan en el oeste y crucan la frontera del este.  El petén es trópico y tiene las selvas de lluvia.  Los altiplanos son templado de 60º-70º.  Las tierras bajas de Pacífica hace calor y son húmido.

Porque su geografía y su clima, los productos principales son el café, el azúcar y las bananas.  La industría forestal,  el azúcar y las ropas son las industrias principales. Guatemala declararon independencía de España en el 15 de septiembre de 1821.  Muchas dictadores fueron regida despues independencía.  Ahora el gobierno es una república con una cabinet, un congreso de la república, y el corte suprema de justicia.

El clima comódo y vistas bonitas de las montañas, los volcanos, las selvas, y los ríos y lagos atraen muy turistas todo el año.  Lago de Atitlan, Quiche de Chichicastenango, las ruinas de los mayas de Tikal, y la ciudad de Guatemala dice que Belize pertenece a ellos.  ¡¡Tiene once millones personas en su población anque es mas pequeño del estado de E.E.U.U.!!  También, su capital anterior,(Antigua,) demolerió en unos temblores de tierra.

Guatemala tiene una cultura rica y mucho historía.  Es un lugar bonito y perfecto a visitar en vacación.

52.  Guayana

Guyana is a country located on the northern coast of South America.  It is bounded on the north by the

Atlantic Ocean and on the east by Suriname. On the south side Guyana is bordered by Brazil, and on the

west side is Brazil and Venezuela. Guyana achieved its independence on May 26, 1966 when it broke away

from Britain.

Land and Resources

Guyana has three different major geographical regions. These consist of a belt of soil which

ranges from five to forty miles, a dense forest area which makes up about  four-fifths of the country and

a region of savanna. The country also has many rivers that have some spectacular waterfalls and one river

has the highest single-drop waterfall in the world. These rivers are navigable from the sea to about one-

hundred miles inland, after that they are no longer navigable due to rapids and falls.

Natural Resources

The lands of Guyana have many valuable natural resources. Within the lands you can find gold,

diamonds, kaolin, manganese and bauxite. If you were to travel a little ways off shore, you could also

locate some petroleum. These natural resources are very important in helping out the economy of this poor

country.

The lands have much resource also found in the vegetation and the forests. The plants and trees

are documented for their abnormal size and density. Guyana has an excellent lumber industry, they sell

some of the finest greenheart as well as mora. Within the forests are a big variety of wildlife which can

range from deer to anteater and a few types of monkeys. The birds are very diverse, they consist of for

example sugarbirds, cotingas and manakins all which feed on Guyana's vast array of insects.

Population , Education and Culture

Guyana has an estimated 800,000 people or on an average of 3.8 people per square mile. Georgetown

is the capital and it holds a few hundred thousand people. Being the capital, it is the main port city

and holds the major educational institution in Guyana. The University of Guyana is the best  higher

education and there are many schools throughout the country. In the past few years the country has taken

education to much higher level.

Guyana was settled by East Indians, many still speak Urdu, Hindu and Tamil dialects. The official

language is English. The culture is close to the Suriname and French Guiana than to the rest of South

America.  All of these various cultures have remained fairly distinct and in today's society each group

has its own style of life and culture.

Economy

In 1966, Guyana was in the early stages of developing its resources. The British drew up an

economic plan  to continue development with the help of experts from the United States as well as Canada.

The economy in the late 1980's was dominated mainly by agriculture and service industries. These

industries pulled in an average revenue of approximately 164 million dollars per year and an average

expenditure of 284 million dollars per year.

The agriculture is about one-fourth of the countries gross domestic product. Sugar and its

by-products and rice account for most of the exports. Coconuts, coffee, citrus fruits' ,corn and other

tropical fruits and vegetables are grown mainly for consumption. Another major crop that is raised on the

plush savanna lands are

livestock such as cattle, hogs, sheep and chicken.

Along the coast is where much of the cultivation takes place. The tremendous strips of alluvial

soil are very rich in nutrients. A big problem that these coastal lands see are much flooding and

irrigation problems such as drainage. This happens because much of this land is below the high-tide mark

of the sea and the rivers. Guyanian government is trying to help this problem by reclaiming some land for

cultivation.

Mining

Bauxite is one of Guyana's major elements. They are a very big producer of this as well as gold,

manganese and diamonds which I mentioned earlier.

Manufacturing and Energy

Manufacturing is limited to food products, beverages, construction materials, clothing, soap and

cigarettes. In the late 1980's they installed some new technology such as electricity which was generated

through thermal facilities. They also have a great capacity for generating hydroelectricity.

Transportation

The country has about 6000 miles of road which are mainly near the coast. They have about 70

miles of railroad tracks in use and their main seaports are in Georgetown and New Amsterdam. The river

system are a major part in the route to the interior. Guyana has a national airline called Guyana Airways

which services domestic as well as international flights.

Government

The country is governed under a constitution which was adopted in 1980. The

head of state as well as the chief executive is a president. He is elected into a five year term by the

National Assembly. The cabinet is appointed by the President and ran by the Prime Minister.

The legislature is controlled by the unicameral National Assembly which consists of 12 members

,nonelected. The other 53 members are elected to a five-year term.  The Judiciary is based on English

common and statute law. The Supreme court is divided into branches which are a court of appeal as well as

a high court. The Local Government is divided into ten different regions and each is governed by a

council.

History

In 1499, Spanish explorers charted what is now Guyana. The British held possession in 1814 but

did not gain control until 1831. During the British rule, the Native American population was reduced to a

minority due to a large influx of African and East Indian peoples. In 1928, Guyana received its first

constitution under the British administration.

In 1961 they received a full internal self government. Under the leadership of Cheddi Jagan, the

PPP gained majority in the legislature. Jagan made a poor call in 1962 which caused mad riots and a

strike. He made a program of complete economic austerity. The British sent in their troops and gained

control to make order once again.

The British and Guyanese in 1962-1963 held conferences. The PPP lost to the majority  and the

British introduced the Peoples National Congress to form a coalition government.

In 1965, a conference met and a new constitution was formed. In 1966, Guyana was an independent

nation. They joined the United Nations and they became a

member of the Caribbean Free Trade Area. In February 1970, Guyana was proclaimed a republic under the new

president Arthur Chung.

In the 1970's, diplomatic relations were gained with China. By 1976 the country aimed for a self

sufficiency in agriculture. In 1974, the government gained control of all foreign trade.

In anticipation of a new constitution, the National Assembly extended the five year limit . A new

socialist constitution was in effect by 1980 and the PNC regained control of the assembly under the

leadership of Desmond Hoyte. He controlled until 1992 until an international election.  Jagan regained

control and put his party, the People's Progressive Party back into power.

53.  History of Howe Caverns

Howe Caverns was dicovered back in the spring of 1842 by a man named Lestor

Howe.  Now Lestor Howe discovered the cavern by noticing on hot summer days

all of his cows would gather up on the same hillside, in the same spot.  He

was very curious why they were doing this, so he went up there to investegate.

When he reach the spot on the hillside he noticed a large hole in the

ground, were cold air was blowing out of.  The cows would gather around the

hole to cool off.  He started to explore this hole as soon as he got a

light and a rope to climb down into the cavern.  This is when Howe Caverns

was dicovered.

Several years after Lester Howe discovered the cavern he sarted up

a little buisness giving tour of the cavern.  His tours would last 8 hours

and you were giving lunch as part of the tour.  These tours ended in 1900

when a cement co. bought the land of cavern for its rich grade of limestone

for making cement.  The cavern didn"t reopen to the public untill 1932,

when walkways and lighting systems were put in.

54.  History of The Marshall Islands

History of the Marshall Islands

The Marshall Islands is a republic of 29 atolls and 5 coral islands.  The islands are

one of the four main groups that make up Micronesia.  The nearest neighbor to the

Marshalls are the Federated States of Micronesia.  They're only 26 populated islands in

the Marshalls because a lot of the islands are too small to support  many people.  There

are two roughly parallel chains of islands that make up the western Ralik group and the

eastern Ratak group.  Now that you know what and where the Marshall Islands are I'll

explain the history.

The very early people of the Marshalls had no written language so it is very hard

to predict what went on.  The only early history has been handed down from generation

to generation in the form of songs, and we can also get some facts from the folklore and

legends.  One thing that they do know is that powerful chiefs ruled these large

civilizations able to move such large stones to build temples and cities.  They must have

been somewhat advanced because they were able to build huge walls that were probably

there to enclose a city.  These walls weighed many tons and were 20 ft. long, and even

some walls they have found to be 40 ft. high.  Archaeologists are still puzzled of what

kind of machinery they had to move such large stones.

The real knowledge we know about the Marshall Islands history began in the

early sixteenth century.  The sea going Europeans were trying to find sources of the Spice

Islands that were in very large demand  in Europe.  English, Dutch, Spanish and

Portuguese sea captains were all sailing around on their hunt for riches.  One of the first

people we know of to definitely land on the Marshall Islands during this time is

Ferdinand Magellan.  He landed in Micronesia on his journey to circumnavigate the

world.  Forty years later in the 1560's after Magellan's voyage Spain claimed most all of

the islands in Micronesia.  Spain wasn't really concerned about Micronesia because they

were busy building empires in South America, Central America, and Mexico.  For the

most part Micronesia was under loose Spanish control for 300 years.

During those 300 years in 1788 Captain John Marshall named the Marshall

Islands.  He was sailing between Australia and China on the boat the Scarborough and

sailed through the islands.  Even though many Europeans had been in the Marshalls

previously he has been said to be one of the first people to "discover" the islands.

In the nineteenth century the dried meat of the coconut called copra became an

important trade items for European powers.  Since there was much money in the copra

trade Germany, Spain, and Great Britain started to argue over the control of Micronesia.

In 1885 Germany gained control of the Marshalls while Spain kept control of the

Carolines and the Marianas.  In 1886 the English and the Spanish were unhappy with

Germany's claims, but the dispute was settled by Pope Leo XIII in Rome.  The Pope gave

all right to trade with these islands to Germany.  Then shortly after that in 1898 the

Spanish- American war caused Spain to give the rest of Micronesia to Germany.  This all

changed though during W.W.I.

In 1914 Japan which was allied with the U.S. and its European Allies took control

of the Marshalls and all of Micronesia with naval ships.  Then in 1920 the League of

Nations gave Micronesia to Japan.

In 1935 against the agreement with the League of Nations Japan began to fortify

the islands.  Japan withdrew from the League of Nations and secretly began to build

airfields and naval bases on the islands.  Japan closed the Marshalls and Micronesia from

the rest of the world.  To show just how secret Japan was in 1937 Amelia Earhart was on

her famous trip around the world in the air.  She disappeared somewhere in the Japan

held Micronesia and has never been seen since.  Many people think that she was short of

gas and made a forced landing on one of the islands.  Japan was then upset over what she

may have seen and executed her.

After the Pearl Harbor bombing in 1941 the Marshall Islands became a very

important strategic location in W.W.II.  The Japanese used the islands on their push

southward toward Australia, and the U.S. wanted the islands on their push northward.

The Marshall islands were the next step for the Allied march toward the Japanese home

islands.  The Kwajalein and Majuro atolls were picked as the two main places to invade.

This operation was code named Flintlock.  D-Day was set for January 31, 1944.

On that day Marines at Kwajalein atoll planned to seize five islands around Roi-

Namur where a major Japanese airbase was.  While other Kwajalein Marines were to

capture four islets near Kwajalein where the Japanese major naval base was.  There was

some confusion at both attacks which led to many more deaths than were needed.  The

two battles turned out to be very bloody and in all 486 Allied casualties resulted while

1,295 soldiers were wounded.

At the Majuro atoll came much an easier battle.  The Japanese had both a major

naval and air base on the island.  When the Allied troops landed there they found no

Japanese troops.  Almost all of the Japanese troops had escaped.  So no lives were spared

and the Allies turned the two bases into their own.

The speed at which Kwajalein Atoll fell allowed Admiral Chester W. Nimitz to

speed up his attack on Enewetok.  This mission was called Catchpole.  The forces moved

in on February 18, 1944.  They first went to small Engebi supported by gunfire and by

shore based artillery placed the day before on small islets.  It took them two days to

secure the island in the Allies favor with a death count of 349 and 555 wounded.

The results of the capturing of the Marshall Islands were a big success.  Having

the Marshall's helped in moving the U.S. a lot closer to Japanese and also it gave them a

good place to attack other Japanese held islands.  It really cut down the air and naval

power the Japanese had in the Central Pacific.

There are other good things that came out of the war too.  One is all of the sunken

ships and landing barges, airplane crashes, tanks, and big guns are still found in the

Marshall's.  So in result scrap metal turned into the second leading exporter to copra.

What is kind of interesting is that Japan was the main place that bought the metals from

their own battles with the U.S.

As a result of the U.S. taking over the Marshall Islands the United Nations

granted the U.S. authority to administer them as a strategic trust.  Even though with the

U.S. in charge that led to improvements in public health, education, and was obligated to

"protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources" the Marshallese

people were very unhappy.  The removal and evacuation of the Bikini and Enewetak

atolls for nuclear testing was what made them angry with the new U.S. system.  See the

Marshall Islands land had no alarming value to the U.S. , but what the U.S. wanted was

the great military location and also a small secluded place to test nuclear weapons.  So

pretty much from the late 1940's to the present a lot of the history has been the nuclear

testing on the island.

The first test came in 1946.  The U.S. had the Navy evacuate 167 Bikini Islanders

to Rongerik, 125 miles away to the east.  They were going to test atomic-bombs the same

size of Hiroshima's.  They were named "Able" and "Baker".  Since everyone was

evacuated there were no apparent problems with and Marshallese people.  The people

weren't having trouble with the tests but many Bikinians were on the verge of starvation

on the Rongerik atoll.  They had to be moved to Kwajalein where the U.S. provided them

with resources.

Then in the1950's the U.S. discovered the H-bomb or a hydrogen device that is

hundreds or thousands times more destructive than the U.S.'s first atomic-bombs. The

first to be tested was in 1952 at Enewetak island.  The force of this hydrogen device was

estimated at 10.4 megatons or 750 times greater force than the Hiroshima one.  This

bomb vaporized pretty much the whole island, but again the people didn't know so

weren't that upset.  The people were upset though after the testing of the next H-bomb the

U.S. decides to drop.

This test was in 1954 at the Bikini Atoll.  It was set to be dropped on February 28

and the high winds weren't going to stop them.  At just seven hours before drop time

there were high winds at 10,000 to 25,000-foot levels with the winds blowing toward

some inhabited islands.  The U.S. though decided to drop the bomb.  It was reported at 15

megatons which is 1,000 times greater than the Hiroshima bomb.  Within hours people

on surrounding islands were enveloped with white ash or kind of a mist.  People that

were exposed experienced naseau, vomiting, and itching of the skin and eyes.  The

people were taken Kwajalein for observation.  Skin burns developed and hair of those

people began to fall out.  Secret medical groups were established to observe the exposed

Marshallese people.  The group decided that the people had been exposed to so much

harmful material that they should never be exposed again because fear of what could

happen.

The U.S. continues to detonate nuclear weapons on the small islands through the

1950's and the last one was set off in 1958.  Bringing the total number of nuclear

weapons tested on Bikini and Enewetak Atolls up to 66.  The damage had been done and

many Marshallese people were very mad.

One of the reasons people were mad was that they couldn't return to their

homelands.  Thousands of people had been evacuated due to the radioactive materials

spread to their islands.  Although almost all of the islands were declared safe but maybe

slight lingering radiation people were scared and in effect were very mad at the U.S.

Another one of the reasons was all of the health problems people were having.

Like it says before people were having very bad skin and eye irritations and their hair was

falling out.  In 1963 the first signs of thyroid cancer starting showing up,  and people

were just sick and literally "sick" of all of the nuclear testing results.  Marshall Islands

officials started demanded billions and billions of dollars in compensation for all of the

people and the land.  They also started going to the U.S. government demanding they

were purposely exposed to the radiation just so the U.S. could study the long term effects

of radiation.

In 1986 the Marshall Islands became self-governing because they thought they

could manage their country a lot better than the U.S. thousands of miles away.  They

established compact of free association and it was finalized.  Even though official

recognition of the Marshall's did not come until 1991 when the United Nations removed

them from the trusteeship.

The Marshall Islands is definitely on its way to be a lot happier.  They are still

getting billions of dollars a year for compensation and the islands are getting more

radioactive free every year.

55.  Hong Kong Immigrants in Vancouver Uneasy Partnership

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the recent wave of Hong Kong immigrants into Vancouver. The stage is set for this discussion by first explaining some background behind Canadian immigration policy and then discussing the history of Chinese immigrants in Vancouver. From these discussions we are informed that Canadian immigration policy was historically ethnocentric and only began to change in the late 1960s. It was at this point that we see a more multicultural group of immigrants into our nation. The history of Chinese immigration in Vancouver, and for that matter, Canada is not positive one. The experiences and prejudices which were developed over 100 years ago still colours the way in which we view one another.

The recent wave of Hong Kong immigrants began in the 1970s. This group is different from most others before it because of it's scale and the fact that they tend to be well-educated, affluent people. The result of their immigration into Vancouver has been a booming economy and social tension. With greater understanding and awareness on both sides we can alleviate the social tensions.

Introduction

There is a school in Vancouver which is offering a four year immersion programme to its students. That in itself is not highly unusual in our bilingual nation, what is unusual is that the language of choice for the immersion programme is not French, it is Mandarin. The programme was voted in by parents who believed the Mandarin language to be more important to their children's futures in Vancouver than French. This situation shows quite effectively the transition which is taking place in Canada's third largest city. Vancouver is a city which is consistently looking more and more to the Pacific Rim nations, especially Hong Kong, for its economic and social connections.

Vancouver is the most asian Canadian city in outlook.  At $1.3 Billion, British Columbia accounts for the greatest Asian investment of all the provinces. As the urban center of the province, Vancouver is the destination for most of this capital. With an Asian population of over 18%, perhaps it is not so surprising that so much Asian capital is invested in the city. The draw of Vancouver for Asians has numerous reasons including, security, an opportunity to continue business in Asia, and a feeling of welcome. The result is that the city is being completely rebuilt with asian money. As a consequence of this influx, all is not well, there are tensions within the city that have recently been surfacing. Before entering into this discussion, however, it is important to understand the context of immigration in Canada as well as the history of asian immigration into our nation.

Policy Jurisdiction

Jurisdiction over immigration is shared between the Federal and Provincial governments. The Federal government is responsible for establishing admission requirements while the provinces are becoming increasingly interested in the selection of applicants and their settlement. The governments set out numerous controls, including those over the ethnocultural composition of incoming immigrants, the total number of immigrants admitted, the categories of immigrants admitted, and the regional settlement of immigrants once they arrive.

History of Immigration in Canada

Historically, Canadian immigration policy has been consistently ethnocentric. It was only recently that the Canadian government sought to maintain a 'white' society by selectively advertising abroad as well as granting prospective applicants from Europe, the US, New Zealand, and Australia preferential treatment. During the 1960s this distinction between preferred and non-preferred contries was replaced with a points-system. Along with the new points-system it was hoped that applicants from all countries and of all ethnic origins were treated equally. The effects of this shift has been significant.

Fig. 1

As can be seen in the above table, the majority of the immigrants arriving before 1967 were of European background. From 1967 onward the flow of immigrants has been internationalized.

Throughout the 20th Century the Canadian government has set targets for the number of immigrant entries based upon economic criteria. Periods of encouragement have included the early decades of this century along with the reconstruction era of Post World War II. The 30s, 40s and the recession of the early 80s have been periods during which the national government has discouraged immigration. At times, economic concerns have given way to humanitarian ones such as during the Soviet invasions of Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and during the Vietnamese refugee crisis of the 70s.

Generally, however, Canadian immigration targets have reflected the rate of economic expansion and employment. An exception to this rule was during the latter part of the 1980s. Worry over the declining fertility rate and our ageing population led the federal government to raise its annual targets despite high unemployment. Most recently, under economic pressures, the most recent Liberal government once again lowered the immigration level.

The Geography of Immigration

There have also been attempts at controlling the geography of immigrant settlement. The Federal government stated that one of the primary goals of immigration is to, "foster the development of a strong and viable economy and the prosperity of all regions in Canada." Immigration in our country has been seen as a means of promoting economic development in less prosperous regions, as well as supporting heartland areas.

While the government has attempted to influence the geography of immigrant settlement, they have been able to achieve few results. Most immigrants still gravitate to areas of demonstrated economic growth. Immigrants have avoided the Atlantic provinces, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan while they have been attracted to Alberta (mainly during the economic boom of the 70s), British Columbia, and especially Ontario. In the table below we are able to clearly see that, as a percentage of their own population, Ontario, B.C. and Alberta dominate the remaining provinces with their share of the immigrant population.

Fig. 2

An even greater degree of concentration is apparent when urban destinations are considered. In 1991 Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver accounted for 60% of the intended destinations stated by those immigrants arriving into Canada.

Nearly 80% of immigrants intended to settle in just ten cities. The Table below shows the intended urban destination of immigrants to Canada in 1991.

City     Total Immigrants         Percentage

Toronto           63,891 27.7

Montreal          46,300 20.1

Vancouver       26,361 11.4

Top Three        136,552           59.2

Mississauga     9,082   3.9

Ottawa-Hull    7,977   3.5

Edmonton       7,629   3.3

Calgary            7,307   3.2

Winnipeg         5,173   2.2

London           3,752   1.6

Hamilton         3,745   1.6

Top Ten           181,217           78.5

Remainder       49,564 21.5

Of all immigrants, those entering under the business category exhibited

the most clustered pattern of settlement. 80% of this group chose to live in either

Toronto, Montreal, or Vancouver. The following table breaks down the intended

urban destination of business immigrants to Canada in 1991.

Fig. 4

City     Business Immigrants   Percentage

Toronto           582      15.7

Montreal          1102    29.7

Vancouver       1,294   34.9

Top Three        2,978   80.3

Edmonton       86        2.3

Calgary            79        2.1

Winnipeg         72        1.9

Hamilton         37        1.0

Mississauga     31        0.8

Ottawa-Hull    19        0.5

London           12        0.3

Top Ten           3,314   89.3

Remainder       396      10.7

Chinese Immigration

The first major influx of the chinese into Canada was during the 1850s

and 1860s, when they were lured to this country by the promised bounty of the

Fraser River gold rush. By 1860, the new colony of British Columbia counted

amongst its population 4,000 Asians but their numbers tended to fluctuate

according to the prosperity of the mines. The greatest period of chinese

immigration occured between 1881-1884 when over 17,000 chinese came to

work on the CPR.

Pressured by the railway companies, who viewed the chinese as reliable,

cheap labour, the federal government vetoed any attempts to halt their

entrance into the country until the railway was completed. With the final

completion of the railway chinese immigration remained in flux by continued to

grow in absolute numbers.

History of Discrimination

The chinese were always discriminated against, they were consistently

treated as outcasts. The chinese immigrant was thought, by mainstream

Canadian society to be "taking" jobs away from whites at half the "acceptable"

wages. This was said even though the chinese usually were employed in jobs

which the majority of whites thought were beneath them. For instance, many

chinese immigrants employed themselves by providing laundry services in

mining camps, or in cities. It was at this point that the chinese began a tradition

of entrepreneurship in Canada which they still maintain today.

Fig. 5 is a picture cut out of a Vancouver newspaper at the turn of the

century entitled "The Unanswerable Argument". It essentially epitomizes the

cities views of itself and those of the chinese immigrant.

FIG. 5

In 1885 discrimination against the chinese received official sanction with

the implementation of the "head tax". Originally this tax was set at $10 but, by

1893 it had grown to $500. It never had the desired effect of stopping chinese

immigration, but it certainly slowed it down considerably. In 1923 the

discrimination continued as the federal government barred all immigration

from China; a provision which was not lifted until 1947. Until 1947 the chinese

were also prevented from practicing medicine, law, or becoming members of

any other professions. It was only in the late 40s that chinese/canadian citizens

were even allowed to vote in Canada. The numerous restrictions placed upon

this group of people ensured that chinese communities were made up of

bachelors as only single adult men could afford to immigrate.

From the time that Vancouver was incorporated in 1886 there was a

geographical reference to the racial category "chinese" at Carall and Dupont

(E. Pender) streets (indicated in Fig. 4 as Chinatown). One-hundred forty-three

merchants founded associations and ran businesses in the area, usually with

attached homes, to service the chinese immigrant population of 2,053 in 1901.

At that time the community included over 1,500 labourers. Many of the

individuals in this district depended upon chinese bosses to find them contract

work in laundries, saw mills, brickyards and canneries. Others worked within

the community in construction, restaurants and tailoring firms.

Ottawa had seen an economic interest in the idea of a cheap "chinese"

type of labour and set a precedent for widespread economic subordinization of

the chinese. Vancouver's Bell-Irving said in 1901, "It is the destiny of the white

man to be worked for by inferior races." In 1885 proprietor R. Dunsmuir said

that in his mines the "chinese are put to the type of work that best suits them -

ordinary, manual labour."

Fig. 6

Local white workers were equally willing to believe in the idea of a unique

"chinese" type of labour. They even resorted to violence on February 24, 1886

when 300 whites invaded a camp of chinese workers in the West End to rid the

city of "unfair competition". With tacit approval of local police and officials, the

white labourers attacked the camp and sent the chinese residents of Dupont st.

to New Westminster. The provincial government stepped in at this point and

sent special constables from Victoria to restore law and order.

The rioters were eventually brought to trial. The banished chinese

returned from New Westminster and the West End contract was completed.

Many of the labourers gravitated to the original Dupont st. settlement. It was

only the senior state interaction which allowed the chinese to settle peacefully in

a somewhat reluctant Vancouver. This history of chinese settlement in

Vancouver is extremely crucial to the understanding of the present situation as

it still plays in the psyche of these two groups in their daily interactions in the

city.

New Immigrants

There has been a shift in chinese immigration over the past thirty years.

No longer are the majority of chinese immigrants poor, single-adult males from

rural farming communities in mainland China; today, the dominant chinese

immigrants are middle to upper-class, generally educated, urbanites from

Hong Kong.

Some of the changes which were talked about earlier in this paper made

to the Canadian immigration policy have encouraged more middle-class/

professional immigration in order to boost Canada's skill profile and to help

generate employment. These changes have caused a shift in the orientation of

the immigrant population and capital flows into Canada.

Fig. 7

In particular, the countries of the pacific rim have risen in relative

importance as source regions for both international finance and migrants into

Canada. Fig. 7 shows the transition in the importance of certain countries as

sources of immigrants. The table shows all immigrants in Canada and

compares them to the most recent immigrants in the country. One can see from

this table that Pacific Rim nations, especially Hong Kong, have contributed the

most immigrants in recent years.

These new immigrants are not following the traditional pattern of chinese

settlement in Vancouver. No longer is Chinatown the destination of chinese

immigrants into Vancouver. Since the 1970s the new wave of immigrants has

been moving out of the central city, usually skipping it altogether and into the

suburbs. The fastest growing chinese communities throughout Canadian cities

are no longer found in downtown's but rather on the fringes. In Vancouver, this

translates into a booming Chinese population in such suburbs as New

Westminster and Richmond. Richmond's population, for example, is made up of

over one-third recent immigrants from Hong Kong.

The Business-Immigrant

As was shown in Fig. 4, Vancouver is the destination for the majority of the

business-class immigrants. Over 30% of all immigrants entering the country

under this category are destined for Vancouver, that is greater than any other

single city in Canada.

According to Roslyn Kunin, author of a government report on immigrant

investment, $3Billion was brought into Canada by business immigrants between

1986 and 1991. The majority of that money came from Asia. For those five years,

business immigrant financial investment amounted to 10% of all business sector

growth.

Impressive as those numbers are on their own, they are even higher for

British Columbia, where, in 1992, a full 25% of the $4Billion invested in the

province came from Hong Kong alone. Thanks to these new immigrants, the

province enjoyed a growth of  3.3% in 1992, far exceeding the 0.7% growth of the

rest of Canada. The Hong Kong Bank of Canada, after purchasing the Bank of

British Columbia and Lloyds Bank of Canada, has become the country's largest

foreign bank with assets of $12.6Billion. Its most profitable branch: Vancouver

Chinatown.

The Exodus

Why is it that their are so many recent immigrants from Hong Kong?

Fears of an uncertain future for the country after the reigns of power are given

over to the People's Republic of China are the primary driving force. Many of

the affluent members of Hong Kong society fear that what they have worked for

may be taken away, they fear political, social and economic repression. The

calming voices coming out of Beijing have not convinced many Hong Kong

residents. China is not trusted. Also, the political and economic climate of the

territory have driven many people away. Emigration has long been a feature of

Hong Kong life and Canada has been, and continues to be, a favourite

destination for the disillusioned.

The Case of Toronto

Vancouver is not alone in the changes taking place within its city.

Toronto's Chinese population is also decentralizing. No longer is its Chinese

population centered upon an area in the downtown core called Chinatown.

Canada's largest Chinese community is now found in six centers throughout the

Toronto region. Three of these centers are within the city, while three are

without, but the growth is in the suburbs - Scarborough, Mississauga, North

York.

The transition is from a central, condensed Chinatown area into more

sparsely populated North American style neighborhoods. Chinese have been

more slow to move to the suburbs than other ethnic groups, mainly due to the

extremely harsh racism which was outlined earlier. The Chinese, it is thought,

needed Chinatown to protect themselves, something which, arguably, is not

necessary any more.

Why Vancouver?

The change in structure of this new immigrant group as well as their

location amongst the community has caused many problems to surface.

Vancouver tends tobe one of the most popular destinations for new Hong Kong

immigrants, especially for the business-minded.

Why is Vancouver so popular? There are three core reasons for this

popularity 1)The provincial and civic governments have given clear signals to

the Hong Kong community that the city is open for business (i.e. the sale of expo

lands to Li Ka Shing). There has been a marked shift in view by policy makers in

the region away from the East where Europe and Central Canada lie, towards

the West, and the pacific rim nations. 2)Asian entrepreneurs are able to do

business in Vancouver around the clock. Vancouver is located in such a way as

to be in perfect position for Asian entrepreneurs, it is almost exactly halfway

between Tokyo and London. As a result businessmen can conduct business in

London in the morning, the west coast in the middle of the day, and Tokyo or

Hong Kong in the evening. 3)Asian businessmen also are begining to see how

they can take advantage of Nafta. By settling in Vancouver they are taking

advantage of the first two benefits and possibly using this third one. By

immigrating into Canada and ensuring that the Canadian content of the

business is 51% or greater the businessmen can take full advantage of Nafta

benefits.

Social Strains

As Vancouver enjoys the economic benefits of record levels of immigration, the

city of 1.6 million finds itself straining to accomodate the needs of an

increasingly multicultural population. Citizens of longer standing, meanwhile,

are asking other questions: as the face of the city changes, whose values will

prevail, those of traditional Vancouver - or those of the newcomers?

Vancouver is a city which still evokes strong British heritage, the visibly

changing population might prompt an even deeper question, one that has

profound meaning for the entire country. As the numbers of Canadians of non-

European origin increases, who are "we" anyways?

In contrast to the immigrants of past decades, most of whom arrived in

their new home with little money and a willingness to take any work that was

offered, many of the most recent newcomers to the city, particularly the roughly

one-fifth who arrive from Hong Kong, have both wealth and high expectations.

As investors and consumers their growing presence has extremely visible

consequences.

The new economic immigrants arrive in Vancouver flush with cash. They

are rich. At the Chinatown branch of the Hongkong Bank of Canada, half of the

20,000 clients have $3Million deposits. Ready to invest, they arrive in a city with

little industry to invest in. As a result they turn towards real estate. Over the

course of 1993 the real estate prices in Kerrisdale and Shaughnessy, two

communities popular with new chinese immigrants, rose over 40%.  The

following figure shows examples of the "monster homes" built in Kerrisdale and

Shaughnessy on typical lots and compares them to examples of the more

traditional homes.

Fig. 8

In late 1992, Kerrisdale and Shaughnessy were neighborhoods at the

centre of a heated debate over the right of new purchasers to level existing

homes and replace them with much larger dwellings that residents believed to

be out of place. In a district where many long-standing homeowners are avid

gardeners, it did not help that many builders felled full-grown trees in order to

accomodate the larger scale homes, and replaced greenery with multiple

parking spaces. "There is suffering going on in the neighborhood. People are

emotionally exhausted," says Johanna Albrecht, chairwoman of the West

Kerrisdale Residents' Association tree committee about the greenery issue. At

the same time, the owners of the offending homes, many recently arrived

immigrants from Hong Kong, insisted that they had met existing zoning rules

and had a cleara right to do as they wished with their property.

After a series of emotional public hearings during early 1993, a

compromise was reached. In exchange for permission to build houses larger

than anywhere else in Vancouver, City Hall now insists that builders of new

homes take into account the style of the dwellings on either side. While city hall

thinks that this solution is working, many residents are not so positive.

Conclusions

To be honest with ourselves, we must begin by admitting that not

everyone rejoices in the "changing face" of our country. Nor is it the case that

Canada opens its arms equally and impartially to all corners of the earth, or

looks positively opun all of their cultural differences. Every Canadian nows that

such preferences exist; the task of a nation which is truly commtted to human

rights is to defy its own prejudices.

Discriminatory attitudes and acts are not necessarily aimed at the least

advantaged. 1995 was witness to several cases of vocal resentment directed

against relatively affluent Asian minorities in cities such as Toronto and

Vancouver. The cause of the disturbance is that some of these people have

moved into neighborhoods with different ethnic backgrounds. The increased

Asian visibility created a backlash, which in this case took the form of

suggestions that the community was too "concentrated" or "exclusive," or

insufficiently "divers." Perhaps what was most positive about these outbursts

was that when people began to calm down things usually led to a greater

dialogue and a determination by all sides to do better.

For instance, a story about "overly prominent" Chinese-Canadians in

Vancouver led to the publication of some advice in the city's Ming Pao Daily

News suggesting that Canadians of Chinese origin might do more to avoid

raising intercultural resentments and to examine their own cultural and racial

prejudices. Perhaps this is good advice for all Canadians, especially in

Vancouver in Toronto.

One might ask whether the ideal of a color-blind and ethnically

harmonious society would not be better served by putting such differences to

the side rather than in-graining them through official hyphenization. If we are all

Canadians together, why do we continue to qualify our geographic identifiers

with words such as White, Black, French, Asian, German, Muslim, or

Allophone?

Bibliography

Primary

Albrecht, Johanna. Telephone Interview. 22 March 1996.

Chong, Abner. Telephone Interview. 23 March 1996.

Employment and Immigration Canada. Immigration Statistics 1991. Ottawa:

Ministry of Supply and Services, 1992.

Statistics Canada. Immigration and Citizenship. 1991 Census of Canada,

Catalogue No. 93-316.

Secondary

Anderson, Kay J. "Community Formation in Official Context: Residential     Segregation and the 'Chinese' in Early Vancouver" Canadian Geographer

38, No. 3 (1994), 354-356.

Anderson, Kay J. "The Idea of Chinatown: The Power of Place and Institutional

Practice in the Making of a Racial Category" Annals of the Association of

American Geographers, 77(4), 1987, 580-598.

Ford, Ashley. "Canadian Land Boom Goes West" Far Eastern Economic Review   Mar. 29, 1994, 44-45.

Fung, May. "Passport to a New Beginning" The Hong Kong Standard Feb. 4,

1996,     Special Report.

Gold, Kerry. "Proposed Legislation Would Protect Most Trees" The Vancouver

Courier, Jan 10 1996, 2.

Gorrie, Peter. "Farewell to Chinatown" Canadian Geographic v. 111 (Aug/Sept,

1991), 16-28.

Hiebert, Daniel. "Canadian Immigration: Policy, Politics, Geography" Canadian

Geographer 38, No. 3 (1994) 254-258.

LeCorre, Phillippe. "Canada's Hong Kong" Far Eastern Economic Review Feb.

10, 1994, 36-37.

Lee, Wei-Na and Tse, David K. "Becoming Canadian: Understanding How Hong

Kong Immigrants Change their Consumption" Pacific Affairs v. 67

(Spring,  1994), 70-95.

Majury, Niall. "Signs of the Times: Kerrisdale, a Neighborhood in Transition"

The  Canadian Geographer 38, No. 3 (1994) 265-270.

McMartin, Peter. "Learning to Fit In" The Vancouver Sun Feb 10, 1996, D5.

Nash, Alan. "Some Recent Developments in Canadian Immigration Policy"      Canadian Geographer 38, No. 3 (1994) 258-261.

The Economist v. 336 (Aug. 26, 1995), 40.

Todd, Douglas. "Immigration is About More than Money" The Vancouver SunJan.     20, 1996, D11.

Vibert, Dermot. "Asian Migration to Canada in Historical Context" Canadian

Geographer 38, No. 3 (1994), 352-354.

Wood, Chris. "Lessons of Vancouver" Maclean's Feb 7, 1994, 26-31.

"Yacht People" The Economist v. 311 (Apr. 22, 1989), 42.

56.  how to prepare for a backpacking expiditiona

In his short story "The Fall of the House of Usher", Edgar Allen Poe presents his reader with an intricately suspenseful plot filled with a foreboding sense of destruction.  Poe uses several literary devices, among the most prevalent, however are his morbid imagery and eerie parallelism.  Hidden in the malady of the main character are several different themes, which are all slightly connected yet inherently different.

Poe begins the story by placing the narrator in front of the decrepit, decaying mansion of Roderick Usher.  Usher summoned his childhood friend, the narrator, to his home by sending a letter detailing  only a minor illness.  After the narrator arrives and sees the condition of the house he becomes increasingly superstitious.  When the narrator first sees his host he describes his morbid appearance and it arouses his superstition even more.  Over a period of time the narrator begins to understand his friends' infliction, insanity.  He tries in vane to comfort his friend and provide solace, however to no avail.  When Roderick's only remaining kin, his sister Madeline dies, Rodericks insanity seems to have gone to a heightened level.  Shortly after his sister's death, Roderick's friend is reading him a story.  As things happen in the story, simultaneously the same description of the noises come from within the house.  As Usher tries to persuade the narrator that it is his sister coming for him, and his friend believing Roderick has gone stark raving mad, Madeline comes bursting in through the door and kills her brother.  The narrator flees from the house, and no sooner does he get away than he turns around and sees a fissure in the houses masonry envelop the house and then watch the ground swallow up the remains.

In "The Fall of the House of Usher" Poe introduces the reader to three characters; Lady Madeline, Roderick Usher, and the narrator, whose name is never given.  Lady Madelin, the twin sister of Roderick Usher, does not speak one word throughout the story.  In fact she is absent from most of the story, and she and the narrator do not stay together in the same room.  After the narrators arrival she takes to her bed and falls into a catatonic state.  He helps to bury her and put her away in a vault, but when she reappears he flees.  Before she was buried she roamed around the house quietly not noticing anything, completely overcome by her mental disorder.

Roderick Usher appears to be an educated man. He comes from a wealthy family and owns a huge library.  According to the narrator, he had once been an attractive man and "the character of  his face had been at all times remarkable" (Poe, 126).  However , his appearance had deteriorated over time.  Roderick's altered appearance probably was caused by his insanity.  The narrator notes various symptoms of insanity from Roderick's behavior.  Roderick's state worsens throughout the story as he becomes increasingly restless and unstable, especially after the burial of his sister.  He find himself unable to sleep and also finds that he hears noises.  All in all he is a severely unbalanced man trying to maintain an equilibrium in his life.

In contrast to Roderick, the narrator appears to be a man of common sense.  He seems to have a good heart in that he comes to help a friend from his childhood.  He, like, Roderick also appears to be very educated and very analytical.  In his observations of Usher he concludes that his friend suffers from an acute mental disorder.  He looks for natural explanations for the odd things that Roderick senses.  Criticizing Usher for his outrageous fantasies, the narrator claims that Roderick is "enchained by certain superstitious impressions, in regard to the dwelling which he tenanted"(Poe,125).  The narrator's tone suggests that he cannot understand Usher.  However he himself is superstitious.

The three characters are unique people with different characteristics, but they all eventually suffer from the same mental disorder.  All of them suffer from insanity, yet each responds differently.  Madeline seems to accept the fact that she is insane and continues through life with that knowledge.  Roderick seems to realize his mental state and makes every effort to hold on his sanity.  And the narrator who is slowly but surely contracting the disease, wants to deny what he sees, hears, and senses.  In the end he regains his senses but only because he flees from the house.

Poes writings are known for their macabre subject matter.  In "The Fall of the House of Usher", Poe uses the life-like characteristics of an otherwise decaying house as a device for giving the house a supernatural atmosphere.  From the beginning of the story the narrator claims to have sensed something unusual and supernatural about the house.  After he sees the inside of the house the narrator has a heightened superstition, though he tries to view everything he sees rationally.  He observes the home and sees fungi growing all over it and the decaying masonry "there appeared to be a wild inconsistency between its still perfect adaptation of parts and the utterly porous and evidently decayed condition of stones" (Poe,125)as if to say something supernatural was holding the house up, otherwise it might have fallen apart a long time before.  By giving objects almost lifelike characteristics, Poe gives the house a supernatural quality which serves to make the story more interesting and suspenseful in his treatment of the houses effect on its inhabitants.

There are sections in the story where different forms of art; a painting and a poem, are introduced.  Both of them tell a story within a story.  These stories , in their own way are somehow parallel to the story in "The Fall of the House of Usher".

The painting was a painting done by Henry Fuesli.  "Fuesli was noted for his interest in the supernatural."(Poe, 127).  "A small picture presented the interior of an immensely long and rectangular vault or tunnel, with low walls, smooth, white, and without interruption...and bathed the whole in a ghastly and inappropriate splendor." (Poe, 127). This description can be interpreted as a place of sorrow, where the atmosphere is morbid and cold.  Most people have art in their homes for reasons of cheering up the place.  All this painting did was add morbidity and coldness to the house.

The poem entitled "The Haunted Palace" makes a connection between the house and its inhabitants.  The poem seems to parallel to the plot of "The Fall of the House of Usher".  "Once a fair and stately palace--snow white palace--reared its head"(Poe, 127).  This describes the past of the Usher home.  It was once a stately mansion, but as time went by the house deteriorated along with the conditions of the people occupying it.  We get to the present in both the story and this excerpt "but evil things in rokes of sorrow, assailed the monarchs high estate"(Poe, 126).  This is what is happening to the Usher house now.  The house along with its inhabitants are full of sorrow.

Poe uses differing themes of fear, death, and freedom throughout the story to set a suspenseful mood.  Roderick is overcome by the fear that he is experiencing and it affects  every aspect of his life.  It is the constant presence of fear that has caused his illness.  He doesn't know how or is unwilling to overcome these fears.  The narrator suggests Roderick's fears may be directly linked to the house "he is enchained by certain superstitious impressions in regard to the dwelling which he is tenanted, and from which for many years he never ventured forth"(Poe, 125), implying that his condition might be relieved if he left the house and faced his fears.  Because of fear, however he is restrained from leaving and doesn't attempt to overcome them.  The recurring concept of fear in the story shows it power and impact on humanity.  Fear can be beneficial by restraining us from actions that can lead to harm or danger.  Poe, however, takes this to the extreme by showing the negative influences of fear.  Fear can restrain us from actions that could be beneficial, and excessive fear can lead to insanity. He also shows that fear can be passed on to others, ultimately showing that we must recognize our fears to be able to overcome them.

Death is Roderick Usher's main fear.  He is from a "time honored" and prestigious family. And he and his sister are the last of a long line of descendants.  Poe uses the concept of death and Roderick's deteriorating mental condition in order to give a sense of foreboding and mystery to the story.  It is this premonition of something dreadful to come which surround the characters of Roderick and Madeline as the story progresses.  From the time the narrator sees Roderick his comments compare Roderick to death itself, saying that his appearance indicates death. It is also as if Roderick foresees his forthcoming death and wishes to pass the time away with his friend so he would not go crazy.  This theme of death seems to intertwine with the theme of freedom.  It seemed to Roderick Usher that death could be his only freedom.  Because he was constrained to the confines of his house and it turned him into a prisoner.  Even in the narrators words he viewed him as a "slave" of the house.  All Roderick wanted was to be free from the "Daemon of Death", and only death would free him from his insanity and the confines of his house.

Poe's graphic portrayal of imagery enhance every aspect of the story, from the suspense of the story itself, to the wild personalities of the characters and the similarly morbid themes inherently present.

57.  Hutus and Tutsis

The culture of the Hutu and Tutsi tribes of Rwanda, Africa interests me for many reasons.  One reason is that they are so diverse from our American way of life.  Another reason is that I have heard a little bit about them in the news and by talking to people.  This sparked my interest and made me want to learn more about them.  I will cover a wide variety of information in my report.  This will include the land where they live, their way of life, their history and ancestry, and what the government is like in Rwanda.  I don't expect the reader to become an expert on the Hutus and the Tutsis, but I do hope that the reader gets a general understanding about what is going on in their section of Africa.  I have learned lots of new information from doing this report, not only about the Hutus' and the Tutsis' culture, but about the whole continent of Africa.

The first topic that I will cover is about the people that make up the tribes of the Hutu and Tutsi.  The total population of the country of Rwanda, where most of their events have taken place is 7,800,000.  The population of the Hutus is 3,000,000 and the Tutsis number only 1,000,000.  The physical traits of the Hutus and Tutsis are very different from each other.  The Hutu have larger noses and larger all around facial features than the Tutsis.  Most Tutsis are seldom less than six feet tall, while the Hutu are very short people.  The Tutsis are related to the Masai and the people along the Nile, while the Hutus have a Buntu history.  As you can see the people that make up the tribes of the Hutus and the Tutsis are a very diverse group of people.

The way of life for the Hutu and the Tutsis is considerably different.  Traditionally, the Tutsi were the wealthy, upper class and the Hutu were little more than slaves.  Now the power is a little more equally divided, but is still more in favor of the Tutsis.  The Hutu are mainly peasant farmers, while the Tutsis are mainly animal stock breeders.  One thing that the Hutu and the Tutsi have in common is that they are both a Buntu language speaking group.  The basis of the natives' religion is a belief that there is a supreme principle of good known as Imana.  Followers of this religion use magical amulets in their rituals.  One half of the people in Rwanda are Christian, and most of the Christians are Catholic.

The staple foods of the Hutu are cooked bananas, maize, and millet.  The staple foods of the Tutsis are dairy products, and agricultural foods that are bought from the Hutu.  Only a minimal percentage of both tribes go to school.  The children that go to school either go to a religious mission or to a public school.  The way of life for the Hutu and Tutsi differs from our lifestyle very much.

Right now the economy is in shambles because of the devastation of the long enduring civil war between these rival ethnic groups.  I will expand on this topic later.  The industry crashed because most of the country's efforts were being put into the war effort and not much work was getting done.  Very little economic activity is going on and, as a result of this, millions of people are suffering.  The agriculture consists of Hutu farmers' products.  Stock breeding is done by the Tutsis who are cattle herders.  Tin mining is the leading industry in Rwanda.  As you can see the economy was never very strong to begin with, and now with the civil war raging it is worse than ever.

The history of conflict between the two tribes began four centuries ago.  The Tutsis are a warrior tribe of Hamatic origin.  Sometimes called the "Watutsi", they invaded the Hutu in Rwanda from the North.  The Hutu couldn't defend themselves and they were taken over by the Tutsi and reduced to serfdom.  Each Hutu chose a Tutsi Lord who gave them use of cattle.  There wasn't much conflict until 1959 when a civil war broke out when the leaders of both tribes were killed.  The Hutu tried to get equality through the National Party of Hutu Emancipation.  This did not work however.  In 1960, elections were held under Belgium supervision.  More Hutus won and the Hutus took over the government.  The Hutu Gregoire Kayibanda was elected president.  Two years later Rwanda won independence and the Hutus started mistreating the Tutsis.  After independence, violence erupted between the two tribes.  In 1973 Kayibanda was accused of being lenient with Tutsis who slaughtered thousands of Hutus in Burundi.  The army was unhappy about this so they took over the government.  General Habyarinew was appointed president of Rwanda.  In 1990 the Tutsis began a civil war against the Hutu government.  The Tutsis forced the Hutus to Zairian refugee camps.  Since Zaire is a poor country and they couldn't support the Hutu refugees they forced the Hutus back to Rwanda.  Finally in 1994 settlements seemed to be working out.  Later in 1994 a plane crashed at Kigali, Rwanda's capital, with a Hutu leader on board.  The Hutus thought the Tutsis were responsible for this act.  Hutu extremists began their campaign of genocide after this.  500,000 Tutsis were killed by the Hutu extremists, who also killed Hutus who wanted to live peacefully with the Tutsis.  2137 of the killers were under 18.  Trials for the minors are supposed to take place in March of 1997.  Altogether since independence, more than half a million people have been killed and just as many have fled to Zaire and Uganda.

Today Rwanda is dominated by the Hutus, and Burundi is controlled by the Tutsi.  The most current news is that the United States have sent 1,000 troops to Zaire to help the people in need.

Rwanda, the land where the two tribes are primarily located is called the "African Switzerland" because it is very picturesque.  Rwanda covers 9530 square miles of land and is very densely populated.  The yearly temperature ranges from 55 to 75 degrees.  There is not much rainfall and this often leads to droughts.  The central plateau country ranges in altitude from 4800 feet on the shores of Lake Kiva to 14,000 feet in the volcanic mountains of the North.  The highest mountain is Mount Karisimbi and it is 13,520 feet high.  In our language Karisimbi means "pearl."  The Savanna grasslands of the central plateau run an average height of 5,600 feet.  The Hutu live in the mountainous Savanna country in Rwanda and Burundi, between Zaire and the lakes of East Africa.  The Tutsi live in Rwanda where they form 10% of the population and in Burundi where they are more numerous.  The land in Rwanda is very diverse and they have a very dry climate.

Right now the Hutu are in control of the government.  The government is a republican form of government with a constitution that provides for a president and an 44 member legislative assembly.  There are five major political parties.  The government is divided into 10 circumscriptions.  The president appoints prefects that are responsible for local government.  The mayor of each circumscription is appointed by the president.  Right now the president is General Habyarimana, who is a Hutu.  The armed forces serve as a national defense and for internal security.  The total number of people in the armed forces is 20,000.  The Judiciary system consists of four different levels of court.  The lowest level courts are customary courts and the police court.  Next highest up is the court of First Instance and then, finally, the highest court, the Court of Appeals.  As you can see Rwanda has an organized form of government, but the president has a lot of power in deciding who is to be appointed to what offices.

To summarize my report, the Hutu are more numerous than the Tutsi.  They look different physically, but have a similar language.  The economy is in bad shape for both of the tribes.  The Hutu and Tutsi have had a long history of conflict and the land where they live is quite different from each other.  The government is still mainly controlled by the Hutu.

To go over a few key points, the Tutsi are a warrior tribe of Hamatic origin and are seldom less than six feet tall.  Another key point is that the Hutu are mainly peasant farmers, while the Tutsi are mainly stock breeders.  The year round temperature in Rwanda ranges from 55 to 75 degrees.  One last key point is that the staple foods of the Hutu are cooked bananas, maize, and millet.  The staple foods of the Tutsi are dairy produce, and agricultural foods that are bought from the Hutu.

I hope that you have enjoyed my report and learned a lot about the culture of the Hutu and the Tutsi tribes of Africa.

58.  Imperialism

IMPERIALISM

Imperialism is the domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region in order to increase its own wealth and power.  Imperialism during the period following the Age of Exploration, when European countries acquired colonies to support mercantilism, can be called "old imperialism."  In the nineteenth century, a new era of imperialism began, this time spurred on by the Industrial Revolution.

Some reasons for imperialism were political, economic, and social.  These are some political reasons.   Feelings of nationalism itensified throughout Europe during the nineteenth century.  Nationalism in the extreme promotes the idea of national superiority.  Industrialized countries therefore felt they had the right to take control of weaker areas.  Countries also tried to increase their power through the control of more land and people.

Economic causes also led to imperialism.  As a result of the Industrial Revolution, countries needed colonies for Raw materials to feed the ever-increasing number of factories, Markets for finished products, places to invest surplus capital, and places to send surplus population.  And social causes also led to imperialism.  Many people believed the word of Rudyard Kipling, who said it was the white mans burden to educate the people of the underdeveloped world, spread the customs of what they perceived was a superior western culture, and to convert people to Christianity, since it was believed that the souls of the non-believers would not be saved.

The new era of imperialism brought about important and farreaching effects.  Through the creation of global empires, the imperial powers helped spread the Industrial Revolution and the capitalist system around the world.  Christianity, western European languages, and Imperialism benefited underdeveloped regions through improved transportation, education, and medical care.

Imperialism also had its negative side.  It undermined native cultures and exploited people and resources in underdeveloped lands.  Eventually, colonial nationalist movements developed to end imperial control.  One such movement was the Boxer Rebellion  in China.  The most dangerous aspect of imperialism was competition among the colonial powers themselves.  These rivalries held the potential for conflict and war.

Much of Africa suffers from restrictive trading patterns established during the age of European imperialism.  In the late 1800s and early 1900s, European nations acquired colonies in Africa in order to take advantage of  the continents raw materials.  For example, imperial powers built zi

59.  India

Around 2000 B.C. people called Aryan started invading India.  This process continued to approximately 1000 B.C.  Aryan tribes were led by kings.  The Aryans conquered the native population, intermarried with it and settled in peasant villages.

The Aryans brought their religion to India. The various sacrifices of the Aryan cults were accompanied by chanted hymns. These hymns comprised the first great religion work of the Aryans - the Rig Veda.  The Veda and the Brahmins, the priests, came to hold a most prominent place in Vedic society.

By about the forth century B.C. Hinduism had supplanted the older Vedic faith and became supreme.  During this period two new religions Buddhism and Jainism developed out of Hinduism.  The basic institution of the society was the extended family.  The family consisted of eldest male and his wife, their sons, grandsons and heir wives and children and unmarried daughters.  The majority of Hindu families lived in villages and agriculture was their basic occupation.

When Aryans settled in India, their society was organized around four varnas or orders.  Brahmans (priests) were the highest varna.  The second varna consisted of the Kshatriyas or warriors, rulers and administrators.  The third varna consisted of the Vaishya or merchants.  The Shudras belonged to the lowest varna.  During classic period, hundreds of sub-varnas, jatis, developed.  Membership in a caste was determined by birth and Hindus were not allowed to marry members of other castes.

The village was governed by its headman and a council.  Both were members of highest caste in the village.  Villages compose kingdoms and empires which were ruled by monarchs.

In 1018 A.D. Mahmud of Chazhi invaded India from Afghanistan.  This was the date when Muslims started to rule India.  Islam, the religion of new invaders had a great influence on Indian culture.  Muslim invaders intermarried with Hindus, and this process produced a Muslim minority with Hindu heritage.  During this time a new language called Hindustani emerged replacing Sanskrit.

Then came European merchants looking for spices.  In 1707 the British found it possible to intervene India.  Alliances with native kings and usage of armies were the leading feature of this intervention. The Battle of Plessey in 1757 in Bengal, the British and their allies and established themselves as a supreme power in India.  Gradually the British extended their control over all the territory of modern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh.

In 1813 India was opened to the humanitarian and civilizing "mission" of the missionary and the commercial travelers.  After 1813 the British were concerned with governing and improving India as they thought best.  At this time the evangelists and missionaries began to build their own schools for the education of Indians.

In 1857 there was a huge rebellion in India-Mutiny.  The rebels were defeated.  However, the rebellion did change the way the British started to rule India.

With the suppression of the Mutiny, the company that had ruled before, was

abolished and India was placed under the Crown.  Shortly after this the Suez Canal was opened.  This meant that India economy could be better connected tho economy of Europe; communications became much more rapid.  More and more Europeans started visiting India and more Indians started visiting Europe.  Direct telegraphic communications were opened as well.  At the same time, many new railroads and roads were built.  New colleges, primarily for the British, were opened.

Being under a lot of pressure, in 1909 the British Government allowed Indians to vote. However, it was required that Hindus could vote only for Hindus, Muslims for Muslims etc.

Around 1885, Indian nationalism was loyal  to the British.  By the end of the century, however, more and more nationalist supporters of direct actions appeared.  In 1920  Mahatma Gandhi became the leader of the Congress.  Under his leadership, the Congress Party became a most national party.  By the end of World War ll it became clear that India would be partition into the new nations.  In 1947 India was declared an independent secular republic.

60.  Indonesia

Indonesia

This essay will be on the History in Brief of Indoneisa, the Government of Indoneisia, the island of Java, and the Geography of Indoneisa.

In early days, the region from India to Japan, including Indonesia, was known to the Europeans as the Indies. Chris Colombus was looking for a westward sea roots from Europe to the Indies when he arrived in America. During 1600¹s dutch political control began to spread Indonesia.

Indonesia declared it¹s independencein 1945 and fought the Dutch until 1949 when they gave up their control.

At first, the Dutch allowed nationalist movement to delevope. In 1905,  it had introduced municipal councils to govern the towns and cities. By 1920, there were 32 such councils, with little electorial franchise.

Other councils were also established. They included provicial councils in Java, and group communities concils outside Java.

The government of Indonesia is based on a constitution written in 1945. A president serves as the head of government.  The president apionts a sheet of advisers consisting of top military leaders and civillians.

In theory, the  peoples console assembly is supposed to establish a general direction of the government¹s policys.

A house of peoples Representatives is the nations parlament, however, in practice neither the assembly nor the house has real power. Instead, it is the president who makes all of the important decisions.

The president is elected to a five year term the Peoples Consulative assembly. Te assembly has 1,000 members. It includes the 500 members of the peoples representives. It also includes 500 members of regional, occupational, and other groups.

All assembly members serve five year terms. The assembly usually is only held  once every five years. The 500 members of the People¹s Representatives includes 400 who are elected through a system that insures that the government¹s potlitical organization win most of the seats. Servicmen have no vote, so the remaining 100 are appointed by the president on the reccomendation of the comander of the armed forces.

Indonesia is divided into twenty-seven provinces.  The provinces  are divided into regioncies and municipalities.  These units are further divided into villages.

Officials  of all local government units exept villages are appointed by central government from lists of people nominated by regional legislators.  Indonesian villages elect their own village officials to provide local government.

Java lies between Sumatra (to the west), and Bali (to the east).     To the north is the  Java Sea.  To the south is the Indian Ocean which Indonesians call the Indonesian Ocean.

The greatest  distance from North Java to South Java is  two hundred kilometers.  From East Java to West Java is over one thousand kilometers.

The island of Java has five  administrative  units:  the special territory of Jakarta Raya,  Java  Barat ,  Jawa Barat,  Jawa Tengah, the special territory of  Yogjakarta, and  Jawa Timur.

A chain of  volcanic mountains  run along the island from west to east.  These mountains are apart of a fold in the earth¹s crust which extends from  Southeast Asian mainland through Sumatra and Java to the lesser Sundra Islands.  Java itself has 112 peaks.  The volcanic soil is extremely fertile and this are supports a large population.

Tangkuban Prahu in West Java is a live volcanoe that attraccts manu tourists. A similar mountain in the Sunda Straights, Krakatoua, is famous for its erruption in 1883. The whole northern portion of the peak was blown away. The explosion was heard over 700 kilometers away. The resulting sea waves caused over thirty six thousand Indonesian deaaths in the low lying of West and South Jakarta.

Indonesia is a country in south east Asia that consists of more than 13,600 islands.  The islands lie along the equator, and extend more than 5,000 kilometers.  Many of the islands cover only a few square kilometers but about half of New Guinea (an area called Irian Jaya), and three fourths of Borneo (Kalimantan), also belong to Indonesia. New Guinea and Borneo are the second and third  largest islands in the world after Greenland.

61.  Industry and the effects of climate in Italy

Industry

The structure of industrial production and the service industries is characterized by the prevalence of smarkforce, 30% beingll and medium-sized companies (94% and 5.6% according to 100 workers) thoug981 data), employing, however, only 70% of the workforce, 30% being monopolized by large c ompanies (more than 100 workers) though these comprise only 0.4% of the total. This means that companies are widely dispersed over the whole country, obviously with significant location and concentration of industry, and more than half the industrial comp anies operate at little more than workshop level, as is seen by the small workforce in each production unit.

On the other hand, the small number of large companies is explained by increased concentration, at that level also indicated by the high number of employees.

There is only a limited number of cooperative companies (food sector and the transformation of agricultural products), while large companies tend to become multinational. The presence of companies with foreign capital monopolizing specific commodity secto rs (pharmaceuticals, photographic materials, electronics, cosmetics etc.) is far from rare.

One particular kind of development regards medium-sized companies, frequently derivations of small family-run businesses with a specialized production, which as a result of management flexibility have succeeded in reconverting production and using technol ogical innovations which, with increased competitivity, enable them to penetrate international markets, in this way contributing to the consolidation of the Italian image and presence throughout the world.

The Industrial Sectors

The steel and metalworking industries

The country's economic revival in the immediate postwar period was essentially sustained by development and expansion of the basic industries, particularly the steel industry, itself conditioned by the importation of raw materials such as ores, scrap iron and coal.

Membership of ECSC enabled the Italian steel industry, which had installed the integral processing cycle, to attain extremely high levels of production thus satisfying increasingly greater domestic demand, such as that of the engineering industry, as well as the export market. Following plant reconversion steel and metal production is now stagnating due to the international economic situation dominated by strong competition from Japanese industries and plastics, leading to overproduction in the principal European countries.

The engineering industries

Mechanical engineering production is extremely varied and includes companies such as shipbuilding, aerospace, carbuilding etc. with complex work cycles, together with the manufacturers of simple tools. Component manufacturing is also well developed and cl osely allied to companies producing durable goods not easily classified in any one sector (for example, non-metallic materials used in the car industry: rubber, glass, plastics etc).

In practice, mechanical engineering with its diversification and multiple relationships with other industries is considered the mainstay of the national productive system also in terms of the large workforce employed (over 2,2 million according to the 198 1 census, including small workshops). Apart from cars and other vehicles, the most highly developed industries are tools, household appliances, electronic equipment, precision instruments etc. The industrial machinery sector is particularly active with ex tensive overseas markets, and includes components for complete process cycles.

The chemical industry

The chemical industry is closely linked to mining and quarrying and uses prevalently liquid (oil) and gaseous hydrocarbons (methane) from which an immense range of materials is produced (rubber, plastics, synthetic resins, synthetic fibres, fertilizers et c.), apart from traditional utilization as heating fuel, engine fuel etc.).

Like the steel industry, the chemical industry has been going through a critical period due to over-production and problems related to modernization of plant. One serious additional condition is the need to resort to large-scale importation of raw materia ls for transformation, and consequent submission to fluctuating conditions on the international market.

The textile industry

Textiles are the oldest Italian industry, widespread throughout the former States on the peninsula and frequently linked to the rural community which provided plentiful low cost labour. In the postwar period, this sector faced a period of crisis caused pr imarily by the use of old machinery and inefficient working methods, though also by competition by foreign producers, particularly in developing countries which were already raw material suppliers (cotton, wool, jute etc.).

In actual fact, the crisis in the textile industry has deeper roots in the progressive decay of some traditional related activities, such as silkworm breeding and the cultivation of hemp and flax. The utilization of artificial fibres derived from cellulos e, and later of synthetics derived from hydrocarbons, together with renewal of production plant (mainly automated) and job reorganization, has enabled far higher levels of productivity to be reached, offset by a considerable decrease in the workforce and concentration of companies.

For its raw material supplies (synthetic fibres) and the utilization of the fabrics produced, the textile sector is closely allied (also by vertical mergering of companies) to the chemical and garment manufacturing industries. The latter, in particular, i s still scattered over the country, in the form of small firms.

The food industry

Development of the food industry is a direct consequence of the expansion of large urban centres and progressive industrialization. Strictly allied to the primary sector (agriculture and livestock) it makes considerable use nevertheless of imports, the re sult of insufficient national agricultural and livestock production.Ascatteringofsmallartisan-typefirmsgenerallyoriented towards meeting local demand is now flanked by numbers of medium-sized companies operating at a national level, using advanced systems of processing, conservation and packaging, themselves flanking the pasta, wine and oil producers, and other traditional companies. The food conservation industry is in a special position, connected with agriculture, livestock and fisheries.

Certain sectors of the economy such as wines, bakery products and confectionery, are particularly renowned abroad. A number of big multinationals monopolize supplies and are thus in a position to influence market conditions, while mass distribution (super markets) is interdependent with certain food manufacturers, while frozen and vacuum packed foodstuffs have helped to extend seasonal consumption, particularly of fresh fruit, vegetables and perishables.

Here is a chart showing the dramatic changes in Industry.

The Geological Substratum

Even if it is not very extensive,theItalian territory is distinguished by the considerable variety of its substratum rocks. The Alps are largely formed from crystalline rocks (granites, gneisses, mica-schists, porphyries, etc.) but there are also sedimentary rocks (limestones, dolomites and sandstones) that are widespread in the eastern sector and the pre-Alpine belt. Sedimentary rocks are also prevalent throughout the Apennines (limestones, dolomites, sandstones, clays, marls, etc.), including Sicily, and are found in Sardinia too, where crystalline and volcanic rocks predominate. There latter (formed from ancient and recent lava and tufa) also appear in Sicily and along the peninsula's Tyrrhenian margin (where there is a considerable concentration of volcanic phenomena, in part still active) as well as in the Alps. Finally, the flat areas, including the great Po-Venetian Plain, are basically formed of mixed deposits that are mainly fluvial in origin (conglomerates, gravels, sands, clays). The great variety of rock types characterizing the Italian framework is mainly the result of a complex geological past, distinguished by marked environmental alternations - now marine, now continental - as well as frequent changes in climatic conditions. Furthermore, even if present mountain forms are considered to be rather recent, Italy does contain extremely old rock formations. Some of the metamorphic outcrops in the Alpine arc and in the Sardinian-Corsican and Calabrian-Peloritan massifs were formed before the Palaeozoic era, that is more than 600 million years ago, and therefore do not contain significant traces of organisms. During the Palaeozic era (lasting from circa 570 to 230 million years ago) the area now occupied by Italy was largely covered by a tropical sea (called Tethys by geologists) from which must have emerged some mountain folds, as those of the Caledonian period, begun some 500 million years ago and whose traces remain in southwestern Sardinia (Iglesiente and Sulcis). The next mountain building period, the Hercynian, occurred during the last 100 million years of the Palaeozoic era and was accompanied by considerable volcanic activity. This provoked the formation of the original nucleus of the Alpine chain together with the emergence of the Calabrian-Peloritan mountains (Aspromonte and Sila in Calabria and Peloritan in Sicily) and the Sardinian-Corsican massif. The volcanic activity of this period also affected the Alpine arc (porphyry effusions in the Adige Valley), as well as in the northern Apennines (Garfagnana and Apuan Alps) and Sardinia and Corsica. Following the Hercynian orogenesis, the mountains formed by it were subject to intense erosion. Thus at the end of the Palaeozoic era there emerged from the waters of the Tethys (the extensive oceanic basin separating the Euro-Asiatic continental plate from the African) the remains of the palaeo-Alpine chain, part of the northern section of the peninsula - probably connected with the Sardinian-Corsican massif, and, further south, the other great island fold of the Calabrian-Peloritan massif. During the course of the succeeding Mesozoic era, lasting for over 160 million years, almost all the present area of Italy remained covered by a large marine basin on whose bottom (which varied considerably in depth) was deposited on different occasions material of various types. This was to produce, following a process of compaction and orogenesis, disparate rock formations: limestones, dolomites, sandstones, marls, etc. In particular, in the northeastern area there formed extensive coralline reefs from which the present Dolomites are derived. Towards the end ot the Mesozoic era the progressive moving together of the African and European continental plates reduced their common marine space and caused a folding of their respective margins and part of the bed of the Tethys. This was to produce the Alpine and Apennine chains whose curvature reflects the anticlockwise movement of the contact line between Europe and Africa produced by the particular forces of their respective plates. Their collision took place some 40 million years ago (between the Eocene and Oligocene periods) in the first-half of the Cenozoic era, which is considered to have lasted from circa 65 million to 2 million years ago. lc>The formation of the Alps and the Apennines continued throughout the Cenozoic, slackening in the succeeding Miocene and Pliocene periods in which however some uplifting continued. This was accompanied by intense volcanic activity that has left traces in the Lessini Mts. (Venetian pre-Alps), Euganean Hills, Sardinia, Tuscany and Sicily (Iblei Mts.). Already, however, during the Miocene period erosion had considerably increased on the Alpine and Apennine peaks and this also continued in the Pliocene period, resulting in the depositing at the feet of the chains of huge deposits of sand, gravel and clay. There then followed a phase of general increased marine predominance, lasting a good part of the Miocene and all the Pliocene. At the end of this latter period, circa 1.8-2 million years ago, with the withdrawal of the sea and the filling up of the great Po depression the shape of the present-day Italian region and particularly the peninsula and islands began to gradually appear. The Neozoic era, which is still in progress, was characterized in its early part (corresponding to the Pleistocene period) by alternating warm and cold climatic phases, which resulted on several occasions in the expansion and retraction of the Alpine and Apennine glaciers with a consequent alteration in sea level. The last glaciation ended circa 10-12 thousand years ago, giving way to the current Holocene period characterized in Italy by temperate climatic conditions. During the Neozoic era, usually called the Quaternary, volcanic activity has re-occurred very intensely especially on the Tyrrhenian side. Surface erosion followed the relief modelling, filling in with detritus the internal Apennine depressions previously occupied by lakes (Val d'Arno, Val Tiberina, etc.) and also forming the plains at the edges of the peninsula and islands. At the same time, while our present flora and fauna were evolving, there appeared the first known representatives of the human species in Italy, whose traces have recently been found near Isernia (La Pineta) and date to some 730,000 years ago.

Landforms

The complexity of its geological history combined with the wide variety of its substratum rock types, often dislocated by numerous fault-lines and folding of the rocky strata by orogenic forces, have contributed to Italy's extremely diverse morphology. Less than a quarter (23%) of its total territory is formed by plains, while mountainous areas occupy over a third of its surface (35%). Finally, over two-fifths (42%) consists of hill zones. Italy's maximum height above sea level corresponds with the summit of Mt. Bianco, 4,810 m., on the border with France. The far eastern section of the Po Plain has in contrast some zones slightly below sea level, which are generally subject to subsidence phenomena. However, physically, the Italian territory can be considered to consist of the following regional units, characterized by a certain morphological similarity and at times also climatic: the Alpine system and Po-Venetian Plain in the continental section; the Apennine system and anti-Apennine reliefs in the peninsula section; and the large islands of Sicily and Sardinia.

The Alps

Almost the whole southern side of this great mountainous system belongs to Italy, covering as it does a length of circa 110 km from the mouth of the Rhône to the mid-Danube plains and varying in width from circa 150 to 250 km. This southern side contains many longitudinal (Valle d'Aosta, Valtellina, Val Venosta and Val Pusteria) and transversal valleys (Val di Susa, Val d'Ossola, Val Camonica and Valle dell'Adige). It can be divided in three sectors: western, central and eastern Alps. The first two of mainly crystalline rocks and the third of sedimentary rocks. Their traditional groupings are still in use: western sector of Ligurian, Maritime, Cottian and Graian Alps; central sector of Pennine, Lepontine and Rhaetian Alps; and eastern sector of Adige, Carnic and Julian Alps. The first two groups contain the highest peaks, often exceeding 4,000 m. (Gran Paradiso, Mont Blanc, Cervino, Rosa and Bernina). The pre-Alpine belt is mainly formed of sedimentary rocks. It stretches from the mouth of the Valle d'Aosta to the Valle dell'Isonzo and is particularly disjointed, especially in two zones: the Lombard pre-Alps, where the landscape of valleys is enlivened by large glacially excavated lakes (Orta, Maggiore, Lugano, Como, Iseo and Garda); and the Venetian pre-Alps, which contain numerous plateaux (Lessini, Sette Comuni and Cansiglio).

The Po-Venetian Plain

This is the principal Italian plain, extending for circa 42 sq km to the south of the Alpine arc and having its other border with the northern Apennines and the Adriatic where it merges into a coast that is low and sandy on the Romagna shore and ringed by lagoons on the Venetian shore. The Po River cuts across the centre of the plain and, over the past two thousand years, has created a huge delta on the edge of the Adriatic Sea. In this it has been assisted by many Alpine and Apennine tributaries, as well as by other watercourses descending directly to the sea from the Venetian pre-Alps (Adige, Brenta, Piave, Tagliamento and Isonzo) and the northern Apennines (Reno, Lamone and Marecchia). The Po-Venetian Plain has a mean altitude of circa 50 m, while in the marginal belt at the foot of the pre-Alps and the Alps it exceeds 200 m. This is the point at which it is possible to distinguish a high (gravel and sand) from a low (mainly mud and clay) plain, separated by a row of springs that have had an important influence in the development of the plain's agricultural economy (cultivation of the rice fields, water etc.). This plain also has an extremely important economic and social role. Though it forms only a seventh part of the national territory it contains about a third of the Italian population.

The Apennines

The Apennine range extends for over 1,200 km from the Colle di Cadibona (touching on the Ligurian Alps) to the extreme south of Calabria and then includes all the north Sicilian mountains. It forms the mountain backbone of the Italian peninsula, unfolding in an extensive concave chain that opens towards the Tyrrhenian Sea. Sometimes its mountains run parallel and sometimes they seem detached in isolated groups, usually separated by wide valley and basins (Valdarno, Val Tiberina, Valle del Volturno, Vallo di Diano, Piana del Fucino, etc.). Furthermore, these alternate with numerous transversal valleys that often narrow into gorges. As with the Alps so with the Apennines, three sectors can be distinguished: a northern one of largely sandstones, marls and clays, covering Liguria, Tuscany and Emilia; a central one essentially of limestones, covering Umbria-Marches and Latium-Abruzzo; and, finally, a southern one of mixed rock types, covering Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. Along both edges of the peninsula extensive depressions separate the Apennine chains from isolated reliefs. These are usually given the name Antiapennine: Tuscan Antiapennine, with the Monti del Chianti, Amiata and Colline Metallifere; Latio-Campania Antiapennine, with its volcanic belt running from Cimini Mounts to Roccamonfina and Vesuvio; and Puglia">Apulian Antiapennine, with the Gargano, Murge and Salentina Peninsula. In Sicily, the Iblei Mounts can be considered to fulfil an Antiapennine position. Adjacent to the Antiapennine reliefs and generally opening on to the sea there are fairly extensive river plains. On the Tyrrhenian side of the Italian peninsula these consist mainly of the lower Valdarno, the Ombrone section of the Maremma, the Pontine Marshes and the Campanian plains of the Garigliano, Volturno and Sele. On the Adriatic side, the largest river plains are those of the Tavoliere in Puglia and the Piana di Sibari in Calabria. On the islands there are the plain of Catania in Sicily and that of the Campidano in Sardinia.

The islands

Besides the reliefs already mentioned, Sicily also has Etna, Italy's major active volcano, and a large and undulating inland plateau. The latter is mainly formed of chalk rocks and rich sulphur deposits that with the heights of the Monti Erei connect the Iblei to the northern chains (Madonie, Nebrodi, etc.). Sardinia in its turn is characterized by reliefs of no great height, mainly formed from crystalline (granites) and volcanic (trachytes and basalts) rocks. On the western side extend large flat areas like the previously mentioned Campidano, limited by the gulfs of Cagliari and Oristano. The minor island groups are mainly present in the Tyrrhenian Sea, such as: the Tuscan archipelago (290 sq km), dividing the Ligurian and north Tyrrhenian seas; the Campanian archipelago (71 sq km) with the Pontine Isles; Ustica (8.6 sq km); Aeolian Isles (115 sq km); Egadi Isles (38 sq km); Pantelleria (83 sq km) and the Pelagian Isles (25.5 sq km) in the Channel of Sicily. In the Adriatic, besides the various low and sandy islands of the Po delta and Venetian lagoon, there emerges the Tremiti archipelago (3 sq km) to the north of the Gargano. Finally, there are numerous islands along the coasts of Sardinia (Asinara, La Maddalena, Caprera, San Pietro, Sant'Antioco, etc.,), mainly due to the sinking and subsequent submersion of the margins of this major Tyrrhenian island.

The coastline

The complexity of the peninsula's relief is echoed in the diversity of its coastal profile. Along the low and sandy Adriatic shores this is generally rectilinear, with the exceptions of the bulge of the Po delta and of the two rocky promontories of the Conero and Gargano. The Ionian and Tyrrhenian shores are very different, their extensive sandy curves, corresponding to the edges of the coastal plains, alternating with high rocky coasts or steep promontories like those of Piombino, Argentario, Circeo, the Sorrento Peninsula, etc. The coasts of Sicily and Sardinia present a similar morphological picture, the latter having frequent rias or deep inlets resulting from the sinking of long stretches of the eastern coast.

Climatic Conditions

Despite its geographical position at the centre of the temperate zone, Italy has rather variable climatic characteristics. This is due to the presence of the Mediterranean, whose warm waters mitigate thermal extremes, and the Alpine arc, which forms a barrier against the cold north winds. Furthermore, Italy is subject to both wet and moderate atmospheric currents from the Atlantic Ocean and dry and cold ones from eastern Europe. The Apennine chain too, confronting the wet winds from the Tyrrhenian, causes considerable climatic differences between the opposite sides of the peninsula. The differences in temperature between the winter and summer months are more marked in the northern regions than in the south and along the coasts. The mean temperatures for the month of January in the Po Plain fluctuate around zero, while in the Alpine valleys the thermometer can drop to -20º and snow can remain on the ground for many weeks. In the southern regions, instead, the mean temperatures for January remain around 10º, with the exception of the inland mountainous zones. Mean summer temperatures throughout all Italy rise to 24º-25º for July, only being lower in the highest zones. Rainfall distribution also varies considerably, due to the influence of both mountains and prevailing winds. The highest quantities are registered in the Alpine arc (over 3,000 mm pa in the Lepontine and Julian Alps) and on the Apennines (over 3,000 mm pa in the Apuan Alps). The plains, however, including that of the Po, receive scarce precipitation. Generally it is less than 800-900 mm pa but in the southern regions (Tavoliere and southern Sicily) it falls below 600 mm pa. The great internal Alpine valleys and the coastal plains of the Tyrrhenian (Maremma) and Sardinia also receive little rain. Altogether, six large climatic regions can be distinguished, mainly characterized by mountain influence. 1) An Alpine region, strongly influenced by altitude, with long cold winters and short cool summers having an elevated day-time temperature range; precipitation is more intense in the summer months, especially in the pre-Alpine belt. 2) A Po region, with continental conditions, consisting of cold and often snowy winters and warm and sultry summers; precipitation is greatest in the spring and autumn months; the climate becomes milder, however, around the pre-Alpine lakes; fog is frequent, due to the wetness of the land. 3) An Adriatic region, whose sea has lit tle influence due to the inability of its shallow waters to trap the summer heat; consequently the climate has a continental character, with its winters being dominated by cold north-east winds (bora). 4) An Apennine region, also with continental tendencies and cold snowy winters; precipitation is more intense on the Tyrrhenian slopes and is abundant in all seasons apart from the summer. 5) A Ligurian-Tyrrhenian region, with a maritime climate and heavy and frequent precipitation, which is less in the summer and distributed irregularly; the winters are cool and the annual temperature range narrow. 6) A Mediterranean region, also with a limited annual temperature range; precipitation is frequent, especially in winter, and the summers are hot and dry. The interior and mountain zones of the islands and Calabria also have an Apennine type climate due to the altitude.

Inland Waters

The characteristics of the Italian water network are closely associated with morphological and climatic conditions. There are only a few tens of watercourses longer than 100 km, though the Po, which is also the longest of them all (652 km) has a rainwater basin almost equal to a fourth of the national territory (74,970 sq km). Other important rivers are the Adige and Piave, descending from the Alps and flowing from the north into the Po, and the Arno and Tiber, flowing through central Italy into the Tyrrhenian. The other main tributaries of the Po are the Ticino, Adda and Oglio, arising in the Alps, the Tanaro, from the Apennines, and the Reno too, though it has its mouth to the south of the Po delta. The rivers running down the Tyrrhenian slopes of the peninsula are usually longe than those of the Adriatic, because of the Apennine watershed being further to the east. The Italian waterways are little used for transport due to their rather limited and variable flow. In fact the Alpine rivers have a cycle conditioned by the winter snow cover, being high in the summer and low in the winter; while the pre-Alpine and northern Apennine source rivers are mainly rain-fed and are only full in spring and autumn. Consequently, the cycle of the Po River is the most regular and therefore best suited to navigation. The other rivers of the peninsula and islands are heavily influenced by climatic conditions, being full in winter and empty in summer. In the latter case it is not unusual for the bed to remain completely dry, as in the case of the typical fiumare in Calabria and Sicily. Italy is fairly well supplied with lakes, having several thousand natural and artificial basins of different sizes and origins. The largest and deepest occupy the bottom of the great pre-Alpine valleys at their junction with the Po Plain (from Lake Orta to Lake Garda, which is the largest of all, while Lake Como is the deepest) and they were all excavated by Pleistocene glaciers. Also along the Apennine spine there are fairly frequent large lakes, such as Trasimeno the remains of an older lake that together with others occupied the bottom of the internal basins of the peninsula. The numerous small lakes scattered inside the spent craters of Latium and Campania are volcanic in origin. The coastal plains of the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and large islands contain basins that are sometimes extensive and derived from lagoons. Furthermore, the Italian Alpine slopes, above 2,800 m., contain about a thousand glaciers. Some of these are of a considerable size, such as the Miage Glacier, which is some 10 km long and descends the southern slope of Mont Blanc in Valle d'Aosta. The glaciers are especially important for their function as water reserves, providing as they do a constant supply for the Alpine rivers. The central Apennines also have a small glacier, under the northern walls of the Corno Grande (Gran Sasso). Finally, Italy's water system is completed by the many underground water bearing strata of the numerous limestone karst massifs in the pre-Alps and Apennines. These produce springs bearing a considerable volume (as that of the Peschiera in Latium or the Sele in Campania, etc.). In addition, there are those reaching to varying depths under the Po Plain and the other alluvial plains.

The Italian Seas

With its extension from southern Europe towards Africa, the Italian peninsula almost divides the Mediterranean in two separate basins. Leaving aside the Strait of Messina, the shortest distance between Sicily and Africa (NE Tunisia) is circa 140 km, reduced to 70 km if it is measured from the island of Pantelleria. In this part of the sea (Channel of Sicily) the depth does not exceed 500 m. Furthermore, the eastern Mediterranean section, known as the Sea of Sicily and from which emerge the Maltese Islands, the Pelagian and Pantelleria, rarely exceeds a depth of 1,500 m. Considerably deeper, on the other hand, is the Ionian Sea. This extends eastwards from Sicily and Calabria and southwards from the Salentina Peninsula, touching on the 4,000 m isobath. Equally deep is the Tyrrhenian Sea, within the triangle formed by Corsica and Sardinia, Sicily and the Italian peninsula. At its centre it often exceeds a depth of 3,500 m. A narrow channel (the Canale di Corsica) separates it, to the north, from the Ligurian Sea. This latter exceeds a depth of 2,000 m in its western section corresponding to the Riviera di Ponente. The shallowest of the Italian seas is the Adriatic, which up to the level of Ancona does not exceed 80 m and only at Pescara does it decend below 200 m; off the coast of Puglia, however, it exceeds a depth of 1,200 m. Finally, in the area of the Strait of Otranto the two shores of the Adriatic draw close together and here the Italian and Albanian coasts are only 75 km apart. As for the rest of the Mediterranean, the surface temperature of the Italian seas is on average rather high. In the northern Tyrrhenian, the Sea of Sicily, Ionian and southern Adriatic it is circa 13º; in the Ligurian Sea circa 12º; in the southern Tyrrhenian circa 14º; but in the northern Adriatic, because of the shallowness of the waters, it drops to 9º. The quality of the water is also rather elevated, re

62.  Invasion of Panama

Invasion of Panama

The U.S. invasion of Panama on December 20, 1989 was a mark of excellence on the behalf of the U.S. armed forces ability to effectively use the principles of war.  The years leading up to the invasion set the climate for conflict; drug trafficking became a major problem between Panama and the U.S. in the 1980's, as well as Manuel Noriega's interference with the Panama canal employees rights under the Panama Canal Treaty; the final action that sparked the invasion was Noriega's attempt to fix the national election and the military enforcement of the fix after the election.  Once this took place the U.S. began to make a plan for the invasion.  The overwhelming success of this mission stemmed from the U.S. military's competent use of the principals of war.

The primary success of a mission is the ability to define an overall attainable objective for the mission.  In the formulation of the mission to invade Panama, the U.S. military set out four main objectives of the mission.  First, they wanted to "protect American lives" (Watson 69).  This meant they wanted to protect the lives of the 35,000 U.S. citizens in Panama from attacks by Noriega's Panama Defense Force or PDF; they also wanted to protect the lives of Americans at home by attempting to eliminate drug trafficking.  Second, they wanted to "protect American interests and rights under the Panama Canal Treaty" (Watson 69).  This could be done by abolishing Noriega's control of the workers who operate the canal, and his control of the canal itself.  Third, they wanted to "restore a democratic and freely elected government to Panama" (Watson 107).  Here, the U.S. would gain control over the country and ensure a fair election.  And, finally, they wanted to "apprehend Noriega" (Watson 69) for prosecution in the U.S..  This would ease the difficulty of restoring democracy and eliminating drug trafficking, as well as giving Americans a feeling that justice was being served.  These objectives gave the mission clear goals to achieve, allowing for the planing of each task that needed to be completed in order to accomplish the mission.

Once objective has been established, the next step was to derive a simple plan, following the principle of simplicity, which is the formation of "Direct, simple plans and clear, concise orders to minimize misunderstanding and confusion" (Stofft 7).  That is just what the U.S. did.  They used direct and simple plans to carry out their mission; that is not to say the invasion was a simple operation, on the contrary, the command and control measures were very difficult.  Thus, the plan was as simple as it could be with concern to the difficulty of the operation.

The next principal of war is the concept of taking the offensive, this gives the commander the ability to "impose his will upon the enemy" (Stofft 6).  Thus the commander keeps his enemy on the run, reacting instead of acting.  This is a principal the U.S. military did well; they attacked with speed, accomplishing mission after mission until their objectives had been reached.  The U.S. did not allow the PDF to retaliate; according to Watson the purpose of the U.S. offensive was to "defeat the PDF so decisively that those loyal to Noriega would be thoroughly demoralized and unable to organize a guerrilla campaign..." (Watson 70).  From the initial attack to the capture of Noriega only spanned 12 days, leaving no time for an effective counter-attack.  In this, the U.S. obeyed the principal of offensive, which helped lead to victory.

In order to maintain an effective offensive there must be effective unity of command.  This principal of war is vital to any mission.  Unity of command "obtains unity of effort by the coordinated action of all forces toward a common goal...it is best achieved by vesting a single commander with the requisite authority" (Stofft 7).  From the beginning, the U.S. heeded this principle of war.   Flanagan points out that General Thurman "insisted on its application in this operation" (Flanagan 34).  He also states that, "General Stiner would be in overall command of all U.S. combat forces, regardless of service, including Special Operations Forces" (Flanagan 34).  In this a strong chain of command was formed, everyone knew who was in charge.  Thus, there was no room left open for conflicting orders from two different commanders.

The next principle of war is the concept of mass, which states, "Superior combat power must be concentrated at the critical time and place for a decisive purpose" (Stofft 6).  The U.S. military effectively used this principal during the invasion, using "over 26,000 U.S. personnel from all services" (Watson 107).  The U.S. massed its troops by using approximately 13,000 "in country" troops, as well as 9,500 troops flown in during the operation (Watson 71).  These troops were mass in the country just prior to H-hour in order to suppress approximately 19,600 PDF soldiers and 12,300 Dignity Battalion personnel (Watson 70).  The numbers seem to be in favor of the Panamanian military, but the U.S. made up for this with the effective use of its troops .

This use is known as economy of force, which says, "Skillful and prudent use of combat power will enable the commander to accomplish the mission with minimum expenditure of resources" (Stofft 6).  The U.S. military also effectively used this principal during the invasion; for the invasion the U.S. split its force into five main task forces, each assigned to perform a specific task within the mission.  For example, task force Semper Fi was assigned to "block the western approaches to the city and secure the Bridge of the Americas" (Watson 44).  By using the task forces to attack specific logistical areas with the minimum force necessary, the U.S. was able to over-run and scare the PDF into hiding by making it seem like there was a larger than was actually present; by this the U.S. was able to minimize losses and maximize results.

The principle of war the U.S. did not perform as well as they could have is the principle of Security.  Security is accomplished by "measures taken to prevent surprise, preserve freedom of action, and deny the enemy of information of friendly forces" (Stofft 6).  On the night the invasion was to take place, information about H-hour was compromised by the enemy about three hours prior to the invasion.  The result of this compromise was "warnings on Panamanian radio that the U.S. was attacking at 1 a.m. and that PDF units should report, draw arms, and prepare to fight" (Watson 83).  The U.S. had lost the principle of surprise, which is achieved by "striking an enemy at a time, place, and in a manner for which he is not prepared" (Stofft 7).  Without security the enemy would be ready when H-hour did arrive.  The U.S. did attempt to maintain the element of surprise by using the principle of maneuver, an action performed to put the Panamanian military at a "relative disadvantage" (Stofft 7).  To do so they moved the time for H-hour up by 15 minutes in hopes to confuse the enemy.

In the final outcome of the invasion it is obvious that the U.S. military's mastery of the principles of war were the decisive factor in the completion of their mission in Panama.

By using the principles of war the U.S. military minimized the loss of American lives, while maximizing their results, demonstrating the overall effectiveness of the principles of war.

Bibliography

1.  Flanagan, Edward M., Jr..  Battle for Panama: Inside                  Operation Just cause.  Brassey's, Inc., Washington,                1993.

2.  Stofft, William A..  American Military History. Army                 Historical Series.  U.S. Government Printing Office,                         Washington, D.C., 1988.

3.  Watson, Bruce.  Operation Just Cause: The U.S. Intervention                 in Panama.  Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1991.

63.  Iran

S-O Arbete

Iran

En dag med mormor

Det var en solig eftermiddag i Teheran. Jag satt med min mormor på altanen, mormor stickade på en tröja och jag drack te, som är en mycket vanlig dryck i Iran. Jag satt och bläddrade i en bok om Iran, jag såg Iran på kartan. Det såg ganska stort ut så jag frågade: Mormor vilket är störst Sverige eller Iran? Mormor svarade och sa att Iran nästan är tre gånger så stort som Sverige, för det är c:a 1 650 000 km2 och folkmängden är också mycket större, det är c:a 60 miljoner. Jag började känna mig intresserad och bad mormor att fortsätta. Hon fortsatte med att berätta om några städer:

Teheran som är Irans huvudstad och har 9 miljoner invånare *1. Med tanke på att de flesta har bil är luften dålig och det beror på att den kollektiva trafiken inte fungerar så bra. Om man kommer till Teheran skall man besöka några av de stora och vackra parkerna. Det finns även några  museer och gallerier däribland en är Golestans museum, ett mycket gammalt och vackert museum, eller Bastan museet som är som ett historie museum. I Teheran finns det också andra kända byggnader som lockar turister åt sig, en av dom är Shahyad tornet, en vit 45 m hög byggnad, som byggdes år 1971*2 på Azadi torget  ( Azadi betyder frihet på persiska). Strax utanför stan finns bergskedjan Elburz vars högsta topp är Demavend. Den lockar många turister men även många bergsklättrare.

Notförteckning------------------------------                      -------------

*1 = Taget ur "Iran, länder i fickformat". Det anses att ha gått upp till 16 miljoner nu.

*2 = Taget ur Encarta 95 Iran \ Shahyad Tower

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Sen frågade mormor en sak, hon sa: Ali vad vet du om Shiraz?

- Att jag är född där.

- Jo det förstås, men vad vet du om själva staden?

- Jag vet att det är en fin stad i sydvästra Iran och att den har en befolkning på c:a 850 000 invånare*1.

- Det var rätt men inte mycket det, jag ska berätta. Shiraz räknas som en av Irans finaste städer och är en historisk stad, den har bl.a. varit Irans huvudstad flera gånger men det var länge sen. Det var också där två av Irans största poeter levde, Hafiz och Sahdi, deras gravar finns i Shiraz och de lockar mycket turister. En annan sevärdighet är trädgårdsföreningen "Eram". Man kan säga att det är en form av botaniska trädgården i Shiraz. Där kan man t.ex. se granar som är över 500 år gamla. Shiraz är också berömd för sina fina moskéer. Fast problemet är att det inte är öppet för turister utan endast är öppen för muslimer. Det finns en gammal moské Jamee som är mycket fin. Den har många pelare och väggarna är gjorda av Keramik och speglar. I centrala stan finns det en basar där man dagligen kan köpa precis allt. Basaren är mycket stor och brukar alltid vara full, man blir lätt trött på folkmängden (egen erfarenhet). Strax utanför stan, bara någon timmes biltur från Shiraz ligger den kända Persepolis. Där kan man se 2500 år gamla ruiner som ännu finns kvar sedan den stor Darius tid. Stället brändes ner av Alexander den store men det finns fortfarande mycket att se.

Notförteckning                                               -------------

*1 = Taget ur Encarta 95 \Shiraz

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- Oj, vilken historia Shiraz har, sa jag till mormor. Då sa mormor att hela Iran har en historia som sträcker sig långt tillbaka i tiden. Jag undrade om hon kunde berätta för mig.

- Om vad sa mormor.

- Jo efter som jag knappast kan någonting kan du i stort sett berätta om vad som helst.

- Jag får väl börja om från början. Mormor började:

Iran har inte alltid kallats Iran utan det har hette ända fram till 1935 Persien. Det känner man mycket igen från ord som t.ex. Persiska mattor m.m. Persien grundades som en självständig stat för första gången c:a 550 f.Kr. Det var då av en krigare vid namn Kyros. Efter kyros regim tog Darius den I över makten, han gjorde landet mäktigt och utvecklade landet med vägar och postväsenden, det var han som byggde Persepolis. Persien expanderades ända till slutet av 400-talet f.Kr. Persiens gränser hade då sträckt sig ända fram till Egypten.

Nedgångarna började först med att Perserna förlorade ett slag mot grekerna i slagen vid Marathon och Salamis. Men den stora förlusten var  mot Alexander den store  330 f.Kr. då Persien erövrades. Men Persien drog sig upp och återuppstod som ett självständigt rike igen på 200-talet e.Kr. Men redan efter några hundra år, på mitten av 600-talet e.Kr. tog Araberna, först Omaijaderna och sen Abbasiderna, kontroll över Persien. Det tog inte mer än något år innan Persien förklarades som ett Islamiskt land.

Efter ett antal nederlag och uppståndelser av Persien frågade jag om mormor kunde berätta om lite senare historia. Mormor började genast att berätta om året 1941 (Iran var nu inne i det Pahlavidynastiska väldet) som var ett viktigt år för Iran. Det året gick Storbritannien och den gamla Sovjetunionen till attack mot Iran. Anledningen var att Iran hade förklarat sig neutralt under andra världskriget för att få bättre kontakter med Tyskland och minska beroendet av Storbritannien. Britterna ockuperade den södra delen av Iran och "Ryssarna" den norra. Men Britterna drog sig tillbaka 1945 och Ryssarna gjorde, efter påtryckningar av FN, likaså året efter. Detta skedde samma år som Irans och det Pahlavidynastiska väldets siste Shah (Kung) hittills krönades, Shah Muhammed Reza Pehlevi.

Iran skapade efter en internationell oljekris som involverade Storbritannien mycket goda kontakter med USA som då hjälpte Iran igenom krisen.

Jag frågade mormor varför det bröt ut ett krig mellan Iran och Irak. Mormor suckade till och sa: Du förstår, Ali. Det var år 1979, Shahen hade under årens gång blivit mer och mer diktatorisk. Det ökade då missnöjet i folket. Det var då flera olika krafter tillsammans med den Islamiska prästerna och anhängare tog tillfället i akt och revolterade. Shahen flydde från Iran och prästerna med Ayatolla Khomeini som ledare tog över landet.

- Jag hojtade till och sa att jag frågade efter varför kriget bröt ut inte revolutionen.

Mormor sa att jag skulle lugna mig och att hon snart kom till det och fortsatte: som jag sa  Khomeini tog över styret i landet. Det var då som den Irakiske ledaren Saddam Husein trodde att Iran nu efter revolutionen skulle vara så grymt försvarat att han ganska lätt skulle kunna vinna ett krig och expandera Irak. Men Iran slogs emot och i stället för ett blixtsnabbt krig som Saddam hade tänkt sig blev det ett åtta årligt långt, blodigt krig som tog kål på flera hundratusentals människor. Men till slut 1988 ingick Iran och Irak i en vapen vila som i en vapen vila som framtvingades och övervakades av FN.

Jag sa till mormor att vi hade läst om urbanisering och vad ett U-land och I-land är för något i skolan. Jag undrade hur det låg till med det i Iran. Hon sa att jag började gå in på svåra frågor så hon tog upp tog upp den boken som jag hade läst i förut. Mormor bläddrade lite grann i boken och sa: här är det, det står att urbaniseringen i Iran är på 54% *1 och att Iran ses som ett Industri land. Iran blev ett I-land på shahens tid och det var mycket tack av de stora oljefynderna som gjordes.

Under krigets tid var det en stor utvandring till olika länder, bl.a. mycket till USA, framförallt i Los Angeles, Sverige och Tyskland. Men det har minskat nu

Notförteckning----

*1 = Taget ur Encarta 95 \Iran fact box

_________________________________________________________________

sen kriget slutade. Irans regering har nu sagt att alla som har flytt är välkomna tillbaka utan att bestraffas. Men det finns ändå rädsla i folk och det är många, faktiskt de flesta åker inte tillbaka.  Majoriteten av folket är Iranier (Perser) (66 % *1) sen finns det andra mindre grupper som t.ex. olika Turkfolk, Kurderna (10 % *1), Azerbadijaner (20 % *1) och Araber. Av alla Iranier är nästan 98 % *1 Muslimer varav 90 % *1 är shia muslimer.

Jag kom plötsligt att tänka på att mormor satt på altanen med en slöja, så jag frågade om varför alla Iranska kvinnor hade slöja, om det var något mode eller så. - Mormor hoppade till lite och sa att det inte hade någonting alls med mode att göra. Hon sa att det inte alltid hade varit så, inte under Pahlavidynastin, utan sedan den Islamiska revolutionen hade det ändrats så nu var det lag på att bära slöja. Hon sa även att det inte var bara vuxna kvinnor som hade slöja utan skolflickor måste också antigen ha en slöja eller en sjallet.

Notförteckning           ----------------------------------------------------------

*1 = Taget ur " Världens länder sid 147 Folkgrupper, språk och religioner".

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Plötsligt frågade mormor mig en sak. Hon frågade efter någon typisk Svensk maträtt. Jag tänkte till lite och sa att det måste vara köttbullar  med potatismos och lingonsylt. Jaha, sa mormor och fortsatte med att säga att en mycket god och vanlig iransk maträtt är shelo-kebab. Som är ungefär som vanlig kebab fast med ris (Kebab är en hamburgeliknande kötträt som ursprungligen kommer från Turkiet, det skall göras av nötfärs blandat med lök och kryddor och skall helst grillas i, Turkiet äts det i "pita-bröd" med sallad och pepparoni.) Man äter ingen tillagad sås till men som sås kan man ha rå ägg gula i riset ( Kanske inte låter som en delikatess men det är verkligen "göra gött".) Som jag har förstått äter man mycket potatis till många maträtter i Sverige, sa mormor. Men i Iran äter man hellre ris och mycket bröd, och då menar jag inget knäckebröd utan dagfärskt tunnbröd som man bakar i stenugnar. För i tiden längtade familjens son till att bli stor nog att gå ut och köpa färskt bröd åt familjen varje morgon. Det kan man säga var som en symbolis handling för sonen att han snart är "mannen" i familjen. Mormor sa: nu Ali, från mat till litteratur här är det något som är bra att veta, ett par av Irans största poeter någonsin. En av dom var Sadi (död 1291 *1) och en annan Hafiz (död 1389 *2). Deras dikter handlade mest om Kvinnor, vin, kärlek, och gud. Deras gravar finns i två olika trädgårdar i Shiraz, omgivna av fina blommor, träd och många olika fontäner med olika former. Många av deras dikter finns skrivna på väggar där. Under semester perioden drar de flera tusentals turister och stadsbor om dan som vill läsa deras dikter och njuta av naturen. Men fastän det är så många besökare så får det plats eftersom området är mycket stort.

Notförteckning           ----------------------------------------------------------

*1 = Taget ur en persisk bok.

*2 = Taget ur Bra böckers lexikon sid 350 (litteratur)

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En tredje Iransk poet som är världsberömd är Khayyam, han levde på 1100-talet. En av Khayyams mästerverk heter Rubaiyat. Khayyam och Rubaiyat nådde Europa och Sverige av Engelsmannen Edward Fitzgeralds tolkning.

Mormor läste sen upp en dikt ur boken Rubaiyat *1:

Ty har jag under trädet vid vårstig

min bok och bröd och vin, och sedan dig

bredvid mig sjungande, vår ödemark

blir paradis - nog paradis åt mig

När mormor och jag kom in på hur man uppfostras i Sverige, så tyckte hon att vi är lite för fria. Hon sa att hon tyckte att frihet var bra med frihet men att man borde ha stor respekt för skolan och lärare. För det saknar vi i Sverige. Hon sa även att skolan är mycket svårare i Iran än i Sverige och man kör med betyg och tenta för att komma till en högre klass redan i ettan.

Jag slingrade mig smidigt ut ur ämnet genom att prata lite om Svenska högtider och fråga om Irans högtider. Hon sa att vi inte firar samma högtider som i Sverige, man firar t.ex. inte jul eller påsk i Iran, utan man firar andra högtider som nyår som inträffar den 21 mars eller Sizde-be-daar som är som en efterfest tretton dagar efter nyår. Då skall man ut och äta god mat med vänner och så skall man tända en brasa. Det är sen en tradition att man sen skall hoppa över brasan. På själva nyår skall man duka upp ett bord med mat o.s.v. men sen är det en viktig tradition att duka upp sju saker vars namn börjar på bokstaven  S- och andra saker som t.ex. Koranen på bordet.

Mormor stannade till för några sekunder och tittade i boken som handlade om Iran. Sen sa hon att hon skulle berätta lite om Irans Näringsliv och Ekonomi. Hon sa att Iran inkomster till största del från jordbruket ända in i 1900-talet. Men vid mitten av på 1900-talet minskade inkomsterna från jordbruket och ökade stort från oljefyndigheter. Pengarna från oljan har till största del gått till modernisering av landet. Målet var att Iran skulle bli ett bra industriland innan oljan skulle tagit slut, och hittills har det gått ganska bra med det. De största oljefälten ligger längs foten av Zagrosbergen, nära persiska viken. En annan viktig exportvara är de "Persiska mattorna" som bara genom namnet är världsberömda. Mattorna är handknutna och de är oftast ganska dyra. Priset på mattorna beror på bl.a. mattornas storlek, mattornas material och knutarnas storlek, desto mindre knutar desto dyrare eftersom det tar längre tid att väva och är finare.

Notförteckning           ----------------------------------------------------------

*1 = Taget ur Rubaiyat: Edward Fitzgerald tolkning, på Svenska av A.G Damm skriven 1912. Dikt tagen på sid 62 nummer XI.

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Ett annat fint hantverk är "Khatam" *1. Det är Krossat elfenben som  sätts fast på träramar. Elfenbenen har olika färger och sätts fast på ramarna så det bildar fina mönster.

Men det är inte allt sa mormor i Iran bryter vi också i gruvor som koppargruvor och blygruvor, vi har även annat som mycket salt och socker och annan livsmedelsindustri. Förutom mattindustrin finns det annan textilindustri också.

Jag sa att i Sverige har man fortfarande SEK och inte nån annan valuta som EMU. Jag frågade om Irans valuta. Jag sa att jag trodde att det heter toman, inte sant.

- Ja då, sa mormor man kan ju säga att en toman är som en krona men en rial är 10 öre. Men nu är det så att den svenska kronan är starkare än iranska toman. En toman är 0.60 Sek *2.

Jag såg att mormor verkade ganska trött nu och det var jag med så jag tänkte att vi kunde lägga av. Men så fort som jag skulle dra till med den gamla gäspningen och suckningen blev det fart i mormor. Hon hoppade till och sa att hon inte hade pratat om Irans geografi så mycket än. Så hon började:

Hon sa att större delen av Iran är en högplatå vars mitten av den det ligger två öknar, Dasht-e-kavir och Dasht-e-Lut. C:A två tredjedelar av Iran består av öken eller bergstrakter.

Notförteckning           ----------------------------------------------------------

*1 = Det stog inte i någon bok eller något alls så jag fick ta och skriva kort av det jag visste.

*2 = Taget ur Bra Böckers lexikon och är mätt 1977. (stämmer ej så bra med tanke på inflation)

_________________________________________________________________

Två av de högsta och mest kända bergstopparna är Zagros (4548 m) och Elburz (5604 m). Irans enda lågland är vid Kaspiska havet till norr och Persiska viken till söder. En fin semesterort, mest för Iranier numera, är vid kaspiska havet. Irans klimat varierar på olika delar av landet.

På högplatå är medeltempraturen i Juli mellan +25oC till +30oC medans det kan vara från +30oC till +35oC vid kusterna fast det händer vid extremfall att det blir +50oC men det är bara jobbigt. De värsta temperatur förändringarna sker nog i öknen, då det kan vara c:a 50 grader på sommaren och - 30 grader på vintern.

Som sagt så är det öken mitt i Iran men det skiljer sig från andra delar av landet. Uppe i norr vid Elburzs sluttning mot kaspiska havet finns det sommargrön lövskog med träd som bl.a. lönn, bok, ek och silkesträd. Men vanligas är det nog ändå med öken landskap med korta glesa buskar.

Mormor, jag vet ju att Iran gränsar till Irak men vilka andra länder är det?

Iran gränsar som du sa till Irak i väster. I norr är det Turkmenistan, i strax väst om Turkmenistan på andra sidan kaspiska havet ligger  Azerbadijan, Armenien och Turkiet. Till öst ligger Afghanistan, alldeles nedanför Afghanistan ligger pakistan. Och på andra sida persiska viken ligger Förenade Arabien, Saudi Arabien och ett par små länder som Oman, Bahrain, Katar och Kuwait.

Iran har...zzzzz......zz,,,,, mormor dåsade till och eftersom vi nu hade suttit där ute på altanen ett par timmar var jag också trött. Jag smög tyst in igen, kröp in i min säng.

S-O Arbete

Iran

Sammanfattning:

Jag försökte att få min uppsatts lite annorlunda än som de andra skrev. Mitt mål var att genom bilder och lättförståelig text fånga läsarens intresse. Med lättförståelig text menar jag att undvika allt för många årtal eller åtminstone avrunda lite grann. De flesta bilderna är klistrade på papperet och de har en bildtext som också är klistrad på papperet, bildtexterna är formade som Irans karta. Jag försökte att skriva lite personligt och skriva "på mitt sätt att tala" och inte som i böckerna. Jag skrev ofta notföteckningar när det gällde siffror och årtal och om det var saker som vek sig från den vanliga källförteckningen. Jag har gjort en karta, skrivit ett fakta blad och en källförteckning men ingen innehållsförteckning för att det inte gick med tanke på att det skall likna en berättelse.

Sammanfattning:

Jag sitter en dag på altanen med min mormor och dricker te. Vi kommer in på att prata om Iran genom att jag frågar mormor om vilket som är störst Iran eller Sverige. Med att hon svarar och jag fattar intresse om ämnet fortsätter det till ett långt föredrag som innehåller många fina bilder om Iran, beskriver olika delar, städer och klimatet i Iran. Jag skrev om Irans historia t.ex. om Persepolis. Om geografin och litteratur. Jag skrev om folket och om Irans siste shah.

Hoppas du tycker om den.

64.  Iraq

Lauterbach, Kevin

History, Period 4

January 7, 1996

Iraq:  A Country on the Rise

Iraq is a country that is on the rise.  After being crushed by allied troops for their

invasion of Kuwait, they have begun the slow rebuilding process.  In this report, I will

discuss the basic geographic features of Iraq, and other various important features such as

mineral wealth, vegetation, ect.

Iraq's total area is 271,128 square miles (just slightly more than twice the size of

Idaho).  It's capital, Baghdad, is located at 33.20 north longitude, 44.24 east latitude.  It's

boundaries are 2,222 miles long.  With 906 miles bordering Iran, 83 miles bordering

Jordan, 149 miles bordering Kuwait, 502 miles bordering Saudi Arabia, 376 miles

bordering Turkey, and a coastline 36 miles long.  The terrain in Iraq is mostly broad

plains, with reedy marshes in the southeast, mountains along toe borders with Iran and

Turkey.

The Climate in Iraq is most desert, with mild to cool winters and dry, hot

cloudless summers.  The northernmost regions along Iranian and Turkish borders

experience cold winters and occasional heavy snows.  Iraq has few natural resources,

consisting of Crude oil, natural gas, various phosphates, and sulfur.  Their maritime

(ocean) clams are just the continental shelf on their coastline, and twelve nautical miles

beyond that.

Iraq and Iran have just recently restored diplomatic relations in the year 1990, but

are still trying to work out written agreements settling their disputes from their eight-year

war concerning definite borders, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and

sovereignty over the Shatt-al-Arab waterway.  In April of 1991, Iraq officially accepted

the UN Security Council's Resolution 687, which states that Iraq accepts the boundaries

that were set in it's 1963 agreement with Kuwait, and ending all claims to the Bubiyan

and Warbah Islands, and all claims to Kuwait.  On June 17, 1992, the UN Security

council reaffirmed the finality of the Boundary Demarcation Commission's decisions.

Disputes also occur with Syria about water rights on the Euphrates, and a potential

dispute with Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates river.

Iraq has some environmental problems, consisting of air and water pollution, soil

degradation (caused by salinization), land erosion, and deserification.  Iraq has 12% of

it's land still arable, with 1% permanent crops, 9% meadows and pastures, 3% forest and

wood land, 4% irrigated farm land, and 75% is used for other various things (housing,

ect.)

Iraq does not produce very many industrial products.  On the average year, Iraq

produces 13,000 metric tons of paper and paperboard, 3,000 metric tons of particle

board, 8,000 sawnwood, 207,000 metric tons of phosphate fertilizer, and 409,000 metric

tons of nitrogen fertilizer.

Iraq currently has 1,300,000 televisions in use (about 69 per 1,000 people).  It

also has 3,880,000 radios in use (about 205 per 1,000 people).  Iraq has 6 newspaper

publications, with a circulation of 650,000 a day (about 34 per 1,000 people).  This

causes a 1,797 kilograms of newsprint to be consumed per 1,000 people.  Iraq has one

FM  station and 16 AM broadcast stations, and 13 TV stations.  Reconstruction of Iraq's

telecommunication system began after Desert Storm was over.  It includes of many

coaxial cables and microwave links, 632,000 telephones (with an operational network),

satellite earth stations, 1 INTELSAT satellite and 1 GORIZONT satellite over the

Atlantic Ocean, 1 INTELSAT satellite over the Indian Ocean, and 1 ARABSAT in the

Intersputnik system.  Their country telephone code is 964.

In Iraq, travel can be very shaky.  International flight schedules can change

without prior notice.  The Al-Basrah and Umm Qasar Seaports are closed because of

their proximity to the war zone.  A railroad connects At-Basrah to Baghdad, but the

Syrian segment of the railroad linking Iraq to Turkey and Europe has been closed since

1982.  Border crossing points between and Iraq and Syria and Iraq and Iran have been

closed.  Iraq has paved highways connecting major cites and neighboring countries.

Some highways have been severely deteriorated due to increased use by heavy military

and commercial vehicles.

Iraq has 21,566 total miles of highways, with 10,876 miles of it being paved, and

the other 11,000 miles being improved earth.  It has 2,704 miles of crude oil pipelines,

451 miles of petroleum pipelines, and 845 miles of natural gas pipelines.  It has 1,527

miles of railroad.  Iraq has 42 ships registered to it.  Including of 1 passenger, 1

passenger/cargo, 16 cargo, 1 refrigerated cargo, 3 roll-on/roll-off cargo, 19 petroleum

tankers, and 1 chemical tanker.  But since January 1, 1992, none of them have been

trading internationally.  Iraq has about 631 miles of inland waterways to trade amongst it

self.  After the Persian Gulf war, Shatt-al-Arab was closed down for trading.  Iraq only

has one currently open port at Khawr az Zubayr.  Iraq has 98 usable (but 113 total)

airports, 73 of them with permanent-surface runways.

Iraq's agricultural products include the following:

Asses:   355,000 head             Buffaloes: 130,000 head         Camels:  10,000 head

Cattle:  1,400,000 head           Goats:  1,500,000 head           Horses:  40,000 head

Mules:  2,000 head                  Sheep:  9,000,000 head           Chickens:  35,000,000 head

Poultry: 65,000 T                    Hen Eggs: 45,000 T                Fish:  14,000 T

Almonds: 700 T                      Dates:  580,000 T                    Fruits: 1,169,000 T

Lemons:  13,000 T                  Oranges:  185,000 T                Sugar Beets:  5,000 T

Barley:  100,000 T                  Corn:  100,000 T                     Dry Beans:  8,000 T

Oats:  1,000 T                         Olives:  3,000 T                       Potatoes:  195,000 T

Rice:  150,000 T                      Soybeans:  2,000 T                  Sunflower Seeds:  25,000 T

Vegetables:  2,306,000 T        Walnuts:  2,400 T                    Wheat:  260,000 T

Beef and Veal: 38,000 T         Sugar Cane:  13,000 T            Butter and Cheese:  7,393 T

Cotton: 5,000 T                       Honey:  2,200 T                      Tobacco:  3,000 T

21.3% of the land in Iraq is reserved for agriculture.  Iraq has 1,053,000 people working

for agriculture (about 19.8% of the economically active part of the population).  There

about 2,300 threshers in use.

In Iraq, the Ba'thist regime is in charge of the extensive central planning and

management of industrial production and foreign trade, while leaving some small-scale

industry and services and most agriculture to private enterprise.  The economy has been

dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign

exchange earnings.  In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in

the eight-year war with Iran, with the damage to oil export facilities caused by Iran,  led

the government to implement austerity measures and to borrow heavier and reschedule

foreign debt payments.  After 1988, oil exports gradually increased and many new

pipelines were made.  But Agricultural development remained hampered by labor

shortages, the salinization of the land, and dislocations caused by previous land reform

programs.  Also, the industrial part of the economy was also under financial constraints.

But after Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, with it's subsequent international

economic embargoes, it's economic picture changed drastically.  Industrial and

transportation facilities suffered severe damage, Oil exports remain at less than 10% of

it's previous level.  Living standards deteriorated even further in 1992, and 1993.

Consumer prices tripled in 1992.  The UN-sponsored economic embargo reduced exports

and imports to Iraq.  Also, the government's policies of supporting a large military and

internal security force have drained the country's treasury.

Iraq's GDP (gross domestic product) is about $35 billion dollars, with the average

person making $1,940 a year.  It's labor force is 4,400,000, causing a severe labor

shortage.  Iraq's industrial production accounts for about 10% of its GDP.  Iraq spends

about $6.6 billion a year importing commodities such as manufactures and food.  They

have trade relations with the US, France, Turkey, and UK.  But Iraq's makes about $10.4

billion a year exporting such commodities such as crude oil and other refined products,

fertilizer, and sulfur.  They export to the US, Brazil, Turkey, Japan, the Netherlands, and

Spain.  Iraq's unemployment rate is about 5%.

Iraq's nation debt is $45 billion (excluding a debt of about $35 owed to Arab Gulf

states).  Iraq invests %8.1 of it's GDP.  Iraq produces 3,800,000 kW of electricity a year.

Iraq has received about $650 million in economic aid, most of coming from Western,

non-US countries, from 1970-1989.  But after the Gulf War, they have received none.

Iraq's official currency is Iraqi dinars (ID).  It is 3.1 dinars to the dollar, but the black

market rate is 12 to the dollar.

Iraq's government is technically considered a republic, with it's capital located in

Baghdad.  Iraq's formal name is the Republic of Iraq.  Iraq received it's independence

from the League of Nations (under British administration) on October 3, 1932.  Iraq

contains of 18 provinces or muhafazah: Al Anabar, Al Basrah, Al Muthanna, Al

Quadisiyah, An Najaf, Arbil, As Sulaymaniyah, At Ta'im, Babil, Baghdad, Dahuk, Dhi

Quar, Diyala, Karbala, Maysan, Ninawa, Salah ad din, Wasist. Iraq's constitution was

drafted on September 22, 1968, and was ratified on July 16, 1970 (incidentally, a new

constitution was drafted in 1990, but was not adopted).  Iraq's government is very similar

to the US', consisting of a executive, legislative, and judicial branch, with universal

suffrage at the adult age of 18.  It's leaders include the Chief of State, Saddam Husayn,

Vice Presidents Taha Muhyi al-Din Ma'ruf, and then Taha Yasin.  The Head of

Government is Ahmad Husayn Khudayir al-Sammarrai.  Iraq has five branches of

military: Army and Republican Guard, Navy, Air Force, Border Guard Force, and Internal

Security Forces.

Health conditions in Iraq are very poor.  There are only 9,442 (about 6 per every

10,000 people) with about the same number of nurses, and only 1,465 dentists (about 1

per every 10,000 people).  In a survey only 10% of married women reported to use any

form of birth control.  Infant death is extremely high at 79 deaths per 1,000 with a total of

68,121 per year.  83% of the country is immunized for measles and DPT.

Education is also very poor.  The literacy rate is only about 60% (49% in females,

and 70% in males).  A child is only educated from ages 6-12.  Also, there are only 31

museums in Iraq.

The population in Iraq in 1993 was 19,162,000 people.  It is estimated that in

2025, there will be 52,615,000 people living there.  The population density is about 110

people per square mile.  Only 70% of the total population of Iraq live in urban areas.  The

population of Iraq is growing 3.7% per year, with the population doubling every 18.94

years.  The average woman will have 7 children.  The life expectancy in Iraq is 64.4 years

for females, and 63.2 years for Males.  145,855 people were married last year (about 8.5

people per thousand).  97% of Iraq is Muslim, the other 3% being other various religions.

Iraq's official language is Arabic, but Kurdish, Assyrian, and Armenian are also spoke

frequently.

If you are planning to travel to Iraq in the future, you had better not.  The

Department of State warns all US citizens against traveling to Iraq.  Conditions within

the country remain unsettled and dangerous.  The US does not maintain diplomatic

relations with Iraq, and cannot provide normal consular protective services to US

citizens.

A passport and visa are required to travel to Iraq (along with an AIDS test if you

are planning to stay longer than 5 days).  Since 1991, US passports are not valid for travel

in, to, or through Iraq without authorization from the Department of state.  An adapter is

necessary to use Iraqi electrical outlets.  Although Iraq does not have an embassy in the

US, it does have an interest section in the Algerian Embassy in Washington, DC.  Iraqi

nation holidays are the following:  New Years Day-Jan. 1, Iraqi Army Day-Jan. 6, Id al-

Fitr-Apr. 16, Id al-Adha-Jun. 21, 1958 Revolution-Jul. 14, 1968 Revolution-Jul. 17,

Although Iraq may have it's problems now, it is a country on the rise.  It's

economy is stabilizing. and it's government is in the process of working it bugs out.

Some day, Iraq may be one of the world's superpowers, just like the US.

65.  Ireland

Ireland

Ireland is a country in Europe with a coast on the Atlantic Ocean. It is called the  Emerald Isle  because of its green color. Its people derived mainly from Great Britain. Most of the population is Roman Catholic. The Climate is much like ours.

The republic of Ireland covers 83% of its stand with the other 17% containing the country of Northern Ireland. There are twenty-six counties in the Republic with the over-all capitol of Dublin. The six northeastern counties form the county of Northern Ireland which is actually connected to the republic. Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom, where as the republic is not. The whole Island was under British rule before 1922. The island containing the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, is separated by the original ruling country of Great Britain by way of the Irish Sea.

Ireland is actually a detached fragment from the European Mainland. Most of the country is 500 ft. above sea level. The surface of the country is covered by glacial drift from the Pleistocene ice age. This period left eskers, or long gavel ridges, and drumlins or small hills that were left behind by the glaciers. You can find the start of this belt in the west of the country by Clew Bay. It continues across the country.

In the south of Ireland, there is a series of parallel ridges of Devonian sandstone. The ridges rise in elevation westward and lead up to Carrantuohill, the largest mountain in the country. The famous lakes of Killarney are located at that point. The lakes are famous for their scenic beauty.

In the southeast of Ireland, granites from the Devonian age makeup the uplands which travel 80 mi. in a northeasterly direction towards the counties of Wexford and Wicklow, reaching the south shore of Dublin Bay. These uplands are glacier modified valleys.

Most of the soil in Ireland have been formed of Glacial Drift. Limestone, as around here, is the most common bedrock in Ireland, Making it even more like our area. Gleyed soils are commonly found where there is poor drainage, such as in the north-central lowland. Because of past wetness and acidity, peat has accumulated to form bogs that now cover thousands of acres in the midlands. These bogs are useless for agricultural purposes, but very useful in the source of peat fuel.  Peat covers much of the higher hills and supports much vegetation making it actually an indirect importance to agriculture. It also makes good grazing for sheep.

The climate of all of Ireland stays mainly as a cool maritime climate. July has average temperatures ranging from 61 degrees in the south, to 57 degrees in the north. Westerly winds that pick up moisture from the warm Atlantic Ocean and drop it first over the western mountains. About 80% of the rest of the country has 30-50 inches of rainfall yearly, although the eastern coast is relatively dry, only picking up 28 inches annually in Dublin.

Most of the central lowland is drained by the Shannon River, which is 230 miles long and is navigable for most of its journey. Through its length, it separates into numerous lakes such as the Allen and the Ree. A few miles from Limerick, the Shannon River's rapid fall to sea level is used to generate much electricity. In the south of Ireland, such as the Blackwater, Lee, and Bandon flow west to east between the sandstone ridges. Their stream patterns are unusual in that their courses actually cut into right angled bends, cutting southward the ridges to form steep-sided valleys. In parts of the country, the limestone bedrock has formed an underground drainage system.

There is limited wildlife in Ireland, including deer, pine marten, fox, badger, squirrel, and hare. There are numerous seabirds on the coast. The only reptiles are small lizards.

The main resource in Ireland is its agricultural land that covers more than 70% of the countryside. Less than 5% of the remaining land under tree cover, it is the least forested country, despite reforestation.

Education in the primary ages is mainly run by the religious groups, being mainly of the Roman Catholic type. Schools past that age group of 6-15, are run by the state and are private. The national universities include Dublin, Cork, Galway, and Maynooth.

The university of Dublin was founded in 1592 and has one college, being Trinity College of Dublin.

Financial assistance for health purposes, is given by the government on the basis of economic need by the patient. There are enough hospitals, but strangely enough, the doctor-patient ratio is 1 to 1,000. The chief cause of death is heart disease.

Ninety-four percent of the religion in Ireland is of the Roman Catholic type. The rest of them are mainly Angelican with a few Methodists mixed in with the rest. In the southeast, Angeligans make up 10% of the population.

The government was self-achieved among the Anglo-Irish Protestant Ascendancy in the late 18th Century. In 1921, the independent state of Ireland was established after a long struggle that created the Irish Free State.

This has summed up most of the things about Ireland and hopefully you know a little more about the country. It is similar to the United States in the fact that it has four season, but it is different in ways such as the country is on an island in Europe and instead of being a nation built up a few states at a time, it once was bigger until a chunk of it, being Northern Ireland, broke free into its own country.

66.  Isnt It Ironic The subject is english !

David Harris 10S 14/02/97 "ISN'T IT IRONIC"

An imaginative response to the song "Ironic" by Alanis Morisette.

"An old man turned 98, he won the lottery and died the next day"

John woke up around eight in the morning, he looked out of his window as he lay there in his hospital bed. He had got used to the pain, the digging in his side, it was as if he was repeatedly being hit with a  baseball bat. He would lye there staring out of the same window, looking at the same buildings, thinking the same things.

His  grand daughter and her son would visit him every Saturday. He enjoyed their company, apart from them the only people he had to talk to were the nurses that would come to see how he was and bring him his food.

Today was Saturday, John was 98 today, all the doctors and nurses had been saying how good he looked for his age. He had been waiting all day for his grand daughter and her son to arrive. Sure enough they did, His grand daughter brought him some flowers and his grandson, James who was six years old, bought him a box of chocolates. They both wished him Happy Birthday and sat down next to him. John thanked them both for the presents as he put them on the table next to his bed. They talked about how James was getting on at school and how John's grand daughter was doing at work. John remembered that he needed to get his lottery ticket, he asked his daughter to get it for him. They joked about it being a waste of money and even if they tried they would not be able to spend that much money. She left James talking to John as she went off to buy the ticket. John told James about the time he used to be a pilot in the RAF James was fascinated by these stories, He wanted to be a pilot too someday. A short while later, John's grand daughter arrived with his lottery ticket. She told him that she had recived a call on her mobile phone and she was needed at work. They told him that they would see him soon and they were sorry that they had to go so soon. So they both left, it was times like this when john felt lonely. It was as if he was in  prison, he could not go anywhere or do anything. Hours passed as John watched the daytime T.V. in the ward. He could never hear what was being said because of the noise from the kitchen and the other people in the ward talking. It was a quarter to eight and the national lottery had just started. Dale Winton was presenting the show, he introduced the various guests and then Mystic Meg made her predictions. John waited for the draw machine to start to move, He clenched onto his ticket and the numbers came out, one by one he crossed them of his ticket. He realised that he had all the numbers and had won the lottery. He lay there thinking about all the extravagant things he would do with the money. He decided that he would be sensible and not splash out on expensive items, well not yet anyway. He put the ticket in his draw underneath his book. He would tell his daughter tomorrow. John fell asleep dreaming about his riches. When the morning came, the nurse came to Johns bed. She looked at him that she contacted the main office. They then phoned his daughter to tell her the bad news. John had died in his sleep.

Words : 620

67.  Israel & Paletine The presidential Brief

Israel - The Presidential Brief

The Current Situation In Israel And Palestine

Israel is in a situation unlike any other country around the world.  Israel has been fighting for its survival since it became a country in 1948.  It is surrounded by hostile nations that want to destroy or at least diminish it.  There is tremendous tension between the Palestine Liberation Members and Israeli officials and citizens.  There have been peaceful rallies and bloody bus bombings.  People in Israel today are unsure about preceding with peace negotiations or standing firm in stopping present day terrorist activities.  Protests, shouting matches, and violent disputes between Israelis are common occurrences.  No one person, the college professor, the taxi driver, or the merchant is sure that their solution to these life and death problems are the right decision.

On Friday, May 14, 1948, after much deliberation the modern state of Israel was voted into existence by the United Nations.  Finally the Jews around the world had a country to call their own.  Unfortunately, the road ahead of them was not an easy or peaceful one.

There are many organizations that have dedicated their existence to destroying the people and country of Israel.  The leader in this battle against Israel is Hamas, the Islamic Resistance Movement.  Hamas uses many tactics to achieve its goals of terrorism.  These tactics include intensive educational/propaganda programs in the West Bank and Gaza Strip areas.   Suicide bombings, riots, rock throwing,  car bombings, stonings, and many other destructive terrorist activities are also used periodically to gain news attention to their  radical fundamentalist beliefs.    Since its formation in 1988 Hamas has vowed to do anything possible to halt the peace process which they feel is unfair to Palestinians and other Arabs.   The group is not condoned by the Palestine Liberation Organization, yet very little concrete action has been taken to stop this group.  The philosophy of Jihad, or holy war, is the basis for Moslem actions to obliterate all Jews from this area.

To the contrary, there are many Israeli organizations that have dedicated their existence to preserving Israel and never letting it be conquered.

On the surface, the reason for the conflict over this small piece of land in the middle east seems simple: two groups of people, Jews and Palestinian Arabs,  have been competing for the same piece of historical  land.  What  has made the conflict so bitter and emotional is the fact that the land being fought over was sacred to both sides.

For Jews, the establishment of the state of Israel represented a return to their biblical homeland after 2,000 years of exile and persecution, and the near extinction of the Jewish people in the Nazi Holocaust of WWII.  For Palestinians, who had lived in the area they had called Palestine for 1,000 years, the land was also a spiritual home for their Islamic religion.

Since 1979, there has been a movement towards peace in the middle east.  After engaging in many armed conflicts between their two countries over the years, Israeli President Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar- el- Sadat  signed an unprecedented peace treaty at Camp David, Maryland in 1979.  Israel agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for recognition as a country and an agreement for peace between the two nations.  This was called the Camp David Agreement and it was signed with the aid of the United States President Jimmy Carter.

Palestinians living under Israeli occupation in lands captured by Israel during several wars, however, were not affected by the Camp David Agreement.  They remained very frustrated by what they considered Israeli occupation and started a movement called the Intafada in 1987.  This uprising generally consisted of Palestinian boycotts, demonstrations and throwing rocks at Jewish citizens in the occupied areas.  Israeli police and soldiers often fought back.  These rock throwing activities and the use of armed Israeli soldiers to put down the revolt drew tremendous criticism around the world.

The peace process continued.  In 1993 Israeli Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasir Arafat signed a peace accord.  The PLO agreed to recognize Israel's right to exist and Israel gave the Palestinians self rule in the West Bank town of Jericho and the Gaza Strip.  In 1994 Jordan and Israel formally ended their hostilities and began trade and economic exchanges.

Even though the peace process was continuing, not all Israeli citizens believed in giving up land that had been won during wars for peace.  As the peace process led by Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli Prime Minister, and Yassir Arafat moved at a slow but steady pace, an Israeli extremist murdered Yitzhak Rabin at a peace rally on November 4, 1995. The assassin was a Jewish - Israeli citizen who was opposed to changing borders. This shows the tremendous strain that all people in this area face.

Shortly after the death of Mr. Rabin, newly installed Israeli Prime Minister Simon Peres continued peace talks with PLO Chairman Yassir Arafat.  The terror continues as well.  On February twenty fifth of this year,  the first of four suicide bombings within a two week period conducted by Hamas took place.  The bombings resulted in a total of over sixty deaths.  Over the years, Hamas has been responsible for more than 150 deaths and hundreds of injuries to Israeli citizens.   Many believe Hamas continues with its terrorist activities to stop the peace process, hoping to eventually take over all of Israel andthe occupied territories.  Although Israel has stepped up its anti-terrorist actions by bombing and destroying the homes of accused terrorists and insisting that the PLO force Hamas to stop its terrorist activities, the peace process in the Middle East is still progressing.

Historical Factors That Explain The Current Situation

Theodor Herzl is known as the Father of Political Zionism, the idea to create a new Jewish State in Eretz Yisrael.  His book, The Jewish State, attracted world attention.  Herzl then organized the First Zionist Congress, the first gathering of world Jewish leaders, in 1897.  Through the Congress and the World Zionist Organization, Herzl invigorated the spirit of the Jewish people worldwide, and in 1897 established the organization that would eventually result in the creation of the state of Israel.

During WWI, the Turks were cruel to the Yishuv, Jewish pioneers living in Palestine.  This forced the Jews to fight with Great Britain against the Turks. The Jewish Legion, was formed which fought with British General Allenby to drive the Turks from Palestine.  During the war, Chaim Weizmann, the world's leading Zionist, succeeded in obtaining from the British Government the Balfour Declaration, which gave official support to the concept of a Jewish national home in Palestine.

In 1920, a Jewish settlement, Tel Hai, was attacked by Arabs.  The Arab leaders decided to gain control of the Middle East through violence and the British did little to stop the Arabs.  In 1939 the British issued a document called the "White Paper."  It announced the plan to cut off  Jewish immigration to Palestine completely in five years and create an Arab state in the area.  The Yishuv fought the White Paper with a passion.  If the White Paper took effect, there would be no chance of a Jewish state being created in Palestine.

After WWII, the Jewish survivors of Hitler's program against the Jews had nowhere to go.  There were 300,000 homeless Jews.  The democracies of the West would not let them enter their countries and Britain refused to let them enter into Palestine.  The result was a war between the Yishuv and the British in Palestine.  Due to the continuous pressure put on the British people by the unofficial Israeli army, the Haganah, and the violent tactics towards the British by the Israeli terrorist group, the Irgun, the British turned the issue of Palestine over to the United Nations.  The UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended that Palestine be divided into Arab and Jewish states.  The UN accepted this recommendation on November 29, 1947.

When the UN voted to create a Jewish state, surrounding hostile Arab nations set off a new wave of incredible violence in Palestine.  Many people around the world doubted that a Jewish state could be created and withstand the pressure of the surrounding hostile Arab nations.  These nations were heavily armed and staffed with many thousands of soldiers.  Chaim Weizmann persuaded President Truman to support Jewish independence.  The Jews in Palestine then took the offensive and did whatever was possible to improve their military position. British troops gave the majority of their armaments to Arabs leaders before leaving Palestine.  On May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion announced the country's independence.

On the same day, five Arab armies attacked the newly formed state of Israel. Every  able Israeli citizen fought in this immediate battle for independence knowing that if they lost this first battle there would be no other chance to retaliate.  Outnumbered by the Arab soldiers by five to one, the Israelis fought with astounding tenacity and courage.   Fortunately for Israel, the efforts of the Arab armies were defeated. When the battles were over, Israel was in possession of 21 percent more land than had originally been assigned by the UN's Partition plan.

When Israel was formally created, the country was opened to all Jews worldwide for  Jewish immigration or aliyah. Jews from around the world sent financial support or left their own homes to fight for the establishment of this new country.  .

In the years 1947-1982 Israel fought five major wars: The Israeli War of Independence (1947-49), The Suez Campaign (1956), The Six Day War (1967), The Yom Kippur War (1973), and Operation Peace for Galilee (1982).  Although Israel won each war, the cost to the country was high. Tens of thousands of Israeli's have died defending their country.  There has been a  constant threat of terrorism and fear that their small homeland could be destroyed by fanatic Arabs.

The Arabs who left Israel in 1948 were caught in the strange politics of the Middle East.  No Arab country wanted the refugees.  Eventually, the Palestinians organized themselves into the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).

The Gulf War (1993) was a turning point for Israel.  Iraq, who had been a long military menace, developed one of the largest armies in the world.  Iraq attacked and conquered Kuwait, an Arab neighbor.  The Arab nations were divided on this issue.  Many feared Iraq would turn its strength on their country. Yassir Arafat and the PLO, however, had supported Iraq.  Infuriated, the oil rich Arab states stopped paying for PLO operations.

U.S. Interests In Israel And Palestine

The United States has many varying interests, both economical, political, and moral with Israel.  These interests vary in many ways.  Israel has many things in common with the U.S.  The most obvious is that Israel is the only country in the Middle East that is a true democracy.

Israel has similarities shared with the United States.  All citizens of Israel enjoy free speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion.  They vote for the representatives who form the government.  In Israel, every citizen over 18 years of age may vote in national elections.

Israel has many people immigrating to Israel from around the world similar to the United States.  If we watch closely we can learn from Israel and how to deal with the incoming people more efficiently in the U.S.  Israel can serve as a model for our country.  We can learn from their mistakes and improve on their achievements.

In the past, the U.S. has disagreed with the actions of many nations in the Middle East.  For example, Iraq caused the Gulf War, in Iran the Aytollah overthrew the government and took United States citizens hostage, we believe Libya sponsors terrorist actions, and we went into Lebanon to stop a civil war.  Because the U.S. has a strong foundation in Israel we are better able to keep a closer eye on the activities of these countries.

There is also another very important reason why America wants to have a strong relationship with Israel.  This reason is its geographic location.  From a military standpoint, Israel is an outstanding position to launch attacks on countries in the Middle East, Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia.

U.S. Relations With Israel And Palestine

The United States must look at the current situation carefully.  What caused the fighting and the distrust to originate?  It was a conflict between two peoples, the Arabs and the Jews.  The conflict in Palestine may have been avoided if a different course of action had been taken in the past.  For example:

· If the British and the Arabs had approached the subject of Jewish settlement in a reasonable way, the history may have been changed for the better.  If the British had treated the Arabs and the Jews equally, and forced the Arabs to obey the law, the two groups might have learned to live together peacefully.

· If the British had permitted Jews to enter Palestine in reasonable numbers, the English and the Zionists could have joined with the Arabs to build a great land.  The British did not.

As a result, the Zionists and the Arabs never interacted peacefully.  They never took the time to realize what the other party was going through.  Both of their views were blocked by a partition put in place by their goals and their desires.

The United States must realize that it was the unequal rule of the British that helped to start the conflict between the Jews and the Arabs so many years ago.  The United States must not continue what the British started.  We must continue to mediate and be friendly with these two groups of people.  We must learn from the past.  The United States can not take sides because that could force history to repeat itself.  More conflict will arise and peace process could stop.  Being the only remaining superpower of the world, the United States should send aid to both  Israel and the Palestinians.  This aid should be aimed at education and promoting the peace process and teaching the opposing parties how to live and interact with each other in a peaceful way.  It is easy for us, as Americans so far away from hostilities, to claim that each side should compromise.  Mothers who have lost their children and brothers and sisters who have lost their friends need to show tolerance towards others.

5-6-7 (Foreign Policy)

The United State's goals in the Middle East should be simple.  These goals should  accomplished through peaceful action.  If military might is incorporated in any way, further conflict may erupt in the Middle East and U.S. interests may be jeopardized.

The most important of the United State's goals for foreign policy are to promote the well being of both Israeli's and Palestinians.  Trust and well being is the foundation of any peace process.  Without those two crucial components, peace between he Israeli's and the Palestinians will not be realized.

Secondly, resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict is crucial.  To initiate peace in the region is crucial for many reasons.  For years thousands of people have died for a cause in which they believed in.  These deaths must stop.

To ensure that our first two goals stay intact, the U.S. must put effort into eliminating all terrorist factions.  Many terrorist organizations that are based in Middle Eastern countries have a sole purpose to putting an end to Israel and the Arabs supporting the peace process.  By removing these terrorist groups, the people that are living in Israel and Palestine will be able to live together in a safer environment that promotes peace between different peoples .One role the United States can perform is to get the United Nations to become more active in mediating differences between these people.  The US should continue to spearhead these talks as our Secretary of State Warren Christopher is now doing.

Finally, our last goal is to build up the Middle East's economy.  By strengthening their struggling economy the United States will benefit by opening up significant trade opportunities in the Middle East.  The Israelis are extremely industrious and capable workers.  Their manufacturing is at a very high level and the United States can benefit by increasing trade with this country.

The goals that the U.S. has set dealing with Israel and Palestine's foreign policy must be completed.  Unfortunately, there is no simple way in which the U.S. can go about completing each of the goals that have been set.

Promoting the well being of both Israeli's and Palestinians is not an easy task to accomplish.  One must understand the backgrounds of the two separate peoples.  We must work with the Arabs and with the Israelis to initiate programs that introduce each other into a common environment in a peaceful manner.  One way is to incorporate into textbooks at the schools of both sides explaining what is occurring instead of continuing the "we are right, they are wrong" attitude.  Another is to break down the physical barriers that have been set up to restrict movement.  Everyone must be able to move freely about without having to fear for their safety.

Resolving the Arab-Israeli conflict is extremely important.  Already, the U.S. has prompted Israel and leaders of other Arab nations to come to the peace tables.  The U.S. must continue to do all that it can to bring peace.  For example, President Clinton agreed to reduce Jordan's $702 million debt to the U.S. by $220 million as part of an inducement to get Jordan to make peace.  By encouraging the Arab nations in the Middle East we will be able to speed the peace process.

Eliminating all terrorist organizations in the Middle East is a substantial task that we must undergo, and with the help of other countries of the world.  . More than one step will be necessary to dispose of terrorist activity.  If the CIA works together with the Mossad, Israel's equivalent of the CIA, we have a chance of eliminating the leaders of terrorist activity.  Another step is to condemn and put strict economic sanctions on any countries that the U.S. feels is not doing all it can to stop terrorist acts from occurring.

Finally, our last goal is to build up the Middle East's economy.  This is not an easy thing to do.  By lending more money to countries and Palestinians in the Middle East the U.S. will enable their economies to grow.  As a result of its growth, they will have more to lose if peace efforts fail.  Trade will also be expanded.  The middle eastern countries will need more materials from outside nations.  We can set up trade between these newly developing countries and the U.S. and we can both benefit financially in the long run.

Bibliography

1)  Susan Sachs, Reading, Writing & HATE / 2 Sides To Every Story / In Mideast History            Classes, Past Is Both Prologue And Propaganda, NASS Ed., Newsday, 25 Oct       1995, pp. A07.

2)  Dooley, Howard J., Atlas of Arab-Israeli Conflict, Sixth Edition, Domes, 28 Feb 1995,           pp. PG.

3)  Wallace, Bruce-Silver, Eric, Can they ever be friends?, Vol. 106, Maclean's, 20 Dec     1993, pp. 18.

4)  Zuckerbrot, Bluma, "A Fire in Zion: The Israeli-Palestinian Search for Peace",   Baltimore Jewish Times, 23 Sep 1994, pp. PG.

5)  Netty C. Gross, ARE WE (STILL) ALL ZIONISTS?, Jerusalem Post, 29 Sep 1995.

6)  Rossel, Seymour, Israel: Covenant, People, Covenant Land, New York, Union Of        Amerocan Hebrew Congregations, 1985.

7)  DuBois, Jill, Israel, New York, Marshall Cavendish Corperation, 1994

8)  Bamberger, David, A Young Person's History Of Israel, New Jersey, Behrman House Inc., 1994

9)  Clinton, Bill, Remarks to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee Policy             Conference., Vol. 31, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 15 May     1995, pp. 778.

10)  Adrian Peracchio, IDEAS / Palestinians' Future Rests on Their Vision / The yearnings            of Israelis and Palestinians for tranquility and prosperity are caught in the gears of             the machinery of peacemaking., NASS Ed., Newsday,  3 Dec 1995, pp. A42.

11)  Deborah Horan, PALESTINE:  HAMAS CEASEFIRE IN DOUBT AFTER             KILLING OF BOMBMAKER, Inter Press Service English News Wire,  9 Jan      1996.

12)  William Kazer, Chronology of Arab-Israeli peace moves, Reuters, 10 Mar 1996.

13)  Closure of West Bank and Gaza Strip Causes Frustration, All Things Considered       (NPR), 14 Mar 1996.

14)  Paul Moses, U.S. Acts to Oust Hamas Leader, ALL Ed., Newsday,  9 Aug 1995, pp.             A14.

15)  Cynthia Mann, U.S. Jews back peace process, worry about PLO, survey shows,          Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 12 Sep 1995, pp. PG.

16)  SCOTT KRAFT, Joint Israeli-Palestinian Raids Target Militants; Mideast: Cell           suspected in bombings is uncovered. Trucker is charged with smuggling terrorist.;       Home Edition, Los Angeles Times,  7 Mar 1996, pp. A-6.

17)  Simon Kwong, Israel arrests 24 West Bank Arabs in Hamas crackdown, Reuters, 14 Mar 1996.

68.  Israel

Israel

By Josh Cohen

The Official language for Israel is Hebrew.  It is a very old language dating back

over 5000 years.  The version that is spoken today is different than the kinda of Hebrew

written in the Old Testament.  The version spoken today is commonly refered to as

modern Hebrew.

Since Israel is a Jewish state, naturally the main religion is going to be Judaism.

There is also a lot of Muslims and Christians, but most of the people are Jewish.  Many

of the Jewish Holiday are also national holidays, such as Yom Kippur, Purim, and Rosh

Hashanah.  One of the holidays exclusive to Israel is Independence Day, where Israel

celebrates it's becoming a state.

Israel Produces many crops such as figs, dates, apples, pairs, oranges, and olives.

They are a very self-sufficient nation and do not need to import much.

Probably the most renowned person in the country is the Prime Minister.  He is

similar to a President.  The current Prime Minister is Benjamin Netanyahu. One of his

biggest problems right now is to try and negotiate a peach agreement with the arabs.

Two of the biggest Ethnic groups, the Arabs and the Jews, have been fighting every since

the Jews came to the land in the early 20th century.  The Jews want Peace and the Arabs

wanna kick the Jews out.  One of the Biggest debates is over the Mosque in Jerusalem.

The Mosque is located right by the Whaling Wall, which is the remnants of an ancient

Jewish Temple.  They are both major parts of each religion so they are fighting over who

has ownership of what.

In Israel they like many of the sports we do.  Soccer, Basketball, Football, etc.

They eat many of the same foods we do.  Some of the foods native to that area of the

world are: Falafel, Hummus, Techina, and Shwarma.

The population of Israel is roughly 6 million.  Almost on sixth of those live in a

city called Tel Aviv, the nations largest city.  It is also a popular city for jews because it

is about 95% Jewish.  It is in the north where there are hills and mountains, the opposite

of the South where there is deserts and flat lands.  The Dead Sea is the lowest altitude

onEarth and it is located in Israel.

The Government is modeled after the British.  With a parlaimentary Democracy.

The Prime minister is elected by the people through an indirect vote.  The people vote on

the party and the party with the most votes, then votes on whom they choose to be Prime

Minister.

They export mainly agricultural products.  Some of the Important places are the

religious centers in Jerusalem, which houses major spots for four different religions. The

schools and homes are much like they are here except the may have solar paneling to aid

in electricity conservation and water heating.

The main recreation is the same as here. They are very Americanized.  They like

american music, movies, and food.  Just like many countries.

Over all Israel is a great place and you should visit it. :-)

69.  Italy

ITALY

The country I picked to do my report on was Italy.  Italy, officially the

Italian Republic, is an independent nation in southern Europe.  The word

"Italy" comes from the ancient Oscan language and means "Calf".  Italy is a

fairly small, important mediteranean country of about 116,328 square miles.

Its capital city "Rome" is both the industrial center as well as the cultural

center of Italy. Romes current population is about 2,786,307 people.  With

the countries over all population estimated at 57,904,628 people, at a density

of 498 people per square mile. 72% of these people living in urban areas,

while 28% of the population resides in rural areas.  Some of Italy's major

imports include industrial raw materials, petroleum, meat, and cereal grains.

The principal exports are manufactured goods and craft items, along with

fruits and vegetables.  Italy usually suffers a trade deficit, but the difference

is partly offset by its large and profitable tourist industry and by money sent

by Italian citizens working abroad.  Italy is a country far from being land-

locked, with 9 major ports including Genoa, Trieste, Taranto, Venice,

Savona, and Naples. Italy has been historically important since Roman times,

and millions of tourists are attracted each year to its ancient cities and art

treasures.  Modern Italy is an important industrial nation and a leading

member of the european community, also known as the "EC".  Italy's

principal trading partners are other members of the EC, especially Germany

and France.

Italy's government was originally a republic, then was a monarchy,

then a republic, then a monarchy.  It was reverted back to a republic for a

final time in 1946.  According to the constitution, executive power lies with

the cabinet, and legislative powers are vested in a parliament consisting of a

630-member chamber of deputies and a 315-member senate.  Except for a

few life members of the senate (including former presidents and some

prominent citizens nominated by the president), both houses are elected

directly by universal adult suffrage for 5-year terms unless dismissed earlier.

The president of the republic is head of state and is elected to a renewable 7-

year term by a joint session of Parliament and three delegates from each of

the regional legislatures.  Executive power rests with the council of ministers

headed by the prime minister appointed by the president.  The principal

political party is the Christian Democratic party, which has led or

participated in every government since 1945. Other major parties are the

Democratic Party of the Left (the former Communist party) and the Socialist

party.  Smaller political groups include the Social Democrats, the

Republicans, the Greens, the Liberals, and the neo-Fascist Italian Social

Movement.                                                      THE END

70.  JAIL SUICIDES PREVENTION

The United States is plagued by a countless number of social dilemmas. Although

not in constant public scrutiny, suicide is a serious problem which has seemed to

have lost importance. When suicide is coupled with arrest and incarceration it

becomes an increasingly complex situation. In fact, research indicates that the jail

suicide rate ranges from 2.5 to 13 times greater than the rate of the general

population (Winkler 1992). Motivation, prediction, and prevention of suicidal

behavior are grossly unclear, which only adds to the already existing complexity.

Many factors involved with arrest and incarceration only serve as a catalyst of

suicidal tendencies. Suicide is the primary cause of death in this country's jails.

In 1986 there were 401 successful [jail] suicides (Winkler 19992).

There are many general assumptions made in regard to suicide. Most believe

suicide to be caused by mental illness such as major depression or bipolar disorder.

Another belief is that the emotional escalation leading to action takes place over a

long period of time. Such is not the case in jail suicides. Much of the research

shows that 1/4 of all [jail] suicides occur within the first twenty four hours of

incarceration, and an overwhelming number of these take place in the first three

hours of isolation which is referred to as the "crisis period" (Hess 1987). The

crisis period is reflective of arrest and incarceration as producing extreme

confusion, fear, and anxiety. The crisis period is also the result of isolation.

Isolation causes an individual to lose all social support systems. Placing an

individual in isolation may be a form of protection, but this gives the individual an

opportunity to concentrate on feelings of hopelessness (Winkler 1992). Hopelessness

can be defined as the presence of despair and negative feelings about the future

(Shneidman 1987).Isolation can also produce a severe threat to those inmates who have

difficulty with coping abilities as this only encourages future deterioration.

Undoubtedly, isolation is often necessary to contain a person, or to prevent injury

to the individual and, or other inmates. Individuals who are experiencing obvious

mental stress should certainly not be held in isolation for obvious reasons.

According to Hess (1983),many facilities have regulations which state,"The

action taken must be responsible under the circumstances and represent a good-faith

judgment that the action was the least restrictive alternative

available."Regulations such as this not only serve as a guideline for officers, but

as a preventive measure against legal action as a result of isolation. Aside from

these emotional factors of the physical environment which are impetus of suicidal

attempts. Isolation cells more often than not tend to have poor lighting,

ventilation, and the surroundings are extremely noisy (Winkler 1992). The are minor

modifications which can be made to reduce risk. These include removal of bars, sinks,

or any other object which may facilitate a suicide attempt (Kunzman 1992).

There are certain characteristics of the "act" of jail suicide. The major

characteristic which seems to be consistent in almost all cases is that the method

used is hanging. In fact, according to Hess(1983), 96% of the [jail] suicides are

successfully completed in this fashion and the instruments most often used are

clothing, bedding, shoelaces, or belts. This trend is attributed to the fact that

other avenues for suicide are not available. In cases which officers are aware of the

person's fragile mental state, attempts are made to extinguish the availability of

instruments. This is done by stripping the inmate of clothing, and, or accessories.

All too often the objects and particularly the mental states are overlooked. Since

this does occur, officers now carry the Stephans 9-11 knife which can

effectively cut through sheets, bedding, belts, and other material (Winkler 1992).

Some other rather interesting statistics have been compiled regarding the jail

suicide act in reference to month, day and time in which it is most likely to occur.

The majority of inmates commit suicide between the hours of midnight and eight A.M.,

usually occurring on a Saturday in the month of September (Winkler 1992). The acts

take place at these specific times and days due to the fact that officer supervision

is greatly decreased at these intervals. Despite the fact that supervision is so

decreased, the victims are usually found within 15 minutes.

Research has also been consistent in identifying other typical aspects of the

jail suicide. The prominent factors are age, race,, marital status, and type of

offense. The person is usually a 22 year old single whit male who has been arrested

for an alcohol related offense . Many times an individual who is incarcerated because

of a murder offense is automatically placed on suicide watch."The Federal Bureau of

Prisons has warned local jailers that persons held for murder or any other offense

involving possible death penalty be watched closely for any suicidal

tendencies"(Winkler 1992). Jail suicide in this case is usually caused by extreme

feelings of remorse, particularly if the death of a relative is involved. Other

characteristics include being under the influence of drugs or alcohol at the

time of the arrest, the individual having no significant prior arrest, and being held

in an urban county jail.

Many feel correctional officials are responsible for an inmate's well being. If

this is the case, such personal characteristics as listed above are enormously

inadequate to form a prediction judgment, and apply techniques to offenders who are

at risk for a suicide attempt. These characteristics are especially inadequate

considering the fact they also represent much of the general inmate population.

Officers are unquestionably the key players in prevention. Considering the fact that

78% of jail suicides show no prediction signs at the time of intake (Winkler 1992).,

new standards need to be implemented. Accurate predictions are not the only aspect

needing regulation. According to research(1986),"an inmate suicide prevention

program must address the four P's of prevention: 1). Profile, 2). procedure, 3).

personnel, 4). physical environment."

Winkler contends that if a standardized profile is to be operational, it needs

to be limited to a manageable numbers of features. The Lane County Adult Correctional

Center (LCACC), located in Oregon, has implemented new regulations in regard to

suicide profiles. Reports say that this profile includes:suicidal statements

these are not to be taken lightly, and officers are instructed to dispel the myth

that those who talk of suicide will not attempt prior attempts-inmates who have

previously attempted suicide are at a much greater risk:depression this especially

applies to the concept of hopelessness mentioned earlier:intoxication-reports reveal

60% of victims had been intoxicated;mental/emotional disturbances-the mentally ill

are at a much greater risk;crisis event-this is an event which the inmate feels to be

life shattering (although it is impossible to know what the inmate is feeling,

officers must keep some sense of sympathy to be able to relate to the individual);

and time in custody as mentioned before, most suicides occur within the first 24

hours.

The second and third component, procedure and personnel are interrelated.

Inmates coming through the intake process should be assessed by officers using a

questionnaire regarding medical history, mental health status and history, and

security issues. All of the corrections staff who are involved in the intake process

should be formally educated in identifying and dealing with at risk offenders."In

addition to standard correctional staff, personnel should include specially trained

mental health professionals either staff or on call."(Winkler 1992)

The last component, physical environment was mentioned earlier. Aside from the

suggested structural modifications, many authorities believe suicidal inmates should

be placed in group housing. Placing suicidal inmates in a group housing

environment often solves the problem of isolation, and offers an available social

support structure. This also implements an intervention techniques by avenue of other

inmates physically stopping the attempt, or alerting officers. Prevention techniques

thus far have considerable lack of imagination, and cooperation.

The United States is neglecting its responsibility for jail suicides."As of

1989, only 13 of 35 states responding to a survey had prevention standards for

jails."(Kunzman 1995) Nationwide prevention standards need to be implemented so as

to not only reduce the several hundred deaths per year attributed to jail suicides,

but also prevent legalities. Legal actions cost money, time and more importantly,

they disrupt the fundamental objective of the criminal justice system. Disruptions of

the system in this way may cause correction officers to view inmates with high risk

factors as a burden of liability. There are various cost efficient methods for

reducing suicides such as cell structure modification, or double cell occupancy. The

most cost effective method is instilling sensitivity in correctional personnel.

Understanding, relating, and simply speaking to an inmate as a human being may save a

life.

71.  Japan 3

Innehållsförteckning

Innehållsförteckning               2

Inledning                     3

Sammanfattning                      4

Allmänt                       5

Japans industriella                   6

struktur

Faktorer som bidragit  11

till Japans framgångar

Jämförelse mellan                    14

Sverige och Japan

Källförteckning                       18

Bilaga              19

Inledning

Sverige är nu i en djup lågkonjunktur, med massor av "sparpaket". Därför tyckte jag att det skulle vara intressant att titta på just en av världens största och starkaste marknadseko-nomier och se vad som skiljer den mot Sverige. Jag valde inte USA utan Japan som kommer lite i skymundan mot den stora jätten i Väst.

Jag kommer att ta upp lite om företagsstruktur d v s om de är konglomerat eller ej, stort eller litet o s v. Sedan tänkte jag ta upp lite om inställningen till arbete hos japanerna, d v s hur deras tra-ditioner är i förhållande till arbetet.

På det här sättet tänkte jag påvisa vad som gör Japan till en rela-tivt solid ekonomi. Jag vill också visa vad som gjort att Japan har haft så otroliga framgångar speciellt efter andra världskriget.

Sammanfattning

Japan är ett relativt litet land, men ändå har det utvecklat en väl-digt stark ekonomi. Bristen på tillgångar och det isolerade läget har lett till att japanerna måste ha en effektiv handel över grän-serna.

Japan har ett välutvecklat industridepartement som samarbetar dagligen med industrin och fungerar som ett samordnings- och rådgivningsorgan.

De stora industrigrupperna står för hälften av Japans förädlings-värde, men bara ca 1/5 av sysselsättningen. Detta beror främst på att industrigrupperna tillämpar livstidsanställning och seniori-tets-systemet vilka är mycket kostsamma, men ger många fördelar bl a effektiva arbetare. Industrigrupperna samarbetar med små- och medelstora företag, de hjälper dem med bl a finansiering och råd-givning. I gengäld arbetar de mindre företagen lojalt för de stora och blir som ett slags säkerhetsområde för dem.

De flesta japanerna sparar för en oviss framtid, därför att de ej har någon speciell social trygghet genom staten, endast en folk-pension på ca 3816 kr/månad. Genom detta sparande blir ban-kerna enormt kapitalstarka och därför är just de 4 största banker-na i världen ja-panska. Det genomsnittliga sparkapitalet för en japansk familj är ca 354 000 kr. Deras marginalskatt är endast ca 10% vilket moti-verar övertidsarbete och mer sparande, därför arbetar japanerna ca 6 h mer än t ex européer.

Det finns många faktorer som har bidragit till Japans framgångar framför allt efter andra världskriget bl a den stabila ställningen in-ternationellt, den effektiva inrikespolitiken, näringssystemet, styr-ningen av företagen och de effektiva arbetarna.

Jämför man Sverige och Japan så är det, det lite större landet med 8 miljoner inv. mot det lilla landet med en enorm befolkning på 125 miljoner. Det lilla landet har en BNP som är ungefär 17 gång-er så stort. Företagen för också en mycket vänligare politik mot grovarbetarna och de lågavlönade. De har också en mera demo-kratisk beslutsfattning. I Japan vågar de skjuta  till pengar i dåliga tider, både till teknikimport och för att öka konsumtionen.

JAPAN

Allmänt

Det som karakteriserar Japan är främst trångboddhet, förekomsten av naturkatastrofer och bristen på naturtillgångar. Japan har ca 125 miljoner invånare på en total markyta av 378000 km2 varav ca 80% består utav berg- och skogsområden.

Befolkningstätheten är i verkligheten högst i världen och detta är främst i storstäderna. I och med detta blir följden en mycket hård konkurrens på nästan alla områden. Detta märker man också i nä-ringslivet och återspeglas även i de överlevnadsmöjligheter som ligger i en stark konkurrenskraft. Gruppbildning är en naturlig procedur i en sådan omgivning. Fast det är ju också så att japa-nerna under många generationer har lärt sig leva med trångbodd-het, ömsesidig förståelse och harmoni. Ett resultat av detta bero-ende är t ex uppbyggnaden av ett rakt nedstigande relationsnät mellan företagen inom en företagsgrupp.

Folk lever under ett ständigt hot av naturkatastrofer, som jord-bävningar, tyfoner, översvämmningar o s v. Osäkerheten har ge-nom tiderna lärt folk att spara för en oviss framtid och leva så flexibelt som möjligt. Det är också så att regeringens politiker uppmuntrar folk att garantera sin framtid på detta vis. Det är bl a därför japanerna har det högsta sparkapitalet per hushåll i världen. Detta gör naturligtvis att bankerna blir väldigt stabila.

Japans brist på naturtillgångar tvingade människorna att redan för ca 100 år sedan utveckla handelsfirmor som kunde tillvarata och importera råvaror till Japan. Detta har sedan utvecklats till det gi-gantiska handelshus som det är idag, som inte bara sysslar med handel till och från Japan utan även med handel mellan andra län-der och därigenom påverkar världsekonomin.

Japans industriella struktur

Japans industriella struktur är uppbyggd på följande sätt:

*          Industridepartementet eller Ministry of Trade and Industry (MITI).

*          Ett halvt dussin stora industrigrupper med tillhörande stora fö-retag och ett stort antal icke tillhörande stora företag.

*          Ett stort antal små och medelstora (SM) företag.

*          Allianser mellan de stora företagen och SM-företagen.

MITI samarbetar med industrin och fungerar som samordnings-   och rådgivningsorgan. MITI och industrin har ständig kontakt med varandra så att de kan diskutera dagens och framtidens problem och MITI ger råd när industrin behöver det. De stora företagen ar-betar och konkurrerar fritt med varandra. Trots stor företagens enorma storlek sysselsätter de endast 1/5 av den totala arbetskraf-ten i Japan men står för ca hälften av industrins totala förädlings-värde d v s produktionsvärdet minus förbrukning (råvaror, halv-fabrikat och liknande som används i produktionsprocessen). De sex stora industrigrupperna är : Mitsubishi (se bilaga 1), Mitsui, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Sanwa och Daiichi-Kangyo.

Skillnaden mellan de stora industrigrupperna och SM företagen är att industrigrupperna tillämpar livstidsanställning (vilket jag tar upp i ett särskilt avsnitt). De anställdas löner bestäms enligt se-nioritetsprincipen vilket är ett lönesystem som ger framåt anda och lojalitet bland de anställda i företaget(återkommer senare i ett av-snitt). De livstidsanställda gallras normalt bland de bästa akade-mikerna och de skickligaste arbetarna. En normal industrigrupp omfattar bank, handelshus och ett antal industriföretag.

Fyra femtedelar av den totala arbetsstyrkan tillhör de ca 600 000 små och medelstora företag som svarar för ungefär hälften av in-dustrins totala förädlingsvärde. SM företagen erbjuder lägre löner och sämre sociala förmåner än de stora företagen. Livstidsanställ-ning är ganska sällsynt i denna grupp.

Många av SM-företagen är sammanbundna och beroende av de stora företagen för att överleva. Denna speciella sammanbindning kallas "Keiretsu" och innebär att SM-företagen lojalt arbetar för de stora företagen. Industrigrupperna är intresserade av att hjälpa SM-företagen med finansiering, tekniskaråd, maskinutlåning, per-sonalutbildning o s v för att de ska uppnå högsta möjliga produk-tivitet och kvalitetsnivå. Dessa "Keiretsu-relationer" tjänar båda parter på. De stora företagens fördelar är lägre arbetskostnader och stor elasticitet i arbetsvolym. Därför bildar SM-företagen ett säkerhetsområde kring det stora företaget. Fördelarna för SM-fö-retagen är tillgången till den hjälp från det stora företaget, som är nödvändig för konkurrenskraften. SM-företagen gläds med det stora företaget i affärsframgångarna. Som en gentjänst måste SM-företagen erbjuda befattningar åt dem som pensionerats från det stora företaget. Detta system stärker relationerna mellan de båda företagen. Det händer därför ofta att arbetsstyrkans medelålder är högre hos SM-företagen än det styrande företaget.

Utanför dessa SM-företagsgrupper med "Keiretsu-relationer" finns det ett stort antal SM-företag som inte har någon som helst rela-tion, varken direkt eller indirekt till något styrande företag. Dessa SM-företag hittar man inom den lättare industrin. Ett stort antal konkurser registreras varje månad huvudsakligen bland dessa före-tag. Under 1990 gick ca 19 000 företag i konkurs. Det gjordes åtgärder från regeringshåll för att höja nivån på denna grupp så att de ska kunna klara av de stora krav som de stora företagen ställer.

Livstidsanställning

De japanska arbetarna hos ett stort företag arbetar för samma före-tag under hela sitt liv. Man börjar arbeta hos företaget så snart man har gått ut skolan och arbetar till sin pensionering. Företaget kan satsa på de nyanställda genom omfattande träningsprogram för att motivera dem att stanna. Intressant är att det inte finns nå-gon lagstiftning i detta system utan man betraktar det som en sed.

Livstidsanställning ger den anställde en avgångssumma på ca 1 miljon i dagens penningvärde när denna avtjänar sin livstidsan-ställning vid 58 års ålder. Denna avgångssumma är beroende av antalet tjänsteår hos det företag där han är anställd och ju längre han har arbetat desto större blir summan. Detta system är natur-ligtvis gynnsamt för den som börjat efter att ha slutat en tidigare anställning hos något annat företag.

Fördelarna med livstidsanställning är att företaget vinner de an-ställdas lojalitet. Man har ett gemensamt mål för sitt företag : de anställda påverkar företagets resultat på alla nivåer genom förslag och lagarbete för att förbättra produktivitet och kvalitet, minska kostnaderna, spara energi och tillmötesgå leveranstidskrav osv. Bättre lönsamhet ger i sin tur bättre utrymme för höjda löner, bo-nus och avgångssumma och där med ökad trygghet för de an-ställda för att det som är bäst för företaget är också det bästa för de anställda. I grunden finns ett ömsesidigt förtroende mellan före-tagsledningen och de anställda tack vare livstidsanställningen.

Nackdelarna med livstidsanställningen är låg flexibilitet i löne-kostnadshänseende. Under dåliga tider kan företaget normalt inte permittera eller avskeda sina anställda eftersom avskedandet inne-bär att företaget får dåligt rykte och det kan även tolkas så att fö-retaget är nära konkurs. Man försöker därför behålla sina anställda så gott men kan genom utbildningsprogram eller genom att flytta folk till dotterbolag inom koncernen.

Minskning av anställda sker genom naturlig avgång och anställ-ningsstop för nyrekrytering. När ett företag förutser dåligt resultat reducerar först direktörerna och cheferna sina löner och bonus för att föregå med gott exempel för sina anställda. När det ändå blir nödvändigt att vidta extraordinära åtgärder stimulerar man till frivillig avgång genom att erbjuda extra tillägg till den normala avgångssumman för dem som tar förtidspension.

Den anställda drabbas normalt sist. När det är absolut nödvändigt att avskeda folk, förmedlar företaget arbete i annat företag för att ta ansvar för de anställda.

Företaget svarar för socialtrygghet

Livstidsanställningen kostar företaget mycket eftersom man tar hand om de anställdas pension, läkarvård, bostad, bostadslån, fri-tid o s v. De flesta stora företag har eget sjukhus, fritidsanlägg-ning, bostäder, o s v. Ibland tar företaget även hand om begrav-ningen av sina anställda. Företaget fungerar som det sociala trygg-hetsorgan som staten annars gör i andra länder. Som ett exempel kan nämnas att en man avled i hjärtinfarkt. Han hade varit anställd hos ett av de ledande företagen i 15 år. Företaget ordnade be-gravning och avskrev hans bostadslån på ca 250 000 kr och dess-utom anställdes hans hustru som kontorist hos ett dotterbolag in-om koncernen. Detta var möjligt tack vare det stora företaget som har råd att göra på detta sätt men det är knappast möjligt för SM-företagen. Det är därför viktigt för ungdomarna att få anställning hos de stora förtagen och för att göra det måste de utexamineras från kända universitet eller tekniska högskolor. Det förstärker ten-densen att studera till högre utbildningar och ökar konkurrensen till ubildningsinstitutioner.

Livstidsanställningen verkar passa bäst i ett konkurrenssamhälle där man behöver de anställdas samlade kraft till ökad konkurrens-kraft å ena sidan och till trygghet, vänskap och arbetstrivsel å andra. Detta överensstämmer med det traditionella japanska mo-raliska synsättet "att inte tjäna två herrar". Enligt undersökningar stödjer ca 80% av de tillfrågade livstidsanställningen. Trots de nackdelar som nämnts tidigare och trots förändringar i framför allt ungdomars attityd och ett ändrat ekonomiskt klimat kommer an-tagligen livstidsanställningen troligen att överleva i framtiden.

Senioritetssystem

Livstidsanställningen kopplas med ett senioritetssystem som be-stämmer de anställdas löner efter antal tjänsteår i företaget. Spe-ciellt fram till ca 40 års ålder spelar antalet tjänsteår en domine-rande roll. Sedan tas det mera hänsyn till arbetskapacitet och styrningsförmåga när det gäller befordran till chefsposterna. För-delarna med senioritetssystemet är de samma som livstidsanställ-ningen : företaget kan investera i de anställde utan att riskera att de slutar och erfarenheterna stannar kvar inom företaget. Nackde-larna är höga och icke flexibla lönekostnader. Fast månadslön är den vanligaste löneformen för arbetarna. Ackordlön infördes efter kriget genom amerikanskt inflytande men de flesta har återgått till månadslön. Två gånger om året delas bonuslönerna ut, i slutet av juni och december. Bonuslönerna var ursprungligen beroende av företagets resultat men är numera ungefär 2-3 st månadslöner per gång. Storleken varierar i olika industrigrenar. En genomsnittlig bonuslön på 33 600 kr betalades ut i december 1990. Genom-snittsbruttolön för en tjänsteman var 1990 270 000 kr och nettolö-nen efter direkt skatt 230 000 kr. Därav sparade han ca 58 000 kr.

Sparande och skattesystem

Japanerna har traditionellt sparat för en oviss framtid. Lönesystem med bonus varje halvår och skattesystemet underlättar sparandet. Regeringens beslut med prioritering av industrin gör det svårt för folk i allmänhet att få privata banklån.

En mager pension måste garderas genom sparande. En folkpen-sion på 3816 kr per månad 1990 följer prisutvecklingen. Det ge-nomsnittliga sparkapitalet för en japansk familj uppgår till 10,6 miljarder yen eller ca 354 000 kr 1990. Det innebär ett samman-lagt sparkapital motsvarande ca 10 600 miljarder kr i hela Japan. Vid slutet av 1990-talet kommer detta belopp att överstiga 26 500 miljarder kr. Detta utgör ett enormt sparkapital för landets eko-nomi. Världens fyra största banker är japanska p g a detta sparan-de. Varje löntagare sparar i genomsnitt 20% av sin lön. Sparkapi-tal upp till ca 530 000 kr per person är skattefritt.

Trots ett pro-gressivt skattesystem, som når upp till 75% för dem som har mångmiljoninkomst, är inkomstskatten för en vanlig löntagare låg. Skatterna för en familj med en årslön av 120 000 kr är ca 9,8% i Japan, 12,9% i Tyskland, 17,3% i USA, 24,3% i Storbritannien och 47,1% i Sverige. Det saknas avdragsregler i skattesystemet för vanliga löntagare, som aldrig behöver deklarera sin inkomst själva utan det åligger företaget att deklarera för sina anställda. Marginalskatten för övertid är måttlig, ca 10%, och motiverar övertidarbete.

Faktorer som bidragit till Japans fram-gångar

Den internationella situationen

Japan har gynnats av av den internationella situationen fram till slutet av 1960-talet av bland annat:

Amerikanskt skydd: Japan slöt ett säkerhetsavtal med USA i början av 1960-talet. Genom detta   avtal garanterades Japan amerikanskt militärt skydd.

Krig: Korea- och Vietnamkrigen bidrog till den ekonomiska upp-gången i Japan.

Fritt handelsklimat: Flera stora organisationer bidrog till främ-jandet av internationell frihandel.

Stabil valuta: Yen-kursen har legat förhållandevis lågt under 1950- och 1960-talen.

Lågt råvarupris: Råvaruexploatering och köparens marknad gjorde det möjligt att köpa råvarorna till lågt pris (även råolja).

Inrikessituationen

Inrikessituationen har också bidragit till Japans ekonomiska ut-veckling. Bl a har följande faktorer haft stor betydelse:

Stabil regering: Den konservativa regeringen med det liberalde-mokratiska partiet som har riksdagsmajoritet, har fört en politik som är gynnsam för industrin.

Statens roll: Staten har varit samarbetsvillig med industrin och fungerat som samordnings- och rådgivningsorgan.

Låga militära och sociala utgifter:       Japans grundlag avstår ifrån militär upprustning och Japan förbrukar knappt 0,8% av BNP till sin försvarsbudget. Dessutom var de sociala utgifterna förhållan-devis låga under 1960- och 1970-talen.

Låg inkomstskatt: Inkomstskatterna är låga för de vanliga lönta-garna. Det medför relativt hög nettoinkomst jämfört med andra länder.

Social stabilitet: Samhället är mycket stabilt, låg arbetskonflikt-frekvens och låg brottslighet. 98% av befolkningen anser sig själ-va tillhöra medelklassen.

En folkgrupp, ett språk: Inga konflikter p g a olika folkgrupper och språk.

Stor inhemsk marknad: Med 125 miljoner invånare har Japan en enorm inhemsk marknad. Av totala BNP utgör 75% inrikes- och 25% utrikeshandel.

Kustindustrier: De flesta industrier ligger i kustområdet, vilket underlättar transporterna.

Näringssystem

Industrigrupper och SM-företagens anslutning: Ett halvdussin stora industrigrupper har ett stort antal SM-företag under sig.

Livstidsanställning: Stora industrigrupper tillämpar livstidsan-ställningssystemet. Företagen får de anställdas lojalitet och de an-ställda får arbetstrygghet.

"Senioritet"-lönesystem: Lönerna och avancering inom företaget bestäms av senioritet eller antal tjänsteår.

En fackförening för ett företag: Företagsanställda, oavsett om de är tjänstemän eller arbetare, tillhör en och samma fackförening, som är mycket samarbetsvillig med företaget.

Handelshusens roll: Ett dussintal stora handelshus spelar stor roll både inom inrikes- och utrikeshandel.

Företagsstyrning

Top management: Top management-medlemmarna, valda efter senioritetssystemet och eller sin ledningsförmåga. har tjänstgjort i sitt företag i många år och känner det väl.

Middle management: Middle management-medlemmarnas ar-betsinsats som lagledare är den största drivkraften inom företaget.

Low management: Gruppchefernas och förmännens roller är också mycket betydelsefulla för att åstakomma produktivitetsök-ningar.

QC-cirkel: Man satsade målmedvetet på QC verksamhet (QC = Kvalitets Kontroll, man sätter en grupp med ett förbättringsmål in-om produktivitet, säkerhet, försäljning, service o s v inom företa-get).

Köp-och-förbättra teknik: Företagen har köpt in utländsk teknik för att snabbt åstakomma nya produkter och har senare förbättrat tekniken till mer konkurrenskraftiga produkter.

Samarbete mellan företag: Inom industrigrupperna eller indust-rigrenarna samarbetar man i stor utsträckning mellan olika företag.

Investering: Kontinuerlig investering är nödvänig för att öka pro-duktiviteten och för att förbättra konkurrenskraften.

Arbetskraft

Arbetstid: De japanska arbetarna arbetar i genomsnitt längre än sina kollegor i USA och Europa. 1990 arbetade de japanska arbe-tarna 43,5 timme i veckan medan de amerkanska arbetade 37,3 timmar.

Utbildning: Arbetarnas genomsnittliga utbildningsnivå och kvali-tet är relativt hög jämfört med andra länder.

Lojalitet: Tack vare livstidsanställningen är arbetarens lojalitet till sitt företag mycket stor.

Förslagsverksamhet:  Intresse för förbättringsförslag är mycket stort tack vare QC-cirklar. Det kommer ca 12 förslag per arbetare och år.

Sparande: Varje löntagare sparar ca 20% av sin lön.

Likgiltighet för religösa regler: Japanska arbetare är inte särskilt bundna av religösa regler och därmed hindras inte produktionen av detta.

Jämförelse mellan Sverige och Japan

- Varför är Japan så stark som ekonomi?

Allmänt

Japan   Sverige

Landyta, km2  378 000           411 000

Odlad yta, %   15%     10%

Skog, i % av landytan 67%     64%

Övrigt  18%     26%

Befolkning      ca 125 000 000            ca 8 500 000

Åldersfördelning,     - 14 år    24 %    19%

Åldersfördelning, 15 - 64 år   67%     65%

Åldersfördelning, 65 -            9%       16%

Total arbetande befolkning     60 300 000      4 500 000

Jordbruket       10%     4%

Industri           35%     35%

Service            55%     61%

Arbetslöshet    ca 2,6%           ca 7 %

Befolkningstäthet, inv/km2    331      21

BNP, omräknat till Skr           24 000 000 000 000    1 400 000 000

BNP per capita, Skr    192 000           164 000

BNP-tillväxt, medelvärde 1960-70     10,8%  4,6%

BNP-tillväxt, medelvärde 1970-80     5,8%    2,1%

BNP-tillväxt, medelvärde 1980-90     12%     0,5%

En jämförelse mellan Japan och Sverige är som att jämföra ett stort och framgångsrikt multinationellt företag med ett måttligt fö-retag med ca 10 anställda. Om man t ex jämför BNP så är Japans 17 gånger så stor som  Sveriges. Japans arbetande befolkning är 13,4 gånger så stor som Sveriges, men med tanke på att BNP är 17 gånger så stor Sveriges så visar det att effektiviteten hos arbe-tarna är väsentligt högre. Lägg där till att japaner jobbar 6 dagar i veckan och bara har 2 - 3 veckors semester per år. Detta leder till att de endast har sitt arbete på hjärnan och därför måste de ha bå-de kul och se att de hela tiden förbättras på arbetet för att klara av att jobba så mycket. Det har snarare blivit en tradition än en regel för japanerna att jobba energiskt och effektivt. Därför uppfattar nog många svenskar japanerna som just energiska. Om man tittar på de svenska arbetarna så tänker de på att komma hem från job-bet redan på morgonen när de kommer dit. Övertidsarbete är inte heller så vanligt i Sverige, man måste bli tvingad till det medan ja-panerna gärna jobbar en stund extra. Fast jag måste tillägga att det främst beror på att den japanska marginalskatten är ca 10% medan den svenska är över 50%. Det är något för de svenska politikerna att tänka på.

I Sverige är osämja och rivalitet mycket vanligt, man ser hur unga arbetare armbågar sig uppåt i företagen och man ser en del som får stå vid sidan om och aldrig riktigt får en chans att visa vad de kan. De äldre som sitter i företagsledningarna blir oftast just äldre. De blir oftast så att de äldres kreativitet blir sämre men att deras ledar- och organisationsförmåga förbättras. De kommer ofta med en massa konservativa idéer och de vill oftast inte lyssna på de ungas enligt dem "galna" idéer. Det blir en massa komplikationer med dålig lojalitet som följd.

Man tar inte hänsyn till varandra och allas idéer och diskuterar inte gemensamt och ser det inte från allas synvinklar utan ledarna vill verkligen bevisa att de är de som bestämmer. Just här har ja-panerna sin storhet tycker jag, tack vare bl a senioritetssystemet. Upp till 40 års ålder har all betalt efter antal tjänsteår i företaget, sedan börjar man ge lönen efter arbetskapacitet och ledningsför-måga. D v s alla blir glada och gillar oftast varandra. De ser var-andra som kamrater och inte som rivaler. Det leder oftast till bätt-re arbetare och större lojalitet till förtaget. Besluten i företaget görs ofta som så att man försöker få ett samförstånd mellan de be-rörda parterna och sedan får chefen fatta ett snabbt beslut. Detta sätt är det enda sättet att få ett bra och noga genomtänkt beslut på, tycker jag. Det säger sig självt att ju fler som tänker desto fler synvinklar och alternativ och större chans att kunna fatta det opti-mala beslutet. Man får också ett effektivt företag.

En annan moralisk fråga är ett företag i ekonomiskt krisläge. I Sverige använder man sig av "nerifrån - uppåt" metoden. Företags-ledningen varslar de anställda om uppsägning. Nyan-ställda och de yngsta ska bort först, sedan successivt uppåt. Före-tagsledningen berörs sist. Japanerna gör på motsatt sätt. Först re-ducerar VD och direktörerna sina löner och bonus och sedan ge-nomförs lönereduktioner successivt nedåt. VD avgår först därefter direktörerna för att visa ansvar. Nyanställda och de yngsta berörs sist. De sämst betalda behöver sina löner till fullo medan VD och direktörerna har mer än tillräckligt.

Livstidsanställningen som förekommer i Japan är mycket positiv för moralen. De anställda kan luta sig och få stöd av företaget och inte bara lita på sin inkomst och sitt sparkapital. De flesta stora industrigrupperna har också eget sjukhus och fritidsanläggningar. Där träffas de anställda och umgås och deras bästa vänner arbetar ofta inom företaget.

Varje år så importerar den japanska industrin teknik för flera 100 miljarder kronor varav 25% betalas av offentliga fonder. Sedan vidareutvecklar de denna teknik och samtidigt strävar de mot att utveckla egen teknik. Som resultat har de nått en enorm allsidighet och nått toppnivå på nästan alla områden och produkterna har fått en hög uppskattning för sin hänsyn till kvalitet, pålitlighet, leve-ranstid och efterservice. Under senare år har utvecklingen av den egna teknologin gått i kapp den importerade och sedan 1982 har exporten överskridit importen. En parentes angående teknologi ut-vecklingen, antalet utexaminerade från tekniska högskolor är mellan 70 och 80 tusen per år. Den flesta av dessa får anställning direkt.

Industrigrupper i Sverige och Japan skiljer sig åt ganska mycket, om man tittar på de japanska, så är det ofta en bank som är kär-nan. I Sverige är det framgångsrika företag som under blomstringstiderna investerar genom att köpa upp mindre fram-gångsrika. Detta finansieras oftast genom banklån till en viss del och av låneränta och ibland går det inte så bra som de tänkt sig. De tar sig alltså vatten över huvudet. Då får arbetarna lida för det genom först sänkta löner och sedan uppsägning. I Japan är kärnan i industrigrupperna så pass kapitalstarka p g a att japanerna sparar så väldigt mycket, också det att de stora industrigruppernas kärna består av fyra av världens största banker. Detta leder till att finan-siering för uppköp av mindre företag inte är något problem och de anställda råkar praktiskt taget aldrig ut för uppsägning och sänkta löner.

Tittar vi på Sveriges politiker nu och den politik de bedriver ser man att de bara sparar genom s k "sparpaket". De vågar inte satsa någonting så att vi kommer ur svackan, i och för sig kan man för-stå dem. Jag skulle inte vilja vara ansvarig för att ha kört Sveriges ekonomi i botten. Men en massa sparpaket som drabbar de som lever på marginalen t ex pensionärer och låginkomsttagare. Det är väl ganska fel. I Japan är de däremot mer framåt. De försöker få igång konsumtionen bl a genom att höja reallönerna med ca 3% per år och skjuter till ca 600 miljarder för att öka de offentliga in-vesteringarna, marknadens förtroende för finanspolitiken och lind-ra bankernas kreditförluster. Från slutet av andra världskriget har Japans ekonomi exploderat och har på senare år ansetts som en av de största i världen, efter att ett tag ansetts som omänsklig har man nu sett att den börjar svikta. Jag är helt övertygad om att de kommer att dominera de flesta marknaderna och tekniska områden också framöver.

KÄLLFÖRTECKNING

Skriftliga källor

Titel     Författare

Termer i nationalekonomi       Harald Dickson

Japan   Olle Bolang

Kris, Krasch, Boom    Michel Albert & Jean Boissonnat

Ekonomiska system    Assar Lindbeck

Bilaga 1

Mitsubishi - En industrigrupp i Japan

Kärna

Mitsubishi Bank

Inre grupp

Kinyo-kai (fredagsklubbens) medlemmar

Mitsubishi Bank

Mitsubishi Trust and Banking

Mitsubishi Corporation

Tokyo Marine and Fire Insurance

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

Mitsubishi Electric

Mitsubishi Motor

Mitsubishi Metal

Mitsubishi Mining and Cement

Mitsubishi Chemical Industries

Mitsubishi Petrochemical

Mitsubishi Oil

Mitsubishi Gas Chemical

Mitsubishi Steel

Mitsubishi Rayon

Nikon Yusen Kaisha

Mitsubishi Paper

Mitsubishi Plastics

Mitsubishi Estate

Mitsubishi Warehouse

Asahi Glass

Nippon Koguhu

Misubishi Research Institute Inc.

Kirin Breweries

Mitsubishi Chemical Machineries

Chiyoda Chemical Engineering and Construction

Yttre grupp

Honda Motor

Ajinomoto

Nichiro Fisheries

Fuji Spinning

Nikon Cables

Shinetsu Chemical Industries

Mèiji Life Insurance

72.  Japan its culture

Japanese Assignment

Geographical Setting

Japan is an island country in the North Pacific Ocean. It lies off the northeast coast of

mainland Asia and faces Russia,Korea, and China. Four large islands and thousands of

smaller ones make up Japan. The four major islands-Hokkaido,Honshu,Kyushu and

Shikoku form a curve that extends for about 1,900 kilometres.

Topography

Japan is a land of great natural beauty. mountains and hills cover about 70% of the

country. IN fact, Japanese islands consist of the rugged upper part of a great mountain

range that rises from the floor of the North Pacific Ocean. Jagged peaks, rocky gorges,

and thundering mountain waterfalls provide some of the country's most spectacular

scenery. Thick forests thrive on mountansides, adding to the scenic beauty of the

Japanese islands. Forests cover about 68% of the country's land.

Japan lies on an extremely unstable part of the earth's crust. As a result, the land is

constantly shifting. This shifting causes two of Japan's most striking features--

earthquakes and volcanoes. The Japanese islands have about 1500 earthquakes a year.

Most of them are minor tremors that cause little damage, but severe earthqaukes occur

every few years. Underseaquakes sometimes cause huge, destructive tidal waves, called

tsunami, along Japan's Pacific coast. The Japanese islands have more than 150 major

volcanoes. Over 60 of these volcanoes are active.

Numerous short, swift rivers cross Japan's rugged surface. most of the rivers are too

shallow and steep to be navigated. Their waters are used to irrigate farmland, and their

rapids and falls supply power for hydroelectric plants. Many lakes nestle among the

Japanese mountains. Some lie in the craters of extinct volcanoes. A large number of hot

springs gush from the ground throughout the country.

The Japanese islands have a total land area of about 337,708 sqkm. The islands , in

order of size, are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. The sea of Japan washes

the country's west coast and the Pacific ocean lies to the east.

Climate

Regional climates in Japan can be compared to those of the East Coast of the United

States. Kyushu and Shikoku have a climate much like that of Perth. They have long hot

summers and mild winters. The island  Honshu's generally has warm,humid summers.

Winters are mild in the south and cold and snowy in the north. Honshu has balmy,

sunny autumns and springs. Hokkaido has cool summers and cold winters much like

Tasmania.

Two Pacific Ocean currents--the Japan Current and the Oyashio Current--influence

Japan's climate. The warm, dark-blue Japan Current flows northward along the

country's south coast and along the east coast as far north as Tokyo. The Japan current

has a warming effect on the climate of theses regions. The cold Oyashio Current flows

southward along the east coasts of Hokkaido and northern Honshu, cooling these

areas.

Seasonal winds called monsoons also affect Japan's climate. In winter, monsoons from

the northwest bring cold air to northern Japan. These winds, which gather moisture as

they cross the Sea of Japan, deposit heavy snows on the country's northwest coast.

During the summer, monsoons blow from the southeast , carrying warm, moist air from

the pacific ocean. Summer monsoons cause hot, humid weather in central and southern

Japan.

Rain is abundant through most of Japan. All the areas of the country--except eastern

Hokkaido--recieve at least 100 centimetres of rain yearly. Japan has two major rainy

seasons--from mid-June to early July and from September to October. Several

typhoons strike the country each year, mainly in late summer and early Autumn. The

heavy rains and violent winds of these storms often do great damage to houses and

crops

Family

The Extended Family

Family life has always been important in Japan. Before 1945, many Japanese lived in

large family units that included grandparents, parents, children, and sometimes uncles

and their families. Japanese families were bound together by a strict set of customs.

Husbands had complete authority over their wives, and children were expected to show

unquestioning obedience to their parents.

Marriage and Courtship-When a child was old enough to marry, the parents selected

a suitable marraige partner. In some cases, the bride and groom had never met before

the wedding.

The Nuclear Family

Today most of the Japanese live in the style of a nuclear family. These consist of only

parents and children. The Japanese still have strong family ties and a deep respect for

authority. But since WW2 relationships with families have become a little less formal,

and more democratic.

Marriage and Courtship-Most young people now select their own marraige partners

on the basis of shared interests and mutual attraction.

Parental Roles

The parents still sometimes  decide the marraige partner for their child to marry.

Female and Male roles

Education

Role in Society

Japanese law requires children to complete six years of elementary school, and three

years of junior high school. Education at public schools is free during these nine years

for children aged from 6 through 14 years of age. Almost all Japanese children

complete the education requirments. Completing these compulsory years of schooling

gives children the basic knowledge in a wide range of areas to succeed in adult life.

Further education builds on this basic knowledge to prepare people for more

intellectual jobs.

Primary Education

Japanese elementary and junior high school students study such subjects as art,

homemaking, the japanese language, mathematics, moral education, music, physical

education, science and social studies. In addition, many junior high school students

study English or another foreign language. Students spend much time learning to read

and write japanese because the language is so difficult.

Secondary Education

Senior high school runs for three years. To enter senior high school the students must

pass an entrance examination. Classes include many of the same subjects studied in

junior high school. Senior schools also offer courses to prepare students for college or

to train them for jobs. About 95% of junior high school leavers go to senior high

school.

Higher Education

Japan has about 460 Universities and about 600 junior and technical colleges. The

largest University is Nihon (Japan) University in Tokyo, which has about 80, 000

students. The country has 90 National Universities, which are supported by the

government. Some of these universities--such as the University of Tokyo and the

University of Kyoto--have exceptionally high reputations. Highly regarded private

universities include Doshisha University in Kyoto and Keio University and Waseda

University in Tokyo

Senior high school graduates who want to attend a college or university must pass the

entrance examination given by the school of their choice. Large numbers of students

compete for admission to the top Japanese universities. About 38% of senior high

school graduates go to an institution of higher learning.

Political System

Political Structure

Japan's parliment, makes the country's laws. it consists of two houses. The house of

Representatives has 511 members. They are elected to four-year terms from electoral

districts. The House of Councillors has 252 members. Half the councillors are elected

every three years to six-year terms. Of the councillors, 100 are elected from the country

as a whole, and 152 are chosen from 47 political divisions called prefectures.

Political Parties

Japan has several political parties. The most successful is the Liberal-Democratic Party

(LDP), a conservative party which has more seats in the Government than any other

since 1955. In 1993, a coallition of other important parties was formed to oppose the

LDP. The largest members of the coallition include the Social Democratic Party of

Japan, the Japan Renewal Party, the Komeito (Clean Government Party), and the Japan

New Party.

Stability of Government

Although the Government itself is stable, within the parties there is much disruption

and complaint

Role of Local Government

The municipalities have fairly broad powers; they control public education and may

levy taxes.

Legal System

Organisation of judiciary system

The Japanese judicial system is entirely separate from and independent of the executive

authority. Except for reasons of health, judges may be removed only by public

impeachment. The highest court in the nation is the Supreme Court, established by the

constitution and consisting of a chief justice appointed by the emperor upon the

recommendation of the cabinet and 14 associate justices appointed by the cabinet. Four

types of lower courts are prescribed by the constitution: high courts, district courts,

family courts, and summary courts. The Supreme Court is the tribunal of final appeal in

all civil and criminal cases and has authority to decide on the constitutionality of any act

of the legislature or executive. High courts hear appeals in civil and criminal cases from

lower courts. District courts have both appellate and original jurisdiction. Family and

summary courts are exclusively courts of first instance.

Type of Law

The Japanese do not have a law as such, the citizens have codes to abide by.

Social Organisations

Group Behaviour

The Japanese in general are very polite and well mannered people.

Race, ethnicity and subcultures

There are may Chinese in Japan as well as Koreans. The original race of Japan are the

Inu people.

Religon and Asthetics

Religon and other belief systems

As below

Relationship with the people

Just about every single person is a Shinto and three quarters of people are also

buddhists. This shows that religon is very important to their everyday life.

Which religons are prominent

Buddhism and Shinto are the two most prominent religons in Japan by a long way.

Membership of each religon

Most Japanese observe both Shinto and Buddhist rites so the percentages add to more

than 100%

Shinto-95.8%

Buddhist-76.3%

Christian-1.4%

Other-12%

Aesthetics

Visual Arts

The major Japanese visual arts are Sculpture and painting.

Music

Traditional Japanese music may sound thin compared with the rich harmonies of

Western music. Most forms of Japanese music feature one instrument or voice or a

group of instruments that follows the same melodic line instead of blending in harmony.

Japanese instruments include the lutelike biwa; the zitherlike koto; and the three

stringed banjolike samisen, or shamisen. Traditional music also features drums, flutes,

and gongs. Performances of traditional music draw large crowds in Japan. Most types

of Western music are also popular. Many Japanese cities have their own proffesional

symphony orchestras that specialize in Western music

Drama, Ballet and other performing Arts

The oldest form of traditional Japanese performing arts is a type of drama called the 'no

play', which developed in the 1300's. 'No plays' are serious treatments of history and

legend.  Masked actors perform the story with carefully controlled gestures and

movements. A chorus chants most of the important lines in the play.

Two other forms of traditional Japanese drama, the puppet theater and the kabuki play,

developed during the late 1600's. In the puppet theater, a narrator recites the story,

which is acted out by large, lifelike puppets. The puppet handlers work silently on stage

in view of the audience. Kabuki plays are melodramatic representations of historical or

domestic events. Kabuki features colourful costumes and makeup, spectacular scenery,

and a lively and exaggerated style.

The traditional types of theater remain popular in Japan. The people also enjoy new

dramas by Japanese playwrights, as well as Western plays.

Folklore

The  Tale of Genji, a long novel written in the 1000's is generally considered the

greatest work of Japanese fiction.

Living Conditions

Diet and Nutrition, Meat and Vegetable Consumption and Foods availible

The main food of the japanese people is rice. It is served at almost every meal.

Fish provides the chief source of protein in the Japanese diet.. Favourite Japanese

snacks include various kinds of noodles in broth and yakitori, charcoal-grilled pieces of

poultry on a skewer.

Soybeans are another major source of protein in the Japanese diet. The Japanese also

eat a wide variety of fruits and varieties of seaweed.

The Japanese would eat a lot more vegetables than meat because meat is incredibly

expensive.

Typical meals

A popular Japanese dish called sushi consists of rice flavoured with vinegar and topped

with raw fish, sliced vegetables, shellfish, foods wrapped in seeweed and other

ingredients. Other traditional dishes include sukiyaki (beef cooked with vegetables) and

tempura (fish and vegetables fried in batter)

Housing

Types of Houses availible

There are two major types of housing availible in Japan, modern apartment buildings

and traditional Japanese houses.

Renters or Home Owners

Due to short supply of land for sale, most Japanese can not afford to buy land for a

house and therefore a large number, especially in the crowded cities rent apartments.

Clothing

National Dress

The kimono

Types of clothing worn at work

The types of clothing worn to work are just the same as in the western world. Men

wear suits with smart ties and women wear conservative tailored attire

Recreation

Types and Demand

The Japanese people enjoy a wide variety of sports, hobbies, and other leisure time

activities. Their favourite spectator sports are baseball and sumo wrestling. other

popular sports include bowling, golf, ice skating, skiing, table tennis, tennis and

volleyball. Many Japanese practice aikido, judo, and karate. Kendo is also popular.

Japanese also enjoy fishing, hunting, jogging and mountain climbing.

Percentage of Income spent on leisure activities

The Japanese would probably spend around    % of their income on leisure activities.

Social Security and Health Care

In the early 1990s about 18 percent of the annual national budget was allocated for

social security purposes. A medical insurance system has been in effect in Japan since

1927. Self-employed people and employees in the private and public sectors are

included under the medical plan.

Social welfare services have greatly expanded since World War II; legislation enacted

or amended in the postwar years includes the Livelihood Security Law for Needy

Persons, the Law for the Welfare of Disabled Persons, the National Health Insurance

Law, the Welfare Pension Insurance Law, Old Age Welfare Law, and the Maternal and

Child Welfare Law. The entire population is covered by various insurance systems.

Most working people once retired at the age of 55, but an increasing life expectancy

and government encouragement has extended the average age of retirement to 65.

Health conditions are generally excellent. In the mid-1990s life expectancy at birth was

76 years for men and 82 years for women; the infant mortality rate was a very low 4.3

per 1000 live births. Japan has about 211,800 physicians and 1.7 million hospital beds.

Language

Official Language

The official language of Japan is Japanese.

Spoken Versus written language

Spoken Japanese is much easier than written japanese to master. Written Japanese

consists katakana, hiragana and thousands of chinese symbols called 'Kanji'.

Considering how hard these characters are to remember, especially the chinese ones, its

no wonder people can speak more than they can write.

Dialects

Japan comprises numerous mountainous islands, and this geography limited contact

between the Japanese peoples living in different regions of the country. As a result,

people in the various regions of Japan developed differing varieties, or dialects, of the

Japanese language. Japanese has also developed separate varieties of the language for

use in different social contexts; these varieties are called social styles of speech.

A large number of dialects are spoken throughout Japan's four main islands (Hokkaido,

Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu), as well as on the smaller islands, such as the Ryukyu

Islands. Some dialects-for instance, those spoken in the southern parts of Japan,

notably on the islands of Kyushu and Okinawa-are virtually incomprehensible to the

speakers of other dialects. As a result of this diversity of dialects, the Japanese use a

standard, or common, dialect to facilitate communication throughout the country. The

two dialect families with the largest number of speakers are the dialect spoken in and

around Tokyo, which is the common dialect, and the dialects of the Kansai region in

western Japan, spoken in cities such as Kyoto, Osaka, and Kobe. Due to the spread of

the common dialect through television and radio, most people outside the Tokyo region

speak the common dialect as well as a local dialect.

Refrences

World Book Encyclopedia (Cd Rom)

Grolier Encyclopedia (Cd Rom)

Encarta 96 Encyclopedia (Cd Rom)

JETRO (Internet Site)

CIA World Factbook (Internet Site)

Q

73.  Jomo Kenyatta his life

Throughout the twenitieth century, many individuals have made importaint contributions to their nations or to thier region.Three that i will be talking about are Jomo Kenyatta, Yassir Arafat, and Yizhak Rabin. due to what these Three have done what whould be of there nations or regions.

Jomo Kenyatta was the first president of Kenya. He was devoted nationalist who was a staunch protector of Western political and economic interests in Kenya. Kenyatta was widely regarded as a stabilizing force in Kenya.

Kenyatta was born probably on October 20, 1891, at Ichaweri in British East Africa (now Kenya). A member of the Kikuyu tribe, he was named Kamau wa Ngengi. Educated at the Church of Scotland Mission at Kikuyu and baptized a Christian, he worked as a government clerk in Nairobi. Where in 1922 he joined a political protest movement. By 1928, as secretary of the Kikuyu Central Association, he was chief advocate for Kikuyu land rights. From 1931 to 1946 he worked and studied in Western Europe and Moscow. While in London, Kenyatta studied under the British anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and wrote his influential book Facing Mount Kenya (1938).

On returning to Africa, Kenyatta was elected president of the new Kenya African Union (later, Kenya African National Union, or KANU). In 1952 he was charged with leading the Mau Mau Rebellion against the British, and, despite his denials, he was sentenced to seven years in prison and two years in exile. Released in 1961, he assumed the presidency of KANU. In 1963, when Kenya gained independence, Kenyatta became prime minister. He was elected president of the new Republic of Kenya in 1964 and held that post until his death in Mombasa on August 22, 1978.

Yassir Arafat is a  Palestinian commando leader and politician. Hes the head of head of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Born in Jerusalem he fled after the establishment of Israel in 1948 later studied engineering in CairoRabin, Yitzhak (1922- ), Israeli political leader. Born in Jerusalem and educated in an agricultural school, Rabin fought with Palmach, a Jewish commando unit, against British authorities in Palestine. Jailed by the British in mid-1946, he was released in early 1947 and helped lead the defense of Jerusalem in the War of Independence (1947-1949). Rabin then rose through the ranks of the Israel Defense Forces, becoming chief of staff in 1964. After the Six-Day War (1967) he retired from the military and served as ambassador to the United States from 1968 to 1973. He entered the Knesset (parliament) as a Labor member in January 1974; by May he had succeeded Golda Meir as prime minister and party leader. In April 1977, after a series of scandals, he was forced to surrender his party leadership to Shimon Peres. As defense minister from 1984 to 1990, Rabin was responsible for carrying out Israel's hard-line response to the Palestinian uprisings known as the intifada. In February 1992 he replaced Peres as Labor party leader, and after elections in June Rabin again became prime minister. In 1993, after secret negotiations, Rabin agreed to the signing of an historic peace accord with longtime enemy Yasir Arafat, chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization. The agreement paved the way for limited Palestinian self-rule in Israeli-occupied territories.group Al Fatah, and for the next few years, while working with a construction firm in Kuwait, repeatedly led fedayeen raids deep into Israeli territory. In 1964, he linked Al Fatah with similar groups in the PLO, which he has headed since 1968. After the Arab League recognized the PLO as the sole representative of Palestinian Arabs in 1974, Arafat worked to win the organization international recognition. Also he made a strong effort to shed his terrorist image for that of the moderate statesman. In 1988 he proclaimed an independent Palestinian state, addressed a special session of the United Nations General Assembly in Geneva, and recognized Israel's right to exist, thus meeting a pivotal U.S. condition for substantive dialogue with the PLO. His support for Iraq during the Persian Gulf War eroded his international standing, especially with most Arab governments in the Gulf. In a startling development, after secret negotiations, Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin agreed to the signing of a peace accord in Washington, D.C., on September 13, 1993, calling for Israel and the PLO to recognize each other and for Palestinian self-rule to begin in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank town of Jericho.

74.  Korea

Throughout most of its history, Korea has existed as one country with a rich culture and history.  Then in the 1940's, Korea was controlled by Japan.  World War II broke out, and the Allies defeated the Axis powers.  The country of Korea was divided into two parts -- the north and the south.  The north was occupied by communist Russian forces and the south by American troops.  The dividing line was the 38th parallel(see map).  In 1950, a civil war began between the two Koreas, further separating them.  Both countries have since established totally different ways of life that include government, economics, and lifestyles.  As a result of all that has transpired and recent incidents, it would appear to be highly improbable that there will be a united Korea in the near future.

The known history of Korea dates back thousands of years before Christ.  It was a nation with a common heritage, language, and ethnicity.  Due to Japan's role in World War II and the fact that Japan had occupied Korea, the country was divided.  Many Koreans had been displaced by Japanese colonization and others by the establishment of the 38th parallel border line.  Korea was not an axis power.  It is difficult to understand why Korea would have to be divided as was Germany.

At first, Korea was supposed to be unified with a multilateral administration.  But the cold war changed the United States' mission to unilateral containment of the spread of Soviet communism.  Supported by the Soviets, North Korea attacked South Korea in June of 1950.  The South Koreans pushed into North Korea with American aid.  But the Soviet Union, helped the North Koreans to push the South Koreans back .  "During the bitterly destructive Korean War, the entire peninsula was devastated.  Some three million of its population were killed and more than ten million were left homeless and jobless." (History in modern)  Stalemate resulted in 1953 in terms of land gain.  The 38th parallel remained the dividing line.  The Korean War did not resolve anything, allowing problems to continue up to today.  After that time Soviet  influence  in the North diminished with the Chinese taking their place.  Throughout the Korean War period, Koreans were trying to adjust to the changes in their lives from Japan's colonization forward.

As a result of the 46-year separation, North and South Korea have grown increasingly opposite.  "...Though the regimes of both north and south were authoritarian and owed their inception to foreign powers, the two parts of the peninsula were set to evolve in very different ways."(pg.Korea the search)  They have different ideas about religion and education, different governments and different economies.  The many contrasting elements adopted by each of the two countries have existed since the Korean War.  Neither country has shown signs of changing its ways.  The differences that divide the two countries cannot be overstated.

South Korea is a very open society.  South Korea contains many types of practiced religion.  Buddhism has the largest amount of followers.  In South Korea, education is used to teach the cultural heritage of the country and to promote democratic institutions.  Both education and religion are considered vital to the people.   In government, the controlling party is democratic.  The leaders are elected by the people.  The government guarantees freedom of the press and religion with few limitations.  South Korea's economy has been growing at an incredible rate.  The country's economic growth has increased by more than five percent in the last few years.(InsouthKoreaBuisiness )  It is stepping forward into the age of technology by putting satellites into space, building nuclear power plants, creating telecommunication systems, and building and utilizing high speed railways.

North Korea is a closed society.  North Korea is ruled by communism.  Because of communist philosophy, religion is discouraged, and more than two thirds of the people are non-religious.  Unlike South Korea, the North Korean government uses education as a tool by which to instill communism.  There is a constitution which guarantees freedom of the press, religion, and speech.  However, the communists limit these freedoms to ensure control of the country.  Presently, the North Korean economy is in shambles and barely functions.  Due to natural desators and the fact that trade basically occurs only with its communist neighbors.  Surrounding countries are tired of supporting it, and South Korea is worried about its economic collapse. "In the north they are short of food, short of fuel, short of everything."(quote #1, *^%$%#&*^%#)  South Koreans fear an increase in the flood of North Korean defectors should the economy worsen.

Recently, there have been a number of incidents that have brought tensions between the Koreas to a head.  These situations include: a North Korean submarine running aground in South Korea, the trial of two North Korean ex-presidents being tried for treason by South Korea, the question of the nuclear capability of North Korea, and violent student radicals in South Korea.  The strain between the Koreas has heightened as a result.

In September 1996, a submarine carrying armed North Koreans went aground in South Korea while trying to off-load the commandos.  South Korean soldiers killed approximately 26 saboteurs from the vessel.  The submarine went aground while trying to off-load the commandos.  The North Koreans even killed some  of the crew from the sub themselves as they would have burdened the commandos.  The North Koreans, however, claim that entire incident was a training exercise gone bad.  United States Defense Secretary Perry said that all the evidence points to the fact that the North Koreans are lying.  It is reported from South Korea that "a senior government official said it was now less likely than ever that South Korea would give aid or allow broad investments in North Korea." (The New York)  This latest incursion resembles one that took place in 1968 when a team of North Korean commandos infiltrated in order to assassinate the president of South Korea.  Kim Young Sam, present South Korean president, said, "It(The North Korean regime) has not given up its illusion of unifying the peninsula under communism."

Shortly before the submarine incident, two ex-presidents of North Korea, living in South Korea, Rae Tae Woo and Chun Doo Hwan were tried for treason in August 1996.  Both were convicted.  Chun was sentenced to serve more than 22 years in prison, and Rae received the death sentence.  As South Korea maintains that its laws would prevail were the country to be reunified, any North Korean officials would be punishable for their offenses as well.  Unless these individuals receive special treatment under reunification, they "are now all the more likely to use everything in their power - including military threats or even war - to perpetuate the peninsulas North-South division."(Wall St.$%*^$%^*)

The nuclear capability of the North is another serious issue.  As recently as the submarine episode, the South Korean defense ministry said that "North Korea may launch a general attack on South Korea deploying long range artillery pieces, Scud missiles tapped with bio-chemicals, and perhaps nuclear devices." (computer 1)  For the past few years, North Korea has denied testing nuclear devices and has delayed inspections of nuclear facilities as provided for by the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty.

In August of 1996, another event occurred that was divisive although it was not meant to be.  Seven thousand radical university students, in South Korea, rioted after a protest against the separation of the two Koreas.  The violence in the clash between students and the police has caused the government to pledge to destroy all radical student movements.  The students had used gasoline bombs, rocks, and steal pipes against the police.  Resentment against such student radical movements has spread amongst the general population.

When considering the present tense situation, it is important to consider geographical and political data about Korea.  The Korean peninsula is about the size of Minnesota.  There are about 20 million people in the North and around 40 in the South.  The divided country has been in a state of civil war for the past 46 years.  The peninsula is surrounded by China, Russia, and Japan.  The United States has kept troops in South Korea  throughout that time period. .  Both countries have received massive support from the super powers.  The North is communistic and the South is capitalistic  The cold war that has ended in Europe has not ceased in Asia.  "Conjure up a present in which more than a million soldiers confront each other across a Mason-Dixon line, armed to the teeth with the latest equipment; the line is so firm that nothing crosses it..." (The 2 Koreas, &^$^*%)  The latest equipment includes bombers, nuclear weapons, chemical warfare, naval vessels, etc.  Given recent divisive situations, the potential for all-out warfare to develop between the two Koreas has increased.  Reunification, as in Germany, becomes more difficult with each passing day.

75.  Lassen Peak volcano

LASSEN PEAK

Volcanoes  are  some  of  the  most

beautiful  and  dangerous  things  to  observe

in  the  world. Volcanoes  are  some  of  the

most  amazing  things  to  watch,  they  make

you  want  to  be close  to  them  but  it's  to

dangerous.The  volcano  I  chose  was  "Lassen

Peak"  located  in  California,USA.I  chose

this  volcano  because  it's  located  in

California, and  California  is  one  of  my

favourite  places  in  the  world.

Now  I'am  going  to  tell  you  a  little

bit  about  Lassen  Peak.This  volcano  is

located  in  Northern California.The  volcano

consists  of  a  chain  of  vents  aligned

roughly  north  to  south, extending at  least

8km  north.Volcanism  began  at  Lassen Peak

between  600,000  and  350,000  years  ago. The

people  that  studied  this volcano  only  use

the  last  35,000  years  to predict  the

volcanoes  next  eruption.

The  most  recent  eruption  at  Lassen  Peak

was  in  1914-1917 A.D. The  eruption  began  on

May,30,1914  when  a  small   eruption  occurred

in  a  new  vent  near  the  summit  of  the

Peak. During  the  following  year  1915 more

than  150  explosions  occurred  in  various

sizes. The  explosions  ended  in  about  the

middle  of  the  year  1917.

I  did  not  find  out  how  many  people

were  killed  by  this  volcano  or  if  anyone

was  killed.I  fell  this  volcano  most  likely

killed  some  people  and  destroyed  plenty  of

land.I  would  love  to  live  in  California

that  would  be   my  dream,but  than  again  it

could  be  a  nightmare  with  all  the

earthquakes  and  volcanoes  the  state  has.

In  conclusion  I  think  we  are  lucky  to

live  in  Nova Scotia, because  we  have  no

real  danger  it's  just  foggy  and  cold.

76.  Law of Inverse Returns

The Law of

Inverse Returns

Scott Barlow

December 6, 1996

Shoji Azuma

Japan 355 - 1

The law of inverse returns states that the better the foreign learner's Japanese is, the worse the reaction of the Japanese native population will be to the learner's use of Japanese. In this paper, I argue that the better the learner's Japanese is, the better the treatment to the learner of Japanese from native Japanese. I will argue this point by making three statements and then provide opinions and reactions of others whom I have interviewed over the Internet.

The better the Japanese language that one has, the more the freedom he feels. I felt this feeling while I was in Japan and I could finally go to the bank and make a deposit or withdraw without fumbling and literally making up my own Japanese vocabulary. Until further Japanese study, did I find out that the word to "withdraw" money from the bank was the same as "taking something down," like from a shelf. These are the same words, but in Japanese it is the context that they are used is what is important. Not only does better Japanese save you the embarrassment of making a mistake, but having better in Japanese also helps natives feel less of a burden on them, than if you didn't speak good Japanese. In Japan as a missionary, I had the opportunity to visit a retirement home once a week. During our visit with the elderly,  we also cleaned up. doing the normal housekeeping that was necessary for them to live in a cleaner, better environment. I am very glad that I had Japanese that I was able to understand the retirees, especially when the needed someone to talk to and when I was able to understand and help them clean where they asked me to. Through the understanding that I had then as a missionary in the Japanese language, I feel that the full-time workers there were less worried about us performing duties for them because we had better Japanese. This resulted in the better treatment I received as I was in Japan because of the position I was in able to serve.

The second argument I would like to make on a related topic of being less burdensome to the Japanese. Everyone doesn't like a lazy person, although a lot of people in America like being the lazy person. In Japan if you aren't busy doing something, it is like being counter-productive and demeaning the existence of society. The better the learner's Japanese is, the more likely he is to be literate and can perform the normal daily functions of getting around. When I mean getting around, I mean not only the activity of going to and from work by public transportation, but I also I mean getting around in society, helping to be an active contributor to others. A Japanese language literate person is more likely to be able to function in society providing for the benefit of the Japanese economy and income for his own household.  I as a 20 year old missionary was never too good at reading and writing Japanese while I lived there, but as I have returned again after my experience there, I feel a better sociability and friendliness towards me because I can read and write Japanese at a decent level. I feel this way because I can read train and bus routes,  I can tell what a store sells what by reading their sign outside, and I also can read people's name better when we exchange business cards or see their name tags. The ability to read and write Japanese characters has had a profound impact on my cultural awareness and growth towards the Japanese people. Although I know that I can never be Japanese, being thankful that I am, who I am, and that I grew up here and still live in America, the time will come that when I am able to read the books and the newspaper that Japanese people read, function at a job, somewhat like a native Japanese and hopefully be a productive tool for society in Japan and teach others my experience here in the United States.

Having a Japanese learner with the ability to speak better Japanese than normal, we have talked that he will help provide a less burden for the native Japanese and that he will be able to provide better for the society because the fact that the better the learner's Japanese the more likely he is to be literate and productive. Thus the last argument. The better the learner's Japanese, the better cultural growth and awareness those he comes in contact with will become. I found this true, that even though I speak  fair Japanese, and usually speak Japanese to natives when in Japan. There is a curiosity that arouses natives to ask questions about English and ask about my experiences and life style in the United States. The interaction among natives of Japan and the United States brings a cultural awareness and growth which promotes sociability that couldn't happen if either one didn't speak better Japanese than the natives English, or the opposite for fact.

I have included other's opinions whom I have interviewed over the Internet on how they feel about the law of opposite returns. These people are Japanese speakers, and have at least lived in Japan at some time, or are living in Japan at the present.

Case 1: Brett D. DePaola. Graduate student at the University of Kansas.

Scott: Brett, how do you feel about the law of inverse returns?

Brett:   Nonsense!  I think that perhaps for a *gaijin* in the everyday work environment of a "sarariiman", this *might* be true.  For a gaijin just visiting Japan this is really not the case (at least in my experience). From my own experience, I've approached people on the street (to ask for directions) and seen their look of terror melt into surprised smiles of relief as I spoke, not in the expected English, but in Japanese.  In restaurants as well, the chefs and waitresses always seem very happy to find that I speak passable Japanese.  In a small place they would all find their way to my table to "test" my Japanese out.  I think they were somewhat impressed, but more importantly, I think in general people were happy to see gaijin that cared enough about the Japanese culture to spend the time to practice the language. So much for spoken, what about written?  In my experience, Japanese people seem to be (pleasantly) shocked that I can read/write enough kanji to get by.  I definitely don't get the feeling that people are offended.  Once in a small bar/restaurant in Iidabashi my (Japanese) friend and I got into a discussion of that day's sumo results -- in a very weird mix of Japanese and English language.  (Turns out that neither of us had caught that day's matches and we were guessing who might have won.)  The 2 guys next to me had seen the matches and started filling us in.  We exchanged business cards and, looking at the cards, I repeated the gentlemen's names.  They were astonished and started to immediately quiz me on other (very simple) kanji.  Turns out one of them had a very nice pen/brush that had a replaceable cartridge for its source of ink.  Before we left, this guy *gave* me the pen as a gift.  (I found out later that this was a $40 pen.)  This does not sound like resentful behavior to me!

It occurs to me that perhaps a certain balance between fluency and "polite talk" is required.  That is, if someone is technically fluent (good grammar and vocabulary), but doesn't know even the basics of how to be "polite" -- for example all the polite phrases used when meeting someone for the first time -- this could cause some uneasiness among some Japanese people.  Also, I feel like it is very important to try to assess the "pecking order" of the people you talk to, in order to figure out how "familiar" or "Polite" you need to be.  I get the feeling that failure to do this causes some uneasiness among some Japanese people.

Case 2: Clifford L. Cook

Scott,

I don't know where you are getting your information or who your teacher is, however, in my many years in Japan I have only received favorable comments on my ability to  speak Japanese.  Now understand this, I did not flaunt my Japanese ability as do some. Never, in my experience, have I ever encountered any antagonism from the Japanese towards a foreigner who speaks their language.  In fact, in my experience, it has been quite the opposite.  I have noted that the Japanese people respect someone who attempts to learn their language. I would be interested in learning your teachers source of information and how it was obtained.

Cliff

Case 3:  Andrew Scal.

Regarding the present question of fluency posed by Scott, I'd like to jot down (from memory) and experience related by George Field in his book _From Bonsai to Levis_ (He's the son of a Japanese Father and an Ozzie Mother, who is an expert on marketing in Japan) He writes that once, after giving a speech in English, he privately suggested a better choice of words in Japanese to the official interpreter. Her reaction was "Ooooh, kimochi warui wa....". Fields went on to speculate that she was either saying that his Japanese was so good that it made her uncomfortable, or that she was uncomfortable at being corrected by someone other than a Japanese. In my experience (not that my Japanese is THAT good) both are very likely possibilities. Especially in light of the latest Kume Hiroshi gaffe where he said on his evening news program in reaction to a non-Japanese's fluent Japanese, something to the effect of 'well isn't a little better when foreigners speak broken Japanese?' (instead of fluently) I've made Fields' acquaintance, and in fact have been told (by my ex) that when speaking to him on the Phone she had no idea he was not, Well...100% Japanese.

Yoroshiku

Andrew

Case 3: Xavier Bensky replying to Brett on his comments:

Brett, I have also had mostly favorable reactions from Japanese people when I speak Japanese. However, from my experience, knowing how to be polite can potentially be just as "disturbing" for some Japanese people as not knowing how to be polite.

Allow me to explain. When I was working for a Japanese company, I was often told by my "sempai" [seniors] that I spoke too politely. In fact, I had observed the other "shinmai" [newbies], and I spoke no more politely than they did to the same individuals. Perhaps my language was a bit too "textbook Japanese" and this sounded unnatural. Then again, perhaps they would have preferred that I didn't use polite language so that I could remain in my gaijin "box".

> Also, I feel like it is very important to try to assess the "pecking order" of the people you >talk to, in order to figure out how "familiar" or "Polite" you need to be.  I get the feeling >that  failure to do this causes some uneasiness among some Japanese people.

I agree with you here. And not only do you need to modify your language according to the rank of the person you are speaking to, your language may shift in degrees of politeness (technically speaking, from "sonkeigo" and "kenjogo" to the simple "desu, masu" form) according to the situation and how well you know the individual! That's something I still have a hard time with.

Xavier Bensky

Case 4:  Bob and his comments:

I can say that My Japanese is pretty bad, and everyone was great, so I don't know what that proves, I hope to live long enough to try the other part.....!

Bob

From the majority and from my feelings and experiences, the better the learner's Japanese, the better the reaction to you from a native Japanese perspective. Better language ability proves greater efficiency in communication, causes less burden on the native speaker with less worries, provides you to be able to be more productive within Japanese society, thus better acceptance, and in promoting the cultural growth, awareness and sociability of yourself and those whom you come in contact with. This is why I support the idea that the law of inverse returns is not as it has been stated, "...residents of Japan who learn the language well are treated poorly by Japanese natives...", because it is not the majority case.

77.  Liberia

Introduction

This paper is about a small country on the west coast of Africa called Liberia.  It is a country built with the help of The American Colonization Society.  I was established to place freed blacks in the days of slavery in the United States in the 1800s.  The government was modeled after of the United Stats.  Monrovia, the capital and principal, port is named after a president of the united states James Monroe.  This country has historical significance for african Americans.  As Africa's oldest republic, established by former black American slaves, Liberia played and important role as a model for African colones seeking independence.

LIBERIA

HISTORY

Liberia's tribal peoples migrated to the area between the

12th and 16th centuries.  The Portuguese arrived in 1461 and began a trade in ivory, pepper, and later in slaves.  In 1820, the first colonists arrived.  Their successful settlement was named Monrovia in 1824.  More colonists gradually arrived and established separate colonies.  In 1847 the colonies united and Liberia became the first independent republic in black Africa.

The new nation faced many problems.  Some of them were tribal wars, low exports, and land claimed by other countries.  Liberia was able to maintain its independence only with the help of the United States.  Following World War II, the modern port, airport, hospitals, hydroelectric station, and other projects, all financed by the United States, were opened.  There has been frequent military conflicts and civil wars.  In August 1990, forces from several African countries entered Liberia to try and stop the bloody civil wars.  The fighting only became worse and the Prospects of a negotiated settlement were dim.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Liberia's straight sandy coast is 350 miles long.  It is  broken by lagoons and mangrove swamps.  It gives way to a low rolling plain about 20 miles wide.  Further inland, foothills ranging in height from 600 to 1000 feet high are found.  They become mountains in the north and east.  The highest point in the country is Mt. Wutuvi which rises to 4,531 feet.  Land area of the country is 43,000 square miles.

Liberia's rivers are short and flow parallel to one another from the mountains to the ocean.  The largest rivers are the St. Paul, St. John, and Cavalla.

Liberia's tropical climate is hot and humid.  The usual temperature ranges from 60 degrees to 87 degrees.  Annual rainfall, as much as 177 inches at the coast, gradually decreases inland to 96 inches.  The rainy season occurs between May and October.  A dusty winter wind blows during December.

There are 90 different kind of usable wood in Liberia's vast timber resources.  Mineral resources include large deposits of iron ore, diamonds, and gold.

The country is rich in wildlife.  More than 100 species of mammals have so for been identified.  There are fifteen species belonging to the cat family, among which the largest is the leopard.  The number of leopards has been decreasing rapidly along with the elephant and bush cow.  Monkeys, chimpanzees, and antelopes swarm.  two rare mammals found here are the manatee and the pygmy hippopotamus.  In addition to mammals, there are more that 100 species of birds, including eagles, kites, and hawks.

PEOPLE

Liberians of black American ancestry who migrated from North and South America between 1820 and 1856 are known as Americo- Liberians.  They live along the coast and make of up about 5 percent of the more that 2 million population.  The bulk population consist of native cultural groups.  Each has its own language.  There is also a large group of English speaking people.  The largest native group is the Kpelle which is 19% of the population.  The Bassa group makes up 14% of the population.  It is estimated that 18% of the people practice traditional African religions.  About 68 percent are Christians and about 14 percent are Islamic.  Liberia is officially Christian.

Almost half of the country's city population lives in the capitol of Monrovia, which is the largest city.  The population of Monrovia was 425,000 in 1984.

Education was formerly provided by Christian missions but most schools are now government operated.  Although education is free and required between the ages of 6 and 16, less than half of the school-age children attend, partly because of a teacher shortage.  The University of Liberia was founded in 1862.  It is located in the capitol city of Monrovia.

ECONOMY

Most of Liberia's workers work in farming.  It is the most important economic activity for more than 68% of the people.  They mostly grow what they use.

Rubber is a commercial crop grown on plantations which employ about half of those who work for money.  The first Liberian rubber plantation was established by the British in 1904.  It was obtain from the British in 1926 by an American company known as the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company.  Firestone improved and expanded their company but in 1983 cut off their operations.            Fishing is an important industry.  Mining and logging are also important.  Iron ore  is the largest export.

Liberia also receives income from the registration of foreign ships.  Many foreign ships fly the Liberian flag to avoid regulations and taxes.

Industry remains underdeveloped.  Machinery, transportation equipment, and food are imported.

The United States has helped Liberia economically.  However, the large amounts of money the United States has given Liberia has not always been handled well.  This caused the United States to decide to give them less.  This caused Liberia to have difficulties in their economy.  Expensive civil wars used most of Liberia's money so they could not pay their debts for several years.  Homes and businesses were destroyed, the planting and harvesting of crops were disrupted, and hunger threatened much of the population.

In 1950s the roads in remote areas were greatly expanded.  Most of the existing roads is were constructed to meet the needs of the plantations rather than needs of small rural farmers.

The only railroad is owned and operated by a foreign iron-ore mining company.

A telephone and radio communication system, one of the first in Africa was introduced in Liberia in the early 1900s.

GOVERNMENT

Liberia had a constitution written on July 26, 1847.  It was written like the constitution of the United States.  The Country was lead by a elected president, a vice president, and a cabinet.  It had a Senate and House of Representatives as the chief legislative bodies.  The constitution, at first, only applied to Americo-Liberians and not to the African Tribes.  William Tubman, who was president from 1944-1971,  made a serious effort to encourage participation of the tribes in the political life of the country.  The constitution continued until April 12, 1980.  At that time there was military fighting that caused the government to change so the constitution was no longer be used.

William V. S. Tubman served as president from 1944 until his death in 1971.  Following him was William R. Tolbert, Jr.  He was also the vice-president for Tubman.  Tolbert was assassinated on April 12, 1980 in the first Liberians military coup, led by an army sergeant named Samuel K. Doe.  Then the government was overthrown.              Doe became commander in chief of the army with the rank of general.  He also become the first non-Americo-Liberian to head the government.  After his victory in an election in 1985, Doe was elected the president of the republic on January 6, 1986,  and a new constitution came into effect.

A bloody civil war began in December 1989 when a group of rebels led by a former member of Doe's administration invaded the county.  The rebels, associated with the Mano and Gio tribes, sought to overthrow Doe.  By the mid 1990 the insurrection had turned into tribal war.

In September 1990 Doe was killed by one of the rebel groups that had been trying to overthrow hem.  Four men claimed leadership of the country A caretaker government was appointed until a freely elected government could be formed.  The country continues to have political problems.

MONROVIA

Monrovia is the liberia capital.  The town was founded in 1822 and named for United Stats President James Monroe.  The american Colonization Society helped found the city as a settlement for freed slaves.  It is the largest city in Liberia.  Monrovia is the country's chief port located at the mouth of the Mesurado River on the Atlantic coast.  The port and industrial area are on Bushrod Island which is connected by a bridge to the rest of Monrovia.  The free port was completed in 1948.

Monrovia is a city of displacement.  Office buildings and stone houses in the colonial style of the southern United States are near African huts and shacks, some with television antennas.  Elaborate buildings include the Capital, the Executive Mansion, city hall, and the Temple of Justice.  Monrovia is the center of Liberia's trade and transportation.  Industrial products include petroleum, cement, paint, and tuna.  James Spriggs Payn Airfield is within the city limits, and an international airport is 27 miles southeast of the city.,  Monrovia is the sit of the University of Liberia.

CONCLUSION

Liberia is a country started with tribal people migrating and freed slaves coming to live free.  It consists of many native groups.  They fought for their there independence and many problems arose.

It is full of mountains, Plains, foothills, Rivers, timber, and wildlife.

Most people farm and grow only what they use.  There is still trade in iron ore, diamonds, and timber.

It had a constitution written for the country based on the United States constitution.  With a House of representatives, senate, President, vice President, and Cabinet.  Until it was overthrown.

Monrovia, the capital is the industrial port for liberia.  It is displaced.  It has shays next to high rise buildings.  It was named after one of the presidents of the United States, James Monroe.

Liberia is an interesting country and it is fighting to have peace in it country and counties to have problems.

Cooper, K., The World and Its People, Siver Burdett Company,      1986.

Prodigy Service, Prodigy, Grolire Electronic Publishing, 1992.

Software Toolworks, World Atlas ver. 3.2, Liberia, 1992.

Sullivan M., Jo Liberia, Harry Jonas Lerner, 1988.

Wiley, David S., Liberia, Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia, 1994.

78.  LINCOLN NEB

The city of Lincoln is the capital of the Cornhusker State, Nebraska. Lincoln is located in the southeastern part of the state, about 60 miles (100 kilometers) southwest of Omaha. It lies in a shallow basin about 1,160 feet (355 meters) above sea level. Salt Creek and its tributaries thread through the basin. Lincoln serves as a center for educational, cultural, and religious institutions. The city also developed as the trade center for a wide agricultural area.

In the city are the buildings that house the various departments of the city, county, and state governments, the state mental and orthopedic hospitals, and the state penitentiary. Also located in Lincoln are a veterans' hospital and the regional headquarters of the Veterans Administration and the United States Department of Agriculture.

The University of Nebraska was founded in Lincoln in 1869. The city is also the home of Nebraska Wesleyan University and Union College.

The State Capitol, designed by the architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue and completed in 1932, has a central tower that rises 400 feet (120 meters) from a massive two-story base and is considered a showpiece of American government architecture. `The Sower', a statue symbolizing Nebraska's farms, stands atop the tower. Museums include the State Museum of History, the University of Nebraska's Christlieb Western Art Collection, and the Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, designed by architect Philip Johnson. Pioneers Park includes a nature center. The Nebraska State Fair takes place in Lincoln each summer. Other cultural groups include a symphony orchestra, the Lincoln Community Playhouse, and the National Art Association.

Lincoln got its first rail connection in 1870 and by the late 1800s had 19 different rail routes. Railroads gave Lincoln its most important industry--railroad-car repair. Among the city's manufactures are dairy and meat products, telephone equipment, agricultural machinery, cement, bricks, and drugs. There are also printing and publishing plants, and the city is the headquarters for more than 30 insurance companies.

Lincoln arose from a settlement established in 1856 to work salt deposits. In 1859 it was named Lancaster, the seat of Lancaster County. When Nebraska became a state in 1867, the town was renamed for President Abraham Lincoln and became a compromise choice for the state capital over Omaha and a site south of Salt Creek. William Jennings Bryan, long a leader in American politics, lived in Lincoln from 1887 to 1921. His home, Fairview, has been restored with original furnishings and memorabilia.

Between the years 1926 and 1930 Lincoln annexed the towns of Havelock, University Place, College View, and Belmont. The city has a mayor-council form of government. Lincoln owns its water and electric systems

79.  Locational Analysis of Boston Pizza

>Location Analysis of a Franchise Resturaunt

>

>Kristoffer Eyvindson <peter@the.link.ca>

>University of Saskatchewan

>Geography 319.3

>

>Problem Statement:

>          Boston Pizza International Inc. is a Canadian owned and operated

>restaurant.  It has many facilities in Canada and has opened facilities in

>the United States and in Southeast Asia.  Boston Pizza is penetrating

>further into the Canadian market and is opening at a new location on 8th

>Street in Saskatoon.  The chosen location has been the home of many previous

>restaurant failures.  It seems odd that any restaurant would want to open in

>a location which has proven to be unsuccessful.  What characteristics does

>Boston Pizza have that other restaurants don't have that may allow this

>location to be successful?  This new location will be the second Boston

>Pizza franchise in Saskatoon, complimenting the facility operating on 50th

>Street.   Will the market areas of these two restaurants overlap?

>*       *       *       *       *

>              The early beginnings of this restaurant occurred in Edmonton,

>Alberta.  In 1963 the first Boston Pizza and Spaghetti House opened.  The

>name of the restaurant is seemingly odd because Boston is the name of a city

>in the United States, and has nothing to do with a pizza restaurant located

>in Edmonton.  Ron Coyle, the original owner, named the restaurant 'Boston'

>because the Boston Bruins NHL hockey team was the favorite of the Edmonton

>area in the 1960's and he wanted his business to use sports as a promotion.

>Another reason, which may have been more of a coincidence, was that his

>accountant's surname was Boston ("only way", 37).

>          Boston Pizza and Spaghetti House became a popular restaurant and in 1968 it

>began to operate as a franchise.  In mid-1968, Jim Treliving, a former drum

>major for the RCMP, and his friend Don Spence bought the franchising rights

>for British Columbia with the exception of Vancouver.  They opened their

>first unit in Penticton, British Columbia, and in the first year of

>operation the pizza restaurant grossed $52,000 and the nightclub which was

>co-located with the restaurant grossed $80,000 (Cameron, 16).

>          Meanwhile, franchise units opened in Edmonton, Winnipeg and Vancouver.   As

>the pizza chain grew, Treliving and George Melville (who had become involved

>with Treliving's restaurants as a financial planner) became involved in real

>estate ventures in Hawaii and the Okanagon Valley and also in oil

>investments in British Columbia (Cameron, 16).  In 1983, these two men

>purchased Boston Pizza Spaghetti House from the original owner Ron Coyle for

>$3 million.  This money was raised from private lenders ("recipe is simple",

>16).  During that same year, the headquarters of Boston Pizza was moved from

>Edmonton, Alberta to Richmond, British Columbia where it is found today.

>          In the past decade, #1601 8th Street East has not been a very successful

>location from which to operate a restaurant.  Since 1985, four different

>restaurants have occupied the facility.  This location originally housed

>Ponderosa Steakhouse from 1975 until 1984.  The restaurants which occupied

>the facility over the past decade were: Geno's Pizza (1985-87), East Side

>Sids (mid-1987-88), Taster's Whole Earth1(1989-1990), and Just Buffets

>(1991).  Since 1992, the facility has been vacant.

>          In 1994, Boston Pizza became interested in this location.  Although the

>location had been unsuccessful in the past, a new Boston Pizza facility will

>more likely operate successfully.   The previous building, torn down only a

>few months ago, was a dull brown color which didn't attract attention.  The

>new Boston Pizza building will use the kitchen of the old facility, but the

>service area is being constructed similar to other Boston Pizza restaurants.

>It is shaped and colored in a way that will grab the attention of vehicular

>traffic.  The building has an angular bright red roof and will have a bright

>red and blue sign when construction is complete.

>          When the 8th street location opens its door, a market will already exist.

>People working at the nearby businesses Bank of Montreal and Jubilee Ford,

>may decide to eat lunch at Boston Pizza.  In the evening, after work these

>same people may stay and relax at BP's lounge.  Families looking for a

>convienient place to eat quality food may decide to eat here.

>          One problem remains, and it is a problem that Boston Pizza can not change.

>The center barrier on 8th Street makes Boston Pizza accessible to vehicles

>traveling west only.  Vehicles traveling east would find it difficult to

>access Boston Pizza.  Therefore many potential customers will pass by and

>find another place to eat.

>          The location of this new Boston Pizza will not affect or be affected by

>the operation of the 50th street location which has been in operation since

>1987.  The 50th street facility has not been a very successful operation

>since its opening.  Its location has, however, provided transient customers

>on weekdays.  Many employees who work at nearby industrial facilities eat

>lunch here.

>          The 50th Street Boston Pizza is located relatively close to the Saskatoon

>Airport and Saskatchewan Place.  The Airport and Saskatchewan Place have

>also provided some of Boston Pizza's  customers.  However, although it is

>close to the airport, Boston Pizza is not close to any hotels or motels and

>so only a limited number of travelers come to eat.  After large events at

>Saskatchewan Place, Boston Pizza is a popular restaurant.  After Billy

>Graham spoke at Saskatchewan Place in late October, the restaurant was

>packed.  Usually, this location has only a few late evening visitors.  It

>has not been very successful at attracting families because of its

>inconvienient  location.  An alternative location for a Boston Pizza in the

>north end of the city would be on Idywyld Drive.  Traffic flows to and from

>the Airport and Saskatchewan Place are much larger on this street.  This

>street is also much more accessible to families.

>          Business success can be attributed to the use of a franchising system. When

>Treliving and Melville bought Boston Pizza in 1983, "the two men owned 16 of

>the 36 existing outlets, but sold them all to new franchisees" ("recipe is

>simple", 16).  Treliving didn't want to compete with franchisees that were

>recruited.  Instead Treliving and Mwlville wanted to look after the other

>people's stores so that there would be no favouritism.  In order to

>concentrate on franchising, Treliving and Melville created a "management

>consulting firm" ("recipe is simple", 16).

>          According to Treliving, "The system [franchising] provides franchisees with

>a brand name, a proven business system and ongoing support" ("30 years",

>81).  A franchisee takes a smaller amount of risk than starting his or her

>own business because he or she buys into a system for which the unexpected

>has been planned.  The problems which a franchisee may experience have

>already been encountered by the franchisers over the years.   Thus, the

>franchiser has  learned how to overcome the obstacles which may come about

>and the franchiser can provide answers to all the important questions:

>"What type of location is successful?  What size trading area will ensure a

>large enough customer base?  What are acceptable labor costs?  What lease

>cost is acceptable?  How much parking does a location require?  What

>upcoming demographic changes will affect the business?" ("30 years", 81)

>          Boston Pizza uses the business format franchise:

>

>[The] business format franchise involves the use of not merely goods and

>services identified by a trade mark or invention, but a package or

>'blueprint' containing all the elements necessary to establish the business

>and run it profitably on a predetermined basis.  The package or blueprint is

>carefully prepared from the company's wholly-owned and/or pilot operations,

>thereby minimizing the risks involved in setting up a conventional small

>business (Felstead, 48).

>          Boston Pizza provides plans for a building, helps the franchisee to

>choose a location, and provides training for franchisees before they begin

>to operate their new franchise.  "There are two months training and two

>meetings each year attended by all franchisees..." ("recipe is simple", 16).

>In order to provide training, "one company-owned unit in Richmond serves as

>a classroom and training headquarters" ("only way",  36-7).

>          Franchising has proven itself a strong system that works.  In 1989 16,500

>franchised establishments were operational in Canada, and that number grew

>in 1992 to 20,200 ("30 years", 81) .  "Franchising businesses account for 42

>cents out of every dollar spent on retail goods and services today, and that

>number is expected to grow to 50 cents by the year 2000.  Quite simply, as a

>business system, franchising works"  ("30 years", 79).

>    A person with no previous experience who opens a new business runs a

>considerable risk. This risk can be seen by considering the following

>statistics: Half of all non-franchise restaurants close within the first

>year and the United States Department of Commerce has stated that 90 percent

>of franchise businesses are still in operation after 10 years, compared with

>18 percent of independent businesses ("30 years", 81).

>          Treliving also compares his franchise method, which is exclusively

>franchising, with the methods used by other successful restaurants.

>"Restaurant chains like McDonald's, Burger King and Pizza Hut have a mix of

>franchisees and corporate managers" ("30 years", 81-2) .  Boston Pizza uses

>the franchising system exclusively and believes that franchisee

>entrepreneurs are more motivated than managers, because they have invested

>their own money and therefore are more likely to succeed.

>                      Treliving has attributed his success to the use of a franchising system,

>gourmet pizza, and diverse menu (Cameron, 16).  He believes that "Ma and Pa

>pizza operations [which specialize in delivery out of a small facility] are

>going the way of the dinosaur" because "they can't keep up with our

>high-tech society and emphasis on gourmet pizza" (Cameron, 16).  In the

>past, a lower quality of delivered pizza was accepted because the person

>responsible for making the pizza was far away, and the delivery person was

>gone by the time you began to eat so there was no one to complain to.

>However, in a restaurant where people sit down and have a meal, they

>complain to the server if the food is sub-standard.  These complaints are

>inevitable because nothing is perfect.  Customer complaints can be used as

>opportunities to learn about customers problems.  "Research has shown that

>one of the best and most loyal customers is the one who had a complaint that

>was satisfactorily resolved" (Lewis & Chambers, 72).  Because Boston Pizza

>also delivers pizza, Ma and Pa are either forced to generate a higher

>quality product or go out of business.

>          Advertising a diverse menu has been one way Boston Pizza has drawn

>customers.  Boston Pizza has always prided themselves on using only fresh

>ingredients when making their gourmet pizza.  In 1986 Boston Pizza went one

>step further and introduced salad into their menu.  This addition was found

>to attract female customers (Cameron, 16).  Since then Boston Pizza has

>become dedicated to offering and highlighting a diverse menu which can

>satisfy a broader range of consumers (Mackin "more than a feeling", 24).

>The restaurant "offers exotic pizza flavors and a broad menu of pastas,

>salads and grill fare" ("Boston Pizza says, 3).  They have reflected this

>diversity in their latest broadcast campaign which was released in late 1994

>across western Canada.  A new slogan ,"'Come and get it all'...conveys the

>message that Boston Pizza serves more than pizza..."(Boston Pizza says, 3).

>          The newly released broadcast campaign also featured television star John

>Ratzenberger, who is known as Cliff the mailman from the Cheers television

>series. The Boston city location of the Cheers bar was one connection which

>helped in selecting this character, but there was also another factor.

>Boston Pizza serves 3 distinguishable markets: business lunch, a family

>enjoying a dinner together, and a late night post-cinema, or post-ball game

>crowd ("only way to go", 37).  "Ratzenberger's klutzy mailman evinced a

>certain 'humor and humanity' the restaurant would like to project... [and]

>the character also appeals to viewers across generational lines"

>(McCullough, 3) making him a fine choice to  speak to Boston Pizza's diverse

>market.

>          In 1986, Boston Pizza were fortunate to have three outlets on the site of

>Expo 86.  Treliving and Melville both remark that this location is

>responsible for making Boston Pizza "known internationally" ("pans out",

>D7).  The publicity that was attained through Expo 86 spawned interest from

>businessmen in other countries which would later result in growth.  The

>restaurant took its first steps to expand into the international market when

>the  first Asian outlet was opened in Tai-chung, Taiwan in the year 1988.

>          Further development of a stronger network of Boston Pizza restaurants

>throughout the Pacific Rim is of primary interest.  Treliving has spoken for

>Boston Pizza: "Our plan is to develop the Asian market through joint

>ventures with Asian partners" ("30 years", 79).   By developing through

>joint ventures with Asian partners, Boston Pizza can "tap into the local

>culture"("30 years", 79)  as it moves into the foreign markets.   Boston

>Pizza can then become familiar with the differences between the foreign

>market and markets in Canada and the United States.  The new markets can be

>treated accordingly.

>          In August 1992, Boston Pizza opened the "first pizza restaurant in

>Guangzhou, China." (Mishima, D2) .  The agreement was a joint venture

>between Boston Pizza International, the Chinese Government and a local

>franchise operator, T.K. Wong.  The three parties made an arrangement to

>share the profits ("Boston Pizza.", B17).  The Chinese like the style of the

>restaurant because it possesses a "North American concept" (Mishima, D2),

>but the menu had to be changed in order to suit the culture better: no

>alcohol would be served, and a smaller pizza size, corn soup, and a salad

>bar would be available.

>          The restaurant franchise has proven that they can overcome cultural

>differences by opening many successful facilities in Southeast Asia.  The

>franchising system allows them to do the same at a less significant level

>within more familiar markets: "We accept that there are regional differences

>that we have to adapt to.  The franchising system is the only way to go

>because the owner lends his or her personal touch depending on the

>location." ("only way to go", 37). If Boston Pizza located on 8th Street in

>Saskatoon is to succeed it will probably be due to the fact that it is a

>franchise operation which is nationally advertised and is known for its

>quality food.

>

>Bibiliography.

>

>"Boston Pizza exclusive." Canadian Hotel & Restaurant v.64(1) January 1986: 10.

>

>"Boston Pizza opens new headquarters." Vancouver Sun. January 22, 1992: B5.

>

>"Boston Pizza splits with agency." Marketing v.98(42) October 18, 1993: 1.

>

>"Confucius say, 'Mama mia!'" Marketing v.93(32) August 22, 1988: 7.

>

>Felstead, Alan. The Corporate Paradox: Power and control in the business

>franchise. London: Routledge, 1993.

>

>Hogben David. "Expo 86 keeps pizza order coming." Vancouver Sun. July 5,

>1991: D2.

>

>Jones, Ken & Simmons, Jim.  Location, Location, Location: analyzing the

>retail environment. 2nd Edition.

>

>Mackin, Bob, Jr.. "Boston Pizza expands to untapped Chinese market:

>Guangzhou Restaurant opens this summer." Marketing v.97(6) February 10,

>1992: D2.

>

>Mackin, Bob, Jr.. "Boston Pizza moves $1m AOR business to Glennie Stamnes."

>Marketing v.96(45) November 11, 1991: 4.

>

>Mendelsohn, Matin. The Guide to Franchising. 3rd Edition. Toronto: Pergamon

>Press, 1982.

>

>"New account for Grey." Marketing  v.92(7) February 16, 1987: 16.

>

>

80.  Malpractice or Poor Judgement

Malpractice or Poor Judgement?

The practice of medicine has never claimed to be an exact science.  In fact, it is very much a hit-and-miss situation.  Taking into account these above factors, India seems to be on a destructive trend regarding their level of health care.  Ever since private medical services fell under the Consumer Protection Act (COPRA) in April 1993, the number of malpractice suits filed against doctors has begun to soar.  For example, in Kerala, approximately 1800 cases (15% of the total number of cases) have been filed.  As Dr. Dipak Banerjee of the Indian Medical Association puts it:  "It's degenerating into a kind of witch-hunt."

For years the community of doctors across India was immune to charges of malpractice, but the tide has begun to turn.  Doctors are now having to dish out larger sums of money in order to insure themselves adequately.  Insurance companies have caught on as well, raising the price of malpractice insurance on most doctors.  For instance, a doctor who would have had to pay Rs. 125 annually now has to pay up to Rs. 1500.  These costs will only be passed along to the patients in the long run, and the condition is only going to worsen.  Take for example the United States, where surgeons annually pay an average of $75,000 on insurance premiums.  On top of these premiums, doctors who practice very defensively add as much as $21 billion US to the health care bill every year.  Twenty percent of the tests prescribed by doctors were not necessary, but they are the result of defensive practising by doctors who do not want to be held liable.

This condition, already appearing in India, could become the downfall of their present health care industry.  Doctors are being forced to "look upon every patient as a potential litigant."  There is likely going to be a tremendous rise in the cost of treatment as doctors begin this new wave of defensive practising, in which a series of expensive tests are carried out before any diagnosis is made.  Quoting Dr. Chockalingam (Chairman of the Indian Chapter of Royal College of Surgeons), "If a patient comes with a headache we may now order a CT scan lest we miss a brain tumour...  We now have to see whether a patient comes alone for consultation or brings along his advocate."

This problem could lead, and has led, to many others.  Doctors may shun complicated cases where risk is high due to the delicate nature of the procedure, so as not to be hauled to court.   This refusal to treat patients has already taken its toll on those involved in motor vehicle accidents, whose treatments are often very tedious.  This brings us to the fulcrum of the issue:  trying to hold doctors accountable for their actions.  Is poor service better than no service at all?  Is the case criminal negligence - or just a genuine error in judgement?

This entire matter revolves around a central point in the Consumer Protection Act-- section 2 (1) (o) which declares "services means service of any description which is made available to potential users...  It does not include rendering of any service free of charge or under a contract of personal service."  This statement clears government-run  hospitals and doctors of any wrong-doing, due to the fact that much of their service is rendered free of charge.  However, this does not clear the private sector hospitals which now perform approximately 70% of all out-patient services.  Even still, the main problem with COPRA is its tendency to make doctors solely responsible for poor treatment.  L. M. Kapur, president of the Association of Medical Consultants, describes the situation:

"Doctors are just 25 per cent of the input for treatment.  There are para-medical staff, blood banks, nurses, ward boys, poor infrastructure facilities, equipment and even patients themselves that could be responsible for poor results.  Yet we are becoming the scapegoats for everybody's woes."

Another major problem is that this prestigious profession is being piled in with a whole range of other services.  This has led to speedy trials in consumer courts, whose panels are comprised of people who do not have the knowledge to differentiate between genuine malpractice and errors in judgement.  As well, consumer courts advocate a "Yes/No" approach, while medicine has many "grey areas" for treatment.  What really irritates doctors is the fact that under COPRA, they are treated like other services such as those which provide entertainment and food.  However, the services that they supply should be more than proof that an alternative system of review of medical conduct should be developed.

Before the medical services fell under COPRA, patients had two major routes by which to file claims of malpractice:  The Medical Council of India, and courts of law.  Patients did not prefer to go to courts of law due to their lengthy trials and high costs.  The Medical Council had the power to suspend doctors for negligent acts.  However, because the Council was comprised mainly of doctors, they were very hesitant to discipline their colleagues.  Also, the Council did not have the power to compensate the "victims" of malpractice.

This is a serious problem that should be dealt with immediately.  Before the situation gets out of hand, and treatment fees go through the roof, the government should appoint a new panel specifically for the review of litigation suits against doctors in private practices.  The panel should be composed of the following:  doctors, medical consultants, lawyers and upstanding members of the community.  This type of panel would lead to less bias towards both the patient and the doctor.  Allowing the present situation to continue will only lead to the eventual destruction of the Indian health care system.

References:  India Today, June 1993, p. 95 - 100

81.  Man and Ocean

The world¡¦s ocean covers about 70% of the Earth¡¦s surface. It is use to produce us many things. It is more than a place to swimming, sailing and other recreation. The ocean serves as a source of energy, raw materials and most of all food like fish and seaweed. In this essay I will talk about "What are our ocean resources and the importance of the oceans in the future."

First, our largest resource in the ocean is food. There are two different kinds of food in the ocean, such as marine plants and marine animals. These two kinds of resources are reborn resources and it will never be end. For marine plants we have the algae's family, like seaweed. During ebb tide, you can find the seaweed between rocks. For the marine animals we have fish and shrimp. The fish and shrimp are always moving around the ocean and follow the ocean currents.

What is ocean current? It is a movement of ocean thatcan buring the fish to other places. There are two kinds of circulation create the currents in the ocean. They are (1) wind-driven circulation and (2) Thermohaline circulation. Wind-driven circulation result from the wind sets the surface waters into motion as currents. The currents generally flow horizontally-that is parallel to the earth¡¦s surface. The wind mainly affects only the upper 100 to 200 meters of water. However, the flow of wind-driven currents may extend to depths of 1,000 meters or more.

Thermohaline circulation produces great vertical currents' hat flow from the surface to the ocean bottom and back. The currents largely result from differences in water temperature and salinity. The currents move sluggishly from the polar regions, along the sea floor, and back to the surface. In the polar regions, The surface waters become colder and saltier. Being colder and saltier makes these waters heavier, and they gradually flow back toward the surface and replace the surface waters that sink. For example, as a warm ocean current and a cold ocean current meet together, The warm water will always follow cold water and moving around the ocean. The most important is the plankton does not like to stay in the cold place. They will follow the warm current. As the result the small fish like shrimp that eats plankton, will follow the plankton. Similarly the bigger fish that eats small fish and shrimp will just follow also and these fishes became a chain.

Our ocean has produced raw material also. Like natural gas and petroleum. These materials are all unaltered. After you have take them out, you need to use machine to take out the dirt. For example the petroleum is use to sucked out by the big pipes. The asphalt road and the clean oil can be the fuel. South china sea has a big processing plant that produces the oil and natural gas. In late 1980¡¦s, offshore wells produced about 25 percent of the world¡¦s oil and about 20 per cent of the world¡¦s gas. Scientists estimate that 3 trillion barrels of oil lie undiscovered beneath the ocean. Equally huge amounts of untapped gas accompany the oil. As gas and oil reserves on land are use up or become too difficult and expensive to obtain, finding and recovering undersea deposits will become increasingly important.

The ocean can be use to produce power. First, we have wave power. Generator was built in the ocean. It has a pumping chamber. It will move up and down to turn the generator. Second, we have tidal power. The generator will have to build on the place were water will falls. The best place is to built it on a dam. Once the dam is full, the water will rush down and it will turn the generator to produce the energy.

Our ocean is very useful, but we are the one that endangers it with pollution. The most common pollution is trash and the chemical waste. People go to sea to fish or to swim they always leave trashes like cans and plastic bag. These things are not easy to dissolve and if we put them together, oh my god can you image? That will be like a small mountain every day.

The next common pollution is the chemical waste (sewage). This pollution is always coming from factories, household and human. That can poison the environment and also contains bacteria, viruses and parasite eggs. That is harmful to human health. The bacteria can give swimmers' stomach upsets or infections. It is liquid and easy to dispersed through out the water and marines lie than it is hard to wash it out anymore. The north sea is one of the most polluted seas in the world. Rivers from the industrial countries of western and central Europe will flow into the southern part of the north sea. The sewage can dissolve by small bacteria¡¦s but needs long time. In many places, sewageses are left before it is disposed. It can be treated to make it safer but this is expensive.

The next pollution is the spill out oil. I think most of people have heard about it. But where is it come from? Now is our ocean there were many tankers are sending oil to other countries or to their own country. Sometimes the tanker might hit the ice or mountain under the sea. And then the oil will come out from the hole. Oil is very dangerous to the environment, especially marine animal and sea birds. Once the oil is on marine animals' body, their body will have hard time to breathe and then they will die. For example, whales are using lung to breathe. They need to float over the water to breathe, so they need to float over water to breathe every period. If they suck in the oil they will be sick and die. Also the birds, if the oil is on their body they cannot keep warmness and they will die because of cold or they will swallow it in when they try to clean it with their mouth.

On March 24 1989. The oil tanker exxan valdez van aground in Prince William Sound in Alaska. It spilled over 11 million gallons of crude oil. The effect on the land environment was killed in huge numbers. Offers are poisoned by oil, Ether by swallowing it as they swim through it or by trying to lick it off their coats. However, the main cause of death is exposure too cold. If oil clogs otters fur they freeze to death, then few of these sea attars have cleaned. But about 3,000 along with 36,000 seabirds and over 100 eagles are estimated to have died.

Change salt water to clean water is very easy. The scientists invent a machine which can change the salt water to clean water. First, you have to boil the salt water and wait until the salt water become steam then the salt will be left in the container and wait or the steam become clean water.

Water is the most critical natural resources in the year 2,000. According to "Thors, orig. Water spells lie itself. It's used in agriculture, domestic taps and industry. Not only in food production, drinking and business. If we don¡¦t protect it well, in the future it is hard to change the salt water to clean water, then we will not have clean water to drink, to plant and to agriculture.

82.  Medical Conditions in Auschwitz

The medical conditions in concentration camps were very horrable.  Many

things happened to the prisoners at this camp and most of the worst things

happened because of the medical treatments.

Throughout all the camps medical experiments were performed on the

prisoners. They were not only performed on the jewish but on all different

kinds of people that were at the camps.  The experiments were for the most

part either harsh or deadly.  Some of the experiments were as follows.

People were submersed in ice cold water for hours on end to test out new

kinds of suits.  Others were deprived of oxygen, sterilized, had patches of

there skin burned, or immediatly killed by an injection to the heart for

dissection.  Some people were also sent away to anatomy hospitals.

One of the most desired places to be by doctors was Block 10. Block 10

was in Auschwitz and was a medical block.  It meant the difference between

life and death for many people in Auschwitz. There were benefits and

disadvantages to being there for both the doctors and the prisoners.

For a doctor it was seen as a chance to do any and all experiments

they thought might be interesting.  For prisoners it was a chance to

live, if they were lucky.  Some prisoners were taken by doctors for

experiments and depending on the nature of the experiment they might

live for a long time or be killed imediatly.

Doctors picked which people should be killed through a selection process.

A person could be killed for having as little as a tiny scar, or because

ofa defect, or anything at all.  The doctors of Block 10 are most remembered.

The two that stand out most are Josef Mengele and Ernst B.  Josef Mengele

as one of the cruelest doctors who killed many, many people.  He was said

to be seen at selections night and day.  And in some cases even taking

children to the gas chambers by playing a game with them. However, Ernst B.

was different.  In fact, some prisoners even refused to identify him for

authorities.  He did not perticapate in selections.  He also saw to it to

save many llives by performing non-harmful experiments.  He was never charged

with war crimes and was remembered as one of the only caring nazis and freind

of the prisoners.

The Medical conditions throughout the camps were very harsh, as i have told

you already.  However they could somtimes be life saving.  And even somtimes

provided caring doctors.

83.  Medival Medicine

It is said that 'An apple a day keeps the dentist away.' This has become a common saying

among Society today. We do not stop to think of how it reflects our outlook of Medicine

in our lives. We have come to understand the value of simple practices in order to keep

ourselves healthy. This is not, however, the case of Medieval England. Most 'medical

practices' of the time were based upon superstition, ancient texts, myth, or the direction

of the church. Medical practices of Medieval England often based upon nothing more

than superstition proved unbeneficial if not harmful to the people of England.

Part of the obvious problem was the fact that the common person had little care or

sense for improving their own health. The life and livelihood of an average person was

less than desirable even from the time of birth.

In the villages chronic inbreeding must have produced many children who star-

ted life with a built in weakness, either mental or physical. Many would die in

childhood, but others who grew into manhood, might drag out a useless exist-

ance, dependent on charity for their sustenance. In general, infant mortality

was extremely heavy....Once the child was free to crawl about among the

unsanitary rushes, with a child's natural instinct to put everything into its

mouth, it is a wonder that any survived. Fromt then on disease and acci-

dent would provide ample scope for a medical service, which was virtually

non-existent. (Tomkeieff 119).

Furthermore, the collective knowledge (what little there was) was held and practiced by

Monks in Monasteries.

In summary of medical practice to the end of 1400, it may be said medicine

was practiced mostly by the clerics in monasteries and the laity whose locus

of operation was the apothecary shop.  The physician thought surgery was

beneath his dignity (to have blood on his hands and clothes) and left this to

uneducated 'barbers'  The practitioner carried the title 'Master,' whereas

teachers carried the title 'Doctor'  The physician was little advanced over

the knowledge of Galen's time.  They still believed in the Doctrine of four

humours, making diagnoses by inspection of the blood and urine.  Most of the

therapeutic measures included blood letting, steam baths, amulets, spells,

hexes, prayers, the king's touch, and polypharmacy known as theriaca. (Snyder 1).

The problem is furthered by the fact that these 'practices' proved of little benefit. Most of

these had no scientific basis and were instead rooted in superstition and/or the church.

"The concern of Christian theology, on the other hand, was to cure the soul rather than

the body;  disease usually was considered supernatural in origin and cured by religious

means. As a result, scientific investigation was inhibited during this time.  Brothers of

various

monasteries copied and preserved those scientific manuscripts and documents which

were thought to be consistent with prevailing religious thought...." Ency

To sum it up, "For England, as far as the twelfth century was concerned, medicine

was traditional, composed of a mixture of herbal lore and popular magic, while surgery

was brutal-and must often have been fatal." (Tokeieff 120). This now brings us to another

point, the fact of the severe and unsophisticated nature of surgery. "Two twelfth-century

manuscripts, one early, show medical treatment, and in both cauterizing looms large. The

earlier one shows the physician cauterizing a shorn head, while an attendant in a room

below is heating a relay of instruments in a furnace. The second manuscript shows

cauterizing for trouble in the head and in the stomach-a painful remedy!" (Tokeieff 120).

More is written of this, "Two of the manuscripts show the doctor in his drug store,

instructing his apprentice in the compounding of medicines. It was here that the medieval

superstition reigned supreme. The ingredients heated in the furnace and pounded in the

mortar could contain anything from crushed rocks to the entrails of animals and dead

insects. " (Tokeieff 122).

Lepers, cripples, and the blind were not uncommon in Medieval England.

"Cripples were everywhere. When the only known way to deal with a leg wound, or other

leg ailment, was to amputate, it stands to reason that anyone strong enough to survive the

primitive and unanaesthetised severance of the limb would be joining a numerous band."

(Tokeieff 123).Yet, they, along with other sick people had (often times) nowhere to turn.

Most could not afford medical attention, and Hospitals were nothing like that of now.

"Provision for lepers, who were the outcasts of society, was the motive for the foundation

of many of the earliest hospitals, which were intended not for the cure of the sick but as

refuge for the incurable and the dying." (Tokeieff 122-123).

"...In regard to the malign or beneficent influence...one is driven to the conclusion

that the surest way to survive was to keep away from the doctor." It should be clear that

the health conditions for people in England of this time would be so unbearable that it

would

not be desirable by anybody. It is hard to imagine that anyone could see any benefit to the

practices of the time. Yet thus is the case of any era: something commonly accepted of

one age is looked down upon by the next. Perhaps a century or two down the historical

road mankind will be simply disgusted by the way we live.

Works Cited

Tomkeieff, O.G. Life in Norman England.

New York: Capricorn Books, 1967.

Snyder, M.D., Clifford C. "Summary of Medieval Medicine."

[http://indy.radiology.uiowa.edu/Providers/Textbooks/SnyderMedHx/093MedivalMedici

ne.html]. August 01, 1996

"History of Medicine." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.

CD-ROM. IBM, 1995.

84.  Mexico 2

Mexico

Mexico, the United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos), is  bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south by Belize and Guatemala; on the east by the United States of America, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Mexico's borders stretch approximately 1,958,201 square kilometers or 756,066 square miles. That figure includes 5,363 square kilometers or 2,071 square miles of  outlying islands.  From north to south its longest distance is 1,250 miles.  From east to west its longest distance is 1,900 miles.  Mexico's coast line covers about 6,320 miles.

Most of Mexico is just an immense elevated plateau, flanked by mountain ranges that fall sharply off to narrow coastal plains in the West and East.  Much of Mexico's Central Plateau is a continuation of the great plains through the southwestern United States.  The highest point in all of Mexico is Mount Onzaba (Citlaltepetl).  It is 18,707 feet above sea level.  Mexico's lowest point is near Mexicali.  This area near Mexicali is thirty-three feet below sea level.

The capital of Mexico is Mexico City.  The metropolitan area of Mexico City is home to about 14,987,051 people of Mexico's total population of about 93,670,000, according to a 1990 census.  Although most of Mexico's population is from Mexico City, which is the biggest city in the world, Mexico's other cities include Guadalajara, Monterrey, and Puebla.  Most of Mexico's population lives in urban areas, about seventy-five percent, and the population density is about forty-eight people per square kilometer, or one-hundred and twenty-four people per square mile.

Mexico's official language is Spanish, although another language that is fairly widely spoken is Native American.  Mexico's ethnic groups can be broken down into three major groups: Mestizo, Native American, and European.  Mestizo's are people of mixed European and Native American ancestry.  Mestizo's make up about sixty percent of Mexico's population, while Native American's makes up about thirty percent, and European's make up about nine percent.  There are many religions being practiced in Mexico, but the biggest by far is Roman Catholicism, which is practiced by about ninety percent of Mexico's population.  The other fairly big religion, while nowhere near as widely practiced, is Protestantism, practiced by about five percent of all people currently going to church in Mexico.

Most of Mexico's big Cities lies within the Tropic of Cancer.  Mexico City averages about fifty-four degrees Fahrenheit and twelve degrees Celsius in January, and it averages about sixty-three degrees Fahrenheit and seventeen degrees Celsius in July.  Monterrey, which is above the Tropic of Cancer, averages about fifty-eight degrees Fahrenheit and fourteen degrees Celsius in January, and averages eighty-one degrees Fahrenheit and twenty-seven degrees Celsius in July.  The average precipitation in Mexico City is seven-hundred and fifty millimeters per year and in Monterrey it is five-hundred and eighty millimeters per year.

Mexico's form of government is a Federal Government.  The head of State and Government is a president who is elected by voters to a six year term.  They have a Bicameral Legislature, which consists of a Federal Chamber of Deputies with five-hundred deputies, and a Senate with sixty-four senators.  There are three branches of the military in Mexico:  the Army, Navy, and the Air Force.  There are approximately 175,000 people currently serving the armed forces.  In order to serve in the armed forces there you have to be eighteen years or older, and if you are eighteen or older, you may be conscripted to twelve months of part-time service.

In Mexico there are four major universities.  There is the National Autonomous University of Mexico, in Mexico City; the University of Guadalajara, in, where else but, Guadalajara; the Benemerita Autonomous University of Puebla, in Puebla; and the Institute of Technical and Advanced Studies of Monterrey, in Monterrey.

An estimation in 1994 predicted that Mexico's gross national product was about $375,500,000,000.  Mexico's form of currency is the nuevo peso, but seven and forty-five hundredths exchanges for only one United States of America dollar.  Mexico makes most of its money by trading it's major exports, crude petroleum, petroleum products, coffee, silver, internal combustion engines, motor vehicles, cotton, and electronics, with their major trading partners, the U.S., Japan, Germany, Spain, France, Canada, and Brazil.  From these and other countries, Mexico's major imports are Metal working machines, steel-mill products, agricultural machinery, electrical equipment, automobile parts for assembly and repair, and aircraft.  These products then go towards Mexico's major businesses, fifty-one percent services, twenty-one percent to industry, and twenty-eight percent towards agriculture, forestry, and feeding.

Bibliography

1.) "Mexico" ;  Rodric A. Camp ;  World Book Encyclopedia ;  vol. M Ó1989 ;  pages 452-3, 455.

2.)   "Mexico: Fact Box" ;  Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia ;  vol. Encarta 97 Deluxe (c)1993-1996.

3.)   "Mexico" ; ;  World Book Encyclopedia ;  vol. M (c)1967 ;

pages 372-83.

85.  Mexico

MEXICO

Southward from its 1,500 mile long border with the United States lies the Estados Unidos Mexicanos. A country with slightly more than 750,000 square miles in area, Mexico has a vast array of mineral resources, limited agricultural land, and a rapidly growing population. These factors are the basis for many of the country's present problems as well as opportunities for future development. The nation is struggling to modernize its economy. With more than 80 million people in the mid-1980s, Mexico's overall population density exceeds 110 per square mile. More than half of its inhabitants live in the country's central core, while the arid north and the tropical south are sparsely settled.

The stereotype of Mexico is that it is a country with a population consisting mainly of subsistence farmers has little validity. Petroleum and tourism dominate the economy, and industrialization is increasing in many parts of the nation. Internal migration from the countryside has caused urban centers to grow dramatically: more than two thirds of all Mexicans now live in cities. Mexico City, with a metropolitan area population of approximately 16 million people, is the largest city in the world. While still low by United States standards, the nation's gross national product per capita rose significantly during the 1970s. Despite impressive social and economic gains, since 1981 Mexico has been wracked by severe inflation and an enormous foreign debt brought on in large part by precipitous declines in the value of petroleum products.

Geologically, Mexico is located in one of the Earth's most dynamic areas. It is a part of the "Ring of Fire," a region around the Pacific Ocean highlighted by active volcanism and frequent seismic activity. Within the context of plate tectonics, a theory developed to explain the creation of major landform features around the world, Mexico is situated on the western, or leading, edge of the huge North American Plate. Its interaction with the Pacific, Cocos, and Caribbean plates has given rise over geologic time to the Earth-building processes that created most of Mexico. Towering peaks, like Citlaltepetl at some 18,000 feet, are extremely young in geologic terms and are examples of the volcanic forces that built much of central Mexico. The spectacular eruption of the volcano Chinchon in 1981 was more powerful than that of Mount St. Helens in the United States a year earlier and led to widespread devastation.

Much of the complexity found in southern Mexico's physiography is related to the interaction of three tectonic plates. Such interaction creates regions that are often highly unstable, producing numerous and severe Earth movements. A 1985 quake, with an epicenter off the coast of Acapulco, caused billions of dollars in damage nationwide, destroyed hundreds of buildings in Mexico City, and killed several thousand people. It is on this often unstable and dynamically active physical environment that the Mexican people must build their nation.

The plateau can be subdivided into two major sections. The Mesa del Norte begins near the international border and ends around San Luis Potosi. In this arid lower part of the plateau, interior drainage predominates with few permanent streams. On its west side the mesa is flanked by the largely volcanic Sierra Madre Occidental, with an average height of 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400 to 2,700 meters). It has been highly dissected by westward-flowing streams that eroded a series of deep barrancas, or canyons. The most spectacular of these is the Barranca del Cobre, Mexico's equivalent of the Grand Canyon. The Sierra Madre Oriental, a range of folded mountains formed of shale and limestone, is on the east side of the mesa. With average elevations similar to those of the Sierra Madre Occidental, these dissected highlands have peaks that reach 13,000 feet.

The Mesa Central stretches from San Luis Potosi to the volcanic axis south of Mexico City. Formed largely by volcanic action, the general plateau surface of this mesa is higher, moister, and generally flatter than the Mesa del Norte. The Mesa Central is divided into a series of fairly flat intermountain basins separated by eroded volcanic peaks. These basins are generally quite fertile and have been the most densely populated portions of Mexico for several hundred years. The largest valleys such as those of Mexico City, Puebla, and Guadalajara rarely exceed 100 square miles in area, while many others are quite small. The traditional breadbasket of the country, the Bajio of Guanajuato, is located in the northern part of the mesa. Many of the basins were sites of major lakes, like those formerly located around Mexico City that were drained to facilitate European settlement. The weak, structurally unstable soils that remain have caused numerous buildings to shift on their foundations and over many years to slowly sink into the ground. The volcanic axis with such spectacular snowcapped peaks as Popocatepetl at 17,887 feet, Ixtaccihuatl at 17,342 feet, and Toluca at 15,000 feet forms the southern boundary of the Mexican Plateau.

On the east and west sides of the plateau lie that country's coastal lowlands. The Gulf Coastal Plain extends from the Texas border to the Yucatan peninsula, a distance of some 900 miles. Characterized by lagoons and low-lying swampy areas, the triangular northern portion is more than 100 miles wide near the border and tapers rapidly toward the south. Inland toward the abrupt escarpment of the Sierra Madre Oriental is a series of gently undulating plains dotted by occasional hills and low mountains. Near Tampico an extension of the Sierra Madre Occidental reaches the sea and interrupts the plain's continuity. To the south of Tampico it is narrow and irregular. In several places low hills and isolated volcanic peaks meet the sea and subdivide the plain. It widens at the northern end of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and then encompasses the limestone formations that underlie the Yucatan peninsula.

The Rio Balsas and its tributaries drain the Balsas Depression as well as much of the southern portion of the Mesa Central. Dammed where it crosses the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Balsas is a major source of hydroelectric power. Farther south the Grijalva is the main river system. It drains a large part of the Chiapas Highlands. Dammed in two places, the Grijalva has created a pair of huge man-made lakes. The Rio Papaloapan, which enters the Gulf of Mexico south of Veracruz, was dammed in the 1960s in a project modeled after the Tennessee Valley Authority. The project's aim was to control flooding along the previously swampy coastal plain and to provide for new agricultural production.

In the north an arid climate and interior drainage limit the size and number of rivers. By far the major river in this part of the nation is the Rio Grande in the, which forms the international border. Because both the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental originate close to the coastal margins, streams on the west and east coasts are short and steep. Along the Pacific Lowlands the Rios Yaqui, Fuerte, and Hunaya have been dammed, and they support major irrigated acreages. Baja California and the Yucatan peninsula are essentially devoid of permanent streams.

Because of its topographic diversity and large range in latitude, Mexico has a wide array of climatic conditions, often occurring in very short distances. More than half of Mexico lies south of the Tropic of Cancer. Within the tropics, temperature variations from season to season are small, often less than 10  F between the warmest and coldest months of the year. In these areas winter is defined as the rainiest rather than coldest months. The climate also changes significantly with increases in elevation.

From sea level to just above 2,000 feet is the tierra caliente with uniformly high temperatures. Acapulco, for example, has an average daily temperature of approximately 80  F, with the warmest month averaging 83  F and the coldest about 78  F. The tierra templada extends from 2,000 feet to about 6,000 feet. At an elevation of 4,500 feet, Jalapa has an average daily temperature of 63.6  F with a yearly range of 9  F. Tierra fria is situated from about 6,000 to 11,000 feet. Pachuca, at just under 8,000 feet, has an average annual temperature of 58  F and a yearly range of just 10  F. Above the tierra fria are the paramos, or alpine pastures, while the tierra helada, or permanent snow line in central Mexico, is found at roughly 14,000 feet.

The natural wildlife of northern Mexico was severely affected by the introduction of cattle, sheep, and goats more than 400 years ago. While rabbits and snakes abound in the deserts and steppes, such larger animals as deer and mountain lions are found only in isolated or mountainous areas. Massive flocks of ducks and geese migrate into the northern part of the Sierra Madre Occidental to winter. A millennium of human habitation has brought about the virtual elimination of much of the natural fauna throughout the Mesa Central and parts of the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley. In contrast the rain forests of the Gulf Coast and Chiapas and the degraded rain forests of the Pacific coast still provide a largely undisturbed habitat for many animals from monkeys to parrots to jaguars.

Mexico's population comprises a wide variety of racial and ethnic groups. At the time of European arrival in the early 1500s, the country was inhabited by numerous Amerind civilizations. The "Indians" are thought to have migrated into the New World from Asia some 40,000 to 60,000 years earlier by crossing a former land bridge in what is now the Bering Straits.

By far the greatest number of people lived in the Mesa Central. Most were under the general rule of the Aztec Empire, but a great many separate cultural groups thrived in the region, among them speakers of Tarastec, Otomi, and Nahuatl. Outside the Mesa Central were numerous other cultural groups such as the Maya of the Yucatan and the Mixtecs and Zapotecs of Oaxaca. Highly organized civilizations had occupied various regions of Mexico for at least 2,000 years prior to European discovery. The Aztec cities of the Mesa Central were marvels of architectural design, irrigation technology, and social organization. Spectacular Mayan ruins in the Yucatan evidence widespread urbanization and intense agricultural productivity dating from well before the Christian Era.

Over the last four centuries descendants of Indians and Europeans, sometimes called mestizos, have become the dominant group in Mexico. Today they account for at least two thirds and perhaps three fourths of the total population.

While Indians are still said to represent nearly a quarter of the population, in 1980 there were only slightly more than 5 million people who spoke an Indian language and just over 1 million who spoke only an Indian language. There are more than 50 Indian languages spoken in the country. Entirely European-descended people, including many who immigrated during the last half century, account for about 10 percent of all Mexicans.

One of the more dynamic aspects of Mexico's demography is its rapid rate of population increase. At present the nation's population is growing at a rate of 2.6 percent annually. This is about 50 percent higher than the world average and almost four times the rate of the United States. This growth rate, however, represents a recent slowing in natural increase. From 1960 to 1980 Mexico averaged about 3.0 percent annually. This reflects the greatly improved health-care standards introduced since 1940. These changes allowed a significant lowering of the death rate, especially infant mortality. The more recent decline in the growth rate results from increasing urbanization, higher educational levels, and a lessened dependence on child labor.

In 1910 Mexico had a population of about 15 million, and by 1940 the number had increased to only 20 million. In 1960 there were more than 34 million people and by 1970 more than 58 million. The 1980 population surpassed 66 million, and at the end of 1986 it was estimated that it surpassed 80 million. Such rapid growth has severely taxed the ability of the Mexican Republic to provide basic social services and economic opportunities for its citizens. It is estimated that Mexico will have 113 million people by the year 2000. Traditionally the government has opposed limiting population growth. This position has been somewhat modified since the late 1970s with continuing high growth rates and recurring economic difficulties.

More than 50 percent of all Mexicans live on the Mesa Central, which accounts for only 15 percent of the national territory. Mexico City's urban area has about 18 percent of the population. Parts of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley, are relatively densely settled, but southern Baja California, much of the Yucatan peninsula, and large parts of the Chiapas Highlands are sparsely populated.

Although Spanish speakers form the bulk of the population throughout most of the country, there are several areas where Indian speakers still dominate. Mayan speakers are the majority cultural group in the rural Yucatan. In the Chiapas Highlands and the Southern Highlands, especially the Oaxaca Valley and more remote parts of the Sierra Madre del Sur, Indian communities abound, and enclaves of Indians are still significant in isolated mountain areas on the eastern margin of the Mesa Central.

The movement of people within the nation's borders has drastically altered the distribution of Mexico's population. Massive migrations of peasants from rural areas and small towns to cities began in the 1950s, resulting in an estimated 70 percent of Mexicans now living in cities. This represents a substantial proportional decline in rural population, which accounted for 50 percent in 1960. In 1987 roughly half of the country's residents lived in cities with 50,000 inhabitants or more. As a group, Mexican cities have grown at a rate of more than 5 percent a year since the 1960s.

In addition to internal migration, the number of individuals who have emigrated from Mexico to the United States illegally has grown sharply since the 1970s. Estimates are highly inaccurate and vary drastically, but it is believed that somewhere between 4 and 8 million Mexicans relocated illegally to the United States between 1970 and 1985. An increasing number of highly qualified technicians and professionals have found their way northward causing a "brain drain" for Mexico.

Mexico has made great efforts to improve educational and health opportunities for its people. Despite a rapidly growing population and an increasingly large number of school-age children, gains are being made in many areas. As in most Third World countries, social infrastructure is much more available in cities than in the countryside, but national programs have sought to provide primary schools and basic health-care centers to all rural areas.

Within the hierarchy of Mexican urban places, Mexico City is the political, economic, social, educational, and industrial capital of the nation. The metropolis covers a solidly built-up urbanized area of some 15 by 20 miles. Despite its already enormous population, Mexico City gains more than 350,000 people per year. By the end of the century the city's population could easily exceed 25 million.

The famous Aztec pyramids of Teotihuacan are located northeast of the city, and the floating gardens of Xochimilco are in the southeast. Hundreds of thousands of Mexicans, many of them peasants, make annual pilgrimages to the Shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which is a holy site for the country's Roman Catholics.

Through the years Mexican writers and artists have received worldwide acclaim for their creativity and innovation. Within the nation both folk and classical traditions are strong. The country's most renowned writers have gained their reputations by dealing with questions of universal significance, as did Samuel Ramos. Octavio Paz is the foremost poet of Latin America. Carlos Fuentes is honored throughout the world, Gustavo Sainz is a leader in Spanish-language literature, and Juan Jose Arreola's fantasies are widely admired. Among dramatists Rodolfo Usigli was extremely influential during his lifetime, but more recently Luisa Josefina Hernandez and Emilio Carballido have made significant contributions to Mexican drama.

In economic terms Mexico is a developing nation. With a 1986 gross domestic product of approximately United States $2,300 per capita, the country has a long way to progress before it can provide its people with living standards similar to the more developed nations. But even this modest figure represents a major improvement in a relatively short period of time. In constant 1982 dollars Mexico's GDP per capita has increased from about $1,100 in 1960. Given the steady and rapid population growth rate, the nation's economic growth has been impressive. Between 1960 and 1980 the GDP grew at an average annual rate of 6.8 percent. To illustrate the effect of petroleum prices on Mexican economic growth, in 1981 the GDP increased by 7.9 percent. In 1982, the year of the price collapse, GDP growth fell to -0.5 percent.

Largely because of the diversity of its physical environment, Mexico produces a wide array of agricultural products in different parts of its national territory. Despite the fact that farming and ranching have been the basic economic activities throughout its history, Mexico has a very limited amount of good agricultural land. Much of the country is too arid or too mountainous for crops or grazing. Irrigation is required in many areas to bring the land into any kind of production. It is estimated that no more than 20 percent of the nation can be classified as potentially arable. Normally only from 10 to 12 percent of the country's area is planted to crops annually, and because of weather conditions only half of that is harvested. Only 20 percent of the cropland in production is irrigated.

The most fertile soils and the largest areas of agricultural land are located in the Mesa Central, where a dense farming population has been present for at least 1,000 years. Aridity in the north and dense tropical vegetation in much of the south have hampered the spread of agriculture to these areas. Ranching has been extended into many areas considered marginal for crops.

Slightly less than a fifth of Mexico's national territory is forested. It is estimated that nearly two thirds of the country was covered by forests in the mid-1500s, but indiscriminate exploitation decimated the resource. While conservation methods are now practiced in some of the pine forests in the north, the uprooting of rain forest continues elsewhere.

Metallic minerals have been a significant part of the economy throughout the nation's history. Silver was long the most valuable product mined, and Mexico was the world's leading producer until about 1970. The major mining area during the colonial period was the Silver Belt, a region that extended from Zacatecas and Guanajuato in the northern part of the Mesa Central into Chihuahua on the Mesa del Norte. San Luis Potosi was an eastern outpost. The Silver Belt is still the primary region of mineral production, but the focus is now on industrial rather than precious minerals.

exico's nearly 5,500 miles (8,850 kilometers) of coastline is richly endowed with marine resources. Seafood products do not form a major part of the Mexican diet despite attempts to increase it, so the nation's fishing industry has not yet been developed to its potential. Commercial exploitation of ocean products has occurred only since the 1940s.

Mexico has rich shrimping grounds in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Gulf of California, and along the southern Pacific coast. The gulf coast from Tampico to the United States border and from Veracruz to Campeche has been fished commercially since the 1940s, producing about 25,000 tons of shrimp in 1984. The Gulf of California shrimping grounds were not exploited on a large scale until the late 1950s but are now the most productive. More than 40,000 tons of shrimp were taken there in 1984, with another 10,000 tons landed in the far south.

Petroleum is Mexico's primary economic asset. Nearly 70 percent of the nation's foreign-exchange earnings are derived from the sale of oil and natural gas, the overwhelming majority of which is exported to the United States. Petroleum is seen as the commodity capable of creating enough resources to bring about significant changes in the country's social and economic systems. Oil money will be used to create jobs, improve infrastructure, and finance social programs. Oil revenues could lead to the modernization of Mexico.

exico is the most industrialized country in Latin America after Brazil. A disproportionate share of manufacturing is located in the Mexico City metropolitan area largely because of its huge market and superior infrastructure. Its impressive array of manufacturing includes everything from agricultural processing to automotive assemblage and electronics to iron and steel production. Most of the country's industrial jobs are located in this urban area, acting as a magnet to migrants from throughout Mexico.

Because of its physical diversity and economic status, Mexico has had a difficult time creating an integrated transportation network. Although it was one of the first in Latin America to develop railway lines, the nation is joined together by an extensive but inefficient state-owned railway system.

Major rail routes extend outward from the Mexico City hub along the west coast to Mexicali, through the Central Plateau to El Paso and Laredo, via the Gulf Coastal Plain to the Yucatan peninsula, and south to Oaxaca. Rail traffic, both for passengers and freight, is slow and unreliable.

Tourism is a growth industry in Mexico. The country attracted visitors, especially from the United States, for many years, but in relatively limited numbers. Historically these tourists came to visit Mexico City and surrounding colonial towns in the Mesa Central and to see the archaeological ruins at Tenochtitlan and Tulum. More adventurous tourists went to the Mayan ruins of the Yucatan or to the Indian-dominated Oaxaca Valley. People later discovered Mexico's beaches, and the government invested heavily in this sector of the economy.

Before the Spanish arrival in 1519, Mexico was occupied by a large number of Indian groups with very different social and economic systems. In general the tribes in the arid north were relatively small groups of hunters and gatherers who roamed extensive areas of sparsely vegetated deserts and steppes. These people are often referred to as Chichimecs, though they were a mixture of several linguistically distinctive cultural groups.

In the rest of the country the natives were agriculturalists, which allowed the support of dense populations. Among these were the Maya of the Yucatan, Totonac, Huastec, Otomi, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Tlaxcalans, Tarascans, and Aztecs. A number of these groups developed high civilizations with elaborate urban centers used for religious, political, and commercial purposes. The Mayan cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Palenque, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, Tzintzuntzan of the Tarastec, and Monte Alban of the Zapotecs are examples.

By AD 1100 the Toltecs had conquered much of central and southern Mexico and had established their capital at Tula in the Mesa Central. They also built the city of Teotihuacan near present-day Mexico City. At about the same time, the Zapotecs controlled the Oaxaca Valley and parts of the Southern Highlands. The cities they built at Mitla and Monte Alban remain, though they were taken over by the Mixtecs prior to the arrival of the Spanish.

When the Spanish arrived in central Mexico, the Aztecs controlled most of the Mesa Central through a state tribute system that extracted taxes and political servility from conquered tribal groups. The Aztecs migrated into the Mesa Central from the north and fulfilled a tribal prophesy by establishing a city where an eagle with a snake in its beak rested on a cactus. This became the national symbol of Mexico and adorns the country's flag and official seal. The Aztecs founded the city of Tenochtitlan in the early 1300s, and it became the capital of their empire. The Tlaxcalans to the east, the Tarascans on the west, and the Chichimecs in the north were outside the Aztec domain and frequently warred with them. The nation's name derives from the Aztecs' war god, Mexitli.

86.  My House

"My House"

by:  Jeff

As I approach the island on which my dream house awaits, I catch a quick

glimpse of it.  It is huge, and is the most noticeable building in the area.  My private

plane lands on the air strip next to the house.  I get out of the plane and start my journey

through a heavily wooded path leading to my dream house.  I walk with anxiety toward

the house at which I will spend the rest of my life.  All around me lie the most beautiful

trees and plants you have ever seen.  It is peaceful but you can hear the sounds of  birds

chirping and small forest creatures frolicking in the under brush.  As I continue to walk

along the path the end starts to appear.  I now see my house for the first time up close.

Nothing could have prepared me for the moment I was about to experience.

My house that I designed is all I imagined and more.  It is a four story dream on a

huge fifteen acre lot.  As I approach the stairs at the entrance to the house I am

surrounded by four columns leading to the most elegant doors I have ever seen.  They are

made of mahogany and have a stained glass window in the center.  The handles and the

frame is made of brass.  As I continue around the house I come across three windows

overlooking the entrance to the house.  There are black shutters on each window.   As the

porch continues to the south side of the house I am now looking over the Pacific Ocean.

A huge eight foot picture is facing the same way I am.  As I look down and observe the

ocean I see two piers jutting out into the Pacific.  On either side of the piers are huge

boulders protecting the coast line from erosion.  The house's walls are made of stucco

and it has an old fashion shingles that are a clay color.

As I walk into the back yard I am surrounded by the best things a man could ever

want.  Well not quite everything!  But a lot of things.  I walk toward the road and I first

come across a basketball court.  To the left of the basket ball court is a tennis court.

There is a bar in between the two to take a break at between games.  On the opposite side

of the yard there is an in ground swimming pool that is connected to the pool inside the

house. As my journey comes to a close I notice a white gazebo off to the east of the

house.  It is in a position such that you can see anyone entering or leaving the lot if you

are sitting in it.

As my plane leaves to go home to pack I take one last look at the house.  I think

to myself, "Yes this is my dream house, My dream house."

87.  My Zambezi Valley

My Zambezi Valley

If  the average person was asked about the Zambezi Valley, how many would actually have anything to say? From all the places I have been in the world, the Zambezi Valley stands out most in my mind. The mighty Zambezi River forms the border between Zimbabwe and Zambia as they lie on the maps in our libraries. Few people have been graced the opportunity to be in the presence of this majestic silver python as it carves away at the crust of our earth. There is no better way to experience this natural wonder than by organizing an expedition and venturing into the unknown wilderness of the "Dark Continent" for memories that will last you a lifetime. Unfortunately these days you have to do it through a Safari company that will charge you an arm and a leg for a week long tour, only skimming the surface and not taking you into the darkest of Africa of which you have read in so many adventure novels. Traveling is a very stimulating hobby, but Africa is part of me.

Darkness overcame all as Mother Earth turned her back on the center of our solar system. In the heart of Africa everything is sleeping, or so you are meant to think. The ruler of that kingdom is patrolling his territory in absolute silence. His bushy black mane casts a shadow in the pale moonlight. Eyes like those of an eagle penetrate the darkest shadows of the bush. The soft gray pads of his paws tread along the game path barely leaving any evidence of  his presence. The great beast strides graciously along before disappearing into black night. He will soon find either  a dense thicket or some tall Buffalo grass swaying back and forth on the rhythm of the early morning breeze where he can lay his giant body down and get some rest.

Stars begin to fade as a mysterious yellow glow takes their place in the East.  The bush is coming to life. Birds are singing their songs of joy and hippos are snorting out of pure pleasure for a new day has come. This will be a day where the fight for survival

2

takes over like an uncontrollable urge, nevertheless, little is known as to who should be feared. Should it be the predators lurking around, wanting to fill their own stomachs, or will it be the natives searching for food in the land on which they have lived for thousands of years. Remember that this is done in an  effort to rise above the ever present poverty. It is with a heavy heart that one is forced to judge who poaches for food and who poaches for pleasure and other earthly rewards. Taking life to feed your cubs, is just as important as taking life and feeding your starving children in a third world country where corruption determines survival.

I the distance a deafening roar overwhelms all the timid sounds produced by the creatures of the bush. As you approach this seemingly out of place low frequency humming sound, it transforms into a eardrum banging thunder. It makes you think the god of thunder has gone angry, very angry.  Here the dry  landscape is transformed into a tropical wonderland resembling that of an equatorial rain forest. Rising above this evergreen mass is what looks like a cloud of smoke the size of a small skyscraper. Upon further investigation one realizes that it is not smoke, but a very fine mist carried by the breeze to nourish the forest.  Right there before you lies the almighty Victoria Falls. The mile wide river suddenly plunges down several hundred feet into a crack in the earth that it has been carving since the beginning of time. The Victoria Falls are remarkable. In many ways it defies description. So vast are these Falls that it is difficult to grasp their true grandeur and, for this reason, they are perhaps best see from the air - a privilege not granted to everyone.

Downstream from the great Victoria Falls is Lake Kariba. Kariba is a unique place with outstanding beauty. A great inland sea, nestled amongst the mountains, guarded by enormous reserves of game, and made beautiful and savage by sun and storm, earth and water, life and death. It is unforgettable on a dust-tasting, hazy-blue September day to watch the game treading its daily course to the edge of the lake's vast waters, or in the

3

rainy season when the air is crystal clear and the images razor sharp, to watch the wet-skinned elephants slowly walking across the flood plains that are carpeted with a new green flush. Most of all, of Kariba you will remember the smells of Africa. The dust of the day, the moisture of the lake, and the smell of advancing rain. Or, perhaps ultimate experience, watching the red sun sliding into dusky blackness as the earth turns beneath it into night - the dead trees that fill the lake and the blue-black mountains that slope down to its wooded shore slowly merging with the blackness until they are gone.

The great Zambezi River that flows and plunges into the depths of the earth, only to emerge through a narrow canyon and then forming the spectacular Lake Kariba is one of the most breathtaking wonders in existence. It is only through great care that this treasure will be guarded for our children's children to enjoy.  Although not everybody will have the opportunity to visit this peace of heaven on earth, it is worth while to know that it exists. In all the years that I have spent time there, I cannot imagine the world without it.

88.  New Zealand

The Geography of New Zealand

By Clayton Brown

Kirkpatrick

Period 7

February 25, 1996

The well-known country of New Zealand is a small, resourceful nation located 1,000 miles off Australia's south east coast.  New Zealand has an impressive economy that continues to grow, a physical landscape that attracts people from around the globe, and although small, New Zealand is a respected nation for its advanced civilization and stable government.  The geography of this prestigious nation can be described through five principal categories, the physical geography,  the cultural geography, the citizens' standard of living, the government, and the nation's economy.

New Zealand is located in the southern hemisphere, with an absolute location of 37 degrees south longitude to 48 degrees south longitude and 167 degrees east latitude to 177 degrees east latitude.  It is composed of two major islands named the North and South Islands, and the total land area of the nation, approximately divided equally between the two islands, is 103,470 square miles.  Surprisingly, only 2 percent of the land area is arable.  New Zealand has an abundance of natural resources, explaining why the country is so wealthy compared to other nations.  These resources include fertile grazing land, oil and gas, iron, coal, timber, and excellent fishing waters.

New Zealand's climate is basically moderate year round because of the nearby ocean that regulates the climate.  New Zealand enjoys a marine west coast climate, that on average produces sixty to eighty degree temperatures in January and forty to sixty degree temperatures in July.  Because it is surrounded by the ocean, New Zealand receives immense quantities of precipitation on both islands.  The average annual precipitation on the North Island is thirty to forty inches and on the South Island it is forty to fifty inches.  This climate produces mixed forests, mid-latitude deciduous forests, and temperate grassland vegetation. The terrain is dominated by meadows, pastures, wood lands, and a small chain of mountains called the Southern Alps.  The land is blanketed with small lakes and rivers that drain the highlands and empty into the ocean.  The extraordinary diversity of the physical geography found in the United States seems to have been duplicated in this relatively small country, where the ski slopes and the beaches may be only an hour apart.

The cultural geography of New Zealand is not as diverse as its physical geography.  Currently 3,547,983 people live in New Zealand, but 83.7 percent of the population live in urbanized areas.  The chief cities, each containing more than one hundred thousand people, are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Manukau, and Wellington. The average population per square mile is only 34, but it is growing due to a 0.8 percent natural growth rate. Keeping in mind that only 2 percent of the land is arable, the crop land per capita is a meager 0.125 acres per person.  Large portions of New Zealand are devoted to sheep stations, for there are more sheep in New Zealand than people.

The official language of New Zealand is English, although a small percentage of the people speak Maori, the native language.  Somewhat corresponding to the language groups, the religious make up is 52 percent Christian, 15 percent Roman Catholic, and 33 percent unspecified or none.  The country takes pride in a 99.9 percent literacy rate by having an excellent education system. The entire nation resides in a single time zone that would report 6:00 A.M. if the time in Amarillo, Texas was noon.  From the country's cultural geography, it could be predicted that the nation would enjoy a good standard of living.  In 1994 the gross national product of New Zealand was a colossal 56.4 billion United State's dollars, generating a per capita income of $16,640.  For every 3.2 people there is a television, and for every 2.2 people there is a telephone, meaning there are over 2,600,000 televisions and telephones in New Zealand.  Fortunately, 99.8 percent of the people are able to enjoy safe drinking water, including the natives who live in rural areas.

New Zealand has a superb health care industry that serves as a paragon to the rest of the world.  There are presently 11,335 physicians and 31,122 hospital beds in New Zealand, for an ample ratio of one physician per 313 people and one hospital bed per 114 people.  The population of New Zealand is provided with plenty of food and a healthy diet, the average person receives approximately 3,250 calories per day.  New Zealand has one of the highest life expectancies in the entire world, that being 74 for men, 80 for women, and 77 for any person.  Unfortunately, AIDS is a growing problem in New Zealand that continues to spread at a phenomenal rate.  There have been 3,548 AIDS cases reported, affecting one out of every 1,000 people with the syndrome, not to mention the thousands more infected with the HIV virus.

New Zealand's government has contributed to its impressive standard of living.  New Zealand achieved independence from the United Kingdom on September 26, 1907.  The government was placed in Wellington, on the North Island, and still remains there today as the capital.  The government is a constitutional monarchy that was designed to resemble the United Kingdom government.  It includes an executive branch, legislative branch, judicial branch, and a King and Queen employed only as figureheads.  The military is divided into three branches, the New Zealand army, the Royal New Zealand Navy, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force.  Presently there are 742,871 men fit for military service, but only 10,500 active troops in service.

New Zealand has a flourishing economy that is based on three main economic activities, livestock raising, farming, and foreign trade.  The economy is almost completely dependent on the export of goods, which include wool, lamb, mutton, beef, fish, and forestry products.  Twenty percent of the exports go to Australia, 15 percent to Japan, 12 percent to the U.S., 6 percent to the U.K., and 47 percent to other countries.  New Zealand's monetary unit is the New Zealand dollar, and the exchange rate is 1.46 N.Z. dollars equals 1 U.S. dollar.  With a 6.2 percent economic growth rate, New Zealand could soon have one of the top five economies in the world.

New Zealand is among the world's finest countries, because of its exquisite landscape and first-rate economy.   With an excellent standard of living, perfect climate, and majestic terrain, New Zealand for many people is an ideal place to live.  Every year hundreds of thousands of people tour New Zealand just to catch a glimpse of what many proclaim to be paradise, and after researching this report, I intend to someday be one of those tourists.

Works Cited

Baerwald, Thomas, and Celeste Fraser.  World Geography: A World Perspective.  Englewood     Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1995.

CIA  "New Zealand."  World Fact Book (1995).  Site: http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/ 95fact/nz.html.

Compton's Learning Company.  Compton's Living Encyclopedia.  New York: Soft Key, 1997.

t           Famighetti, Robert.  The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1997.  United States: World Almanac Books, 1997.

Novosad, Charles.  The Nystrom Desk Atlas.  Chicago: Division of Hereff Jones, Inc, 1994.

89.  Newly Independant Nation

S.S. Period 4

24-Oct-96

A newly independent nation is seeking advice from other nations as it  establishes

its domestic policies on a variety of issues.  Some of the nations and policies are Japan and there

education system, Israel and womens right, and Englands health care system.

The first area in which the nation is seeking advise is in the area of education.

They are seeking advise from Japan.  Japan puts much stress on its education.  In Japan there are

240days/year of school at six days per week (Mon.-Sat.).  This is part of the reason Japan has a

99% literecy rate.  In Japan if a person wants to get a good job then they usually need to have a

college degree.  The newly independent nation should not choose this system because it puts to

much stress and pressure on the students.  For example to get into a good high school or college

you must pass a difficult exam.  Many students who do not get into a good school often turn to

suicide, Japan is second in the world behind the U.S. in teen suicide.  I would not choose this

because a good system of education is not worth teens killing themselves.

The second area in which the nation is seeking advice is in the area of womens rights.

They are seeking advice from Israel.  In Israel women are given as equal rights as men are.

Women are allowed to have the samejobs, education, and also serve in the military under the

same conditions of men.  The nation should choose this policy because women are as equal as

men and should have all the same oppurtunities.  Plus during a war or crisis women would have

all the same military experience as men.

The third area of advise in which the nation is seeking advice is in the area of health care.

The nation is seeking advise from England.  In England health care is covered by the NHS.  The

NHS (National Health Service)is a form of care that has been in place since 1946.  Under the

NHS all citizens are  provided health care on demand.  All expences are covered by general taxes

with t\small fees on prescription drugs and Doctors are paid at a fixed per patient rate.  The

nation should not choose this policy because allthough it provides adequate health care to

people and alows people of all money classes to go to the doctors it also costs alot of money.

In 1989 alone more than $42 billion was spent providing health care.

With a little help these other nations the new nation should have a bright future.

90.  No Coins Please

No Coins Please

Hi ! My name is Artie, but please, call me "A".

Okay, now a little about myself.

I am an 11 year old, short, I have brown eyes and brown  hair. I am quit and love to make money.

Because it was summer, my mother thought it would be a good idea to send me on a trip across america with this tour she heard about called Junior Tours.

Finaly the day came. A white van pulled up in front of my house, and out stepped 2 boys that looked 16 years old.

I went out and they told me that their names were Denis and Rob.

My mom gave them the required 75 $ and told them to watch me carefully, then she hugged and kissed me and told me not to forget to write everyday.

When I steeped on the bus, I saw 5 ther boys the same age as me.

Their names were Sheldon, Howie, Nick, Kevin, and Sam.

Sheldon, who was always jabbering on and on about his old friend, Pete Ogrodnick.

Howie, a tall, thin, blond, with glasses who seemed to be on the respective side.

Nick, a boy that would go through life being superstitious.

Kevin, was a photoholic.

Sam, was one that liked to fight for his rights.

Rob and Denis then told us that we were supposed to name our van.

Denis came up with the name "Ambulance" and the rest of the group agreed.

On our way to our first stop, New York, we got a speeding ticket because someone was tailgating our van.

The next morning, in Central Park, the director gave a speech telling what they would be doing for the next few weeks.

By the end of the speech, I was already out of site, down in a subway station changing into a tuxedo. Then I went to pick up my supplies, which consisted of small boxes, wax paper, small empty jars, and 2 big jars of jelly.

These were to be put together to make many boxes of attack jelly which was to be sold for 10 $ a piece.

When someone came up to me and asked what I was selling, I told them I was selling Attack Jelly.

Attack Jelly is used to keep robbers away from your house or to protect a loved.

Now, if you were an adult and saw something like this, what would you think? I would think "hey What the hell he's a kid! "

Well, that's what alot of people thought and that's how I made my first sum of money.

When I went back to Central Park, the whole group was waiting for me.

The next day, I did the exact same thing, except that this time I snuck off from the group while we were on the way to Times Square.

The next day, I snuck away from the group again while sitting in the planetarium, again I set up my Attack Jelly stand near Times Square.

We, the Ambulance group continue traveling across the country. Me running off and selling something in Nebraska, or setting up a gambling station on Capitol Hill in Washington.

Then we got to Las Vegas, where all my plans were ruined.

It all started when I was winning like there was no tomorow at the BlackJack Tables, going from 1 casino 2 the next, of course all this was in disguise.

Then right when I was on a roll, 2 FBI agents, who had been searching for the one responsible for all the little schemes, burst in with guns, by the time they were at my side, everyone in the casino was causing havoc. All the comotion had caused my disguise to come off and the FBI agents noticed me.

They took me in and made me pay back all the fines charged to me for doing stuff without a license a illegal gambling and much much more.

After that I was pretty sad but then I got an idea.

I would get my trusty friends to help me.

I went up to them and told them that tommorow morning, Sam should set up the booth..................

91.  non title as you want

What is urban? -

Define the following:

Urban -

Rural -

Urbanization -

Urban fringe -

Q.  a, b, copy 15.3, 4

a)  3 provinces, highest population 1n 1991

* British Colombia

* Alberta

* Ontario

3 provinces, lowest population in 1991

* P.E.I

* Nova Scotia

* New found land

b)  Provinces which become more urbanized in 1971 - 1991

* British Columbia

* Alberta

* Saskatchewan

* Manitoba

* P.E.I

Q.4

Toronto

6,210,654

Montreal

3,761,550

Vancouver

2,506,000

Ottawa-Hull

1,505,740

Edmonton

1,482,610

Site selection -

Q.  10, 12, 13

10 a)

City

Reason (#)

Niagara falls, ON

(6) a location of particular scenic beauty

Halifax, NS

(4) A point where rivers meet is a good place to trade

Calgary, AB

(8) A center position in agricultural region good for service center - gaptown

Thunder bay, ON

(5) goods can be transported

Regina, SK

(8) A center position in agricultural region good for service center - gaptown

Winnipeg,  MB

(5) goods can be transported

Sudbury, ON

(3) resource

Vancouver, BC

(7) deep harbors good port

Tomson, MB

(3) resource

Kingston, ON

(9)

Montreal, PQ

(9)

St. John

(3) resource

10 b)    Transportation is manipulated by hills because it is hard to go over, too long to go around, the hills.

10 c)    The transportation is mainly on the west side of the harbor because there are less hills.

The growth of settlements -

Define the following:

Service-centers -

Low order products -

middle order products -

high order products -

Threshold population -

Q.  16, 17

16)

Product

How Long

Priority

Air plane

2 - 3 years

high order products

Bike

2 - 3 years

Middle order products

Milk

2 - 3 days

Low order products

CD

3 - 4 weeks

Middle order products

Movie

3 - 4 weeks

Middle order products

Dress

1 - 2 month

High order products

Wind surf board

4 - 5 years

High order products

Restaurant

1 a week

Middle order products

News paper

1 a week

Low order products

17)  The computer store would sell less than a hardware store because a computer you buy 1 in about 4 -5 years, where as the hardware would sell 1-2 a month.

18)

Community

Population

Numbers of stores

Population per store

A

120,000

6

20,000

B

80,000

5

16,000

C

100,000

4

25,000

D

60,000

4

15,000

E

100,000

5

20,000

F

160,000

5

32,000

Community Distribution -

Define the following:

Service hierarchy -

Zone of influence -

Q.   copy 15.14 and 15.15, 25

Metropolitan

Cities

Towns

Villages

fig-15.14

Metropolitan center

over 100,000

City

between 10,000 & 100,00

Town

between 1,000 & 10,000

Village

between 100 & 1,000

Hamlet

less than 100 people

fig-15.15

Q25 a)

Villages

Distance to nearest neighbor(km)

Clare

6

Derrynane

6

Riverstown

5

Kenilworth

4.25

Petherton

4.25

Olivet

4.25

Riverbank

4.25

Gordon ville

5

Rothsay

4.5

Teviotdale

6.25

Cotswold

3.75

Glenlec

2.5

Wagram

6.25

Farewell

3.25

Stoneywood

7.25

Q25 b) the average between all villages are 4.8 km

Q25 c)

Towns

Distance to nearest town (km)

Mount fored

15

Marriston

10

Arthur

23

Palmerston

10

Q25 d)  the average between all towns are 14.5 km

Town forming-serving -

Define the following:

Town-forming -

Town-serving -

Q.  26, 28

Q 26)

* Food

* Banks

* Grocery store

* Shopping mall

* Computer store

Q 28)

1. Police officer - town serving

2. School custodian - town forming

3. Oil refinery engineer - town forming

4. Long - distance trucking driver - town forming

5. City hall clerk - town serving

6. Computer chip manufacture - town forming

Core and Periphery-

Q.   34, please refer to map for Q,35

Q.34  the people who live in the core would have a more luxury than the people who live in the periphery because the core is more urbanized then the periphery.

92.  Normadic Herding Sami

Normadic Herding-Sami

In the Lands of the Midnight Sun lives the Sami, formerly called the Lapps by the Scandinavians, are the indigenous people of the far north of Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia. Their language is Finno-Ugric, related to Finnish and Hungarian. The Sami people's traditional, semi-nomadic subsistence ways include reindeer herding and fishing and hunting. Their clothing, handicrafts and music are distinctive. The Sami are thought to descent from a people who reached Finland after the end of the last Ice Age. When they got to Finland, at first they occupied the southern parts of Finland, and from there, started to migrate towards Lapland. Today there are more than 70,000 Sami, from whom over 40,000 live in Norway, Sweden up to 25,000, in Finland 6,000 and in Russia 2,000. In Finland the birth-rate amongst Sami is slightly above the average for the country in general, while there are no marked differences in the death-rate. At the same time, the average size of family is very much higher in the case of Sami, 5,7 persons as compared for 3,8 for the Finns, partly as a consequence of the high birth-rate and partly due to the close ties prevailing between the members of the family. There is a Sami Parliament spanning these borders, which participates in the global indigenous peoples' movement at UN.

Reindeer has always been an important resource of food, clothing, tools and other products to the Sami. They are milked at different stages of their nomad's seasonal migration. The meat, fresh or preserved, is excellent, not least because, so far as possible, it is obtained from selected animals which are at their prime age (from 4 to 5 years) not, as with venison from wild deer, when the hunter is able to bag his quarry. It is comparatively lean and unusually rich in proteins and important vitamins. The tongue and marrowbones are delicacies. The blood is used for gruel, pancakes and sausages. Other parts are eaten fresh or preserved. The animal's own stomach is cleaned and used to store food. It's intestines serve as sausage casings. One animal produces about 40-65kg of meat.

From the pelt they can get the finest natural cold-weather clothing available. It is still now a days widely used as such throughout the Arctic and is indispensable for bedding and groundsheet. The dressed hide is made into other garments- leggings, tunic and boots. The bones are used to make knife-handles, sheaths, buttons and other small objects. The sinews are traditionally used in the construction of things like sledges or panniers, and for sewing leather objects.

The traditional way of life for the Sami has been the same for centuries. Their economy based almost exclusively on hunting and fishing evolved into one dominated by reindeer husbandry, as reindeer herds were tamed. The Sami led a nomadic lifestyle based around the seasonal migration of their reindeer. In summer time, the animals were herded into the mountains in search of food and cooler temperatures, and in winter they were taken to the shelter of the lowland forests. Until quite recently like many other peoples, had to make their equipment themselves from local materials- wood, bone, leather and roots. Metals for blades, knives and tools came from the outside of their region, but only in small quantities. Their most remarkable way of hunting was pitfalls. Lines of pitfalls were dug along the reindeers' migratory track in places such as narrow valleys or tongues of firm land in lakes and marshes which limited their freedom of manoeuvre. These pits were oval and 2-3m long, 1-2m broad, 1-2m deep. The hole at the top was carefully concealed by covering of twigs with peat, leaves and moss on top of it.

On April 1986, when the reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Russia exploded, it released a plume of radioactive particles that floated north, then fell with the rain on Scandinavia. At the time when Chernobyl blew up, the reindeer herdes were in the mountains pasturing, marking calves. Later that summer when they brought the reindeer in for slaughtering, many carcasses registered thousands becquerels per kilogram of meat. The legal limit for caesium-137 is 300 becquerels per kilogram. These slaughterhouses were closed immediately. As a result of this, all the sudden, the Sami could not eat their own meat.

The slaughterhouses have re-opened since, but much of the meat is still unfit for human consumption. Still the Sami fear most that the contamination will have long-term consequences for the reindeer. The peculiar ecology of the region and the way the reindeer feed make them particularly vulnerable. The Sami way of life revolves around reindeer. Many of the people fear that if they lose this focus they will lose their cultural identity.

The immediate problems are solved. The fallout from Chernobyl did not fall evenly and some animals avoided contamination. Of 21,000 reindeer slaughtered in October, some 5,000 were below the 300 becquerel mark. So people had enough reindeer meat to eat. If contamination at current levels takes nine years to halve, as some scientists suggest, it will be two generations before many of the reindeer will be clear.

The classic reindeer nomadism is now largely a matter of history. Snowmobiles (Skidoos), cars, motorboats, even helicopters, controlled by telephones and transceivers, are used to manage the reindeer and to carry the loads they formerly bore. The paid hand has taken over from the unpaid member of the family. Cabins have replaced tents at stages on the migration routes. The Sami's grazing and calving grounds are threatened, or destroyed, by vast developments to provide raw materials, energy, or even holiday amusement, for other peoples. Dams have been build, to get the most out of rivers, but the side effects of these dams are that salmons can not migrate upstream anymore. Thereby Sami can not fish anymore, because there is are more fishes. The economic, and thus the social, basis of the old life is under permanent attack. But agriculture and forestry are still the most important sources of income for the Sami, with about 50% dependent on it as their main livelihood.

93.  Nova Scotia 2

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia, one of the three Maritime and one of the four Atlantic provinces of

Canada, bordered on the north by the Bay of Fundy, the province of New Brunswick,

Northumberland Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and on the east, south, and west

by the Atlantic Ocean. Nova Scotia consists primarily of a mainland section, linked to

New Brunswick by the Isthmus of Chignecto, and Cape Breton Island, separated from the

mainland by the Strait of Canso.

On July 1, 1867, Nova Scotia became one of the founding members of the Canadian

Confederation. The province's name, which is Latin for New Scotland, was first applied

to the region in the 1620s by settlers from Scotland.

Physical Geography

Nova Scotia can be divided into four major geographical regions-the Atlantic

Uplands, the Nova Scotia Highlands, the Annapolis Lowland, and the Maritime Plain.

The Atlantic Uplands, which occupy most of the southern part of the province, are made

up of ancient resistant rocks largely overlain by rocky glacial deposits. The Nova Scotia

Highlands are composed of three separate areas of uplands. The western section includes

North Mountain, a long ridge of traprock along the Bay of Fundy; the central section

takes in the Cobequid Mountains, which rise to 367 m (1204 ft) atop Nuttby Mountain;

and the eastern section contains the Cape Breton Highlands, with the province's highest

point. The Annapolis Lowland, in the west, is a small area with considerable fertile soil.

Nova Scotia's fourth region, the Maritime Plain, occupies a small region fronting on

Northumberland Strait. The plain is characterized by a low, undulating landscape and

substantial areas of fertile soil.

History

The area now known as Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by tribes of

Abenaki and Micmac peoples. The Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under the

English flag, may have reached Cape Breton Island in 1497.

Colonial Period

The first settlers of the area were the French, who called it Acadia and founded

Port Royal in 1605. Acadia included present-day New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and

Prince Edward Island. The English, rivals of the French in Europe and the New World,

refused to recognize French claims to Acadia, which they called Nova Scotia (New

Scotland) and granted to the Scottish poet and courtier Sir William Alexander in 1621.

This act initiated nearly a century of Anglo-French conflict, resolved by the British

capture of Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal) in 1710 and the French cession of mainland

Acadia to the British by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. Thus, the bulk of the Roman

Catholic French-Acadians came under Protestant British rule. In order to awe their new

subjects, the British founded the town of Halifax as naval base and capital in 1749.

Distrusting the Acadians' loyalty in the French and Indian War, however, in 1755 the

British deported them. This ruthless action was described by the American poet Henry

Wadsworth Longfellow in Evangeline (1847). The British replaced the Acadians with

settlers from New England and, later, from Scotland and northern England. In 1758 the

British conquered the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton, which was joined to

Nova Scotia and ceded to them in 1763.

During the American Revolution, the British colony of Nova Scotia was a refuge

for thousands of Americans loyal to Britain, including many blacks. In 1784 the colony

of New Brunswick was carved out of mainland Nova Scotia to accommodate these

United Empire Loyalists. Cape Breton also became separate. The remaining Nova

Scotians, augmented by some returned Acadians and many Scots and Irish immigrants,

lived by fishing, lumbering, shipbuilding, and trade. Some attained great wealth as

privateers during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.

After prolonged political struggle, Britain granted Nova Scotia (which included

Cape Breton after 1820) local autonomy, or responsible government, in 1848. Economic

uncertainty and political unease at the time of the American Civil War stimulated some

interest in associating with the other British North American provinces, but many

tradition-minded Nova Scotians distrusted the Canadians of Ontario and Qúebec. In

1867, without consulting the electorate, the Nova Scotia government took its reluctant

people into the Canadian Confederation.

Post-Confederation Period

Although joining the union failed to arrest Nova Scotia's economic decline, it

resulted in rail connections to the west and a federal tariff that encouraged local

manufacturing. An iron and steel industry developed in Pictou County and on Cape

Breton, near extensive coal mines. Agricultural areas found export markets, especially

for apples. From the end of World War I through the depression of the 1930s, Nova

Scotia suffered industrial decline and accompanying unemployment and labor unrest.

Thousands migrated to central and western Canada or immigrated to the United States.

The Maritime Rights movement of the 1920s, protesting Nova Scotia's unfavorable

economic position in relation to the rest of Canada, accomplished little.

After a revival of shipbuilding in World War II, Nova Scotian industry faced

problems of obsolete equipment, heavy freight costs, and dwindling resources. Local

government attempts to reverse the trend through investment and diversification were

disappointing. In 1956 the electorate ended 26 years of Liberal rule by returning the

Conservatives to power. Although the government subsidized industrial development to

rejuvenate the local economy, the initiatives were unsuccessful, and failures in the

electronics and nuclear energy industries proved to be very expensive. In 1967 the

government took over a failing steel plant in Sydney, which added steadily to the

provincial debt. Later governments-first Liberal (from 1970-1978) and then Conservative

(since 1978)-have been unable to bring the local economy up to parity with the rest of

Canada. Despite a rate of economic growth that exceeded the national average from the

mid-1980s through the early 1990s, Nova Scotia, like other Maritime provinces, remains

one of the less advantaged areas in the Canadian union.

Historical Sites

Nova Scotia has preserved or reconstructed a number of historical sites. These

include Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Park, in Baddeck, with exhibits

relating to Bell's inventions while he lived here; Fort Anne National Historic Site, in

Annapolis Royal, including the remains of a French fort built from 1695 to 1708; Fort

Edward National Historic Site, in Windsor, containing the remains of a mid-18th-century

earthen fortification; and Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site, near Louisbourg,

including a partial reconstruction of a large French fort (built 1720-45; destroyed by the

English, 1760). Grand Pré National Historic Site, near Grand Pré, encompasses the site of

a former Acadian village; York Redoubt National Historic Site includes a defense battery

(begun 1790s) guarding Halifax Harbour; and Halifax Citadel National Historic Site, in

Halifax, contains a massive 19th-century stone fortress. Also of interest is Sherbrooke

Village Restoration, in the Sherbrooke area, a restoration of a lumbering and mining

community of the 1860s.

Provincial Government

Government and Politics

Nova Scotia has a parliamentary form of government.

Executive

The nominal chief executive of Nova Scotia is a lieutenant governor appointed by

the Canadian governor-general in council to a term of five years. The lieutenant

governor, representing the British sovereign, holds a position that is largely honorary.

The premier, who is responsible to the provincial legislature, is the actual head of

government and presides over the executive council, or cabinet, which also includes the

attorney general, minister of finance, minister of education, and about 15 other officials.

Legislature

The unicameral Nova Scotia Legislative Assembly is made up of 52 members,

each popularly elected to a term of up to five years. The lieutenant governor, on the

advice of the premier, may call for an election before the 5-year term has been

completed.

Judiciary

Nova Scotia's highest tribunal, the supreme court, is composed of an appeal

division with eight justices (including the chief justice) and a trial division with 15

justices. Supreme court justices are appointed by the Canadian governor-general in

council and serve until the age of 75.

Local Government

Nova Scotia is divided into 18 counties. Other units of local government include

3 incorporated cities and 39 incorporated towns, most of which are governed by a mayor

and council.

National Representation

Nova Scotia is represented in the Canadian Parliament by 10 senators appointed

by the Canadian governor-general in council and by 11 members of the House of

Commons popularly elected to terms of up to five years.

Politics

Since Nova Scotia became a province in 1867, the Liberal party has been most

successful in obtaining control of the provincial government. From 1956 to 1970,

however, the Progressive Conservative party held a majority in the Legislative Assembly,

and it regained this position in 1978.

Industries

Economy

In the 19th century Nova Scotia was known for trading, shipbuilding, and fishing.

During the 20th century the province's economy was expanded and diversified, in part

through the establishment of war-related industries in the two world wars. In the early

1990s services constituted the leading economic activity; manufacturing, fishing, mining,

and farming were also important.

Agriculture

About 8 percent of Nova Scotia's land area is devoted to crops and pasture, with

some of the best farmland located on the Isthmus of Chignecto (connecting the province

with New Brunswick) and the Annapolis Lowland. The province has about 4000 farms,

which have an average size of some 100 hectares (247 acres). Annual cash receipts from

sale of crops and of livestock and livestock products totaled nearly Can.$300 million in

the early 1990s, with livestock and livestock products accounting for about three-fourths

of the income. The leading farm commodities are dairy products, poultry, hogs, beef

cattle, eggs, fruit (especially apples grown in the Annapolis Lowland), greenhouse

products, potatoes and other vegetables, and wheat.

Forestry

Nova Scotia has a substantial forestry industry, with about 4.2 million cu m

(about 148 million cu ft) of wood harvested per year. Most of the wood is used for

making paper, and the rest is chiefly sawed into lumber. In addition, many trees are cut

for use as Christmas trees.

Fishing

Nova Scotia and British Columbia have the largest fishing industries in Canada.

In Nova Scotia the yearly fish catch in the early 1990s exceeded Can.$500 million, with

most of the income derived from sales of shellfish, especially scallop and lobster. Next in

value was cod; herring, shrimp, haddock, pollock, hake, flounder, crab, and redfish also

were important. Leading fishing ports include Digby, Liverpool, Lunenburg, Shelburne,

and Yarmouth.

Mining

Coal, the most important material mined in Nova Scotia, had a total yearly value

in the early 1990s of Can.$238 million, some 12 percent of the Canadian total. The main

coal mines are on Cape Breton Island. Approximately three-fourths of the gypsum mined

annually in Canada is produced in the province. Other important mineral products of

Nova Scotia include tin, stone, salt, sand and gravel, clay, peat, lead, zinc, and barite.

Manufacturing

A leading sector of Nova Scotia's economy, manufacturing employs about 49,000

persons. The annual value of shipments by manufacturing establishments in the province

is some Can.$5.3 billion. Principal manufactures include processed food (notably fish

products), paper and paper items, transportation equipment (especially ships, aerospace

supplies, and motor vehicles), printed materials, wood products, iron and steel,

nonmetallic minerals, and chemical products. Halifax and the Sydney area are important

manufacturing centers.

Climate

The sea moderates the climate of Nova Scotia, which has mild winters compared

to the interior of Canada and slightly cooler summers than many other areas in the

southern part of the nation. Halifax, which is fairly typical of the province, has a mean

January temperature of -3.2° C (26.2° F) and a mean July temperature of 18.3° C (65° F)

and annually receives some 1320 mm (some 52 in) of precipitation, including about 210

mm (about 8.3 in) of snow. The recorded temperature of Nova Scotia has ranged from -

41.1° C (-42° F), in 1920 at Upper Stewiacke, to 38.3° C (100.9° F), in 1935 at

Collegeville, near Sherbrooke. Fog is common along the southern coast of the province in

spring and early summer.

Population

According to the 1991 census, Nova Scotia had 899,942 inhabitants, an increase

of 3.1% over 1986. In 1991 the overall population density was about 16 persons per sq

km (42 per sq mi). English was the lone mother tongue of some 93% of the people; about

4 percent had French as their sole first language. More than 13,000 Native Americans

lived in Nova Scotia. The churches with the largest membership in the province were the

Roman Catholic church, the United Church of Canada, and the Anglican Church of

Canada. About 54 percent of all Nova Scotians lived in areas defined as urban, and the

rest lived in rural areas. Halifax was the biggest city and capital of the province; other

major communities were Dartmouth, Sydney, Glace Bay, and Truro.

Land and Resources

Nova Scotia, with an area of 55,490 sq km (21,425 sq mi), is the smallest

Canadian province except for Prince Edward Island; about 3% of its land area is owned

by the federal government. The province has an extreme length of about 600 km (about

375 mi) and an extreme breadth of about 160 km (about 100 mi); almost 5% of its area

consists of inland water surface. Elevations range from sea level, along the coast, to 532

m (1745 ft), in Cape Breton Highlands National Park. The coastline of Nova Scotia is

7578 km (4709 mi) long. Sable Island is situated about 160 km (about 100 mi) offshore

in the Atlantic.

Nova Scotia contains large deposits of coal, gypsum, and salt. Other mineral

deposits include barite, clay, copper, peat, sand and gravel, stone, and zinc. Some

petroleum and natural gas have been found under the Atlantic near Nova Scotia.

Education and Cultural Heritage

Nova Scotia has a number of notable educational and cultural institutions. Its

scenic landscape offers a wide variety of opportunities for outdoor sports and recreation.

Education

Nova Scotia's first education act, in 1766, provided for public schools, but not

until 1811 did nondenominational, free public education begin here. In the early 1990s

there were 527 elementary and secondary schools with a combined annual enrollment of

approximately 168,800 students. In the same period the province's 22 institutions of

higher education enrolled about 32,750 students. The institutions included Dalhousie

University (1818), Mount Saint Vincent University (1925), Saint Mary's University

(1802), the Technical University of Nova Scotia (1907), and the Nova Scotia College of

Art and Design (1887), all in Halifax; Acadia University (1838), in Wolfville; Saint

Francis Xavier University (1853), in Antigonish; Université Sainte-Anne (1890), in

Church Point; the University College of Cape Breton (1951), in Sydney; and Nova Scotia

Agricultural College (1905), in Truro.

Cultural Institutions

Many of Nova Scotia's foremost museums and other cultural facilities are located

in Halifax. Among them are the Nova Scotia Museum, with exhibits covering historical

themes; the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, displaying memorabilia from the Titanic

and other marine artifacts; the Public Archives of Nova Scotia, featuring displays of

documents, paintings, and artifacts of regional historical significance; and the Dalhousie

Arts Centre, which includes an auditorium and the Dalhousie Art Gallery. Also of note

are the Fisheries Museum of the Atlantic, in Lunenburg; and the DesBrisay Museum, in

Bridgewater, with historical collections. Halifax is the home of Symphony Nova Scotia.

Other Information

Sports and Recreation

Nova Scotia's national and provincial parks, its lengthy shoreline, and its rivers

and lakes offer ideal conditions for boating, swimming, fishing, hiking, camping, and

hunting. Golf, tennis, skiing, and ice hockey are also popular sports in the province.

Communications

In the late 1980s Nova Scotia had 16 commercial AM radio stations, 8

commercial FM stations, and 5 commercial television stations. The first radio station in

the province, CHNS in Halifax, began operation in 1922. CJCB-TV in Sydney, Nova

Scotia's first commercial television station, went on the air in 1954. The Halifax Gazette,

the first newspaper published in Canada, was initially printed in Halifax in 1752. In the

early 1990s Nova Scotia had seven daily newspapers with a total daily circulation of

about 218,700. Influential newspapers included the Mail-Star of Halifax and the Cape

Breton Post of Sydney.

Tourism

Each year Nova Scotia attracts more than one million travelers; receipts from

tourism totaled almost Can.$800 million annually in the early 1990s. Tourists are lured

by the province's lovely scenery (especially on Cape Breton Island) and its many

opportunities for outdoor-recreation activities. Popular tourist areas include Cape Breton

Highlands and Kejimkujik national parks, 14 national historic sites, and 122 provincial

parks, recreation areas, and wildlife preserves. Many people also visit Halifax.

Transportation

Most coastal areas of Nova Scotia are well served by transportation facilities, but

many places in the interior have poor transport connections. There are 25,740 km (15,994

mi) of roads and highways. The Trans-Canada Highway extends from the New

Brunswick border, near Amherst, to Sydney Mines, on Cape Breton Island, by way of the

Canso Causeway (completed 1955) between the island and the mainland. Nova Scotia is

also served by 705 km (438 mi) of mainline railroad track. Halifax is a major seaport

with modern facilities for handling containerized shipping. Ferries link the province with

New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and Maine. Nova Scotia's busiest

air terminal is Halifax International Airport.

Energy

Nova Scotia's electricity generating capacity is about 2.2 million kw (about 2.1

percent of total Canadian capacity). The province annually produces about 9.4 billion

kwh, or some 1.9 percent of the country's total electricity. Hydroelectric facilities

represent about one-sixth of the capacity, with the rest largely accounted for by thermal

installations burning refined petroleum or coal.

94.  Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia, one of the three Maritime and one of the four Atlantic provinces of

Canada, bordered on the north by the Bay of Fundy, the province of New Brunswick,

Northumberland Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and on the east, south, and west

by the Atlantic Ocean. Nova Scotia consists primarily of a mainland section, linked to

New Brunswick by the Isthmus of Chignecto, and Cape Breton Island, separated from the

mainland by the Strait of Canso.

On July 1, 1867, Nova Scotia became one of the founding members of the Canadian

Confederation. The province's name, which is Latin for New Scotland, was first applied

to the region in the 1620s by settlers from Scotland.

Physical Geography

Nova Scotia can be divided into four major geographical regions-the Atlantic

Uplands, the Nova Scotia Highlands, the Annapolis Lowland, and the Maritime Plain.

The Atlantic Uplands, which occupy most of the southern part of the province, are made

up of ancient resistant rocks largely overlain by rocky glacial deposits. The Nova Scotia

Highlands are composed of three separate areas of uplands. The western section includes

North Mountain, a long ridge of traprock along the Bay of Fundy; the central section

takes in the Cobequid Mountains, which rise to 367 m (1204 ft) atop Nuttby Mountain;

and the eastern section contains the Cape Breton Highlands, with the province's highest

point. The Annapolis Lowland, in the west, is a small area with considerable fertile soil.

Nova Scotia's fourth region, the Maritime Plain, occupies a small region fronting on

Northumberland Strait. The plain is characterized by a low, undulating landscape and

substantial areas of fertile soil.

History

The area now known as Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by tribes of

Abenaki and Micmac peoples. The Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under the

English flag, may have reached Cape Breton Island in 1497.

Colonial Period

The first settlers of the area were the French, who called it Acadia and founded

Port Royal in 1605. Acadia included present-day New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and

Prince Edward Island. The English, rivals of the French in Europe and the New World,

refused to recognize French claims to Acadia, which they called Nova Scotia (New

Scotland) and granted to the Scottish poet and courtier Sir William Alexander in 1621.

This act initiated nearly a century of Anglo-French conflict, resolved by the British

capture of Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal) in 1710 and the French cession of mainland

Acadia to the British by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. Thus, the bulk of the Roman

Catholic French-Acadians came under Protestant British rule. In order to awe their new

subjects, the British founded the town of Halifax as naval base and capital in 1749.

Distrusting the Acadians' loyalty in the French and Indian War, however, in 1755 the

British deported them. This ruthless action was described by the American poet Henry

Wadsworth Longfellow in Evangeline (1847). The British replaced the Acadians with

settlers from New England and, later, from Scotland and northern England. In 1758 the

British conquered the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton, which was joined to

Nova Scotia and ceded to them in 1763.

During the American Revolution, the British colony of Nova Scotia was a refuge

for thousands of Americans loyal to Britain, including many blacks. In 1784 the colony

of New Brunswick was carved out of mainland Nova Scotia to accommodate these

United Empire Loyalists. Cape Breton also became separate. The remaining Nova

Scotians, augmented by some returned Acadians and many Scots and Irish immigrants,

lived by fishing, lumbering, shipbuilding, and trade. Some attained great wealth as

privateers during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.

After prolonged political struggle, Britain granted Nova Scotia (which included

Cape Breton after 1820) local autonomy, or responsible government, in 1848. Economic

uncertainty and political unease at the time of the American Civil War stimulated some

interest in associating with the other British North American provinces, but many

tradition-minded Nova Scotians distrusted the Canadians of Ontario and Qúebec. In

1867, without consulting the electorate, the Nova Scotia government took its reluctant

people into the Canadian Confederation.

Post-Confederation Period

Although joining the union failed to arrest Nova Scotia's economic decline, it

resulted in rail connections to the west and a federal tariff that encouraged local

manufacturing. An iron and steel industry developed in Pictou County and on Cape

Breton, near extensive coal mines. Agricultural areas found export markets, especially

for apples. From the end of World War I through the depression of the 1930s, Nova

Scotia suffered industrial decline and accompanying unemployment and labor unrest.

Thousands migrated to central and western Canada or immigrated to the United States.

The Maritime Rights movement of the 1920s, protesting Nova Scotia's unfavorable

economic position in relation to the rest of Canada, accomplished little.

After a revival of shipbuilding in World War II, Nova Scotian industry faced

problems of obsolete equipment, heavy freight costs, and dwindling resources. Local

government attempts to reverse the trend through investment and diversification were

disappointing. In 1956 the electorate ended 26 years of Liberal rule by returning the

Conservatives to power. Although the government subsidized industrial development to

rejuvenate the local economy, the initiatives were unsuccessful, and failures in the

electronics and nuclear energy industries proved to be very expensive. In 1967 the

government took over a failing steel plant in Sydney, which added steadily to the

provincial debt. Later governments-first Liberal (from 1970-1978) and then Conservative

(since 1978)-have been unable to bring the local economy up to parity with the rest of

Canada. Despite a rate of economic growth that exceeded the national average from the

mid-1980s through the early 1990s, Nova Scotia, like other Maritime provinces, remains

one of the less advantaged areas in the Canadian union.

Historical Sites

Nova Scotia has preserved or reconstructed a number of historical sites. These

include Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Park, in Baddeck, with exhibits

relating to Bell's inventions while he lived here; Fort Anne National Historic Site, in

Annapolis Royal, including the remains of a French fort built from 1695 to 1708; Fort

Edward National Historic Site, in Windsor, containing the remains of a mid-18th-century

earthen fortification; and Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site, near Louisbourg,

including a partial reconstruction of a large French fort (built 1720-45; destroyed by the

English, 1760). Grand Pré National Historic Site, near Grand Pré, encompasses the site of

a former Acadian village; York Redoubt National Historic Site includes a defense battery

(begun 1790s) guarding Halifax Harbour; and Halifax Citadel National Historic Site, in

Halifax, contains a massive 19th-century stone fortress. Also of interest is Sherbrooke

Village Restoration, in the Sherbrooke area, a restoration of a lumbering and mining

community of the 1860s.

Provincial Government

Government and Politics

Nova Scotia has a parliamentary form of government.

Executive

The nominal chief executive of Nova Scotia is a lieutenant governor appointed by

the Canadian governor-general in council to a term of five years. The lieutenant

governor, representing the British sovereign, holds a position that is largely honorary.

The premier, who is responsible to the provincial legislature, is the actual head of

government and presides over the executive council, or cabinet, which also includes the

attorney general, minister of finance, minister of education, and about 15 other officials.

Legislature

The unicameral Nova Scotia Legislative Assembly is made up of 52 members,

each popularly elected to a term of up to five years. The lieutenant governor, on the

advice of the premier, may call for an election before the 5-year term has been

completed.

Judiciary

Nova Scotia's highest tribunal, the supreme court, is composed of an appeal

division with eight justices (including the chief justice) and a trial division with 15

justices. Supreme court justices are appointed by the Canadian governor-general in

council and serve until the age of 75.

Local Government

Nova Scotia is divided into 18 counties. Other units of local government include

3 incorporated cities and 39 incorporated towns, most of which are governed by a mayor

and council.

National Representation

Nova Scotia is represented in the Canadian Parliament by 10 senators appointed

by the Canadian governor-general in council and by 11 members of the House of

Commons popularly elected to terms of up to five years.

Politics

Since Nova Scotia became a province in 1867, the Liberal party has been most

successful in obtaining control of the provincial government. From 1956 to 1970,

however, the Progressive Conservative party held a majority in the Legislative Assembly,

and it regained this position in 1978.

Industries

Economy

In the 19th century Nova Scotia was known for trading, shipbuilding, and fishing.

During the 20th century the province's economy was expanded and diversified, in part

through the establishment of war-related industries in the two world wars. In the early

1990s services constituted the leading economic activity; manufacturing, fishing, mining,

and farming were also important.

Agriculture

About 8 percent of Nova Scotia's land area is devoted to crops and pasture, with

some of the best farmland located on the Isthmus of Chignecto (connecting the province

with New Brunswick) and the Annapolis Lowland. The province has about 4000 farms,

which have an average size of some 100 hectares (247 acres). Annual cash receipts from

sale of crops and of livestock and livestock products totaled nearly Can.$300 million in

the early 1990s, with livestock and livestock products accounting for about three-fourths

of the income. The leading farm commodities are dairy products, poultry, hogs, beef

cattle, eggs, fruit (especially apples grown in the Annapolis Lowland), greenhouse

products, potatoes and other vegetables, and wheat.

Forestry

Nova Scotia has a substantial forestry industry, with about 4.2 million cu m

(about 148 million cu ft) of wood harvested per year. Most of the wood is used for

making paper, and the rest is chiefly sawed into lumber. In addition, many trees are cut

for use as Christmas trees.

Fishing

Nova Scotia and British Columbia have the largest fishing industries in Canada.

In Nova Scotia the yearly fish catch in the early 1990s exceeded Can.$500 million, with

most of the income derived from sales of shellfish, especially scallop and lobster. Next in

value was cod; herring, shrimp, haddock, pollock, hake, flounder, crab, and redfish also

were important. Leading fishing ports include Digby, Liverpool, Lunenburg, Shelburne,

and Yarmouth.

Mining

Coal, the most important material mined in Nova Scotia, had a total yearly value

in the early 1990s of Can.$238 million, some 12 percent of the Canadian total. The main

coal mines are on Cape Breton Island. Approximately three-fourths of the gypsum mined

annually in Canada is produced in the province. Other important mineral products of

Nova Scotia include tin, stone, salt, sand and gravel, clay, peat, lead, zinc, and barite.

Manufacturing

A leading sector of Nova Scotia's economy, manufacturing employs about 49,000

persons. The annual value of shipments by manufacturing establishments in the province

is some Can.$5.3 billion. Principal manufactures include processed food (notably fish

products), paper and paper items, transportation equipment (especially ships, aerospace

supplies, and motor vehicles), printed materials, wood products, iron and steel,

nonmetallic minerals, and chemical products. Halifax and the Sydney area are important

manufacturing centers.

Climate

The sea moderates the climate of Nova Scotia, which has mild winters compared

to the interior of Canada and slightly cooler summers than many other areas in the

southern part of the nation. Halifax, which is fairly typical of the province, has a mean

January temperature of -3.2° C (26.2° F) and a mean July temperature of 18.3° C (65° F)

and annually receives some 1320 mm (some 52 in) of precipitation, including about 210

mm (about 8.3 in) of snow. The recorded temperature of Nova Scotia has ranged from -

41.1° C (-42° F), in 1920 at Upper Stewiacke, to 38.3° C (100.9° F), in 1935 at

Collegeville, near Sherbrooke. Fog is common along the southern coast of the province in

spring and early summer.

Population

According to the 1991 census, Nova Scotia had 899,942 inhabitants, an increase

of 3.1% over 1986. In 1991 the overall population density was about 16 persons per sq

km (42 per sq mi). English was the lone mother tongue of some 93% of the people; about

4 percent had French as their sole first language. More than 13,000 Native Americans

lived in Nova Scotia. The churches with the largest membership in the province were the

Roman Catholic church, the United Church of Canada, and the Anglican Church of

Canada. About 54 percent of all Nova Scotians lived in areas defined as urban, and the

rest lived in rural areas. Halifax was the biggest city and capital of the province; other

major communities were Dartmouth, Sydney, Glace Bay, and Truro.

Land and Resources

Nova Scotia, with an area of 55,490 sq km (21,425 sq mi), is the smallest

Canadian province except for Prince Edward Island; about 3% of its land area is owned

by the federal government. The province has an extreme length of about 600 km (about

375 mi) and an extreme breadth of about 160 km (about 100 mi); almost 5% of its area

consists of inland water surface. Elevations range from sea level, along the coast, to 532

m (1745 ft), in Cape Breton Highlands National Park. The coastline of Nova Scotia is

7578 km (4709 mi) long. Sable Island is situated about 160 km (about 100 mi) offshore

in the Atlantic.

Nova Scotia contains large deposits of coal, gypsum, and salt. Other mineral

deposits include barite, clay, copper, peat, sand and gravel, stone, and zinc. Some

petroleum and natural gas have been found under the Atlantic near Nova Scotia.

Education and Cultural Heritage

Nova Scotia has a number of notable educational and cultural institutions. Its

scenic landscape offers a wide variety of opportunities for outdoor sports and recreation.

Education

Nova Scotia's first education act, in 1766, provided for public schools, but not

until 1811 did nondenominational, free public education begin here. In the early 1990s

there were 527 elementary and secondary schools with a combined annual enrollment of

approximately 168,800 students. In the same period the province's 22 institutions of

higher education enrolled about 32,750 students. The institutions included Dalhousie

University (1818), Mount Saint Vincent University (1925), Saint Mary's University

(1802), the Technical University of Nova Scotia (1907), and the Nova Scotia College of

Art and Design (1887), all in Halifax; Acadia University (1838), in Wolfville; Saint

Francis Xavier University (1853), in Antigonish; Université Sainte-Anne (1890), in

Church Point; the University College of Cape Breton (1951), in Sydney; and Nova Scotia

Agricultural College (1905), in Truro.

Cultural Institutions

Many of Nova Scotia's foremost museums and other cultural facilities are located

in Halifax. Among them are the Nova Scotia Museum, with exhibits covering historical

themes; the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, displaying memorabilia from the Titanic

and other marine artifacts; the Public Archives of Nova Scotia, featuring displays of

documents, paintings, and artifacts of regional historical significance; and the Dalhousie

Arts Centre, which includes an auditorium and the Dalhousie Art Gallery. Also of note

are the Fisheries Museum of the Atlantic, in Lunenburg; and the DesBrisay Museum, in

Bridgewater, with historical collections. Halifax is the home of Symphony Nova Scotia.

Other Information

Sports and Recreation

Nova Scotia's national and provincial parks, its lengthy shoreline, and its rivers

and lakes offer ideal conditions for boating, swimming, fishing, hiking, camping, and

hunting. Golf, tennis, skiing, and ice hockey are also popular sports in the province.

Communications

In the late 1980s Nova Scotia had 16 commercial AM radio stations, 8

commercial FM stations, and 5 commercial television stations. The first radio station in

the province, CHNS in Halifax, began operation in 1922. CJCB-TV in Sydney, Nova

Scotia's first commercial television station, went on the air in 1954. The Halifax Gazette,

the first newspaper published in Canada, was initially printed in Halifax in 1752. In the

early 1990s Nova Scotia had seven daily newspapers with a total daily circulation of

about 218,700. Influential newspapers included the Mail-Star of Halifax and the Cape

Breton Post of Sydney.

Tourism

Each year Nova Scotia attracts more than one million travelers; receipts from

tourism totaled almost Can.$800 million annually in the early 1990s. Tourists are lured

by the province's lovely scenery (especially on Cape Breton Island) and its many

opportunities for outdoor-recreation activities. Popular tourist areas include Cape Breton

Highlands and Kejimkujik national parks, 14 national historic sites, and 122 provincial

parks, recreation areas, and wildlife preserves. Many people also visit Halifax.

Transportation

Most coastal areas of Nova Scotia are well served by transportation facilities, but

many places in the interior have poor transport connections. There are 25,740 km (15,994

mi) of roads and highways. The Trans-Canada Highway extends from the New

Brunswick border, near Amherst, to Sydney Mines, on Cape Breton Island, by way of the

Canso Causeway (completed 1955) between the island and the mainland. Nova Scotia is

also served by 705 km (438 mi) of mainline railroad track. Halifax is a major seaport

with modern facilities for handling containerized shipping. Ferries link the province with

New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and Maine. Nova Scotia's busiest

air terminal is Halifax International Airport.

Energy

Nova Scotia's electricity generating capacity is about 2.2 million kw (about 2.1

percent of total Canadian capacity). The province annually produces about 9.4 billion

kwh, or some 1.9 percent of the country's total electricity. Hydroelectric facilities

represent about one-sixth of the capacity, with the rest largely accounted for by thermal

installations burning refined petroleum or coal.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia, one of the three Maritime and one of the four Atlantic provinces of

Canada, bordered on the north by the Bay of Fundy, the province of New Brunswick,

Northumberland Strait, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and on the east, south, and west

by the Atlantic Ocean. Nova Scotia consists primarily of a mainland section, linked to

New Brunswick by the Isthmus of Chignecto, and Cape Breton Island, separated from the

mainland by the Strait of Canso.

On July 1, 1867, Nova Scotia became one of the founding members of the Canadian

Confederation. The province's name, which is Latin for New Scotland, was first applied

to the region in the 1620s by settlers from Scotland.

Physical Geography

Nova Scotia can be divided into four major geographical regions-the Atlantic

Uplands, the Nova Scotia Highlands, the Annapolis Lowland, and the Maritime Plain.

The Atlantic Uplands, which occupy most of the southern part of the province, are made

up of ancient resistant rocks largely overlain by rocky glacial deposits. The Nova Scotia

Highlands are composed of three separate areas of uplands. The western section includes

North Mountain, a long ridge of traprock along the Bay of Fundy; the central section

takes in the Cobequid Mountains, which rise to 367 m (1204 ft) atop Nuttby Mountain;

and the eastern section contains the Cape Breton Highlands, with the province's highest

point. The Annapolis Lowland, in the west, is a small area with considerable fertile soil.

Nova Scotia's fourth region, the Maritime Plain, occupies a small region fronting on

Northumberland Strait. The plain is characterized by a low, undulating landscape and

substantial areas of fertile soil.

History

The area now known as Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by tribes of

Abenaki and Micmac peoples. The Venetian explorer John Cabot, sailing under the

English flag, may have reached Cape Breton Island in 1497.

Colonial Period

The first settlers of the area were the French, who called it Acadia and founded

Port Royal in 1605. Acadia included present-day New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and

Prince Edward Island. The English, rivals of the French in Europe and the New World,

refused to recognize French claims to Acadia, which they called Nova Scotia (New

Scotland) and granted to the Scottish poet and courtier Sir William Alexander in 1621.

This act initiated nearly a century of Anglo-French conflict, resolved by the British

capture of Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal) in 1710 and the French cession of mainland

Acadia to the British by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. Thus, the bulk of the Roman

Catholic French-Acadians came under Protestant British rule. In order to awe their new

subjects, the British founded the town of Halifax as naval base and capital in 1749.

Distrusting the Acadians' loyalty in the French and Indian War, however, in 1755 the

British deported them. This ruthless action was described by the American poet Henry

Wadsworth Longfellow in Evangeline (1847). The British replaced the Acadians with

settlers from New England and, later, from Scotland and northern England. In 1758 the

British conquered the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton, which was joined to

Nova Scotia and ceded to them in 1763.

During the American Revolution, the British colony of Nova Scotia was a refuge

for thousands of Americans loyal to Britain, including many blacks. In 1784 the colony

of New Brunswick was carved out of mainland Nova Scotia to accommodate these

United Empire Loyalists. Cape Breton also became separate. The remaining Nova

Scotians, augmented by some returned Acadians and many Scots and Irish immigrants,

lived by fishing, lumbering, shipbuilding, and trade. Some attained great wealth as

privateers during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.

After prolonged political struggle, Britain granted Nova Scotia (which included

Cape Breton after 1820) local autonomy, or responsible government, in 1848. Economic

uncertainty and political unease at the time of the American Civil War stimulated some

interest in associating with the other British North American provinces, but many

tradition-minded Nova Scotians distrusted the Canadians of Ontario and Qúebec. In

1867, without consulting the electorate, the Nova Scotia government took its reluctant

people into the Canadian Confederation.

Post-Confederation Period

Although joining the union failed to arrest Nova Scotia's economic decline, it

resulted in rail connections to the west and a federal tariff that encouraged local

manufacturing. An iron and steel industry developed in Pictou County and on Cape

Breton, near extensive coal mines. Agricultural areas found export markets, especially

for apples. From the end of World War I through the depression of the 1930s, Nova

Scotia suffered industrial decline and accompanying unemployment and labor unrest.

Thousands migrated to central and western Canada or immigrated to the United States.

The Maritime Rights movement of the 1920s, protesting Nova Scotia's unfavorable

economic position in relation to the rest of Canada, accomplished little.

After a revival of shipbuilding in World War II, Nova Scotian industry faced

problems of obsolete equipment, heavy freight costs, and dwindling resources. Local

government attempts to reverse the trend through investment and diversification were

disappointing. In 1956 the electorate ended 26 years of Liberal rule by returning the

Conservatives to power. Although the government subsidized industrial development to

rejuvenate the local economy, the initiatives were unsuccessful, and failures in the

electronics and nuclear energy industries proved to be very expensive. In 1967 the

government took over a failing steel plant in Sydney, which added steadily to the

provincial debt. Later governments-first Liberal (from 1970-1978) and then Conservative

(since 1978)-have been unable to bring the local economy up to parity with the rest of

Canada. Despite a rate of economic growth that exceeded the national average from the

mid-1980s through the early 1990s, Nova Scotia, like other Maritime provinces, remains

one of the less advantaged areas in the Canadian union.

Historical Sites

Nova Scotia has preserved or reconstructed a number of historical sites. These

include Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Park, in Baddeck, with exhibits

relating to Bell's inventions while he lived here; Fort Anne National Historic Site, in

Annapolis Royal, including the remains of a French fort built from 1695 to 1708; Fort

Edward National Historic Site, in Windsor, containing the remains of a mid-18th-century

earthen fortification; and Fortress of Louisbourg National Historic Site, near Louisbourg,

including a partial reconstruction of a large French fort (built 1720-45; destroyed by the

English, 1760). Grand Pré National Historic Site, near Grand Pré, encompasses the site of

a former Acadian village; York Redoubt National Historic Site includes a defense battery

(begun 1790s) guarding Halifax Harbour; and Halifax Citadel National Historic Site, in

Halifax, contains a massive 19th-century stone fortress. Also of interest is Sherbrooke

Village Restoration, in the Sherbrooke area, a restoration of a lumbering and mining

community of the 1860s.

Provincial Government

Government and Politics

Nova Scotia has a parliamentary form of government.

Executive

The nominal chief executive of Nova Scotia is a lieutenant governor appointed by

the Canadian governor-general in council to a term of five years. The lieutenant

governor, representing the British sovereign, holds a position that is largely honorary.

The premier, who is responsible to the provincial legislature, is the actual head of

government and presides over the executive council, or cabinet, which also includes the

attorney general, minister of finance, minister of education, and about 15 other officials.

Legislature

The unicameral Nova Scotia Legislative Assembly is made up of 52 members,

each popularly elected to a term of up to five years. The lieutenant governor, on the

advice of the premier, may call for an election before the 5-year term has been

completed.

Judiciary

Nova Scotia's highest tribunal, the supreme court, is composed of an appeal

division with eight justices (including the chief justice) and a trial division with 15

justices. Supreme court justices are appointed by the Canadian governor-general in

council and serve until the age of 75.

Local Government

Nova Scotia is divided into 18 counties. Other units of local government include

3 incorporated cities and 39 incorporated towns, most of which are governed by a mayor

and council.

National Representation

Nova Scotia is represented in the Canadian Parliament by 10 senators appointed

by the Canadian governor-general in council and by 11 members of the House of

Commons popularly elected to terms of up to five years.

Politics

Since Nova Scotia became a province in 1867, the Liberal party has been most

successful in obtaining control of the provincial government. From 1956 to 1970,

however, the Progressive Conservative party held a majority in the Legislative Assembly,

and it regained this position in 1978.

Industries

Economy

In the 19th century Nova Scotia was known for trading, shipbuilding, and fishing.

During the 20th century the province's economy was expanded and diversified, in part

through the establishment of war-related industries in the two world wars. In the early

1990s services constituted the leading economic activity; manufacturing, fishing, mining,

and farming were also important.

Agriculture

About 8 percent of Nova Scotia's land area is devoted to crops and pasture, with

some of the best farmland located on the Isthmus of Chignecto (connecting the province

with New Brunswick) and the Annapolis Lowland. The province has about 4000 farms,

which have an average size of some 100 hectares (247 acres). Annual cash receipts from

sale of crops and of livestock and livestock products totaled nearly Can.$300 million in

the early 1990s, with livestock and livestock products accounting for about three-fourths

of the income. The leading farm commodities are dairy products, poultry, hogs, beef

cattle, eggs, fruit (especially apples grown in the Annapolis Lowland), greenhouse

products, potatoes and other vegetables, and wheat.

Forestry

Nova Scotia has a substantial forestry industry, with about 4.2 million cu m

(about 148 million cu ft) of wood harvested per year. Most of the wood is used for

making paper, and the rest is chiefly sawed into lumber. In addition, many trees are cut

for use as Christmas trees.

95.  Nuclear NonProliferation in the Ukraine

The geographic features of a nation or region have an important effect on the development of that nation or region.  This effect is apparent in many in cases such geographic features as Japan being a group of islands or archipelago  and the rain forest in Latin America.  This essay will describe the effects of these features on there nation.

Japan is a group of islands called an archipelago.  This influences the development of Japan because it limits the size of their usable land and since much of the land is mountainous it leaves even less usable land.  The areas which are usable are heavily populated.  Also another effect of the lack of land is limited farming.  This leads Japan  to one of there most plentiful resources, the ocean.  Most of the Japanese nutrition is from fish and other sea foods.  Since there is so much water it effects the temperature.  There are no very cold winter or very warm summers.  The ocean supplies for plenty of rain which lengthens the growing season.

Another instance of a geographic feature's effect on a nation is the effect of the rain forest on Latin America.  There  is an abundant amount of rain in the rain forest (hence the name).  The constant rain dissolves and washes away many of the nutrients in the soil.  There are pools of water laying all around which supply disease laying insects with a place to lay there eggs and spread disease throughout the nation.  The large amount of moisture causes mold on clothing and other possessions.

The above paragraphs show clear reasons how geographic features effect there region and that there are many good and bad effects of these features.

96.  Oceania

Executive Summary

There are many components to a successful organization, among them is a steady flow of innovative products that are consistently produced to high standards, available to customers when and where they are needed, and backed with diligent service and support.  We will demonstrate the viability of capturing a significant market share of sunscreen products Down Under.  We will inform you of our unique market entrance plans, our unique product and its marketable attributes.  We will layout our target markets and their demographic information, and we will conclude with the profitability remarks necessary to gain your confidence and investment.

Oceana

Sun Cosmetics, Inc., the parent company, was founded in 1955 and has been a publicly held company since 1973.  It was incorporated in the State of Massachusetts.  Any U.S. legal conflicts fall under the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts state court system.  It's annual North American sales of sunscreen products are in excess of $20 billion.

Sun Cosmetics created Oceana's development team for the express purpose of penetrating Australia's regional markets.  Its members were selected based on their cultural appreciation and adaptability, their research expertise, and their discerning abilities with both primary and secondary data.

Cheri Brown, Vice President of International Operations

Robert Roy, Director of International Sales & Marketing

Helen Quinn, Director of Cultural Adaptation

Becky Barth, Director of Research & Development

Sun Cosmetics, Inc. will send two expatriate executives to F.H. Faulding & Company Limited to work in commensurate positions and pay grades.  The training and marketing guidance is invaluable from both perspectives.

Product introduction and formulation

Due to the high incident of skin cancer Down Under, primarily originating in young children, we have developed an additive that enables parents and children to see that this sunscreen has in fact been applied to all areas of exposed skin.  This additive is a coloring agent that fades approximately three minutes after application.  Taking advantage of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Summer Games approach, we have incorporated the additive with an olympic theme:                Oceana                Gold, Silver & Bronze.

The coloring agents will actually be gold, silver or bronze according to the label of the particular sunscreen purchased.  In addition to these choices, each color would be available in several degrees of sun protection factor (SPF):  SPF4, SPF8, SPF15 & SPF30 (SPF4 being the least and SPF30 being almost total sunblock).  Oceana is a non-greasy water resistant sunscreen with aloe vera gel, vitamin E and is paba free.

Incidence of skin cancer

The high incidence of skin cancer in Australia is the reason for our choice of this product.  Skin cancer has been on the rise due to environmental issues caused by humankind.  Australia is known for its sunshine and carefree good life attitude; but Australians are facing a severe problem with exposure to the sun.  Australia is the perfect market for sunscreen because two out of every three Australians will develop skin cancer at some point in their life.  One half of Australians under the age of fourteen already have some damage to their skin.  Australians have the highest rate of skin cancer in the world, with are approximately 140 thousand new cases per year.  See Appendix A for additional information.

Cultural aspects surrounding market entrance to the Oceanic region

Australia

The seven states of the Australian country/continent are very similar to those of the United States.  That is to say, all of these states are English speaking, with a high literacy rate, a well-developed infrastructure, a significant volume of tourism and laws that promote interstate commerce.  These elements are what make this market an easy entrance for our product.

Tahiti

This territory is part of the French Polynesian Overseas territory.  This territory falls under the French Republic guidelines of government.  Some aspects of this territory have autonomy.  Tahiti's principle trade imports come from Australia, France, Germany, Japan and New Zealand.  They export mainly to France, New Caledonia and (limited) United States.  The facts that Tahiti is known for tourism and has principle importing and exporting, make this market accessible for our product.  It's location geographically, climate and infrastructure, make for easy distribution and market entry.  Its principle language is French, but with a cultural adaptation to English products, we may utilize standardized production.

New Caledonia

This territory is also part of the French Overseas Territory, which means that it also falls under the French rule of government court and political systems.  This territory is in the European Parliament.  It's primary imports come from Australia, France, Germany, Japan and the United States.  Its exports are mainly to France, Germany, Japan and the United States.  The same basic infrastructure, climate and tourism as Tahiti makes this market accessible and allows for standardized product introduction.

Fiji

Fiji is an established country.  It's form of government is much like the English Parliament.  It's imports also come from Australia, Germany, Japan and New Zealand.  It exports mainly to Australia, Germany, Japan and New Zealand.  Once again established infrastructure and trade routes within the region, tourism and the climate, make this country's accessibility applicable for our product.  Primarily an English speaking island, Fiji also allows Oceana to be a standardized product.

All of these islands and countries, including Australia and New Zealand, have the same principle religions.  These are Catholic, Protestant, Muslim, and few native island beliefs.

Intellectual property laws in Australia

A joint venture has been established so our license is already in place.  A patent is pending for the three gold, silver, and bronze coloring agents.  This patent will be exclusive for a period of five years before renewal.  Our trademark name that for our product is Oceana Gold, Oceana Silver and Oceana Bronze.

Trade Relations APEC and ANZCERTA

ANZCERTA is trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand.

(Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement)

ANZCERTA has been around since 1983, when it replaced their NAFTA, and has undergone significant changes in industrial and agricultural trade.  Free trade between these countries has enabled rapid development in world exporting.  At this time the process of improving air transportation and expanding trade laws is underway.  The goal of ANZCERTA is to become a single trade entity representing a unified economic front.  In the next ten years they hope to remain committed to the same economic goals and effectively compete with the Asian Pacific region through their alliances to the commonly known APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation).

APEC is the formation of trade alliances among 18 countries in the south pacific region of the world.  The leaders of these countries meet regularly to discuss ways of improving liberal trade and creating a more open environment.  Australia has been active with this alliance since 1989.  One of the benefits of Australia's involvement is that the economies

of the different countries range from underdeveloped to industrialized countries.  Our product will be marketed in a diversified economic range, enabling us to reach more than one specific market.  Skin cancer and environmental issues are discussed at these meetings and concern all leaders of the different governments.  APEC hopes to reach free trade as already established by GATT.

Political risk

There are no governmental policies or parties who could politically overrun the government, therefore, expropriation is not a major consideration.  The concern for nationalism is also unwarranted because Australians have hopes of attaining the "American good life."  Our image as a nation demonstrates a positive public relation between two countries.

Joint Venture (unincorporated)

A foreign company deciding to do business in Australia has a selection of business structures available.  The most common forms of organizations are representative offices, branches of parent companies' subsidiaries, sole trades, partnerships and joint ventures.  Joint ventures in Australia are a very common business practice, with some differences in structure from that of the United States but they are similar enough for American investors to comprehend..  An unincorporated joint venture may be described as "contractual", meaning that a separate entity is not formed.  Shares are not allocated for payment of any kind; and they end up resembling a partnership.  Incorporated joint ventures are companies that have shareholders with no rights to the company's assets; which are not exposed to sharing losses, but which do participate in distributed dividends.  Legal restrictions are limited and private companies operate basically uninterrupted as long as established ethical business codes are followed.  Any company that registers in Australia falls under their corporation law jurisdiction.  Hybrid forms of joint ventures can be created to meet the demands of each participant involved.  After having carefully reviewed our options, we chose the unincorporated joint venture with a company whose name and reputations are established.

Our Partner

Australians are very demanding regarding timely delivery, product warranties along with consistent advertising and promotions.  They are proven to be very quality conscious and discerning.  The decision to pursue a joint venture was to limit initial investment and operating expenses, limit liability/lower risk and ease into the market via a company well aware of the culture and infrastructure.  Our partner company is F.H. Faulding & Company Limited, positioned in Parkside, South Australia, Australia.  They possess the capacity to meet our company objectives (production and distribution) and are aligned with our corporate ideals and values.  F.H. Faulding has an 11 year financial history of established success in all facets of production management, distribution and customer trust.  Combined with their current assets, desire for growth and development, they are very attractive to Sun Cosmetics, Inc. as an unincorporated joint venture partner for Oceana.  Their location is significant, and of strategic importance to the actual distribution of our product.

Distribution

Our joint venture partner will enable us to use their established sources of distribution.  A distributor acts as an independent agent who purchases products from an agent and delivers them to wholesalers and/or retailers.  It is common practice for Australian distributors to ask for exclusive geographic rights due to the size of the market.  Australian distribution and sales channels are comparable to other industrialized countries.  Channels of distribution are direct sales, use of agents, and direct investment.  Their duties include good faith representation and the maintenance of proper accounts, We will be utilizing all methods of distribution as available and established through our joint venture partner.  Through our direct and distributor sales we expect to attain the mix that will achieve Oceana the market share it deserves and meets the customer needs Down Under.  See Appendix B for additional information.

There are many major ports located throughout the continent.  Transporting to these active ports is very accessible through several shipping means (including air transportation, where applicable).  The size and population locations are very unevenly distributed.  Key population areas tend to center around the outer perimeter of the country where these major cities' airports and seaports are located.

The following is an overview of the transportation and communications systems:

Established railway systems 40,478 km

The highways of the country total 873,872 km

The telephone communication systems are very extensive both internationally and domestically.  Radio broadcast frequencies include 258 am and 67 fm.  There are 134 broadcast stations.  (National Trade Databank).

Raw materials

All raw materials will be purchased and supplied locally through ICI Australia Pty Limited's botany plant.  ICI Australia is a large manufacturing facility that produces 50 organic and non-organic chemicals located in Castle Hill, South Australia.  Our suncreen's ingredients are, or can be, produced by this facility for easy "just-in-time" inventory delivery.  Our sunscreen will be safe for the environment and everyone that uses it.  The main ingredients in our products are octylmethooxycinnamate, oxybenzone, octylsalidylate, titanium dioxide, octocrylene and the secret ingredients necessary for our gold, silver and bronze coloring agents.

Target Market Demographics

Since such a high incident rate of skin cancer and skin damage exists in this region, there is an ever growing need (market) for sunscreen products.  Based on our marketing research we have focused on three specific markets:  tourism, teenagers/young adults and parents with young children.  These target markets will allow for market penetration and diffusion at a quick rate since they are the groups that have the highest need for our product and the greatest purchasing power.

Geographically, our focus is on the Australian states, New Zealand, Tahiti, New Caledonia and Fiji.  The following demographics will highlight the targeted areas beginning with the Australian states:

+ NEW SOUTH WALES -- SYDNEY & CANBERRA

- Tourism:  1,237,900 per year or seasonally and is expected to increase by 60%                   for the 2000 summer Olympic games.

- Teenagers/Young Adults:  26,000.

- Parents and Children:  6,066,000 with a population growth rate of about .07%                   per year.

+ VICTORIA -- MELBOURNE

- Tourism:  728,200 per year or seasonally.

- Overall population:  2,676,000.

+ NORTHERN TERRITORY- DARWIN & AYERS ROCK

- Tourism:  146,650 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  892,150.

+ SOUTH AUSTRALIA -- ADELAIDE

- Tourism:  182,050 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  1,427,460.

+ WESTERN AUSTRALIA -- PERTH

- Tourism:  364,100 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  1,695,113.

+ QUEENSLAND -- BRISBANE, CAIRNS & GREAT BARRIER REEF REGION

- Tourism:  1,092,300 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  3,033,361.

+ TASMANIA -- HOBART

- Tourism:  36,500 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  2,027,200.

NOTE:  Overall population of Australia is approximately 18,000,000 with a growth rate of 1.1% per year.

The following demographics are for the countries that border Australia in the Oceanic Region:

+ NEW ZEALAND -- NORTH ISLAND -- Auckland

- Tourism:  546,000 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  1,540,000.

+ NEW ZEALAND -- SOUTH ISLAND -- Christchurch & Queensland

- Tourism:  756,420 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  1,630,000.

+ TAHITI

- Tourism:  150,000 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  213,000.

+ NEW CALEDONIA

- Tourism:  81,000 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  179,000.

+ FIJI

- Tourism:  288,000 per year or seasonally.

- Overall Population:  588,068.

NOTE:  Tahiti and New Caledonia are overseas territories of France.  Although these are target markets, secondary data for these areas are limited.  Primary data will be collected after the initial market distribution, subsequent to the roll out in this area.

Direct Marketing (advertising)

Australia's direct marketing industry is at the early stages of development when compared to the United States but due to economic levels of income and the infrastructure of the country this market is highly accessible and affective.  Australian citizens long to be "Americanized" which in terms of television advertising and technological advancement, is a viable means that puts this form of market at our fingertips.  The adaptation of pay television also allows for the consumer to shop at their convenience.

Direct Marketing (promotions)

Trade centers and shows are important, along with mass media ideas ranging from newspapers to television advertisements.  Our foremost research enables us to believe that the Olympics in the year 2000 is the ultimate marketing entry gain.  By utilizing this direct market approach there are several promotional and advertising methods, not the least of which, that F.H. Faulding is an Olympic sponsor for the Sydney 2000 games.

If we choose an Olympic team or spokesperson, we can market/advertise through actual team/athlete T-shirts, hats, etc.  This would yield global advertising and public relations that could be a valuable option as the games approach.  Along with our product name and unique features, we have contracted with Ken Done (a world renowned painter, based in Sydney) to design our packaging and create other promotional materials as well (e.g., beach bags, towels, etc.).

Market plan range/rollout

Sun Cosmetics anticipates completion of all contracts and legalities by mid-1997 and will then begin product distribution in late 1997, by introducing our product line in Sydney, the highest populated area and one of the largest tourist stops.  After advertising and promotion have gained the attention and recognition of the home market, we will get directly involved with the Olympic sponsorship.  Promotional items such as free samples, will be distributed  in advance, to gain brand recognition.  In 1998 we plan to move into Melbourne, Brisbaine, the Great Barrier Reef region and New Zealand's South Island.  Towards the end of 1988, we will gear up for our entrance into Perth, New Zealand's North Island and Tasmania in 1999.  The final oceanic regional move will be in the year 2000 when we will complete our market rollout by entering Fiji, New Caledonia and Tahiti.  (This will allow us the time to conduct the necessary primary research on these outlying countries/territories

whose secondary data was limited.)  During the summer of the year 2000, we will initiate

our global presentation to expand our market to the other communities of the world during the Olympic games being held in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, 2000.

Financial portrayal

Partner percentage expense (25%)*            2,000,000

Distribution expense               500,000

Expatriate compensation         100,000

Trademark fees               8,000

Patent fees          5,000

Packaging expense (Ken Done)            20,000

Give-away expense       25,000

Advertising expense               200,000

Olympic giveaways/sponsorship         250,000

Tax expense                  35,000

Raw material expense               60,000

Total Operating Expenses       3,203,000

* Projections are based on $8,000,000 in 1997 sales.

(Just-in-time inventory system to be utilized for raw materials, with the distributors warehousing the final product in the particular city of import/distribution.)

Market share projections:   1997          5%         2,000,000

1998       15%          1,500,000

1999         5%          1,000,000

2000         5%             500,000

1997       10%          5,000,000

1998       10%          4,500,000

1999       10%          3,500,000

2000       10%          2,500,000

1997       15%          8,000,000

1998       15%          7,000,000

1999       15%          6,500,000

2000       15%          5,500,000

15% is a conservative estimate of the market share attainable by 1999 for this product, in this plan.  The current market demand is growing at an accelerated pace, with our established competition holding market shares in excess of 20%.  Due to the nature of Australia's quality demands and the incident of skin cancer, our product will capture a significant market share quickly.

Retail selling prices:  $ 8.50 (U.S.) in urban areas, and $10.50 (U.S.) in rural areas based on a 90 ml container.

Alternative entrance/contingency

Overall success of our plan of entrance into this region may rest solely on our ability to implement a worthy alternate or contingency plan should we encounter any major setbacks.  Based on corporate profiles and market research, we have determined that the best contingency plan is to form a joint venture with Hoechst Australia Ltd., located in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, and utilize their established production and distribution system.  An alternative supplier of raw materials has also been coordinated, should the need arise.  This plan is designed to be a substitute source or can be used to supplement the primary source if sales increase faster than projected or we encounter any other problems.

Conclusion

As an overview,  statistics have shown that the Oceanic Region has the highest amount of skin cancer and sun related damage in the world.  Awareness and the magnitude of this problem are apparent to residents and tourists, thus creating a high demand for our sunscreen products.  Our target markets are tourissts, teenagers/young adults and parents with young children which makeup the majority of the people directly effected by the sun.  Presently, entrance into this market is low risk.  This is primarily due to the fact that language, cultural and trade barriers do not exist.  Also, the market is not saturated and our initial expense and risk is limited due to our joint venture.  We can gain a high percentage of market share throughout this region by 1999 and begin our global debut at the summer Olympic games at Sydney in the year 2000.

Appendix A

Here are some facts about skin cancer itself there are three basic types of this disease.  Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma are two types of cancer that can cause disfiguring to the body but are not fatal.  The third is malignant melanoma which behaves like an internal cancer.  It starts as a mole and can spread to other parts of the body.  The sun's ultraviolet violet rays are the most significant between 11 AM and 3 PM.  This is the time that the majority of children and outside labor workers are in the sun.  In Australia's summer months', exposure is so serious that safe sun time before damaged is caused in Darwin is only 9 minutes.  In Brisbane 11 minutes, Perth 10, Sydney and Adelaide about 12 minutes.  To demonstrate the concern for skin protection, researchers have developed a T-shirt that has an ultraviolet sensitive paint on the front of it which when exposed to the sun its picture will change color revealing the radiation that the human eye cannot detect.  It is said that by the year 2050, society will not be able to go in the sun if humankind does not recognize this issue.

Australia has developed a "slip slop slap" motto to promote skin protection.  Slip on a shirt, slop on sunscreen and slap on a hat.

Appendix B

There are several resources that we can use to discover our possible available market for distribution.  The services are located by contacting the local U.S. Dept. of Commerce distribution.

1) Agent distributor search (AD)

The US commercial service will locate and screen potential Australian agents and representatives for US companies.  CS Australia will send information to possible companies that might have an interest in our product.  If the company responds, the CS will make the opportunity for direct contact available.

2) CRS Gold Key Service

This idea makes it beneficial for US company representatives to see the various services available.  Such as market orientation meetings, research, distributor searches and screening.  They are an affective service that truly widens the firm's eyes in a particular country.

3) Customized Market Analysis (CMA)

This assessment provides information on the product's potential laws.  This is very important to us as a joint venturer, because we need current data and monetary trend information which oversees research.

4) CS -- Catalog Exhibitions

CS Australia actively participates in trade shows, and a variety of other trade events that provide actual catalogs or products for direct display.

5) Introduction to Australia

This new entry program is affective and inexpensive to test the Australian market.  Specific American firms in that industry contact Australian fin-ns.  A selected target

industrial market is chosen through local agents and distributors.  Interested participants then actually follow up directly.

The CS also actively participates in trade missions, trade events, and the trade opportunity program (TOPS).  This service provides trade leads that manufactures may request for representation, investment, licensing and finally joint ventures.

The last two services offered by CS are market research reporting and commercial USA.  The market research and reporting continually tracks major industrial investments, projects, and policy developments.

Commercial news UA provides on new U.S. products available for the export market.  This distribution information goes to about 1,000 potential agents and distributors in Australia.  This service also identifies possible joint venture participants.

This distributive information goes to Australia.  All of these services are imperative to regarding possible market distribution resources.

Resources

Austrade

Australian Trade Commission

630 Fifth Avenue, Suite 420

New York, NY 10111

Nicholas Doumani

(212)408-8473

Bureau of Tourism Research

Cambridge Encyclopedia of Australia

Press Syndicate

University of Cambridge

1994

CD ROM -- U.S. DOC, International Trade Administration

March, 1996

CD ROM -- National Trade Data Bank

February, 1996

Europa World Year Book 1995

London:  Europa Publications Limited

Volumes 1 & 2, Pages 1236-1237 and 1246-1247.

Internet:  HTTP://WWW.TELSTR.COM.AU/META/AUSTRALIA.HTML

97.  Oceanography

The sea is the most obvious feature of the earth's surface.  Approximately seventy percent of this surface is covered by water, in one way or another.  Beneath this water are the familiar sands of the beaches, bottoms of bays, and the inshore ocean.  Farther offshore this water covers an amazing submarine topography of underwater canyons, trenches, mountains, and plains. Unlike the continents, which are physically separated from one another, the oceans are continuous and interconnected.  Since the "world ocean is continuous"(M.J. Keen) it has similar characteristics throughout.  In the early 1870s oceanographers collected seawater samples from all of the seas of the world at a variety of depths. When analyzed, the samples were found to have quite similar characteristics.  These findings convinced many that a method of study was needed.  The study of oceans was named oceanography.

Density, salinity, and temperature are very important concepts in the study of oceanography.  The salinity and temperature of the water influence its density, and the differences in density are the major factor in understanding the formation of currents and the positions of water masses in the sea.  In addition, temperature and salinity play major roles in influencing the distribution of plants and animals.

The sediments of the sea floor may be divided into lithogenous, hydrogenous, biogenous, and cosmogenous sediments.  Lithogenous sediments are the major sediments on the ocean floor.  They are derived from the chemical and mechanical weathering of rocks.  Biogenous sediments are composed primarily of the protective outter covering of small marine animals and plants.  If these remains comprise at least thirty percent of the sediment it is called an "ooze".  "Oozes" were named for the types of organisms that formed them.  Hydrogenous sediments form as a result of the chemical reactions that occur in the seawater.  These reactions result in the formation of small particles, which are deposited on the sea floor.  Currents move these particles and cause them to collide with the other particles.  If many of these collisions occur they may form nodules.  Nodules are found on some portions of the deep-sea floor.  The sediment type frequently determines the type of organisms that will be found in that specific area.

"Waves are variable and transitory features of the sea's surface." (Sandra Smith)  All waves, from the smallest ripple to the most destructive tsunami, have common characteristics.  They all have crests, troughs, wave heights, lengths, and periods.  Also, water particles that make up the waves all move in identical orbital patterns.  The orbital pattern is up and forward in the crest and down and back in the trough.  It is only when the wave becomes unstable that the orbital motion is destroyed.  The water particles then begin to move at the same speed as the moving wave form.

Breaking waves release a tremendous amount of stored energy on a beach face.  This energy moves the sand about and changes the configuration of the bottom.  As the bottom configuration is changed by the waves, it changes the characteristics of incoming waves.  This interaction between the waves and the bottom results in the beach face having an everlasting wave pattern.

Everything in the universe is composed of extremely small paritcles called atoms, which are often bonded together to form molecules.  Molecules are formed as the result fo the transfer of electrons between atoms.  The complete loss and gain of electrons results in the formation of ionic molecules, which have completely positive and negative vegions.  Unequal sharing of electrons, on the other hand, characterizes the polar covalent molecules, which have only partially positive and negative regions.  The equal sharing of electrons result in the formation of nonpolar covalent molecules, which do not develop charged regions.

Due to the development of charges on ionic and polar molecules, intermolecular attractive forces form between these molecules, intermolecular attractive forces form between these molecules and enable the compounds to exist in the solid and liquid state.  Ionic compounds have long-range order and exist as solids.  Polar covalent molecules are liquids because of their short-range order, while the nonpolar gases do not develop intermolecular attractions and as a result exibit no order.

Changes in state are due to a change in the order of compounds.  When energy is added, molecular motion increases and intermolecular attractive forces are disrupted.  This results in the melting of solidsand the evaporation of liquids.  When energy is removed, the molecular motion is decreased, which increases the formation of intermolecular attractive forces.  This allows vapors to condense as liquids to freeze.

The physical and chemical components of water interact with and affect the plant and animal life in the sea.  The plants, animals, and bacteria that inhabit a given marine area continually react with, change, and are changed by the total biotic and abiotic environment.  Light plays a vital role in the sea, since the producers require sunlight as the energy source to convert the low-energy simple plant nutrients into the more complex high-energy molecules that can be used by the consumers.  The dominant plants of the sea are the microscopic phytoplankton, while copepods.  The copepods are important, since they provide the major link in the transfer of energy from the phytoplankton to the large animals of the sea.

Density exerts profound effects on both the biotic and abiotic components of the sea.  Many marine forms, both animal and plant, have developed unique life-styles of seawater.  In addition, density barriers are formed in the sea in response to temperature and salinity differences between water masses.  In many cases these density barriers trap nutrients below the euphotic zone and make them spatially unavailable to the plants in these areas.  This is the case in the tropical seas, as well as in all of the world's deep oceans, where the density barriers are permanent.

Plant nutrients tend to cycle throughout marine systems, from their simple, low-energy, dissolved forms to plants, animals, and then to bacteria.  When considering the cycling of nutrients through any system, it is important to remember that metter and energy are inter-changeable.  Cycles that encompass both the biotic and abiotic components of a system are called biogeochemical cycles.

Biochemical cycles involve the transfer of the essential, minor, and trace elements from the abiotic to the biotic components of a system.

The transfer of food is extremely important in marine life.  The transfer of food energy may be depicted by food chains and food webs.  Food chains can be and generally are unstable, since the loss of a single link can have drastic effects on the remainder of the chain.  Food webs are more stable, since a variety of alternate food sources exist at each trophic level.

Wind-drift currents are formed by wind moving across the surface of the sea and setting water in motion.  Winds  are formed by the warning and cooling affects the density of the air, causing it to move into adjacent air masses.  Once in motion, both air and water masses are influenced by the rotation of the earth.  This causes the water masses to appear to deflect to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left in the Southern Hemisphere.  As a result, the major wind currents appear to travel in large figure eights from the equator northward and southward.

Density currents involve a large percent of the sea's volume.  Since these currents are the result of temperature and salinity differentials that develop between adjacent water masses, they are often called thermohaline currents.

The thermohaline circulation travels through the subsurface waters of all of the world's oceans.  These currents carry oxygen to the a ysphotic zone, where because of the absence of light, photosynthesis can not occur.  They also remove large amounts of nutrients from the euphotic zone and transport them for great distances throughout the deep ocean.

The current patterns in estuaries are also generally formed in response to density differentials.  Depending on the amount of marine and fresh water that enters these systems, estuaries may be highly or moderately stratified,  vertically homogeneous, or hepersaline.  The resultant salinity variations in these areas has a direct influence on the biotic distributions in estuaries.

Shorelines are the point of contact between the marine and terrestrial environments and, as such, are flooded at high tide and exposed at low tide.  They are only a part of the coastline or coastal zone, inland and for hundreds of miles along a shoreline.  Shorelines are constantly changing.

Coastal sediments are continually attacked and reworked by the sea.  Waves move these sediments into the surf zone, where they are picked up and transported by the the long-shore current.  Those sediments are sorted by this currentand eventually deposited to form such major coastal  features as barrier islands and sand splits.  Inlets form, migrate, close, and reform along barrier beaches.  A combination of inlet fromation, closure, and the overwash of a barrier beach during storms causes the barrier island to migrate towards land.

Estuaries are also major coastal features.  They form in a variety of ways.  They may form behind a barrier island, sand spit, sea island, or other such feature or be formed by the tectonic movements of isostatic adjustments of the earth's crust.  Others are formed directly by glacial activity.  Estuaries are called a variety of names, including bays, sounds, and lagoons.  These are the most common, but regardless they are all semi-enclosed bodies of water with one or more free connections with the sea.

The construction of groins, jetties and breakwaters is often harmful and tend to cause of increase erosion.  All coastlines are extremely dynamic areas that are interrelated by the longshore currnet.  Although these areas must be treated as units, since what occurs along the way will be reflected by beach conditions down the current.

The coastal zone provides an unrivaled opportunity to observe ecological relationships.  The sea, offshore the inner neritic zone, is remarkable in its constancy.  In any given area, the salinity and temperature are virtually invariable.  Pressure is constant, but no other environment are the organisms sujected to such tremendous pressures.

The vast majority of the palagic and benthic realms are in perpetual darkness, and effective photosynthesis does not occur.  All the organisms of the open ocean are then dependent on the small portion of the sea that is in the euphotic zone.  As a consequence, the animal life is sparce, and different food chains develop.  In the deep ocean much of the initial energy is thought to be provided by the bacteria, which like the phytoplankton of the euphotic zone, serves as a food source for the grazers.

The second law of thermodynamics, in conjunction with the small area that is actuall inhabited by the producers, shows the fallacy of relying on the sea as a food supply.  It this becomes a reality due to over-population, it will be necessary to feed at a trophic level much closer to the energy source.

Coral reefs are one of the most beautiful and exciting phenomena in the oceans.  The coral reef is a biological community consisting of the coral itself and a variey of small animals and plants, of which algae is as abundant as the coral.  The framework, or base, of the reef is formed by the skeleton of dead coral animals, with the living corals and algae at the top of the reef.  As the kinds of reef that grow at sea level have to be solid enough to withstand the battering of the waves, framework must be strong.  Many fish and other animals and plants live on or in reefs, and all this life forms a rich, varied and colorful community.

Coral reefs occur in warm, tropical oceans where the temperature is higher than sixty-eight degrees farenhiet.  They need sunlight in order to grow, so they only grow in clear

shallow water down to depths of not much more than a hundred feet.  Reefs also need a good circulation of sea water to bring them oxygen and food, so strong wave action is beneficial to them.

Coral is an animal which reproduces very quickly by splitting, to form colonies of coral.  Each animal has a chalky skeleton which is joined to neighboring skeletons, forming the strong framework of the reef.  In some coral colonies, such as brain coral, it is impossible to see each individual animal; but in other colonies, the skeleton of each animal can be seen.

Coral feed on zooplankton.  However, the microscopic plants that live within the coral also supply it with food and reef-building materials.  The plant in return seemed to benefit from the coral, gaining shelter and food materials from it.

There are three main types of coral reefs: the fringing reef, the barrier reef, and the atoll.  Conditions on reefs vary from the breaking surf of the sea edge to the quieter lagoon. The fringing reef grows out from an island, or other land form, but is still attached to it.  An example of fringing reefs are the reefs bordering the Florida Keys.  A barrier reef is separated from the island or mainland, and may be a few miles distant.  The Great Barrier reef is over a thousand miles long, forming an off-shore break-water for the east coast of Australia.  An atoll is a circular surrounding a lagoon, often not associated with any obvious land.  Atolls occur mainly in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, rising abruptly from the deep seas.

A few centuries ago scientist were puzzled to find coral atolls in the deep oceans with no land visible because they knew that the corals could only grow in shallow.  The naturalist Charles Darwin during his voyage on HMS Begal from 1831 to 1836, examined the number of atolls and put forth a theory for their formation.  He suggested that a volcanic or seamount provided a shallow water base for the growth of the fringing reef.  This island would be eroded by the waves and would sink slowly under its own weight.  To remain in shallow water, the corals of the reef would grow upward as the island sank until the reef became separated from the island by a donut-shaped lagoon, forming a kind of barrier reef.  Further sinking of the island below the sea surface would leave only the reef as an atoll, the island being no longer visible.

Darwin's theory was not proven correct until 1952, when holes were drilled into Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Ocean.  After drilling through almost a mile of coral, the scientist reached the old volcano.  It had been sinking for some 60 million years and all this time the coral had been growing upward keeping pace with the sinking island.

The reproduction of coral is very interesting. During the reproduction stage of the coral, the animal itself is stationed.  First and foremost, the part of the coral that is actually doing the reproducting is called the polyp.  Polyps reproduce in two different ways.  One is by eggs, and the other is by a process called budding.  When the egg is fertilezed by sperm, the egg develops into a tiny larcal organism called a planulae.  The planulae settles on the ocean bottom.  The planule lands on whatever the currents allow it to. It will most likely  end up on a rock, or on another coral.  Eventually the planulae develops into a polyp.  Each polyp builds  a limestone skeleton which is attached to the surface of which the poyp has landed on, which can be either a rock or another coral.  After the coral establishes itself, the upper part of the body becomes dome-shapes and develops a stomach and a mouth.

Tentacles form around the mouth.  The tentacles are used to draw food in from the surrounding waters of the oceans.  the tentacles of teh coral are armed with special stinging structures.  Those special stinging structures are called nematosysts.  The tentacle's nematocysts paralyzes th etiny prey that the coral eats.  The coral's major food are small marine organisms.

In recent years, outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, and viral hepatitis in Latin America, the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia have all been traced to contaminated seafood.  It is because of the discharge of sewage and polution directly into coastal waters.  Industrial wastes have been dumped in the oceans of our world.  They contain a mixture of chemicals, such lubricating oils, zinc, copper, bleaching agents, and strong acids & alkalis.  These chemicals are extremely toxic to marine organisms.

There is strong need for international action to control marine contamination and pollution.  Pollution is now the subject of numerous regional and international agreements.  Conventions regulating the discarge of oil from ships, and the development of emergency response systems to oil pollution accidents have contributed to the decline of ship-based souces of oil pollution over the last two decades.  The moratorium on dumping of radioactive waste at sea under the London Dumping Convention also represents another response to concerns about the risks posed by such diposal.  Some regions have concluded agreement which ban dumping of any radioactive waste at sea.  In the Mediterranean and Red Sea, all discharge of oily wasted from ships is also banned.

The differences between terrestial regions are well known.  Less well known are the features that distingush the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean, or the coast of South America from those of Southern Africa.  Regardless of this, the various regions of the world's oceans are all affected by human activity, with pollution and harvesting of resouces of resouces being common to all seas and oceans.  The various marine resources, as well as the extent of human impacts on them, are examined region by region, illustrating hos stresses on the marine environmet treatened the very resistance of some habitats and species.

98.  Overview of Italy

Italy is a country located in southern Europe.  Italy occupies a boot-shaped peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean sea from southern Europe.  The country also includes two large islands, Sicily and Sardinia.

The History

Italy has had a long and colorful history.  For much of its history, Italy has been divided into many small and often warring city states.  This occurred after the break up of the Roman Empire when much of Europe became feudal.  In 476, Odoacer defeated the last emperor of ancient Rome, Romulus Augustulus. Odoacer ruled for 13 years after gaining control.  He was then attacked and defeated by  Theodoric, the king of a Germanic tribe named the Ostrogoths.  Both kings, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until Theodoric murdered Odoacer.  Theodoric continued to rule Italy with a government comprised mostly of Italians and an army composed of Ostrogoths.  During his rule, he brought peace to the country but after his death in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak.  In 553, Justinian, the Byzantine emperor who ruled the eastern part of the Roman Empire, defeated the Ostrogoths and expelled them.  For a time, the Old Roman Empire was united again.  Byzantine rule in Italy collapsed as increased attacks from Germanic tribes weakened the empire.  Byzantine rule collapsed in 572 when the Lombards invaded.

In the 400's and 500's the popes increased their influence in both religious and political matters in Italy and elsewhere.  The popes were usually the ones who made attempts to protect Italy from foreign invasion or to soften foreign rule.  The popes for almost 200 years had opposed attempts by the Lombards, who controlled most of Italy, to take over Rome.  The popes defeated the Lombards with the aid of two Frankish kings, Charlemagne and Pepin the Short.  The papal states were created out of land won for the popes by Pepin.

From the 10th century on, Italian cities began to grow rapidly and became increasingly independent of one another.  They flourished because of their access to the Mediterranean trade routes and almost had a complete monopoly on all spice and silks coming into Europe.  They became centers of political life, foreign trade and banking.  At this time, the church grew in power also.  The Italian popes became increasingly more involved in the European political scene.  Many of these city states became extremely wealthy and powerful and resisted the attempts of noblemen and emperors to control them.

During the 1300's, one of the greatest eras in human history occurred, The Renaissance.  The Renaissance occurred primarily in Italy in the various city states.  Many great artists and philosophers lived during this period and enhanced Italy's prestige.

The kingdom of Italy was formed in 1861.  Five years later, in 1866, Venetia became a part of that kingdom.  Rome became its capital in 1871.

Benito Mussolini became premier in 1922.  In 1940, Italy entered World War II on the side of the Germans.  Italy surrendered in 1943 and established a new republic in 1946.

Culture and Customs

The population of Italy is approximately 58 million people, most of whom live in the urban cities.  The four largest cities in Italy, in order of population are Rome, Milan, Naples and Turin.  The most densely populated areas of the country are the industrialized regions of Lombardy and Liguria in the northwest region of Campania in the south.  The areas with the lowest population density are the mountains of both the north and south.

More than two thirds of Italy's population reside in cities.  Most live in large, concrete apartment buildings.  A few of the more wealthy people live in single-family homes.  The oldest sections of an Italian city are made up o low buildings that have apartments around a central courtyard.  Newer parts of the city often have larger apartment buildings.  Poor neighborhoods are usually found on the outskirts of the city.

Most unmarried children live with their parents.  Parents often help an adult son or daughter purchase an apartment near their own.  Many young women work outside the home, and grandparents often help care for the children of working mothers.  Many urban areas provide public child-care centers.

City growth and the increased use of the automobile have led to some serious problems with urban pollution in Italy.  In large cities, the air pollution poses a health hazard and has damaged priceless architecture.  Many cities have banished private cars from the city centers.

Most rural communities in the past consisted of a compact settlement surrounded by a large area of agricultural land.  The farmers usually lived in town and traveled to work in the fields each day.  This pattern of living was especially common in southern Italy, in northern Italy the farmers usually lived on their land.

Italians take great pride in the quality of their cooking.  They traditionally eat their main meals at midday.  Large meals usually consist of a past course, followed by a main course of meat or fish.  Italian foods vary greatly by region.  In the north, flat, ribbon-shaped pastas served with cream sauces are most popular.  In the south, macaroni served with tomato-based sauces is the favorite type of pasta.

Italians enjoy a wide variety of sports.  Soccer is the most popular sport in Italy.  Every major city has a professional soccer team.  But soccer is not just a spectator sport- on weekends Italy's parks are filled with children and adults playing the game.  Basketball is also very popular, and some cities have more than one professional basketball team. Other popular sports include fishing, hunting, cycling, roller skating, and baseball.

Major Religions

About 95 percent of the population in Italy is Roman Catholic.  Most religious ceremonies such as baptisms, weddings and funeral services are held in church.  Only about 30 percent of all Italians attend church regularly.  Many others occasionally attend church.  An agreement called the Lateran Pact governs the relationship between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church.  For example, the pact exempts priests and other members of religious orders from military service and gives tax exemptions to Catholic organizations.

The Roman Catholic Church has had a strong influence on laws in the past, but that influence has weakened.  For example, until 1970, the church was able to block attempts to legalize divorce in Italy.

Vatican City, the spiritual and governmental center of the Roman Catholic Church, lies entirely within the city of Rome.  But Vatican City is independent from Italy and has its own diplomatic corps.

There are several small religious groups in Italy.  The other groups include Protestants, Muslims and Jews.

Political Systems

Italy set up its present form of government in 1946.  That year, the people voted to change their nation from a monarchy ruled by a king to a republic headed by a president.  King Humbert II immediately left the throne.

The president of Italy is elected to a seven-year term by both houses of Parliament.  The president must be at least 50 years old.  He or she appoints the premier, who forms a government.  The president has the power to dissolve parliament and call new elections.  The president is the commander of the Italian armed forces, and can declare war.

The premier determines national policy and is the most important person in the Italian government.  The premier is selected by the president from the members of Parliament and must be approved by Parliament. The premier has no fixed term of office, and can be voted out by office by Parliament at any time.  Members of the Cabinet are chosen by the premier and are usually chosen from among the Parliament.

The Parliament consists of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate.  Both of these houses have equal power in passing laws.  The Senate has 315 elected members and the Chamber of Deputies has 630 members.  All former presidents become Senators for life.

In elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the country is divided into 32 constituencies.   The number of Deputies to be elected from each constituency is determined by its population.  Each political party presents a list of candidates for the position of deputy from the district.  The deputies selected from a party are chosen in the order of number of preference votes each receives.  Senators are chosen in much the same way, but are elected from twenty regions instead.

Italy has a complicated system of election to parliament based on proportional representation.  In the Parliament, the percentage of seats held by each political party is about the same as the percentage of the total votes received by the party's candidates.

Since 1948, Italy has experienced frequent Cabinet changes.  Most Cabinets have lasted less than  a year, but many members of one Cabinet have remain in the new one.  If some of the parties in the Cabinet are disagreeing with the Cabinets policies, they may withdraw support and require the formation of a brand new Cabinet.

The fascist government that once ruled Italy is on the rise again.  The fascist party grows in membership each year.  Italy has also been reluctant to talk about the joining of the European nations into one large economic super power.

Economic Systems

Since World War II, Italy has shifted from a predominantly agricultural economy to one based on modern industries.  As recently  as the 1950's, more than a third of all Italians were employed in agriculture.  From 1953 to 1968, industrial production almost tripled.   By the late 1980's, only about 10 percent of employed Italians worked in agriculture.  The transformation has been most complete in northern Italy, which is now one of the most advanced industrial areas of Western Europe.  Southern Italy remains poorer and less industrialized, despite long-term efforts of the Italian government to improve the region's industry and agriculture.

In 1957, Italy became a member in the European Economic Community.  This union of Western European nations, also called the European Common Market, has abolished tariffs on trade among its members.  This membership has helped strengthen the economy of Italy.

Service industries account for about two-thirds of Italy's gross domestic product. Trade ranks as Italy's most important type of service industry.  It accounts for a larger percentage of the country's gross domestic product and employs a greater share of workers than any other service industry.  Manufacturing accounts for almost a fourth of Italy's gross domestic product.

Languages

The language of Italy is Italian.  Like French and Spanish, Italian is a romance language - one of several languages that evolved from Latin.  There are only a few communities in Italy in which Italian is not spoken as the first language.  German is the first language of many of the Terntino-Alto Adige region.  French is spoken as a first language in portions of the northwestern part of Italy.  Solvene, a Slavic language, and Ladin, a language similar to the Romanasch of the Swiss, are spoken in northern sections of Italy.

The Land, Environment and Growth Potential

Italy has eight different regions.  The first one is the Alpine Slope.  The Alpine Slope runs across the northernmost part of Italy.  Its landscape includes huge mountains and deep valleys.  Forests are found in the lower areas, in the higher areas, there are grasslands and conifer forests.  The melting snow feeds many rivers.  Many hydroelectric plants have been built along these rivers and help to power the factories of the north.

The second region of Italy is the Po Valley.  This area is also referred to as the North Italian Plain.  It is a broad plain that stretches between the Alps in the north and the Apennine mountains in the south.  This valley floods periodically, but a intricate system of dikes helps control the flooding.

The third region is the Adriatic Plain.  It is a small region north of the Adriatic Sea.  Its eastern edge borders Yugoslavia.  This area is not very well suited for farming.

The fourth region is the Apennines.  This region stretches almost the entire length of Italy.  The mountains in this region have steep inclines of soft rock and are constantly eroding as a result of heavy rain.  The northern Apennines have some of the largest forests in the country and much pasture land.  The central part of the range has productive farmland and grazing.  The southern Apennines include the poorest part of Italy.  This area has plateaus and high mountains, but few natural resources.

The fifth and sixth regions are the Apulia and southeastern Plains.  These form the "heel" of the boot-shaped peninsula.  This region is composed of plateaus that end as cliffs at the Mediterranean Sea.

The seventh region is the Western Uplands and Plains.  This area stretches along the Tyrrhenian Sea from La Spezia, a port city just south of Genoa, southward past Naples to Salerno.  It is a rich agricultural region, second only to the Po Valley in agricultural output.

Sicily is the eight region.  Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.  It is separated from mainland Italy by the Start of Messina.  The island has mountains and plains.  Mount Etna, one of the largest active volcanoes in the world, dominates the landscape of northeastern Silicy.  Sever erosion caused in part by the clearing of forests, has hampered agriculture and made travel in many inland areas difficult during the wet season.

The climate of Italy is temperate.  The spring, summer and fall are generally sunny, but winter is rainy and cloudy.  In early spring, hot dry air from the Sahara expands and covers Italy.  The summer climate of much of Italy is dry, with occasional rainstorms.

Technology

Italy's technological level is equal to that of the U.S in certain areas.  The northern part of Italy uses some of the most advanced manufacturing methods in its factories.  One quarter of the countries power is supplied through state of the art hydroelectric dams.  More than 450 privately owned television stations and over 1000 private radio stations are operating in Italy.

Italy has an excellent system of roads.  Large, modern superhighways run the length of the Italian peninsula.  Tunnels though the Alps link the highway system to those of neighboring countries.  Italy has an average of about 1 car for ever 3 people.

When compared to the United States, Italy is only slightly behind.  The United States has more advanced computers and telecommunications system.  In medical technology, Italy is equal to the U.S but the technology is not as widely available as it is in the United States.

Natural Resources

Italy is limited in the number of natural resources and must rely on imports.  Much of the mineral deposits in Italy are found on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia and in the regions of Lombardy, Tuscany and in the north-central and northwestern parts of the peninsula.  The most important natural resource of Italy is natural gas, which is found primarily in the Po Valley.  Italy also produces abundant amounts of marble and granite.  Other minerals important to Italy are feldspar, pumice and sulfur.

For it its energy supply, Italy relies upon other countries.  Petroleum imported from Libya provides more than half of the countries energy.  Italy imports much of its oil from Iran and Libya.

Italy produces very small amounts of petroleum.  Most of Italy's petroleum is found in Sicily.

I found Italy to be an interesting country.  Many of the greatest and most important eras in mankind occurred in Italy.  The Renaissance, The Roman Empire and some of World War II all happened in Italy.  I believe the historical and cultural significance of Italy is largely overlooked.

Another reason I chose Italy is that it is a country we rarely study in school.  When we study European history, we mainly cover France or Germany, etc.  We rarely get into countries that are just as important as Italy. When we do study them, we blend them all together and just get a brief overview of the countries history and culture.

One of the things that fascinated me about this country was its place in current world economics.  Italy has a high GDP and is heavily involved in trade on the Mediterannean.  Italy has the largest shipping fleet in the world.  When the news mentions the strongest economic nations, you never hear about Italy.   Yet I found that Italy is a significant player in world economics.

The government and political system of Italy also fascinated me.  The political system there seems more complex than the one in the United States.  The House of Deputies has over 600 members and the Senate over 300.  I also found It interesting that ex-presidents are given permanent positions in their government as Senators.

One of the things that bothered me in researching this paper was that it was difficult to summarize the history of the country.  Many of the books I had were long and covered the history in so much detail that it was hard to skim through and take out the important events and make them fit into this paper.  When researching this paper at the library, many of the books were either travel guides or books about the art of Italy.  There were quite a few about the culture and past but it took awhile to find them among all the travel guides.

If I had a chance to visit this nation I definitely would.  Italy seems like a fun place to visit because of all the old historic sites. It would be interesting to visit all the old Roman and middle age ruins that are located in Italy.

99.  Panama Canal 2

PANAMA CANAL

The canal is joining the atlantic and pacific oceans.  It runs from

Cristobal on lemon bay, a part of the Caribbean sea, to Balboa, on the

Gulf of Panama.  The canal is slightly more than 64 km long, not including

the dredged approach channels at either end.  The minimum depth is 12.5 m,

and the minimum width is 91.5 m.  The construction of the canal ranks as

one of the greatest engineering works of all time.

In history people had interest in a shorter route from the Atlantic to

Pacific.  This began with the explorers of Central America early in the 16th

century.  Hernan Cortez was a spanish conqeror of mexico who suggested

a canal across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.  Other explorers had favored

routes through Nicaragua and Darien.  The 1 st for a canal through the

Panama was started by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Who in 1523

ordered a survey of the isthmus.  A working plan for the canal was drawn

up as early as 1529, but was shown to the king.  In 1534 a spanish offical

suggested a canal route close to that of the present canal.  Later more of the

canal plans were suggested but no action was taken upon any of these plans

suggested.

Later on there is more in the canal.  The Spanish goverment

abandoned its interest in the canal but in the early 19 th century the books

of the Germam scientist Alexander von Humboldt brang back the interest

in the project of the canal, and in 1819the Spanish goverment formally

athorized the construction of a canal and the creation of a company to

build it.  Nothing came of this effort, however, and the revolt of the spanish

colonies soon took control of possible canal sites out of spanish hands .

The republics of Central America tried to interest groups in the United

States and Europe in building a canal, and it became a subject of perennial

debate in the congress of the United States.  The discovery of gold in

California in 1848 and the rush of would-be miners started the United

States interest in digging the canal.  Various surveys made between 1850

and 1875 indicated that only two routes were practical, the one across

Panama and that across Nicargua.  In 1876 an international company was

organized.  Two years later it obtained a consession from the Colombian

goverment.  Panama was then part of Colombia to dig a canal across the

isthmus.

The United States involvement was the international company failed,

and in 1880 a French company was organized by Ferdinand Marie de

Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal.  His company went bankrupt in 1889.

United States interest in a Atlantic-Pacific canal however continued.  In

1899 the United States congress created an Isthmian Canal comission to

examine the possibilities of a Central American canal and to recommend

a route.  The commission 1 st decided on the Nicaragua route, but reversed

its decission in 1902 when the reorganization Lesseps company offered its

assets to the United States at the price of $ 40 million.  The united States

goverment negotiated with the Colombian goverment to obtain a strip of

land 9.5 km wide across the isthmus, but the Colombian Senate refused to

ratify this consession.  In 1903 , however , Panama revolted from Colombia.

That same year the United States and the new state of Panama signed the

Hay - Bunau - Varilla Treaty by which the United States guaranteed the

independance of Panama and secured a perpetual lease on a 16 - km strip

for the canal.  Panama was to be compensated by an initial payment of

$ 10 million and an annuity of $ 250 , 000 , beginning in 1913 .  The figure

was later revised upward in 1936 to $ 430 , 000 , and in 1955 to $ 2 million

per year.

The construction  of the canal in 1905 the Isthmus Canal Commission

decided to build a canal with locks rather than a sea level channel , and this

plan was approved by the United States Congress the following year .

President Theodore Roosevelt put the construction work under the direction

of the United States Army Corps of Engineers .  Colonel George W . Goethalls

was named to head the project .

It was estamated that the canal would be completed in ten years ,

however , it was in operation in the summer of 1914 .  The construction

involved not only excavating an estamated 143 million cu m of earth , but also

sanitizing the entire canal area , Which was infested with mosquitos that

spread yellow fever and malaria .  The sanatation was under taken by Clonel

William C . Gorgas of the United States Army Medical Corps , who almost

eliminated the dissease .  An unexpected difficulty in the actual construction

was the prevailence of slides of earth from the banks of the canal , partially

in the Gaillard cut .  REexcavating after these such slides added about

25 % to the estamated amount of earth moved .  The final cost of the canal

was $ 336 million .

In 1977 the United States and Panama agreed on two treaties to replace

their 1903 agreement .  These treadies provided for Panama's sovereignty

over the canal zone shortly after their  ratification and it control of the canal

itself at the beginning of 2000 , but left the United States the right to defend

the canal even thereafter .  The treaties took affect in 1979 .

PANAMA CANAL

The canal is joining the atlantic and pacific oceans.  It runs from

Cristobal on lemon bay, a part of the Caribbean sea, to Balboa, on the

Gulf of Panama.  The canal is slightly more than 64 km long, not including

the dredged approach channels at either end.  The minimum depth is 12.5 m,

and the minimum width is 91.5 m.  The construction of the canal ranks as

one of the greatest engineering works of all time.

In history people had interest in a shorter route from the Atlantic to

Pacific.  This began with the explorers of Central America early in the 16th

century.  Hernan Cortez was a spanish conqeror of mexico who suggested

a canal across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.  Other explorers had favored

routes through Nicaragua and Darien.  The 1 st for a canal through the

Panama was started by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Who in 1523

ordered a survey of the isthmus.  A working plan for the canal was drawn

up as early as 1529, but was shown to the king.  In 1534 a spanish offical

suggested a canal route close to that of the present canal.  Later more of the

canal plans were suggested but no action was taken upon any of these plans

suggested.

Later on there is more in the canal.  The Spanish goverment

abandoned its interest in the canal but in the early 19 th century the books

of the Germam scientist Alexander von Humboldt brang back the interest

in the project of the canal, and in 1819the Spanish goverment formally

athorized the construction of a canal and the creation of a company to

build it.  Nothing came of this effort, however, and the revolt of the spanish

colonies soon took control of possible canal sites out of spanish hands .

The republics of Central America tried to interest groups in the United

States and Europe in building a canal, and it became a subject of perennial

debate in the congress of the United States.  The discovery of gold in

California in 1848 and the rush of would-be miners started the United

States interest in digging the canal.  Various surveys made between 1850

and 1875 indicated that only two routes were practical, the one across

Panama and that across Nicargua.  In 1876 an international company was

organized.  Two years later it obtained a consession from the Colombian

goverment.  Panama was then part of Colombia to dig a canal across the

isthmus.

The United States involvement was the international company failed,

and in 1880 a French company was organized by Ferdinand Marie de

Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal.  His company went bankrupt in 1889.

United States interest in a Atlantic-Pacific canal however continued.  In

1899 the United States congress created an Isthmian Canal comission to

examine the possibilities of a Central American canal and to recommend

a route.  The commission 1 st decided on the Nicaragua route, but reversed

its decission in 1902 when the reorganization Lesseps company offered its

assets to the United States at the price of $ 40 million.  The united States

goverment negotiated with the Colombian goverment to obtain a strip of

land 9.5 km wide across the isthmus, but the Colombian Senate refused to

ratify this consession.  In 1903 , however , Panama revolted from Colombia.

That same year the United States and the new state of Panama signed the

Hay - Bunau - Varilla Treaty by which the United States guaranteed the

independance of Panama and secured a perpetual lease on a 16 - km strip

for the canal.  Panama was to be compensated by an initial payment of

$ 10 million and an annuity of $ 250 , 000 , beginning in 1913 .  The figure

was later revised upward in 1936 to $ 430 , 000 , and in 1955 to $ 2 million

per year.

The construction  of the canal in 1905 the Isthmus Canal Commission

decided to build a canal with locks rather than a sea level channel , and this

plan was approved by the United States Congress the following year .

President Theodore Roosevelt put the construction work under the direction

of the United States Army Corps of Engineers .  Colonel George W . Goethalls

was named to head the project .

It was estamated that the canal would be completed in ten years ,

however , it was in operation in the summer of 1914 .  The construction

involved not only excavating an estamated 143 million cu m of earth , but also

sanitizing the entire canal area , Which was infested with mosquitos that

spread yellow fever and malaria .  The sanatation was under taken by Clonel

William C . Gorgas of the United States Army Medical Corps , who almost

eliminated the dissease .  An unexpected difficulty in the actual construction

was the prevailence of slides of earth from the banks of the canal , partially

in the Gaillard cut .  REexcavating after these such slides added about

25 % to the estamated amount of earth moved .  The final cost of the canal

was $ 336 million .

In 1977 the United States and Panama agreed on two treaties to replace

their 1903 agreement .  These treadies provided for Panama's sovereignty

over the canal zone shortly after their  ratification and it control of the canal

itself at the beginning of 2000 , but left the United States the right to defend

the canal even thereafter .  The treaties took affect in 1979 .

100.          Panama Canal

PANAMA CANAL

The canal is joining the atlantic and pacific oceans.  It runs from

Cristobal on lemon bay, a part of the Caribbean sea, to Balboa, on the

Gulf of Panama.  The canal is slightly more than 64 km long, not including

the dredged approach channels at either end.  The minimum depth is 12.5 m,

and the minimum width is 91.5 m.  The construction of the canal ranks as

one of the greatest engineering works of all time.

In history people had interest in a shorter route from the Atlantic to

Pacific.  This began with the explorers of Central America early in the 16th

century.  Hernan Cortez was a spanish conqeror of mexico who suggested

a canal across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.  Other explorers had favored

routes through Nicaragua and Darien.  The 1 st for a canal through the

Panama was started by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Who in 1523

ordered a survey of the isthmus.  A working plan for the canal was drawn

up as early as 1529, but was shown to the king.  In 1534 a spanish offical

suggested a canal route close to that of the present canal.  Later more of the

canal plans were suggested but no action was taken upon any of these plans

suggested.

Later on there is more in the canal.  The Spanish goverment

abandoned its interest in the canal but in the early 19 th century the books

of the Germam scientist Alexander von Humboldt brang back the interest

in the project of the canal, and in 1819the Spanish goverment formally

athorized the construction of a canal and the creation of a company to

build it.  Nothing came of this effort, however, and the revolt of the spanish

colonies soon took control of possible canal sites out of spanish hands .

The republics of Central America tried to interest groups in the United

States and Europe in building a canal, and it became a subject of perennial

debate in the congress of the United States.  The discovery of gold in

California in 1848 and the rush of would-be miners started the United

States interest in digging the canal.  Various surveys made between 1850

and 1875 indicated that only two routes were practical, the one across

Panama and that across Nicargua.  In 1876 an international company was

organized.  Two years later it obtained a consession from the Colombian

goverment.  Panama was then part of Colombia to dig a canal across the

isthmus.

The United States involvement was the international company failed,

and in 1880 a French company was organized by Ferdinand Marie de

Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal.  His company went bankrupt in 1889.

United States interest in a Atlantic-Pacific canal however continued.  In

1899 the United States congress created an Isthmian Canal comission to

examine the possibilities of a Central American canal and to recommend

a route.  The commission 1 st decided on the Nicaragua route, but reversed

its decission in 1902 when the reorganization Lesseps company offered its

assets to the United States at the price of $ 40 million.  The united States

goverment negotiated with the Colombian goverment to obtain a strip of

land 9.5 km wide across the isthmus, but the Colombian Senate refused to

ratify this consession.  In 1903 , however , Panama revolted from Colombia.

That same year the United States and the new state of Panama signed the

Hay - Bunau - Varilla Treaty by which the United States guaranteed the

independance of Panama and secured a perpetual lease on a 16 - km strip

for the canal.  Panama was to be compensated by an initial payment of

$ 10 million and an annuity of $ 250 , 000 , beginning in 1913 .  The figure

was later revised upward in 1936 to $ 430 , 000 , and in 1955 to $ 2 million

per year.

The construction  of the canal in 1905 the Isthmus Canal Commission

decided to build a canal with locks rather than a sea level channel , and this

plan was approved by the United States Congress the following year .

President Theodore Roosevelt put the construction work under the direction

of the United States Army Corps of Engineers .  Colonel George W . Goethalls

was named to head the project .

It was estamated that the canal would be completed in ten years ,

however , it was in operation in the summer of 1914 .  The construction

involved not only excavating an estamated 143 million cu m of earth , but also

sanitizing the entire canal area , Which was infested with mosquitos that

spread yellow fever and malaria .  The sanatation was under taken by Clonel

William C . Gorgas of the United States Army Medical Corps , who almost

eliminated the dissease .  An unexpected difficulty in the actual construction

was the prevailence of slides of earth from the banks of the canal , partially

in the Gaillard cut .  REexcavating after these such slides added about

25 % to the estamated amount of earth moved .  The final cost of the canal

was $ 336 million .

In 1977 the United States and Panama agreed on two treaties to replace

their 1903 agreement .  These treadies provided for Panama's sovereignty

over the canal zone shortly after their  ratification and it control of the canal

itself at the beginning of 2000 , but left the United States the right to defend

the canal even thereafter .  The treaties took affect in 1979 .

101.          Parking Planning

The University of ___________

Parking Deck Project

Principals of Planning

GE 310

Fall 1996

The University of ________________ has been confronted with claims of parking shortages over the past several years.  Many of these claims were not supported by any facts or figures that explained the cause of the parking shortages.  In fact, some of the claims of insufficient parking were based on students not being able to locate parking spaces in the parking lots adjacent to their first class.  Due to recent and projected enrollment increases, there now exist a genuine parking shortage.   Therefore,  the purpose of this study is to evaluate the current parking, plan for future parking needs, and propose possible locations for increased parking spaces at the University of ______________.

The 1996 enrollment for the University of ______________ is 4,960.  The enrollment increased approximately twelve (12) students from the 1995 enrollment.  There are currently 2,303 total parking spaces on University property.  The University Master Plan recommends one parking space for every 1.8 students.  The student enrollment, (divided by) the number of students per parking space, (equals) the number of recommended parking spaces.

1996 Enrollment ........................   4,960

Students Per Parking Space.........   /  1.8     (Divided by)

Recommended Parking Spaces... = 2,756

Recommended Parking Spaces..     2,756

Current Parking Spaces..............  - 2,303 (Minus)

Shortage of Parking Spaces......  =    453

The number of Students Per Parking Space ( 1.8 ) is based on a national average of University parking.  This formula shows that the University is currently deficient 453 parking spaces.

The existing parking areas are positioned at various locations on the campus of the University.  These parking lots vary in size from 6 to 294 spaces.  Many of the parking areas are located in the heart of the University.  This allows for easy accessibility but it takes away from the aesthetic beauty of the campus.  The existing parking areas also cause traffic congestion in their immediate area.  The majority of the parking lots are located on streets that have limited access or the exits do not allow for an easy transition into existing streets.

Planning for the future growth of the University of __________________ is essential when assessing its future parking needs.  The University of North Alabama Master Plan must be taken into consideration when planning for the future.  The Master Plan proposes many changes for the overall improvement of the University.(See Figure 2)   These improvements include dramatic changes in the existing parking facilities of the University.  The physical changes that have been proposed by the Master Plan must be used in conjunction with demographic data in order to provide a user friendly and beautiful campus.

The University Master Plan proposes many creative ideas for the future of the University.  These ideas, if enacted, would cause the campus to be more aesthetically pleasing and efficient.  The University Master Plan contains plans to remove and redesign much of the internal parking on the campus.  Parking spaces in the following areas would be eliminated: Wesleyan Ave., Morrison Ave., parking lot K, parking lot E, and parking lot H. (see Figure 1)  There will be a total of approximately 400 parking spaces that will need to be relocated in order to conform to the Master Plan.   These lost parking spaces must be accommodated in another location.  The number of lost parking spaces when added to the existing parking shortage will result in a parking space deficiency of over 800.  This will cause a substantial parking shortage in the near future if plans are not quickly enacted.

Projected enrollment must be taken into consideration, in order to make sure that the University has adequate facilities for the students and faculty.  The University Admissions Office is projecting an enrollment increase of 347 over the next five (5) years.  (This figure was derived from the formula used earlier in the study).  This increase, when added to the existing parking shortage, would result in the deficiency of 645 parking spaces.  Five (5) years is a relatively short period of time and the parking problems will only compound in the future.

After conforming to the Master Plan and planning for enrollment growth the University will be deficient over 1000 spaces.  These figures are overwhelming.  This is why an appropriate plan must be reviewed and approved as soon as possible.

Now that the parking needs of the University have been discussed, an appropriate site(s) must be found for the new parking facilities. The use of a parking deck would be best suited to the needs of the University. Guidelines should be followed in order to insure an efficient and pleasant parking facility.  Accessibility, ample area, convenience, and cost are a few of the criteria that will be discussed for locating the new parking deck.

After reviewing the criteria, the location for the new parking facility should be at the current Kilby School.  Plans have already been discussed for the relocation of Kilby School and the future empty location would provide the optimum qualities needed for a new parking deck.   The Master Plan places practice athletic fields at this location.  Therefore, it would not be displacing any dominant structures in the area.(see Figure 2)   These qualities are covered in the preceding paragraph.

The location provides excellent accessibility.  Pine Street is a four lane street that could easily meet the increased traffic flow caused my the addition of the parking deck.  Oakview Drive could easily be expanded and connected to Stewart Street.  This would provide access from an alternate direction.  Traffic lights and existing intersections would regulate the traffic flow from the parking deck smoothly into existing traffic. (see Figure 2)  The use of express exits would be implemented to accommodate the high traffic flow exiting the parking deck after classes or during other school activities.

The Kilby location would also provide ample area for the construction.  This site could easily accommodate 300 parking spaces per level.  This would still allow room for landscaping and access roads that would serve the parking deck.  This large area would also eliminate the need of stacking a high number of layers into a small area.

The proposed location would also be convenient for all of its users.  Its location would provide short walking distances to all of the buildings on campus.  It would be useful during activities held at Norton Auditorium and the Student Union Building.  The location would easily accommodate the parking spaces that will be eliminate in parking lot K (behind the Guillot Center).  A simple pedestrian walk over Pine Street would provide all users safe access to the entire campus.

The cost of the parking would be held to a minimum.  This is due to the small amount of excavation that would be needed to prepare the site for building.  The parking deck would only need a few levels do to its large area.  It would also be easy to build the structure so that more  level additions would be possible.  All of these options give the University the flexibility to build a parking deck that is economically feasible.

This study has reviewed the existing parking facilities and their capabilities at the University.  It has also discussed the present and future parking shortages that it is facing.  It has attempted to conform to the Master Plan of the University and shown methods to eliminate the parking dilemma.  Hopefully all of these ideas can be reviewed and implemented to improve the overall beauty and efficiency of the University of ____________________.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

University of _____________________ Master Plan.

Arcy Thomas J.,1994., The Dimensions of Parking., ULI-the Urban Land Institute.

Branch Melville C., 1983., Comprehensive City Planning., American Planning Association.

102.          planning of a town

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103.          Project

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104.          Pyramids

On the rocky plateau of Giza, rise three great pyramids, each built during the lifetime of a pharaoh. Together, these pyramids constitute the most celebrated group of monuments in the world.  While the pyramids at Giza were built in the Fourth Dynasty (2615-2500 BC), the first pyramid was actually built in Saqqara during the reign of King Zoser of the Third Dynasty. This first pyramid was a step pyramid meaning that the sides were not filled to make an even surface.

Egypt, like no other land, has drawn historians, theologists and scientists to study the pyramids.  The historians are still coming up with new theories about why they were built and who built them. There are many mysteries about the pyramids that are waiting to be unlocked.

The pyramids were not built in isolation but as part of a larger complex dedicated to the dead.  The Egyptians believed that the physical body has a vital spiritual force, which they called ka.  If the physical body was properly preserved and the tomb furnished with all the various objects of regular life, the ka could return and continue its life despite the death of the physical body.

The Egyptians also had other means of burial practices.  Many of the pharaohs were buried in hidden temples.  A famous discovery is the one of King Tutankhamen.

King Cheops of the Fourth Dynasty chose a plateau in Giza for his pyramid.  He followed his father's constructions which was the first real pyramid.

The pyramid of Cheops was also known as the Great Pyramid.  One hundred thousand Egyptians worked on it for twenty years before it was completed.  It was the largest tomb-pyramid ever built.  It was said that if the pyramid was taken apart, the stones could build a wall ten feet tall and one foot wide all around the entire county of France.  The Great Pyramid was made of granite and limestone.  Two late kings of the Fourth Dynasty, Cephren and Mycerinus, followed Cheops's example by building their pyramids on the same plateau.

The interior of the pyramid is mostly a series of halls.  The halls are not decorated with any valuable objects.  In fact, they are not decorated at all.  The interior is kind of like a maze.  The only valuables you may find are in the tombs.  The tombs are furnished with precious jewels and stones.  A lot of these jewels have been put in museums.  Unfortunately, some of them had been stolen by grave robbers.

No land has been so expansively treated with wonders, as Egypt has.  It is filled with treasures waiting to be discovered.  There are many questions to be answered and mysteries to be solved.

105.          Quebec

Quebec, The Province, The People, The History

Quebec is a province in eastern Canada, bordered on the north by Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay; on the east by Labrador (Which is a part of Newfoundland), the Strait of Belle Isle, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; on the south by New Brunswick, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, and Ontario; and on the west by Ontario, James Bay, and Hudson Bay.

The name Quebec is derived from an Algonquian term for "place where the river narrows," referring to the Saint Lawrence River near the site of present-day Quebec City, the capital of the province.

Quebec is sometimes called "the Storied Province," Quebec became part of the Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, as one of the four original provinces.

The province of Quebec was first colonized by France and was formally acquired by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1763. The mass majority of Quebec's population today use French as their first language. Beginning in the 1960s the Quebecois (French-speaking residents of Quebec) made strong efforts to preserve their French heritage as well as to gain additional powers for the province, which led to conflicts with the national government that have yet to be fully resolved. This is apparent in the recent "Referendum" where theQuebecois tried to get Quebec special provincial concederations based on the fact the mass majority of Quebec residents speak French.

Quebec is the largest of all the Canadian provinces. Its large area of 1,540,680 sq km (594,858 sq MI) accounts for 15.5 percent of Canada's total area and includes 183,890 sq km (71,000 sq MI) of inland freshwater surface. This is a major draw for Industry in Quebec. Elevations in Quebec range from sea level to 1622 m (5322 ft), atop Mont D'Iberville in the Torngat Mountains in the northeast. Anticosti Island and the Magdalen Islands, (which are both in the Gulf of St. Lawrence), are part of Quebec, which has a tidal shoreline of some 13,775 km (some 8560 MI).

Montreal is the leading industrial and commercial center and largest city in the province of Quebec.

The climate of Quebec varies drastically. Quebec's climate is effected by regional variations in altitude and by the pce's northern location, and its exposed position between the cold waters of Hudson Bay and the cold ocean currents along the Labrador coast. Montreal has an average January temperature of about -9° C (about 16° F) and an average July temperature of about 22° C (about 72° F). The recorded temperatures in the province have ranged from -54.4° C (-65.9° F), in 1923 at Doucet in the south, to 40° C (104° F), in 1921 at Ville Marie in the southwest.

According to the 1991 census, Quebec had a population of 6,895,963 people, an increase of 5.6 percent over 1986. The population density in 1991 was about 4 persons per sq km (12 per sq MI); the distribution of population, however, was uneven, with the majority concentrated in the extreme southeast of Quebec, mainly due to extreme temperature in the north. French was the main native language of about 81% of the people; about 9% had English as their only native language. Most of the English-speaking people live in Montreal and the Eastern Townships, because English is very common here. Quebec's largest cities are: Montreal, the largest city in Canada; Laval; Quebec City, the provincial capital; Longueuil; Gatineau; and Montreal-Nord.

106.          Russia

To Russian Jews, the synagogue was the center of  religion and religion was the

most important thing in their lives.  The rabbi was their leader, they came to him with

every problem they had.  Jews were poor, but they all gave tzedakah.  It was said that

even the poorest Jews could find someone poorer to help and give money to.  According

to the Jewish religion, tzedakah is one of the most important mitzvahs you can do.  The

same could be said about the Jewish holidays.  They were observed very strictly, but

Shabbat was the most welcomed.  In order to teach the importance of Jewish law, they

started their own schools, their own courts of law, and their own burial societies.  even

though there were pogroms, religious persecution forced the Jews to create stronger

communities and made them more united.

In the beginning of the 1800s, Alexander I ruled Russia.  He promised the Jews

that they could become farmers, could live in two districts, and could buy unoccupied

land.  Although Alexander was kind and helped the Jews, the tax they were forced to pay,

stayed.  before he died in 1825, the Jewish situation became hard for them to bare.  They

lived in poverty in small and crowded places and were oppressed.

For hundreds of years, Jews lived these ways in two communities - the ghetto and the

shtetl.  To keep out thieves and rioters from coming in, they built walls around their

section of town.  When they did this, the government and churches got an idea, they

would use the walls that the Jews built, to lock them in.

These walls were located near a foundry that made cannons, so they named it

"ghetto" which means "foundry".  They would close the gates every night and the Jews

would be locked in until daybreak.  The word of the ghettos quickly spread, soon there

were ghettos all over Europe. The Jews were all treated the same in every ghetto that was

in Europe,  according the government and churches, the Jews had no rights.  They were

no allowed to own land, join crafts guilds, or do any kind of work that Christians got to

do.  In some ghettos, they were even forced to wear badges so anyone who saw them

would know they were Jewish.  The badge was usually a Star of David.  For many years,

the government took copies of the Talmud, and burnt them.  Also the government forced

the Jews to listen to long Christian sermons.  Even though all these terrible things took

place and the government was not good to the Jews, the ghettos seemed to be a better

place for most Jews than the outside.  The rich helped the poor and even the poorest Jew

was treated with respect because of what the Jewish law said.  Though their living

conditions were not the best, the Jews all worked, studied, celebrated, and prayed

together.  They also tried to make life as worthwhile as possible.

During the period that ghettos were spreading and becoming more well-known,

shtetls, which mean "little towns", were beginning to take shape.  Many of the Jews

settled outside the main cities, this is where they formed their shtetls.  Unlike ghettos, the

shtetls were protected by the government because the Jews served the nobles as bankers,

tax collectors, and farm managers.  Also, there were no walls surrounding it to keep out

thieves and rioters.  In the center of the shtetl stood the synagogue, and at the center of

life of the synagogue, was the rabbi.  Jews thought being rich was nice but being a good

student was better.  Each shtetl contained a population of between 1,000 to 20,000 Jews.

The Jewish community in Russia extends back about ten centuries in history.  Until the

middle of the 18th century, Russia did not have any Jews in it.  At that time, the Jews

were granted a permission to their own council of four lands: Great Poland, Little Poland,

"Russia", and Volhynia.  They excised religious, economic, and political control over the

Jews.  In1812, Napoleon invaded Russia and in 1827, the Czar said that the Jews had to

serve in the army for a term of 25 years.  He hoped that in that period many of them

would change their religion.  Very often, the poor were forced to starve while the rich

managed not to.

Around the middle of the 1800s, the Haskalah movement formed in Russia, it was

different from the enlightenment movement in the rest of Europe.  It promoted

intellectual and social awareness of Russian Jewry.  They used Hebrew and Yiddish

literature to reach the masses.

In 1881, Czar Alexander II was assassinated.  Once this happened, Alexander III

took over the throne.  That year in April, Anti-Jewish riots or pogroms broke out, it

involved looting, property damage, and personal injury.  In 1882, under the May Laws,

Jews could no longer settle in rural villages.  If they left their towns, they were not

allowed to come back in.  They were forbidden to trade on Sundays and Christians

holidays, did not have access to universities, and they could not work in all professions.

The Jews were constantly harassed by the police and were forced to get out of  their

homes.  The czarist government made it clear that the Jews had no true home in Russia.

The pressure increased in each passing year.  The expulsion of Moscow's 35,000 Jews

began in 1891.  This situation caused many young Russians to go to other countries for a

higher education.  They developed their own Revolutionary ideas, it was called Zionism.

Jews who did not want to fight for the Czar and wanted to escape the pogroms

started to immigrate out of Russia.  Each year between 1881 and 1899 nearly 23,000

Jews left Russia.  Some came to the U.S, some remained in Europe, and some made the

journey to Palestine.

The economic condition in Russia under the Czar was very bad.  At times, food

and money were scarce.  Mobs would be invading ghettos and shtetls often, looting and

burning leaving the Jews with nothing.  When one house caught on fire, it was not

unusual for the whole street to burn down since all of the homes were made of wood and

their houses were built very close together.  This left the whole community without

shelter, food, or anymore clothing than they had on them at the time.  They would have to

go to the forest and start to chop all new wood so they could rebuild their homes and start

all over again.  When doing this, they were limited to whatever tools they had, which was

not much because they could not afford to buy a lot of tools.  Meanwhile, There were

some basic economical and social changes in Europe, which forever changed the life of

all men.  The Industrial Resolution started to take shape.  Industry moved out of the

home and into the factories.  Small towns grew in population to become big cities and

brought comforts and luxuries to the common man.  Most of all, production increased

and the whole world became the manufacturer's market.  many people were eager to

invest their savings, including the Jews, in factories, mines, workshops, railroads, and

steamships.  Thousands of daring investors became rich and they gained enormous

economic power.  In this period, Jews found remarkable opportunities to improve their

lives.  All factories and industries which needed investors and workers, did not check for

religion or a social background of those who could supply them with what they needed.

They did not stop to examine the racial background of those who were willing hands and

who could be of service.  To them, profits were the most important thing.  These

economic changes helped to bring equality to the Jews.  Some Jewish families became

very powerful like the Rothchilds family.  Usually when Jews obtain financial strength,

they turned to help other Jews who were not as fortunate.  By 1875, Jewish political

equality had been won in most of Europe.  All of these changes, however, in reality, did

not stop Anti-Semitism.  In the early 20th century, Russia was still Anti-Jewish as they

were during the middle ages. At this period, the Zionist movement had been founded.

Many Jews decided to leave Russia while they could, seek a better life, and better

opportunities elsewhere.

107.          Rwanda

Rwanda Report

Rwanda is an African country in East Central Africa. Rwanda is

just a very little degrees below the Equator which is not too shabby

in my mind. Below the Equator would be in the south and so it is

actually in south central. Get it South Central (get it)HA!HA! In

Rwanda there are about seven hundred and ten per square which in

my mind a whole lot of people I don't think even San Bernardino

has that many but what do I know. Rwanda is twenty six thousand

three hundred and eighty eight miles squared which in my mind is

tiny but I'll say again what do I knows. So to figure out what the

exact population of this measly little country you must multiply

seven hundred and ten by twenty six thousand three hundred and

eighty eight and you get a whole lot but when I looked in the book

it said seven million two hundred twenty two thousand people.

This enormous number doesn't look right but I am too lazy too get

up and get a calculator too check so I'll take their word of it.

The capital city in Rwanda is Kigali which is also the biggest city

in Rwanda I can't find how big it is but it must be bigger than

twenty miles square and under twenty six thousand three hundred

and thirty eight square miles.

The official name of Rwanda is called The Republic Of Rwanda

. Rwanda is also landlocked which doesn't help much either. Since

it is landlocked I will tell you which countries it is surrounded by

on the north it is by Ughanda, on the east by Tanzanian the south

by Burundi and finally on the west it is next to Zaire. Rwanda is one

of the poorest countries in the world and it is one of the most

densely populated country in the world. One of the reasons for

Rwanda being in such a bad state of poverty is that there was a

Civil war between the Hutu and the Tutsi which fought for stupid

reasons. Well at least I think that they are stupid reasons but to

them it was probably some serious stuff that they don't take very

lightly. The Hutu are very short people that make up about ninety

two percent of the population. The Hutu are not pygmies but they

are very short people that are about three feet tall a piece which is

about two feet shorter than I am and now that is pretty short in my

mind. The Hutu make their living by being farmers and doing

farm related activities which include raising animals for food.

The Tutsi on the other hand are very tall people that make up about

only eight percent of the community of Rwanda. The Tutsi run the

government and some Tutsi are also herders that heard cattle

and goats. The war between them that they had was about

religion, height and about well I guess you can call it pride. This

war actually started though with the Hutu rebelling from the Tutsi

and well it went crazy from there with two million people leaving

and a gory blood bath with thousands and thousands of people

dying. The Tutsi had the most casualties on their side even though

they outheighted if that is even a word the Hutu by about well a

good three feet or so.

108.          South Africas Energy Outlook

Introduction

Energy is defined as something that creates action. Energy has always been a necessity, because everything requires it in one way or another to work.  Without energy, there could bo no electricity, no modern convieniences, or industrialization. Unfortunatly, energy usually means that are negative impacts on the environment. Some of the environmental impacts include, air pollution, land pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, and general aesthetic problems. I plan to come up with a plan to make South Africa's resources last, with minimal effects on the environment, which is cost effective, as well as realistic.

Current Energy Profile

South Africa is a nation with many reasources. It has many mines, that mine many different minerals, including coal, uranium, and diamonds. South Africa only has six-percent of the total population in Africa, but it produces sixty-percent of it's energy.

Coal mines fill the country. It currently has more than sixty open mines open. In total, the country has 121,218 million tons of coal, and 55,333 million tons of that are projected reserves. Coal currently supplies 84% of South Africa's electricity.

Suth Africa has been looking to develop and find  more sources of natural gas, and oil. Large amounts of gas were recently found at Mossel Bay on the south coast. The reserves are large enough to produce 25,000 of diesel and petrol a day for thirty years.

South Africa has one nuclear power plant. It also has a large supply of Uranuim, which is a by product of copper mining. It has

247,600 metric tons of recoverable uranium with a cost of less than $80.00 per ton. It has 96,800 at a cost of less than $130.00 per ton, and provides 14% of the western world's uranium.

Renewable resources only supply 5% of the total energy. It has three hydro-electric plants. More aren't being developed, because there would have to be many dams, and resivoirs built. It also lies in a dry area of Africa.

South Africa's  currently uses 3,756 miilion GJ of energy a year. It is broken up by, 48% for industry, 24% for transportation,  17% by households, 8% by the mining industry, and 3% for agriculture.

91% of South Africa's energy is produced by the Escom Company. It uses the following sources.

- 20 coal fired plants -

- 3 hydro-electric plants -

- 2 gas turbine plants -

- 1 nuclear power station -

Hydro-electric:

The southern, and eastern coastlines have much more water than the interior. 33,000 million m3  of water is available in storage dams.  It has been estimated that there is 5,400 million cubic meters of groundwater. Current project say that by 2010 only 3.5% of total energy production will be hydro-electric. If the system was made more efficient, it would be easy to make more power. A return flow system needs to be installed in urban areas, so that the water can be used again. South Africa could easily rely on their hydro-electric capacity to be 5% by the year 2025.

Nuclear Power:

South Africa's nuclear possibilities are limitless. It has all the supplies to make more plants easily. But, it has a past that includes many conflicts. The initail cost of building the plants is very expensive, and there is also the costs of having to constantly retrain employees. If a commision is started to make sure that if more plants are built they are clean, and wastes are being disposed of properly, thing could work. By 2025, it should also supply 5% of total enegy.

Oil and Natural Gas:

Currently these two combined supply less than 10%. This should be redused. There needs to be a way to save the resources, because these will be gone in less than 30 years.

Biomass:

This is one way they can make up for the saving of oil and natuarl gas. They don't have any biomass production now, so anything would be better.  With 34,000,000 people, the option is obviously there. It also has a 2/1 yield/cost ratio. Some of the forst would have to be cut to supply a space for the biomass, and that is a potential problem, but if planned properly it isn't. 5% of the country's total energy production should be biomass by 2025.

Wind Power:

This is what is really going to do it for South Africa. In the eastern transvaal, winds are eastern. In the central, winds are north-easterly. In the western and southern interior, winds are westerly. There are always winds on the coasts. Large spaces between urban ares are good places for wind powered generators. As with all wind powered generators, there will be problems with birds dying, but these are minimal.  Wind generators don't require many workers to run them. I propose that 20% of the electricity should come from wind by 2025.

Solar Power:

South Africa also has a good potential for solatr power. It has a high average tempertaure, and is a dry country, which means it is usually sunny. The cost are more expensive than other power sources, but there are no environmental costs, and it will never run out. The only pollution it has is the dicarding of batteries, and that isn't very often, and with new ways of disposing batteries it is very safe.  I propose 25% of the power to be supplied from the sun.

Coal:

Coal needs to be discontinued slowly. The expotation of coal, is extremely important to the economy.  It would have to be dicontinued slow enough, so that all the people working in all the aspects that relate to coal could find new jobs.  Coal still needs to provide a large part of electricity production. The coal the country has is the cleanest burning, and supplies the most heat, this is good.  Mainly coal just needs to be used less, so that it will last longer. I would like to see that by 2025, only 30% of the power be from coal.

109.          Spain 2

Statsskick och politik

Enligt författningen, som godkändes i en folkomröstning 1978, är Spanien en

ärftlig monarki med kungen som statsöverhuvud. han utser premiärministern och

på den senares inråd de övriga regeringsledamötena.

Regeringen är ansvarig inför Cortes Generales, ett parlament med två kamrar.

Deputeradekammaren har 350 ledamöter, som väljs för fyra år enligt en

proportionell metod; partierna måste klara en treprocentsspärr för att bli

representerade i kammaren. Senaten har 302 ledamöten, varav 255 väljs direkt

och resten av de autonoma regionernas församlingar. Det finns 17 autonoma

regioner med egna regionala parlament och regeringar.

År 1982 erövrade PSOE ((Partido Socialista) spansk socialistparti)

regeringsmakten, som de behållit trots flera motgångar. Att detta lyckats är till

stor del Felipe Gonzáles förtjänst. Under hans ledning har partiet lämnat en rad

gamla socialistiska dogmer. Redan 1979 krävde han att marxismen skulle strykas

ur partiprogrammet, vilket accepterades först efter hård strid. Trots att PSOE

förlorade sin majoritet i 1993 års val kunde Gonzáles bilda en minoritetsregering

av socialister och partilösa. Han stöddes av de moderata baskiska och katalanska

nationalisterna, men båda vägrade ingå i en koalition med socialisterna. Den

borgerliga oppositionen är organiserade i PP (( Partido Popular) Folkpartiet), som

är ett högerparti och CDS ((Centro democratico y social).

Vänsteroppositionen utgörs främst av IU ((Izquierda Unida) Förenade vänstern) i

vilket bl.a. PCE ( Kommunistpartiet ) ingår.

Rättsväsen

Rättsordningen i Spanien är i huvudsak kodifierad, med bl.a. civillag, handelslag,

strafflag, civilprosseslag och straffprocesslag. Lokala avvikelser förekommer,

särskilt inom familje- och arvsrätten. Domstolsväsendet består av

Författningsdomstolen, Högsta domstolen (Tribunal supremo) och ett antal olika

lägre insatser. Under de senaste åren har rättsutvecklingen i Spanien påverkats av

landets medlemskap i EU.

Av :  Peter Sztankovits

&

Marika Raudasoja

Spsa 2                                                 Samhälle

110.          Spain Essay

The country of Spain lies on the continent of Europe. It is located forty degrees north and four degrees west. The capital of Spain, Madrid, is located in the central region known as the Centro-Meseta. The country of Spain is made up of four regions: El norte, El este, El sur, and Centro-Meseta. Spain's large area of 195,988 square miles covers about five sixths of the Iberian Peninsula. It is one of the largest countries in Western Europe. At its widest point, Spain stretches 635 miles from east to west. It stretches about 550 miles north to south. Spain's longest coastline lies along the Mediterranean Sea and stretches for almost 1700 miles from the eastern end of the Pyrenees mountain chain to the strait of Gibraltar. The Pyrenees, one of Europe's largest mountain chains, is 270 miles long. They are practically impassable to humans because are formed from only steep gorges that lead higher summits.

Spain is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean called the Gulf of Cadiz. The Huelva, Rota, and Cadiz ports lie on this coast and further up the Guadalquivir River is the ancient transportation center Seville. Some other major rivers in Spain are the Douro, Tagus, and Ebro rivers. Spain's currency is the peseta and is currently equal to one hundred centimos. The exchange rate has one U. S. Dollar for 134.61 pesetas.

More that thirty-nine million people reside in the country of  Spain. That is because it is made up of a large ethnic diversity. Its location between Europe and Africa has resulted in a great mixing of races and cultures. The only distinct minority group generally recognized as outside the racial-cultural mainstream of Spanish society is made up of Gypsies, many of whom still follow nomadic life-style along the roads and highways. Fairly large communities of settled Gypsies are found in the cities of Mucia, Granada, Barcelona, and Madrid.

Spain is overwhelmingly urban, with seventy-six percent of its people living in towns and cities. This concentration of Spain's people heightens the impression of emptiness that so often is commented on by the travelers, specially those who cross the Meseta.

Most of the Spanish portion of the Iberian Peninsula is very thinly populated. In the Centro-Meseta region only the areas around Madrid and Saragossa have dense settlement.

There are many different kinds of languages spoken in Spain. Modern Spanish also referred to as Castilian, is spoken throughout Spain and is the official language. Castilian is often a second language, not a mother tongue. In el norte two regional languages are widely spoken. One, the language of Basque people, is called Euskara. It is on of Europe's oldest languages but is different from the Indo-European and Uralic languages spoken across the rest of Europe.  The constitution of 1978 made Euskara an official local language and afforded increased political autonomy to the Basque provinces.

In the region of Galicia a language known as Gallego is widely used, and also since 1978 it too has been recognized as an official language to be taught in schools. Modern Portuguese evolved from Gallego, which resembles a cross between Portuguese and Spanish. From eighty to eighty five percent of Galicia's three million inhabitants speak Gallego. Attempt have been made to standardize the spelling and grammar, but they have not been entirely successful. A kind of common Galician language is beginning to emerge as a spoken tongue in the province's larger towns.

Catalan is another language that enjoys a special status under Spain's constitution. It is a "romance" language with highly developed literature. Most of the seven million people who speak Catalan are located in El este. It is the official language in the three communities Catalonia, Valencia, and Balearics. Catalan Speakers also live in the eastern fringe of Aragon, Andorra, southwestern France, and part of Sardinia. Catalonia's government promotes its official language both at home and in other countries.

Religion is very important to most Spaniards. Many Spanish people are baptized, married and buried as members of the Roman Catholic church. Under the 1978 constitution the church is no longer Spain's official or established faith, though financial support is still provided by the state. As a result, the church's influence in Spanish society has declined sharply, though officially more than ninety four percent of the population is reported as being Roman Catholic. The church supported the democratic movement and so helped foster the new attitude of tolerance and personal freedom found in present-day Spain.

Many of Spain's non-Catholic citizens are members of some Protestant Church. Small Eastern Orthodox congregations are found along with Muslim and Jewish groups. Among non-Christian Jews form the major community.

Spain's culture revolves around many different things. Clothing styles are generally not that much than the ones in the U. S. Most Spaniards dress in modern clothes. The beret is still widely worn, especially in the Basque country, and Galician men still favor cloth caps. Jeans, T-shirts, and tennis shoes are now as popular in the Iberian Peninsula as everywhere else in Europe.

Cuisine is another important aspect of Spanish culture. The Spanish, like other Mediterranean people, are particularly fond of sidewalk cafes, where a cup of coffee, glass of wine, or a meal can be enjoyed with friends. Seafood is particularly favored on most Spanish menus. Olive oil is used abundantly in cooking, as are garlic, saffron, and peppers. Rice is popular, especially in el sur and along the Mediterranean coast. Rice and pulses dried beans, lentils, and chick peas cooked with fish, chicken, or pork are basics in Spanish cuisine.

One thing that sets the Spanish apart from most Europeans living beyond the Pyrenees is their national spectacle of bullfighting. Every city and most towns of any size host a bullring, where the crowds cheer their favorite but jeer the matador, as he faces the bull. The matador taunts and teases the bull until the end when he ultimately kills the bull with his sword. Many Northern Europeans are critically and condemn it as a cruel and blood sport. Most Spaniards do not see it this way. To them bullfighting is an exciting test of bravery, skill, and grace.

Mining activities over most of Western Europe, have declined sharply. In Spain, however mining continues to play a role in the economy. Spain produces almost all the copper mined in the twelve countries of the European communities, and it leads in the production of lead and zinc. Spain is also Europe's leading producer of high-grade iron ore. In terms of total iron ore produced, Spain follows only France, where most of the ore is of far lower quality.

Spain's coal mines located in Austria and along the Sierra Morena, showed a steady increase in production  from 1975 to 1985. In 1985 Spain was Western Europe's third largest coal producer, behind Britain and West Germany. In the production of lignite, a low-quality from of coal, Spain also ranked third.

Although its position has declined, agriculture a significant part of Spain's national economy and landscape. Spain has more than twelve millions acres under permanent percent of Spain's workers are employed in agriculture, and in 1987 they produced about six percent of the gross domestic product. They produce crops such as sugar cane, cotton, mulberries, citrus fruits, bananas, dates, figs, almonds, sunflowers, olives, tomatoes, green beans, avocados, wheat, rice barley, and tobacco.

There are many wild animals that roam the land of Spain. Sheep and cattle are usually used for livestock. Other animals such as bulls, horses and donkeys often drift around, unnoticed by the people that pass.

111.          Spain

Spain

Spain, a country occupying the greater part of the Iberian Peninsula, and bounded on the north

by the Bay of Biscay, France, and Andorra, and on the east by the Mediterranean Sea. The Balearic

Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa are

governed as provinces of Spain. Also, Spain administers two small exclaves in Morocco-Ceuta and

Melilla. The area of Spain, including the African and insular territories, is 194,885 sq mi. Madrid is the

capital and largest city.

Population

The Spanish people are essentially a mixture of the indigenous peoples of the Iberian Peninsula with the

successive peoples who conquered the peninsula and occupied it for extended periods. These added

ethnologic elements include the Romans, a Mediterranean people, and the Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths,

Teutonic peoples. Semitic elements are also present.

Population Characteristics

The population of Spain at the 1991 census was 38,872,268. The estimate for 1995 is 39,276,000, giving

the country an overall density of about  202 per sq mi. Spain is increasingly urban, with more than 80

percent of the population in towns and cities.

Principal Cities

The capital and largest city is Madrid (population, greater city, 1991, 3,010,492), also the capital of

Madrid autonomous region; the second largest city, chief port, and commercial center is Barcelona, capital

of Barcelona province and Catalonia region. Other important cities include Valencia, capital of Valencia

province and Valencia region, a manufacturing and railroad center; Seville, a cultural center; Saragossa,

and Bilbao (369,839), a busy port.

Religion

Roman Catholicism is professed by about 97 percent of the population. The country is divided into 11

metropolitan and 52 suffragan sees. In addition, the archdioceses of Barcelona and Madrid are directly

responsible to the Holy See. Formerly, Roman Catholicism was the established church, but the 1978

constitution decreed that Spain shall have no state religion, while recognizing the role of the Roman

Catholic church in Spanish society. There are small communities of Protestants, Jews, and Muslims.

Higher Education

Spanish institutions of higher education enrolled nearly 1.3 million students in the early 1990s. The major

universities of Spain include the University of Madrid, the Polytechnical University of Madrid (1971), the

University of Barcelona (1450), the University of Granada (1526), the University of Salamanca, the

University of Seville (1502), and the University of Valencia (1510).

Culture

Any consideration of Spanish culture must stress the tremendous importance of religion in the history of

the country and in the life of the individual. An index of the influence of Roman Catholicism is provided by

the fervent mystical element in the art and literature of Spain, the impressive list of its saints, and the large

number of religious congregations and orders. The Catholic marriage is the basis of the family, which in

turn is the foundation of Spanish society.

Economy

Spain has traditionally been an agricultural country and is still one of the largest producers of farm

commodities in Western Europe, but since the mid-1950s industrial growth has been rapid. A series of

development plans, initiated in 1964, helped the economy to expand, but in the later 1970s an economic

slowdown was brought on by rising oil costs and increased imports. Subsequently, the government

emphasized the development of the steel, shipbuilding, textile, and mining industries. Spain derives much

income from tourism. The annual budget in the early 1990s included revenues of about $97.7 billion and

expenditures of about $128 billion. On January 1, 1986, Spain became a full member of the European

Community (now the European Union, or EU).

Agriculture

Agriculture is a mainstay of the Spanish economy, employing, with forestry and fishing, about 10 percent

of the labor force. The leading agricultural products, in order of value, are grapes and olives, used to make

olive oil. In the early 1990s annual production of grapes was 5.7 million metric tons and of olive oil was

597,000 metric tons. Other important commodities included potatoes (5.3 million tons), barley (6 million),

wheat (4.5 million), almonds (425,000), tomatoes (2.6 million), oranges and mandarins (4.2 million),

sugar beets (7.5 million), and onions (995,000).

The raising of livestock, especially sheep and goats, is an important industry. In the early 1990s livestock

on farms included about 24.6 million sheep, 17.2 million pigs, 4.9 million cattle, and 240,000 horses.

Currency and Banking

The unit of currency is the peseta (126 pesetas equal U.S.$1; 1995), issued by the Bank of Spain (1829).

The country is served by a large number of commercial banks. The principal stock exchanges are in

Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, and Valencia.

In early 1995 Spain's currency was devalued 7 percent against eight other European currencies, in part to

slow selling by currency traders concerned about the country's internal politics and continued high budget

deficit. The devaluation was the fourth in less than four years and raised doubts about achieving the goal

of producing a unified European currency by 1997, as called for by the Treaty on European Union.

Foreign Trade

In the early 1990s, Spain annually imported goods valued at about $92.5 billion and exported goods

valued at about $72.8 billion. Principal imports include machinery, mineral fuels, transportation

equipment, food products, metals and metal products, and textiles. Exports include motor vehicles,

machinery, basic metals, vegetable products, chemicals, mineral products, and textiles. Spain's chief

trading partners are France, Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Portugal, the United States, the Netherlands,

Japan, and Belgium and Luxembourg.

Tourism

The climate, beaches, and historic cities of Spain are an attraction for tourists, which make a significant

contribution to the country's economy. More than 57 million people visit Spain each year, making it one of

the world's top tourist destinations. The $20 billion tourists spend each year helps make up for Spain's

considerable trade deficit.

Government

In the late 1970s the government of Spain underwent a transformation from the authoritarian regime of

Francisco Franco (who ruled from 1939 to 1975) to a limited monarchy with an influential parliament. A

national constitution was adopted in 1978.

Executive

The head of state of Spain is a hereditary monarch, who also is the commander in chief of the armed

forces. Executive power is vested in the prime minister, who is proposed by the monarch on the

parliament's approval and is voted into office by the Congress of Deputies. Power is also vested in a

cabinet, or council of ministers. There is also the Council of States, a consultative body.

Legislature

In 1977 Spain's unicameral Cortes was replaced by a bicameral parliament made up of a 350-member

Congress of Deputies and a Senate of 208 directly elected members and 47 special regional

representatives. Deputies are popularly elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage of people 18 years

of age and older, under a system of proportional representation. The directly elected senators are voted to

four-year terms on a regional basis. Each mainland province elects 4 senators; another 20 senators come

from the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla.

Judiciary

The judicial system in Spain is governed by the General Council of Judicial Power, presided over by the

president of the Supreme Court. The country's highest tribunal is the Supreme Court of Justice, divided

into 7 sections; it sits in Madrid. There are 17 territorial high courts, one in each autonomous region, 52

provincial high courts, and several lower courts handling penal, labor, and juvenile matters. The country's

other important court is the Constitutional Court, which monitors observance of the constitution.

Health and Welfare

The Law of Family Subsidy, enacted in 1939, provides Spain's workers with monthly allowances

proportionate to the number of children in the family; the necessary funding is collected from employers

and employees. A program of old-age pensions and health and maternity benefits has been in effect since

1949. A fund derived from public collections provides for the support of the poor, nursery schools, and

health clinics. In the early 1990s Spain had about 153,300 physicians and 175,400 hospital beds.

History

The Christian Conquest

The Umayyad dynasty had ruled Muslim Spain for about three centuries. The greatest of its rulers was

Abd-ar-Rahman III, who in 929 proclaimed himself caliph. His capital, Córdoba, became the most

splendid city in Europe except for Constantinople, and Spanish civilization during the Moorish supremacy

was far in advance of that of the rest of the continent. Numerous schools were built, many of them free

and for the education of the poor. At the great Muslim universities medicine, mathematics, philosophy,

and literature were cultivated; the work of Greek philosopher Aristotle was studied there long before it

was well known to Christian Europe. An extensive literature developed, the caliphs themselves being

poets and authors of note, and art and architecture flourished (see Islamic Art and Architecture). The

Umayyads also encouraged commerce and agriculture and constructed effective irrigation systems

throughout the southern region.

Spain in the Early Modern Era

In 1469 the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand V of Aragón initiated the developments that

made Spain a great power. They became joint rulers of Castile in 1474 and of Aragón in 1479, although

no actual union of the two kingdoms occurred and each monarch exercised sovereign power only in his or

her own realm. Aragón, the smaller and poorer kingdom, tended to be neglected. Attention was focused

instead on strengthening royal authority in richer and more populous Castile. Also important for the pious

monarchs (who took the title "Catholic Kings") was the establishment in 1478 of the Inquisition to enforce

purity of the faith. The Inquisition was also a powerful tool for increasing and consolidating royal power.

Inquisitors were royally appointed, invested with both civil and church power, exempt from normal

jurisdiction, and served by a multitude of informants and bodyguards. Proceedings were secret and the

property of the condemned was consfiscated and distributed among the crown, the Inquisition, and the

accusers.

The Economic Miracle

From 1961 on, unprecedented socioeconomic change occurred. The economy boomed because of rapid

industrial growth and an extraordinary rise in tourism, as well as foreign investment in Spain and money

sent home by Spanish workers abroad. Owing to a growing labor shortage, wages increased, unofficial

trade unions were organized, and agriculture was mechanized rapidly to avoid high labor costs. Greater

worker prosperity brought rapid social change: there was massive migration from rural to urban areas;

secondary and university education expanded enormously; and the people became more secularized and

sophisticated as their exposure to contemporary ways of life increased. The Franco regime, fundamentally

pragmatic and technologically oriented after 1957, provided the framework within which growth could

occur. The massive housing program the government sponsored greatly eased the social costs of Spain's

transition from a rural to an urban society.

The Restoration of Democracy

In 1978 the Cortes passed a new democratic constitution, providing for a constitutional monarchy,

freedom for political parties, and autonomy for Spain's "nationalities and regions." The constitution was

enthusiastically accepted by most sectors of society, but the Basque provinces still resented being tied to

Spain and supported the ETA, which stepped up its terrorist activities. Meanwhile, Catalans pushed for

greater control over local affairs, and demanded greater language rights. The use of Catalan and

nationalist sentiments increased in and around Barcelona. The Galicians consistently distanced themselves

from Madrid, though ethnoregionalism remained weaker in Galicia than in either Catalonia or Basque

Country. Suárez governed through consensus, consulting all nonextremist parties when formulating basic

policy. Catalonia and the Basque Country were granted home rule, and their languages were officially

recognized. The constitution extended similar privileges to 15 other regions. Thus, the movement toward

political centralization begun by Ferdinand and Isabella some 500 years earlier was reversed, and a "Spain

of autonomous communities" was created.

In recent years, concerns over Spain's environmental problems have grown. The country has experienced

increased air-pollution problems in Madrid and along the northeastern coast, water pollution in

agricultural and coastal areas, and soil erosion. Controversies arose over rapid development along the

Mediterranean coast and threats to scenic attractions.

112.          Study of a 3rd World Country Ethiopia

this is it

PHYSICAL:

Relie, Kenya(S), and Somalia(SE).  Elevations  can be seen on figure 1, and the physical features of Ethiopia on figure 2.

Climate:  The Climate in Ethiopia is of three different climatic zones.  These being the cool or dega zone, consisting of the central parts of the western and eastern sections of the high plateaus and the area around Harar, with terrains roughly above 7 900 ft. in elevation.  The second zone is the temperate, or weina dega zone, comprising portions of the high plateau between 4 900 and 7 900 ft..  The final area being the hot or kolla zone, encompassing an area with an altitude less than 5 000 ft.  The cool zones temperatures and precipitation can be seen on figure 3.  The temperate zones temperatures range from 15.6C to 29.4C.  The temperature in the hot zone of the lowlands can reach temperatures as high as 60C.

There are two distinct seasons in Ethiopia the rainy season, or kremt, lasting from mid-June to mid-semptember.  the other is the Dry season,  or bega,  lasting from mid-September to mid-June.  In April and May there is slight transition period.  The greatest amount of precipitation is found in the southwest areas, near gore.  They receive approx. 104 in. a year.  The littlest amount of precipitation is found in the Great Rift Valley receiving less than 4 inches per year.  the average annual precipitation in the central plateau at 48 in.

The prevailing winds that strike Ethiopia are the Southwesterly monsoon in the rainy season and the northeasterly wind from the Arabian Desert in the dry season.

Ethiopia¹s climatic conditions suffer severe drought jeopardizing millions with starvation.   These extreme weather changes create horrible growing seasons, making yields quite unsuccessful.

#

Vegetation:  The percentage of forest land is minimal in Ethiopia, most of the area is grazed dry farmland, and some generally arable land.  Near areas where beef cattle are being raised tsete flies can be found in great numbers.  They spread a sleeping disease, that in turn wear down farmers, and create less productivity, and more disease than needed.  Another insect that causes severe problems are locusts.  They are considered the plague of Ethiopia, eating, therefore ruining crops.  Due to lack of money Ethiopia does not have sufficient preservation facilities, and much of there food rots and goes to waste.  Rodents also get into crops and eat whatever is at hand.

Soils:  Almost all of Ethiopia¹s soils are made up of infertile red and yellow laterite. Humus and other nutrients are washed out of the soils and into the rivers.  Much land is lost from erosion and desertification, from constant over grazing and loss of trees.

Wildlife:  I couldn¹t find any information on Ethiopia¹s wildlife, but I would suspect it is minimal.  Small amounts of cattle and ox.

SOCIAL:

Race:  Ethiopia is quite unique for the number of races throughout the country.  These races are shown on figure 4.

Languages:  In Ethiopia there are over 70 languages and 200 dialects spoken, but only eight of the languages are commonly used.  Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia.  Tigrinya and Arabic are the official languages of Eritrea.  These are the only three languages with a written script.  Due to the number of languages, many Ethiopians are bilingual and even trilingual.  See figure 4.

Religions:  Due to all these different religions many problems arise, such as which religion should be the inferior religion?  Around 1931 Emperor Haile Selassie ruled.  When the emperor was overthrown the Ethiopian Orthodox Church lost its favoured position, along with its lands and most of its property.  Other religions, particularly Western Protestant evangelical organizations, have found their activities sharply curtailed by the government.  this has been displayed through closure of churches, seizure and nationalization of property and facilities, and harassment and surveillance.  Some religions have assembled ³secret areas² for worship and other

#

practices of there religion.  See figure 4.

Population:  The population in Ethiopia is extremely high, with a vastly increasing birthrate.  Forms of family planning are not used steadily, if at all.  The population can be seen in figure 5 and past and future estimations of Ethiopia¹s population can be seen in figure 6.

Housing and Clothing:  Homes outside of the city are primarily made of a mud/straw mixture.  These homes obviously contain no electricity, or insulation.  All forms of heating would be done by man made fires, or some form of wood stove.  Due to the poor nature of the country nothing else is affordable.  Clothing consists of a loin cloth for men, and for women some form of cloth is wrapped around the body.  In the city houses are typically made of cement with a tin roof.  Here you may find small amounts of electricity for heating and cooking, but nothing much more.   Some wealthy families may have a television etc.  In the city most people wear Western clothing.

Diet:  If the area is not getting foreign aid of any sort the meals, if any, consist of a food called injera.  This is a pancake like sour bread of spongelike texture made chiefly with teff, a cereal grain.  Other foods include wat, a beef or chicken sauce or stew made with hot spices.  The universal drink is talla, a beer fermented from barley, and the leaves of the gesho plant.  Taj, a fermented honey beverage, is consumed by the wealthier classes.  Raw mature meat is relished, but fish is not popular.  Locusts are

eaten by some cultures.

Many of the Ethiopian people are suffering from mass starvation.  reasons for the lack of food in Ethiopia are:  Over Population, caused by lack of use of family planning.  2.Poor Soils, most of the U.D.C.¹s have infertile red and yellow laterite.  3.Variable Climates 4.Poor Distribution, 5.Food Destruction, 6.Tools and Technology:  lack of proper farming equipment, to obtain successful yields., 8.  Ignorance, 9.Food Taboos, 10.Poor Seeds.  These are only a few of the problems involved with lack of food in Ethiopia.  Unfortunately most of the quality food in Ethiopia is grown by latifundia, and is exported to other countries.

Jobs:  Jobs are very sparse, and if found, involve intense backbreaking work, at a minimal cost.  Due to the amount of unemployed people, practically any form of work

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thrown at them will be taken.  Latifundia offer jobs to occupants, such as coffee bean and cotton picking, and they pay them pennies an hour.  Some of these jobs are extremely far from home, breaking up families for weeks. Others are self-employed farmers, or do not work at all.

Health:  Health care in Ethiopia gets slightly better as years pass, but still only a small portion of the population receives it.  Famine care is immensely small, and needs great improvement.  The most commonly found diseases in Ethiopia are malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, venereal diseases, smallpox, typhus, typhoid, trachoma,  conjunctivitis, and sexually transmitted diseases.  Also see figures 7 and 8 for a further look at health speculations.

Education & Welfare:   Education in Ethiopia is not compulsory by law, but public education is free from the primary to the college level.  The schooling consists of 12 years divided into six years of primary school, two years of middle school and four years of secondary school.  The literacy rate is extremely low at approx. 4.9% of the total population.  Literacy has been steadily increasing though in the past few years.  Ethiopia has been awarded the literacy price from UNESCO  from it¹s success.  Further aspects of education can be seen in figure 9.

In Ethiopia there are no official welfare programs available.  Existing public programs are run by voluntary religious groups only.  Due to this lack of support, this is one reason for vast cases of starvation.

Quality of Life:  The Quality of life in Ethiopia is horrible.  There is a major shortage of food, and very few jobs.  Due to poor vegetation and soil, food growth is a minimal.  All work is usually backbreaking slave labour, and the main priorities of an Ethiopian is survival.

ECONOMIC:

Development:  Ethiopia is a developing country.  Its level of development is extremely poor and slow, and isn¹t getting much better.

Economy:  Ethiopia continues to face difficult economic problems as one of the

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poorest and least developed countries in Africa.  Its Economy is based chiefly on agriculture and weather plays a major factor in success rates.  Development is slow and doesn¹t look very promising.  Manufacturing suffers from under investment, shortages of raw material and poor management.

Standard of Living:  The GNP of Ethiopia is 114 per capita, being extremely low, and intolerable for any form of adequate survival.  The level of living in turn is substantially low.   Urban Areas tend to be slightly better than rural, but not by much.GNP insights can be seen in depth on figure 10.

Industries:  The primary Industry of Ethiopia is Agriculture, employing roughly 85% of the country¹s workers.  The rest of the working population is broken down to 10% in service industries, and the final 5% in manufacturing.  The products produced in the service industries and the manufacturing industries can be seen in figure 11 and 12.

Industrial Location:  There are approximately 8 main natural resources and 1 raw material found in abundance in Ethiopia. This is shown in figure 12 and 13. Two thirds of the power is provided through hydroelectricity, making Ethiopia one of the least dependent on outside sources of energy in Africa.  Ethiopia has two narrow-gauge railways, two seaports, and National highways that connect major population centers in the central plateau and Eritrea.  This is only a small portion of Ethiopia¹s transportation systems.  Most of the country is made up of unpaved or uncrossable roads, making transportation slow and inefficient.  The ratio of people to automobiles is 811:1.  The labour involved is monotonous and backbreaking.  The people are paid pennies for days work, and are usually situated in inadequate working facilities.  There are very few markets to purchase clothing etc..  Ethiopia¹s capital is very low, and they do receive foreign aid and tariffs.

Industrial Problems:   Ethiopia suffers a great deal, with environmental problems.  Areas that have been strip mined, grazed etc., have been left with no clean up what so ever.  In doing so the appearance of the area is very poor.  Pollution caused by heavy machinery is very low, because there isn¹t any, but scrap and soot levels are high.There are no forms of pollution control, and no pollution or dumping laws are enforced.

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Agriculture:  The agricultural industry is extremely important to Ethiopia.  It makes up 85% of the jobs given to the people.  Only 10% of the land  area is currently under cultivation, and it accounts for 47% of the GDP even though drought, poor cultivation, and many other factors effect productivity.  The main types of crops grown are shown in figure 14.  Most methods of farming are done naturally, and traditional, by the sun and rain, or as there ancestors before.  Pesticides, Fertilizers, and Herbicides are too expensive, and are used, if at all, in small amounts making them almost useless.  Most crops are planted manually, due to the lack of money.  Tools are handmaid, and ox are used for plowing fields.  Only Latifundia can afford efficient forms of harvesting, with expensive materials, and machinery.  There is no land distribution to any of the people.  Most lands are obtained through inheritance, from family members that have owned it for generations.  Education levels for agricultural techniques are very low.  All knowledge in farming is typically learned by ancestors, or by ³winging it².  There is very

little irrigation.

POLITICAL:

Form of Government:  Ethiopia is said to be a transitional government, but is also known as a republic country.  There current leader is Meles Zenawi.  It is a very unstable country that has had its share of civil wars,  there last leader was practically driven out of parliament.  Elections don¹t really exist.  The people of Ethiopia are very limited with there rights and freedoms.  Ethiopia has been classified as a not-free country.  There is a very low value on human rights.

Internal Conflicts:  Ethiopia has had many civil revolts.  This can be seen in the Ethiopian History line, figure 15.  Many Ethiopians try to migrate to better there standards of living, in hope of a brighter future.  Most of the population is extremely poor, with the odd family being better off.  Most Ethiopians are considered lower class citizens, that receive little respect if any.

Trade:  Ethiopia has about 7 main imports and 5 major exports, that can be seen in figure 16.  The balance of trade is roughly -$617 000 000.  The money they receive for there exports is minimal.  Exporting partners are:  US, Germany, Djivouti, Japan, Yemen, France, and Italy.  There major importers are: USSR, Italy, Germany, Japan, UK, US, and France.  The stability of there currency is unstable, and not very promising.

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International Co-operation:    Ethiopia gives no aid to other countries, because it needs aid itself.  They receive foreign aid, from the US, Canada and other countries.   Food donations from the food bank, farmers, small organizations with excess¹ of food, and other charity organizations donate a portion of items each year.  Many programs are also run where families ³adopt² a child.  If done a donation of money is sent to the country to give a poor child blankets, clothes, and possibly a toy.  Other organizations include the UN, IRRA, and FAO.

International Conflict:  Ethiopia neighbours Sudan, Somalia, and Kenya.  Currently there are no border problems, but attempts of migration are always present.  Other border problems can be seen in the history line of Ethiopia on figure 15.

Future:  All in all the future of Ethiopia is very poor.  Due to little or no family planning the birth rate is still high.  The inability to produce enough food for its vastly growing population, still creates mass starvation.  The government does not seem to be planning any propositions of future hope, making chances of improvement almost inevitable.

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Bibliography

Colombo, John Robert, ed. 1996 Canadian Global Almanac.  Toronto:  Macmillian Canada 1996.

³Ethiopia Famine.²Ethiopia:  Case Study.  Internet.  http://rs6.loc.gov/et_00_00.html.  1996

³Ethiopia.²  Information Finder.  Vers.2.6.  Computer Software.  World Book, Inc., 1996

Kurian, George Thomas, ed.  Encyclopedia of the Third World.  New York:  Facts on File,  1992

Wright, Hohn W., ed.  1996 Universal Almanac, Kansas City:  1995 Universal Press Syndicate.

113.          suomen kalliopera

Maamme korkokuva ja kallioperä

Korkeussuhteet

Kun käytetään alangon ylärajana 200 metrin korkeustasoa, suurin osa maastamme voidaan lukea alangoksi. 200 metrin ylittäviä seutuja on vain Kainuussa, Koillismaalla ja Lapissa. Mutta Kemijoen vesistön alueella aina Savukoskelle, Sodankylään ja Kittilään sakka ulottuvat alle 200 metrin korkeusvyöhykkeen alapuolelle jäävät alueet. Inarin allas sekä Lutto- ja Tenojoen varret jäävät myös tämän tason alapuolelle. Keski-Suomen ylänkö on ainoa laaja 200 metrin korkeustason ylittävä alue etelässä. Se käsittää vedenjakajamaita Kymijoen ja Kokemäenjoen välistä ja noin 60 km pitkänä yhtenäisenä vyöhykkeenä ulottuu Jyväskylän luoteispuolelta Pylkönmäen kautta Soiniin.

Maamme pinta-alasta 200 metrin alapuolelle jäävää aluetta eli alankoa on noin 80 %. Vain viidennes on ylänköä. Pinta-alastamme puolet jää alle 120 metrin korkeustason ja yli 300 metrin korkeustason ylittäviä alueita on 4 %. 1,5 % pinta-alastamme on yli 400 metrin alueita. Korkeustason 100 metriä alle jäävää aluetta on 40 % pinta-alasta. 30-100 km leveä rannikkovyöhyke sekä Vuoksen, Kymijoen ja Kokemäenjoen vesistöjen sokkeloiset rantamaat kuuluvat kyseiseen 100 metrin alle jäävään alueeseen.

Halti (1328 m), Ridnitsohta (1317 m), Kovddoskaisi (1210 m) ja Kahperusvaarat (1144 m) ovat maamme korkeimmat tunturihuiput, jotka sijaitsevat

"käsivarressa" Enontekiön luoteisosassa. Siellä on noin 40 yli 1000 metrin yltävää huippua. Ylläs- ja Pallastunturien tunturijaksot sekä Saariselältä Muotkatuntureille kaartuva Inarin allasta ympäröivä tunturiketju ovat muita korkeita tunturialueita Suomessa. Taivalkosken Iso-Syöte (431 m) on eteläisin tunturimme. Tavallisesti muualla Suomessa lakikorkeudet yltävät 200-300 metrin korkeustasolle.

Kallioperän pinnanmuodot

Joko kestävän kivilajin, eroosion tai tektonisen kohoamisen seurauksena peneplaanista, syntyneestä kulutustasosta kohoaa paikoin erillisiä jäännösvuoria ja kalliokohoumia. Suomessa jäännösvuoria ovat kulutusta hyvin kestävän kvartsiitin

muodostat Tiirismaa, Koli, Kinahmi, Vuokatti, Pelkosenniemen, Pyhätunturi sekä Ylläs- ja Ounastunturit. Ympäristöstään niiden laet kohoavat satoja metrejä.

Yleensä muihin kivilajeihin liittyvät korkeuserot ovat pieniä. Kuitenkin esim. Satakunnan hiekkakivialuetta halkovien diabaasikallioiden pinnat ovat noin 50 metriä korkeammalla alueen hiekkakivipintoja.

Lauhavuori sekä Lapin Pallas- tunturi ja Nattaset, jotka koostuvat hiekkakivestä edustavat eroosion synnyttämiä jäännöskohoumia. Niiden kivi ei ole kovempaa kuin ympäristössä.

Eroosion kulumia tai tektonisia vajoamia esiintyy peneplaanissa myös paikallisina painanteina. Alemmaksi ympäristöään ovat kuluneet mm. Satakunnan ja Muhoksen sedimenttikivialueet sekä jotkut liuskekivialueet. Hautavajoamia ovat mm. edellä mainitut sedimenttikivialueet ja Inarin allas. Eniten niistä on vajonnut Muhoksen alue lähes kilometrin ja Satakunnan alue ainakin 650 metriä.

Kallioperä

Suomen hyvin vanha kallioperä on peruskalliota, joka ulottuu Suomen yli itään ja Kuolan niemimaalle saakka. Fennoskandian peruskalliota kutsutaan myös nimellä Baltian Kilpi.

Maapallon iän ollessa kolme miljardia vuotta, peruskallio muodostui hitaasti jähmettymällä magmasta. Magma on maapallon pintaa kohti nousevaa sulaa kiviainesta. Magmaa on edelleen maankuoren alla ja se purkautuu tulivuorten kautta maanpinnalle mannerlaattojen reunaosissa. Peruskallio on jatkuvasti poimuttunut jähmettymisen jälkeen ja kulunut siiten tasaiseksi satojen vuosimiljoonien aikana. Vaikka tarkkoja tietoja tapahtumista ei ole, ovat muuttuneet kivilajit merkkeinä parin miljardin vuoden takaisista liikkeistä kallioperässämme. Karelidit ja Svekofennidit ovat aikoinaan olleet kaksi Suomen poikki kulkenutta vuoristoa. Karelidit ovat kulkeneet Laatokalta länsi-Lappiin ja Svekofennidit Suomen eteläosien halki edelleen Ruotsin puolelle. Poimuvuoret eivät nykyään erotu ympäristöstään. Maastossa on säilynyt muutamien kivilajien kohtia vaaroina tai tuntureina. Esimerkiksi Tiirismaa, Koli, Vuokatti ja Ruka ovat tällaisia kohtia.

Vuorenpoimutus on tapahtuma, jonka yhteydessä maankuori halkeili ja lisäksi kohosi paikoin ja vajosi toisaalla. Kallioperällemme ovatkin tunnusomaisia murtumalinjat ja ruhjevyöhykkeet. Myöhemmin jotkin murtumalinjat ovat täyttyneet vedellä ja muuttuneet kauniiksi järviksi. Yleensä vuorenpoimutuksen yhteydessä syntyneet järvet ovat pieniä, mutta myös Laatokka, Päijänne ja Inari ovat syntyneet tällä tavoin.

Pimuvuoristo

Virtaava vesi, lämmönvaihtelu ja tuuli kuluttavat kalliota. Irtaimet ainekset lähtevät usein liikkeelle tämän eroosion johdosta ja lajittuvat ja kasaantuvat usein veteen. Fennoskandian peruskallion kulumistuotteet kasaantuivat syvään mereen Fennoskandien läsipuolelle vuosimiljoonien kuluessa, jossa ne joutuivat mukaan vuorenpoimutukseen ja nousivat noin 400 miljoonaa vuotta sitten ylös kölivuoristona.

Satojen vuosimiljoonien aikana se kuitenkin kului yhä matalammaksi ja sen aineksia kertyi taas mereen. Mutta noin 40 miljoonaa vuotta sitten köli kohosi uudelleen, samoihin aikoihin kuin Alpit poimuttuivat.

Vuorenpoimutuksiin eivät kuitenkaan joutuneet kaikki kulumistuotteet, vaan niistä syntyi kerroskivilajeja. Tanskaan ja Etelä-Ruotsiin peruskallion päälle kasaantui paksuja hiekka-, savi- ja kalkkikerrostumia. Pitkien aikojen kuluessa ne sitten iskostuivat kerrostuneiksi kivilajeiksi. Päällimmäiset kerrokset ovat noin 130 miljoonaa vuotta vanhoja. Manner-Euroopasta kerroskivilajit peittävät suuren osan, ja peruskallio on syvällä niiden alla.

Jähmettyneet kivilajit

Maapallomme alkoi jäähtyä noin 4500 miljoonaa vuotta sitten, jota ennen se oli pelkkää sulaa kiveä. Sulan Kiven eli magman jäähtyessä syntyy jähmettyneitä kivilajeja eli magmakivilajeja. Maankuoren sisällä magma kivettyi toisinaan hitaasti, jolloin eri mineraalit kasaantuivat yhteen. Kiven rakenteessa tämä näkyy kiteinä. Tällaisia magmakivilajeja kutsutaan syväkivilajeiksi. Suomessa tunnetuin yleisistä syväkivilajeista on graniitti. Se koostuu kolmesta eri mineraalista: valkoisesta kvartsista, punaisesta tai valkoisesta maasälpästä ja mustasta tai värittömästä kiilteestä.

Maassamme on useita eri graniittityyppejä, joiden ikä, rakenne ja väri vaihtelevat. Punasävyistä graniittia on usein rannikkoseuduilla, sisämaassa on myös harmaita graniitteja. Lisäksi on myös graniitteja, jotka ovat lähes mustia. Rapakiveksi kutsutaan murenevaa pallomaisia kidekuvioita sisältävää punaista graniittia. Graniitti on erittäin kestävää ja se halkeilee suorakulmaisiksi paloiksi. Graniittia ovat usein myös talojen kivijalat ja suuret julkiset rakennukset. Suomalaista graniittia viedään myös ulkomaille.

Se on myös suosittua sisustusmateriaalia. Se sopii hyvin keittiön työtasoksi kuin olohuoneen ikkunalaudaksi - kauniina ja kestävänä.

Pintakivilajit syntyvät, kun tulivuoren toiminnassa magmaa purkautuu maan pintaan saakka, jossa se jähmettyy huomattavasti nopeammin kuin maan uumenissa. Pintakivilajeissa mineraalit eivät ole kasautuneet selviksi kiteiksi, vaan kivi on rakenteeltaan tasalaatuisen näköistä.

Muuttuneet kivilajit

Muuttuneet kivilajit muodostuvat, kun jähmettyneet kivilajit joutuvat mukaan vuorenpoimutuksiin. Kovan lämpötilan ja paineen alaisina niiden mineraalit järjestyvät uudelleen litteiksi ja yhdensuuntaisiksi juoviksi. Rakeisesta graniitista tulee poimuttuessaan juovikasta gneissiä, savikivestä kiilleliusketta, kvartsipitoisesta hiekkakivestä kvartsiittia ja kerrostuneesta kalkkikivestä marmoria.

Malmit ja malmikaivokset

Yhtä tai useampaa metallia on malmikivessä niin runsaasti, että niiden erottaminen on taloudellisesti kannattavaa. Kaivos voidaan perustaa, jos malmiesiintymä eli malmio on tarpeeksi suuri. Liuskekivistä muodostuvalla malmivyöhykkeellä, joka ulottuu Perämereltä Pohjois-Karjalaan sijaitsevat monet Suomen kaivokset. Vyöhykkeen rikkaimmat alueet sijaitsevat Ruotsin puolella Norrbottenissa ja Venäjän alueella Itä-Karjalassa

114.          Sustainable Development

By the year 2200 there will be a lot more people living on this planet then there are now.  Estimates range anywhere from 15 to 36 billion people.   Where will these people live?  How will they live?  The answer is sustainable development.  Sustainable development, "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. "  It also, "requires meeting the basic needs of all peoples and extending to them the opportunity to fulfill their aspirations for a better life.  A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and other catastrophes."  Sustainable development is being ignored in Chile, the Philippines, and Siberia, practiced in Madagascar and in Alaska, and examined in the Lake Baikal region of Russia.  These Countries must learn from each other's failures and success to discover what sustainable development involves in their own country.

Sustainable development has three divisions, economic, environmental, and social.  If sustainability is to occur it must, meet these three divisions.  In Chile, none of these divisions is being met.  Economically speaking, almost 40% of the population is poor and as a result many make a living directly from the land clearing forests.   In the IVth region of Chile, forest regions are being depleted at an amazing rate.  This depletion of the forest in this region results in two main things, one,  people must spend increasing amounts of energy traveling to the site of present cutting and two, the removal of the trees over time has lead to soil erosion and rapid desertification of the area.   This soil erosion also removes many nutrients from the soil making the land poor for agriculture.  The third division, social, is not met here either.  The lack of organizations to relieve the negative effects of poverty on the environment have only contributed to the problem.

In the Philippines the environmental degradation is similar in nature but more catastrophic in result.  There in the province of Leyte 6000 people were killed when flash flood ripped through Ormoc City in 1991.   The floods were a result of logging of a forest in that region and conversion of that area into commercial farming practices such as sugarcane.  This in itself did not cause the floods, the conversion of the forest into farming left the heavy rain from a typhoon with nowhere to go.  Normally the forest would have stopped any flash floods as it would have held the water let it out slowly, but with the forests gone there was nothing to delay the water from exiting the system.  The economical effect of this that land and buildings were destroyed causing millions of peso's worth of damage.  The social impact is easy to discern, those who lost loved ones, friends, and family can never get them back.

In Madagascar the same type of thing was happening.  Locals were cutting down the forest and planting rice and cassava.  It was estimated that this process of deforestation was costing the country between, "100 and 300 million a year in decreased crop yields, the loss of productive forests and damage to infrastructure."   Something needed to be done, the government implemented a plan to, "protect and improve the environment while working for sustainable development."

The approach integrates all aspects of sustainable development.  Socially, a public education programme explains why locals shouldn't cut down the tree's and why it is economically more important that they don't.  Environmentally, the forests will not be lost now.  And economically some cutting is still down however it is sustainable cutting.  New jobs were also created in this program.  In order to persuade villagers that this was the best route to take, half of all fees paid by tourists to enter the parks within which the forests are, go directly to development projects for the community.  They go to the community because of the "positive correlation between prosperity and environmental quality.   This means that the more prosperous you are the more you can afford to clean up the environment.  A poor country like Madagascar could not possibly invest as much capital as Canada could into the reduction of Air pollution or the clean up of contaminants in soil.

In the Russian north all aspects of sustainability were ignored.  There in part of Siberia that stretches from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Novosibirsk in the south, [see appendix one, fig one] the environmental and social divisions of sustainable development were ignored for the economical.  This region produces 78% of Russia's oil and 84% of it's natural gas.   It also happens to be rich in fish and reindeer, the principle resources of the Yamal Nenets whom are the indigenous peoples of the area.

Under Stalin socialist plan of the 1930's, the Nenet's were forced to change their traditional way of life - one that was completely sustainable - to one based on collective farms.  The children were put in state schools and lost much of their traditional knowledge.  The creation of the massive oil fields and gas reservoirs were started.  The pollution that these industries created in air, land, and sea, destroyed any hope of ever going back to anything like their traditional way of life.  The massive plants took up to as much as a third of the summer grazing grounds for the reindeer, and the Ob river has been severely polluted from industrial centers in the south.   The social aspect, that of destroying way of life of the Nenet's, the pollution caused by the plants is the disregard for the environmental aspect, and the economical aspect's importance was, by far, outweighed in terms of the other two aspects in terms of planning.

In contrast the U.S. has developed a different policy in it's North.  Like Siberia, Alaska has a lot of resources centered environmentally sensitive lands.  Similarly, Alaska also has it's own indigenous peoples, the Iñupiat Eskimo, who have, like the Nenet's traditionally had sustainable way of life.  The ancestral calving grounds of Porcupine Caribou Herd, one of the largest in the world at 160000 animals, is located on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife reserve.   The Iñupiat herd these animals and require this land to sustain their way of life.  This also is the site for one of the largest possible oil fields in North America and as such there is much debate on the lands uses.

The Iñupiat want the money that the industry would bring in but fear the environmental implications as well.  In 1971, the U.S. Congress passed a native land claims settlement act that meant that native groups had a much greater say in the possible land uses.   Following the passage of the act, the Iñupiat formed the largest City in North America (in terms of Geography, see Appendix One, fig. two), the North Slope Borough,  and began to tax any oil revenue made within the city.  This revenue - in the millions of dollars - let the Iñupiat live a modern lifestyle and still engage in their traditional  subsistence practices.  The Iñupiat also retained a greater control over environmental rules and regulations, which they used to make sure little pollution occurred.  In this example, all three aspects of sustainable development were used.  Economically, everyone made money, socially no group was adversely effected, and environmentally there is little or no pollution, certainly nothing like that in Siberia.

Siberia may also be the place for trying a new method of sustainable development. This new method created by George D. Davis hopes to be a, "rational compromise between the economic needs of a people and the ecological needs of their land."   It employs a method of zoning an area or region as to it's possible land use's.  The area that this new method is being tested on is Lake Baikal, the biggest, oldest, deepest repository of freshwater on the planet, one fifth of the worlds total freshwater is found in Lake Baikal.   This lake is also home to more than 1800 species found nowhere else on the planet.    To save such an unique place on earth it was necessary to account for all three area's of sustainability.  This was accomplished by zoning the entire Lake Baikal watershed into 25 different types of zones ranging from farmland to industrial parks.  A total of 52 million acres were set aside as parks, reserves, greenbelts, and landscapes.   As well as zoning the entire basin, an agreement was struck to reduce and hopefully end the pollution that enters Lake Baikal's watershed.  In this way, not only was the environment saved, but so were peoples jobs and thus the social and economic well-being.

The Lake Baikal zoning method is an example of how new methods of sustainable development are always being created.  Countries like Chile, the Philippines, and Zimbabwe all can learn a lot from examples such as Madagascar, the United States, and the zoning method in Russia.  In fact all countries can learn a lot from the success and failures of each other.  In every successful case of sustainable development the three aspects were met, economical, environmental, and social.  In every failure at least one or more was missing.   The lessons learned now can only help us as we enter the next millennia, and over 15 billion people.

115.          Thailand

THAILAND

Thailand is a country in South East Asia.  Its neighboring countries are Cambodia on the east, Burma (now called Myanmar) on the west, Laos on the north, and Malaysia on the south.  The main river in Thailand is the Chao Phraya River which flows south out of the Mae Nam River.  The word nam means water in Thai.  Most of the rivers in Thailand start with Mae Nam something.  For example: Mae Nam Ping, Mae Nam Yom, Mae Nam Wang, Mae Nam Songkram, Mae Nam Ngao, Mae Nam Tapi and Many others.  The Chao Phraya River (pronounced chow pee-ah) starts near the city of Singha Buri and flows south through Bangkok, the capital, and into the Gulf of Siam (Aowthai).

The country of Thailand is a little bit less than 200,000 square miles in area.  Texas is relatively the same size as Thailand.  The size of Massachusetts is 8,000 square miles.  That makes Thailand 25 times bigger than Massachusetts.  The entire United States, however, is about 3.6 million square miles or 450 times bigger than Thailand.

Thailand's population is 57,200,000 people.  The population of the United States is 260,000,000 people.  That means that the United States has 4 1/2 times more people than Thailand.  Thailand's population density is 285 people per square mile.  The population density of the United States is  72.22 people per square mile.  Thailand, even though it has a much smaller population and land area than the United States, has a much greater population density.  The population of Massachusetts is 6,000,000 people or 9.53 times smaller than Thailand.  Massachusetts population density is 750 people per square mile.  Massachusetts population density is about 2.75 times larger tha that of Thailand.

The climate of Thailand is mainly sub tropical.  Thailand has a mild winter, hot dry spring, hot wet summer, and jumps straight into winter again with no fall.  This climate covers most of the northern part of Thailand.  On the peninsula that juts out on the southern side the climate becomes totally tropical with a hot, wet, year-long summer.

The capital of Thailand is Bangkok which is located in the middle of the Central Region on the Gulf of Siam.  Bangkok is Know as the "Venice of the east" because of its many canal/streets.  On one of these canals is the famous floating market.  The floating market is a place where people bring their boats full of produce or souvenirs or whatever they are selling.  The tourists and other citizens then buy their wares.  Bangkok is also famous for its many Buddhist temples and the Royal Palace.  The three most famous temples are the Wat Phra Keo (Royal Chapel of the Emerald Buddha), the Wat Po (Reclining Buddha), and, across the river, the Wat Arun (Temple of Dawn).  The word wat means temple in Thai.  The picture on the cover is of the Wat Phra Keo.  The two statues are garudas (temple guards).  The Wat Po (Reclining Buddha) actually has a giant statue of a god lying down.

Chieng Mai (chang my), the next largest city to Bangkok, has a population of about 160,000 people.  Bangkok has a population of 5,500,000 people.  That means that Bangkok is 34.4 times larger than the next largest city.  When the first largest city is much bigger than the second largest city this is called urban primacy.  Thailand is the best example of urban primacy in the world.  This is why Thailand has only one other major city; all the other cities have under 100,000 people in them.  It is also the capital of the North Region.  Chieng Mae is located near the top-center of the North Region of Thailand.

95% of the Thai population is Buddhist.  People who follow the Buddhist religion are almost all very orthodox in their ways.  They believe that pain and evil are caused by desire and that to conquer desire is to attain Nirvana.  Nirvana is the highest attainable state of bliss in Buddhism, in which all desire and suffering are extinguished and the soul is absorbed into the supreme universal soul.  The other 5% of the people are Moslems or followers of Islam.  They face the holy city of Mecca and pray five times a day.  They believe that if they die in a jihad (holy war) then they will go straight to heaven.  Another way to get a "free ticket" to heaven is to make a trip to the holy city of Mecca sometime during their life.  For one month out of the year they fast for Ramadan.

The major language of Thailand is of course Thai.  The secondary language is Chinese.  Many of the merchants in Thailand are Chinese.  Few of the people speak both or anything else except for the tourists.

The main unit of currency used in Thailand is the baht.  One baht is equal to 3.9 cents.  This is what it was called since 1912.  Before then the name for a baht was tical.  100 satangs equal 1 baht or 1 tical.

Thailand has a constitutional monarchy for its govornment.  A constitutional monarchy is when a country has a king and/or queen primarily for ceremonial reasons.  He/She/They don't rule by law but by influence.  The literacy rate in Thailand is 90% of the females, 96% of the males, and 93% everage.

Rice is the major agricultural product of Thailand.  Thailand also grows corn, tapioca, and sugarcane.  Almost 60% of the people of Thailand are farmers.  As recently as 1970, the people of Thailand were 80% farmers.  Despite this recent decline, farming is still definitely a major occupation of the people of Thailand.  Thailand has a very large, flat, central lowland region.  This is perfect for growing rice because rice paddies need to be flooded for the rice to grow.  Putting rice paddies in flat lowlands keeps the water from flowing downhill and away from the rice.  The United States most likely does not import agricultural products from Thailand because we can get them from other, closer countries.  We do however import many manufactured goods from Thailand because of its inexpensive labor force.

Thailand mines antimony, tin, tungsten, iron ore, and natural gas.  Thailand manufactures textiles, wood products, shoes, baseball gloves and other sporting goods, and cheap plastic toys you can buy in the Stop & Shop toy aisle.  The United States imports almost all of these because they are sold so cheaply.  They are so inexpensive because the Thai people work for next to nothing - mabye $6.00 a week.  $6.00 X 52 weeks = $312.  So how can the per capita G.N.P. be $1,570?  This is because these type of jobs are done only by a small part of the Thai population.  Alot of Thai people have better paying jobs which brings the average up to what it is.  One of these higher paying jobs is swiftlet nest collecting.  This is what my current event article is about.  The nests are sold for $1,000 a pound and used for making birds nest soup.  Scientists have also discovered that these nests may hold a cure to the disease of AIDS.

There are many famous places in Thailand like the Wat Po temple.  It is a highly visited place by tourists because of its giant statue of a Buddhist god.  Another great tourist attraction is the Temple of the Dawn (the Wat Arun).  When people hear its name they think its neat and its a very beautiful temple besides that.  Another nice spot to tour is the floating market.  It is called that because that is what it is.  A whole bunch of wide canoe-type boats filled with produce or souvenires are paddling around selling their stuff.  In a James Bond movie there was a "boat chase" here.

The current king of Thailand, Bhumibol Adulyadej, was born in 1927 in Cambridge, Massachusetts.  He and his father both graduated from Harvard University.  Bhumibol Plays the saxiphone and had a stamp made in honor of his 60th birthday in 1987.  He is 67 years old.

The current event article that I found is from National Geographic.  It is called Nest Gatherers of Tiger Cave.  It was written by Eric Valli who went climbing with three Thai nest gatherers.  Eric, Ip, Sahat, and Em, Sahat's son were on the island of Phi Phi which is a few miles off the center of Thailand's southern peninsula.  The three Thai men do this for a living.

Visiting Thailand would be so awesome because I could go climbing in these caves and paddle a little boat down the canal/streets and see all the Buddhist temples.

Thailand's standard of living is kind of low in some parts and very low in others.  The children only have 6 years of compulsory schooling.  That's a 5th grade educationhere in the U.S.  The per capita G.N.P. is only $1,630.  The U.S. per capita G.N.P. is $22,240 or almost twenty times that of Thailand.  The life expectancy is 69 years.  In the U.S. it's 76 years.  The infant mortality rate is 35 out of every 1,000 compared with 9 in the U.S.  59% of the population are farmers.  For every 5,000 people there is 1 physician.  In the U.S. there are 13 physicians for every 5,000 people.  In Thailand in 1970 there were 35 students per teacher.  In the U.S. there were 27 students per teacher in 1970.

116.          The 5 Themes in Geography

GY202  Geographic Thought

Essay #1  -  The Five Themes in Geography

September 6, 1995

John Doe

During the 1980's the United States showed unacceptably low test scores on simple Geographic tests.  The point Committee on Geographic Education could only attribute these results to Geographic Illiteracy,  not only on the part of the students, but more importantly on the educators themselves.  By 1984 it had become inexplicably clear that immediate action must take place to counteract this ongoing problem in our educational institutions (Journal of Geography 89).  In response, the Joint Committee on Geographic Education produced a landmark publication entitled "Guidelines for Geographic Education".  This  document contained a scope and sequence in Geography with suggested learning results for the nations primary and secondary school systems, as well as suggested educational strategies for analysis on the part of the students and teachers.   Most importantly, this article provided the Five Fundamental Themes in Geography, which have evolved to become an integral element of social studies education, because they take the world of geographic study beyond the realm of basic memorization, and into a new plane of analysis and implementation.   These five themes include  location, place, human-environment interactions, movement,  and regions.

Location answers the question of "where?".  If you plan to meet someone at a specific time, and a specific place, the question of "Where will you meet?" must first be answered.  To resolve this situation, Geography employs Absolute Location, and Relative Location.

Absolute Location applies  a grid-matrix system to the earth's surface in the form of coordinates.  These coordinates,  longitude and latitude, allow geographers to pinpoint exact areas of the earth's surface, and other planetary bodies as well.  If Geographers wish to apply satellite  technology to observe an area of the earth's surface, coordinates are used to pinpoint an exact location.

Relative Location answers the simple question of where you would meet a person.  For example:  "Let's meet at Martin Hall, the building next to the Library."  But, relative location is much deeper than simple location.  It also involves interdependence of a location based upon its resources, people, and environment.

If one wishes to build a ski resort, the location of that resort must be relative with the environment of the location.  It would be illogical, and non-profitable to build a ski resort in the Mojave desert.  However, it would be logical to build a resort in the higher elevations of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, Idaho, or Montana.

Every area on the surface of the earth is defined by some type of characteristic.  Siberia is known to be very cold, but also a part of the Soviet Union, a formerly communist country.  Belize is known to be very warm, but it is also an English speaking country which houses a tropical rain forest.  To define these basic geographical characteristics, Geographers have placed them into three categories under the heading of "place" - Physical, Human, and Observed Characteristics.

Physical Characteristics are those characteristics which define the physical environment of a place .   This environment includes the climate, physical terrain,  and plant and animal life.

Human Characteristics are those things which people have done to an environment to change them.  People construct buildings in which to live, shop, work,  pray, and play.  People are also defined by their religion, race, languages they speak, and philosophies and ideologies in which they live.

Observed Characteristics are in part an overflow of human characteristics.  People change their environment, this change can be observed in everyday life;  the roads we use to get to work or school, the power lines used to heat our homes, the pollution exuded from our factories to produce the luxuries we crave, all of these represent changes to our environment. These physical changes represent the observed characteristics of a place.

Human- Environment interactions are the way people react with their environment (Guidelines for Geographic Education).  Living with the environment is not a one way street, we can not continually expect to take from mother earth without giving something in return.  We take for granted the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we consume, and the houses in which we live.  The important thing to remember is where did these amenities come from?

The human population continues to pour thousands of tons of combustion emissions  into the atmosphere every day, these emissions include not only carbon dioxide, but chloroflourocarbons from refrigerants as well, which escalates the depletion of the ozone (O3) layer exponentially (film - Geography tutor).  Only recently did our governments pass a law banning the use of chloroflorocarbons.  Sadly, humans continue to deplete one of earth's greatest natural resources which could aid in the natural repair of the ozone layer, our rain forests.  The list of violations people incur upon the environment everyday is endless, but it is the most important of the five themes in geography - Human/Environment interactions - and the reason is very simple.  If our population continues to rape the environment in the fashion in which it has over the last two hundred years, very soon, there will be no environment left.  Mother nature is very forgiving, but her resources are being pulled out from under her at a rate in which she can not repair herself.  If she dies, we all shall surely perish as well.

Movement is simply the migration of people, products, information, and ideas within or between regions (Journal of Geography 1990).  People on earth are now linked in virtually every way via transportation, communication, and technological networks which allow for the sharing of ideas, philosophies, goods, and services within virtually every corner of the globe.

The last of the five themes of geography consists of  the idea of regions.  A region is not only a place where a group of people of similar nationality, race, or religious belief reside.  A region can also be a defining physical characteristic of a place.  The Sahara and Sahel of Africa is a desert region.  Defined by its consistently hot and dry climate.  Great Britain of old encompassed one of the greatest regional empires of the world, which extended from Australia, to Belize, to the North American Continent, and finally to her own islands.  A region simply put, is a place which has a unique physical, racial, cultural, or environmental characteristic which defines it separately form other regions.

The five fundamental themes of geography offer educators a new and unique perspective on the world of geography.  This perspective breaks down the vast array of knowledge contained in the world of geography into its simplest simplest form, allowing teachers to convey the basic concepts of geography.  These basic concepts are the key to understanding.  Once the student learns the five basic themes, he or she can then apply the themes to virtually every aspect of our physical and cultural environment.  Which in the end will provide a much deeper understanding of geography, as well as eliminating the problem of geographic  illiteracy in our schools.  After all, education is not memorization, education is understanding.

Bibliography

1.  "The Four Traditions of Geography", The Journal of Geography, May 1964, pg. 211 - 213, William D. Pattison

2.  "The New School Geography:  A Critique", The Journal of Geography, February 1990, pg.  27 - 30, Robert Harper

3.  "An Elaboration of the Fundamental Themes in Geography", Social       Education, May 1994, pg. 211 -  213, Richard G. Boehm and James F. Petersen.

4.  "Guidelines for Geographic Education", National Council for Geographic Education and Association of American Geographers., 1984.

117.          The Agriculture and Economics of Peru

Peru's gross domestic product in the late 1980s was $19.6 billion, or about $920

per capita. Although the economy remains primarily agricultural, the mining and

fishing industries have become increasingly important. Peru relies primarily on the

export of raw materials-chiefly minerals, farm products, and fish meal-to earn

foreign exchange for importing machinery and manufactured goods. During the

late 1980s, guerrilla violence, rampant inflation, chronic budget deficits, and

drought combined to drive the country to the brink of fiscal insolvency. However,

in 1990 the government imposed an austerity program that removed price controls

and ended subsidies on many basic items and allowed the inti, the national

currency, to float against the United States dollar.

About 35 percent of Peru's working population is engaged in farming. Most

of the coastal area is devoted to the raising of export crops; on the montaña and the

sierra are mainly grown crops for local consumption. Many farms in Peru are very

small and are used to produce subsistence crops; the country also has large

cooperative farms. The chief agricultural products, together with the approximate

annual yield (in metric tons) in the late 1980s, were sugarcane (6.2 million),

potatoes (2 million), rice (1.1 million), corn (880,000), seed cotton (280,000),

coffee (103,000), and wheat (134,000). Peru is the world's leading grower of coca,

from which the drug cocaine is refined.

The livestock population included about 3.9 million cattle, 13.3 million

sheep, 1.7 million goats, 2.4 million hogs, 875,000 horses and mules, and 52

million poultry. Llamas, sheep, and vicuñas provide wool, hides, and skins.

The forests covering 54 percent of Peru's land area have not been

significantly exploited. Forest products include balsa lumber and balata gum,

rubber, and a variety of medicinal plants. Notable among the latter is the cinchona

plant, from which quinine is derived. The annual roundwood harvest in the late

1980s was 7.7 million cu m.

The fishing industry is extremely important to the country's economy and

accounts for a significant portion of Peru's exports. It underwent a remarkable

expansion after World War II (1939-1945); the catch in the late 1980s was about

5.6 million metric tons annually. More than three-fifths of the catch is anchovies,

used for making fish meal, a product in which Peru leads the world.

The extractive industries figure significantly in the Peruvian economy. Peru

ranks as one of the world's leading producers of copper, silver, lead, and zinc;

petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, molybdenum, tungsten, and gold are extracted in

significant quantities. Annual production in the late 1980s included 3.3 million

metric tons of iron ore; 406,400 metric tons of copper; 2054 metric tons of silver;

203,950 metric tons of lead; and 612,500 metric tons of zinc. About 64.9 million

barrels of crude petroleum were produced, along with 578.3 million cu m of

natural gas.

Much manufacturing in Peru is on a small scale, but a number of modern

industries have been established since the 1950s along the Pacific coast.

Traditional goods include textiles, clothing, food products, and handicrafts. Items

produced in large modern plants include steel, refined petroleum, chemicals,

processed minerals, motor vehicles, and fish meal.

In the late 1980s Peru had an installed electricity-generating capacity of

approximately 3.7 million kw, and annual output was approximately 14.2 billion

kwh. About three-quarters of the total electricity produced was generated in

hydroelectric facilities.

The unit of currency in Peru is the inti, divided into 100 céntimos; after

being allowed to float against the U.S. dollar, the inti fluctuated wildly at between

200,000 and 400,000 to the dollar in mid-1990. The Banco Central de Reserva del

Perú (1922) is the central bank and bank of issue. All private domestic banks were

nationalized in 1987.

Exports are more diversified in Peru than in most South American countries. The

principal exports are petroleum, copper, lead, coffee, silver, fish meal, zinc, sugar,

and iron ore. The chief export markets are the United States, Japan, Germany,

Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, and Great Britain. Exports earned about $2.7 billion

annually in the late 1980s. The leading imports of Peru include electrical and

electronic items, foodstuffs, metals, chemicals, and transportation equipment. The

principal sources of these goods are the United States, Japan, Argentina, Germany,

and Brazil. Imports cost about $2.8 billion annually in the late 1980s.

Peru's system of railroads, highways, and airports has been expanded

considerably since World War II. The country's mountains make surface transport

difficult, however. In the late 1980s Peru had about 69,940 km (about 43,460 mi)

of roads, of which 11 percent were paved. The main artery is a section of the Pan-

American Highway, which traverses Peru from Ecuador to Chile, covering a

distance of about 2495 km (about 1550 mi). The Trans-Andean Highway links

Lima and Pucallpa. Peru also has about 2400 km (about 1490 mi) of railroads. One

trans-Andean line, the Callao-Huancayo, ascends to some 4815 m (some 15,800 ft)

above sea level, the highest point reached by any standard-gauge line in the world.

The most notable inland waterway is the Amazon River, which is navigable by

ship from the Atlantic Ocean to Iquitos in Peru. Lake Titicaca also serves as a

waterway. Leading Peruvian seaports include Callao, Salaverry, Pacasmayo, Paita,

and San Juan. The country's main international airports are situated near Lima,

Cuzco, Iquitos, and Arequipa. Aeroperú, the national airline, offers domestic and

international service.

Peru's telephone system, which was nationalized in 1970, has some 600,000

instruments. The country is served by more than 300 radio stations and 8 television

stations. In the late 1980s about 4 million radios and 1.6 million television

receivers were in use. In the same period the country had more than 70 daily

newspapers. Dailies with large circulations included El Comercio, Expreso, Ojo,

and La República, all published in Lima.

118.          The Arctic Tundra

Location

The Tundra is located in the northern regions of North America, Europe, Asia, as well as a few regions of Antarctica. The Tundra is the second largest vegetation zone in Canada. It can be divided clearly into three different sections: the High Arctic Tundra, the Low Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra. The latter Alpine Tundra occurs in higher altitudes such as mountains whereas the first two are mainly based in plains and lowlands of some kind. The Low Arctic Tundra is the transmission point to the north. It is located above Canada's Boreal forests and is followed by the High Arctic Tundra. The High Arctic Tundra is located farther north and encompasses the Arctic circle as well as most of the western Northwest Territories. Generally though since climate more or less corresponds to vegetation zones, the Tundra is located in Arctic climate areas.

Temperature

The Tundra suffers a very harsh climate. Because of this fact most of the area remains barren save for a few shrubs and lichens. It's winters last from 8-10 months and the summers are cool and short. Also due to the fact that much of it's territory is located within the northern pole a lot of the Tundra receives alternating 6 month periods of light and dark. This is also the reason why the Tundra receives cold weather; at it's degree of latitude the suns rays end up hitting the region obliquely, thus causing less solar heat. Here are the temperatures of the Tundra in general:

Average January temperature: -32.1 degrees Celsius

Average July temperature: +4.1 degrees Celsius

Temperature range: 36.2 degrees Celsius

Average annual temperature: -17 degrees Celsius

Lowest temperature recorded: -52.5 degrees Celsius

Highest temperature recorded: +18.3 degrees Celsius

After seeing these temperatures you can see the reason why barely anyone lives up there and why there is rather little natural vegetation.

Seasons And Moisture Content

The main seasons of the Tundra are summer and winter. The winter will last 8 to 10 months followed by the short and much less cold summer. During the summer some lower areas of the Tundra will defrost at which point most of the flora and fauna will start to creep out of hiding. The few summer months are used by many animals such as the polar bear, to mate and to prepare for the once again oncoming winter. During the winter months most everything remains frozen. Many of the animals migrate south for the winter whereas some stay behind or even group together for ritual group suicide (lemmings).

There is little precipitation all year long in the Tundra. The average yearly total is 136 mm, out of which 83.3 mm is snow. This low amount is due to the fact that there is very little evaporation. Since the average temperature is below freezing, it give little or no time for any of the snow and/or ice to melt. This is the reason that the Tundra is often referred to as a polar desert.

Fertility

The Tundra's fertility is very low. It has An average growing season of  about 60 days (1.5 to 3.5 months) which is not really enough time to allow anything to grow. This is also compounded with the fact that the soil is mainly thin and rocky. But, the main problem is that most of the ground in the Tundra region is permafrost (soil which stays frozen perennially). These 3 aspects of Tundra fertility make the Tundra all but useless for use to grow anything of value.

Forest Floor

The Tundra forest floor really depends on where you are. The further north that you go the less there is anything but snow, ice, and rocks. In the more temperate Tundra where there is plant life one could find more interesting floors. They contain once again mainly rocky soil which is most likely permafrost. Also there are many different kinds of mosses and lichens scattered along the ground or on bigger rocks along with possibly some short grasses.

Diversity of Plants

There are not very many species of plant life in the Arctic Tundra, nor is their growth rate giant or are they abundant but somehow they do survive. Most of the plant life occurs in the lower areas of the Tundra although there are sometimes a few "pockets" of vegetation as you move further north. There is also a bit more vegetation in the Alpine Tundra. During the few short summer months, the vegetation is able to grow, as opposed to winter where only a few cold resistant trees can survive the harsh climate and temperatures. The plants reproduce by division and by budding rather than by pollination since there is little time and little other plants.

The Vegetation is often divided into two distinct regions. The change from one to another is quite surprising. They are:

The low arctic Tundra which supports a nearly complete plant coverage. There are many low and dwarf shrubs which include willow, birch, and Heath. There is a large quantity of mosses and lichens in this area.

The high arctic Tundra is a place where it is obviously much more difficult to locate as many plants. Once again mosses and lichens are found but in smaller proportions. Scattered "patches" of willow and sedge occur as well.

Diversity of Animals

Even though the arctic Tundra is not seeping with wildlife, there are more than a few different kinds of animals. The arctic Tundra wildlife is closely related all around the world, but the variety is limited because of the difficult environment that they have to adjust to. There are of course the large herbivores, which include such species as the caribou, the musk-ox , and the reindeer. These eat the mosses and dwarf shrubs which they may come across as they cross the arctic. As for predators, they include the wolf and the arctic fox. These play a most crucial role in the Tundra by killing and eating several herbivores. Without this service the herbivores would eat all the plants and end up starving to death. There are also many birds which nest in the tundra during the summer months and then migrate south for the winter. Polar bears as well as brown bears are not uncommon to the arctic Tundra as well. Many other animals include: the snowy owl, the lemming, jaegers, the weasel, and the arctic hare to name a few. But perhaps the most annoying of all is the mosquitoes and blackflies which roam around in huge groups.

Symbiotic Relationship

The relationship of the Tundra is a delicate one; any slight faltering could result in massive repercussions. To survive, the herbivores need to eat what little dwarf shrubs and mosses that they can find and in turn the meat eaters need to eat them. Eventually when the animals die, they become the little earth that will perhaps allow some plant to grow. Without this earth the plants will not grow and all will die.

Structure Adaptations

Since the Arctic Tundra has such a harsh climate everything has had to adapt or be wiped out. The most common adaptation among animals is rather thick and white fur or feathers. Many animals such as the snowy owl have grown to use this to camouflage themselves to escape predators or as a predator themselves to catch their prey. Among Plants there are many changes. Many plants have adapted to contain most of their biomass in their roots so as to protect themselves from the winds. Also  another common plant adaptation has been to develop a more aerodynamic and stronger frame to withstand the winds. Among insects the mosquitoes and blackflies have evolved into darker black colors so as to capture and save most of the days heat.

Other facts

When a vehicle passes in the Tundra area, the tracks cause deep ditches that can last not for days but for years. Also what could happen is that if a piece of the Tundra's permafrost is melted, it will cave in a large area. The Tundra is very fragile and we must take care not to destroy it for it is very frail.

119.          The Chisholm Trail

Chisholm Trail

When the railroads moved west to the Great Plains, the "Cattle Boom" began.  Southern Texas became a major ranching area with the raising of longhorn cattle from Mexico. Cattle was branded by the rawhides who guarded them on horseback on the ranges.

Before the Civil War, small herds of Texas cattle were driven by the cowboys to New Orleans, some as far west as California, and some to the north over the Shawnee Trail.  This trail passed through Dallas and near the Indian Territory, ending in Sedalia, Missouri. In 1866, the Shawnee Trail presented some major problems for the cattle drivers Farmers along the route did not like their fields being trampled.  They also objected to the spread of tick fever.  Longhorns carried the ticks but were immune to the fever.  A few farmers were so angry, they armed themselves with shotguns to convince the cattle ranchers to find another trail north.

There was a large increase icattle by the end of the Civil War.  Over 1,000,000    cattle roamed the open range.  At this time, people in the north had money to buy beef and cattle which was in great demand. A cow that cost 4  to5 dollars a head in Texas was going for 40 to 50 dollars a head in the east.  Ranchers hired cowboys for the cattle drives north, realizing the great opportunity for a large profit if they could reach the railroads in Abilene, Kansas.

Joseph McCoy, a stock dealer from Springfield, Illinois, decided a new trail was necessary west of the  farms.  In 1867, he chose a route that would reach Abilene and the railroads with the least amount of problems.  This route was to become well-known as the Chisholm Trail.

Jesse Chisholm was a half-breed, a Scotch Cherokee Indian trader, who in 1866 drove a wagon through the Indian territory, known now as Oklahoma, to the Wichita, Kansas, where he had a trading post.  Cattlemen use the same trail in the years to come, following Chisholm's wagon ruts to Abilene, Kansas, and the railroads.  The trail began below San Antonio, Texas, and stretched north for about 1,000 miles.  The main course then passed through Austin, Fort Worth, The Indian Territory, and Wichita to Abilene.  Side trails fed into the Chisholm Trail.  The cattle fed on grass along the trail.

Cattlemen moved about 1,500,000 cattle over the trail during a three year span. The biggest year was in 1871, when 5,000 cowboys drove over 700,000 head of cattle along the trail from Texas to Abilene.  The Chisholm Trail was the most popular route because of the good terrain.  There were no hills or woods to impede to cowboys' progress, nor where there towns or farmers along the way.

The cattle trail route moved westward as the railroads across the plains moved west, and settlers soon followed. Ellsworth and Newton, Kansas, on the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe Railroad became the end of the trail for cattle drives between 1872 and 1875.  Here were the chief cattle markets for several years. There "cowtowns," as they were called, consisted of gambling halls, saloons and brothels.  It was a good place for cowboys to spend there pay at the end of a long drive.

In time the railroad moved even further west.  Farmers homesteaded the land and put up fences, barring cattle herds.  The Chisholm Trail soon ceased to be used  by 1890, but will be remembered in western stories and songs.  This trail was very important to Texas. It helped the state recover from the economic blows of the Civil War.  It also helped stock new ranches to the north and it met the nations demand for beef.  It is responsible in part for the rise of Chicago and Kansas as packing centers.  It also led to the expansion of western railroads and the development of  refrigerator cars.

Although Jesse Chisholm's role in the "Cattle Boom" is very insignificant, the trail named for him played a major role in American History.

120.          The Colorado River

Geography

Colorado River

Geographers can tell you that the one thing that most rivers and their

adjacent flood plains in the world have in common is that they have rich

histories associated with human settlement and development.  This

especially true in arid regions which are very dependent upon water.  Two

excellent examples are the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers which

show use the relationship between rivers and concentrations of people.

However, the Colorado River is not such a good example along most

segments of its course.  There is no continuous transportation system

that parallels the rivers course, and settlements are clustered.  The

rugged terrain and entrenched river channels are the major reasons for

sparse human settlement.  We ask ourselves, did the Colorado River help

or hinder settlement in the Western United States?

As settlers began to move westward, the Southwest was considered

to be a place to avoid.  Few considered it a place to traverse, to spread

Christianity, and a possible source of furs or mineral wealth.  Finding a

reliable or accessible water source, and timber for building was

difficult to find.  There was a lack of land that could be irrigated

easily.

By the turn of the century, most present day cities and towns

were already established.  Trails, roads, and railroads linked several

areas with neighboring regions.  Although the Colorado River drainage

system was still not integrated.  In the mid 1900's many dams had been

built to harness and use the water.  A new phase of development occurred

at the end of the second World War.  There was a large emphasis on

recreation, tourism, and environmental preservation.

The terrain of the Colorado River is very unique.  It consists of

Wet Upper Slopes, Irregular Transition Plains and Hills, Deep

Canyonlands, and the Dry Lower Plains.

Wet Upper Slopes:  Consist of numerous streams that feed into the

Colorado River from stream cut canyons, small flat floored valleys often

occupied by alpine lakes and adjacent steep walled mountain peaks.  These

areas are heavily forested and contain swiftly flowing streams, rapids,

and waterfalls.  These areas have little commercial value except as

watershed, wildlife habitat, forest land, and destinations for hikers,

fishermen, and mountaineers.

Irregular Transition Plains and Hills:  These areas are favorable

for traditional economic development.  It consists of  river valleys with

adequate flat land to support farms and ranches.  Due to the rolling

hills, low plateaus, and mountain slopes, livestock grazing is common.

The largest cities of the whole drainage system are found here.

Deep Canyonlands:  Definitely the most spectacular  and least

developed area along the Colorado River.  These deep gorges are primarily

covered by horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks, of which sand stone is

the most abundant.  The Grand Canyon does not only display spectacular

beauty, but numerous other features such as mesas, buttes, spires,

balancing rocks, natural arches and bridges, sand dunes, massive

sandstone walls, and pottholed cliffs.

Dry Lower Plains:  These consist of the arid desert areas.  These

areas encounter hot summers and mild winters.  Early settlement was

limited because most of the land next to the river was not well suited

for irrigation agriculture.  The area is characterized by limited flat

land, poor soils, poor drainage, and too hot of conditions for most

traditional crops.

The Colorado River was first navigated  by John  Wesley Powell,

in his 1869 exploration through the Marble and Grand Canyons.  The

Colorado River begins high in the Colorado Rocky Mountains.  The water

begins from melting snow and rain, and is then supplemented by the

Gunnison, Green, San Juan, Little Colorado, Virgin, and Gila Rivers.

Before any dams were built, the Colorado River carried 380,000 million

tons of silt to the Sea of Cortez.  Along it's path, it carves out the

Marble, Grand, Black, Boulder, and Topok Canyons.  The Grand Canyon being

the most popular, which is visited by numerous tourists every year, plays

a large role in western tourism.  The Grand Canyon is in fact one of the

World's Seven Wonders.  The Colorado Basin covers 240,000 square miles of

drainage area.  At certain points along the river, it turns into a

raging, muddy, rapid covered mass of water.  Unlike other rivers, the

Colorado River doesn't meet the ocean in a grand way, but rather in a

small trickle.  Almost all of the water that passes down the river is

spoken for.  It passes through seven Western States, travels 1,700 miles,

and descends more than 14,000 feet before emptying into the sea, with

more silt and salinity than any river in North America.  A river not used

for commerce, or any degree of navigation other than recreational, and

virtually ignored until the turn of the century.

The Colorado River is the most fought over, litigated, and

legislated river in the United States. The upper Colorado passes through

mountainous, less populated country.  It has seen fewer problems that the

lower Colorado.  The lower Colorado, which passes through canyons and

arid desert, serves a more populated area.  It has been a large source of

arguments for the state of California and surrounding areas since the

early 1900's.

The first project on the Colorado River was the Alamo River

Project  near Yuma, Arizona.  Sediment from the upper river was

transported and deposited down river.  It raised the river bed so the

river was higher than the surrounding land, making water easy to divert

for irrigation.   The Alamo Canal diverted  water from the Colorado River

to the Alamo River, and traveled 60 miles through Mexico across the

Mexicali desert to the Salton Sink, a depression in the Imperial Valley.

For this, Mexico received the right to take half the water from the

canal, the rest went to the Imperial Valley.  Although it may have seemed

like an easy way to divert the water, the Alamo Canal was no match for

the untamed Colorado River.  In 1905 a series of floods breached the

intake and flooded the Imperial Valley, settling in the Salton Sea.

After tremendous amounts of manpower and money, the river was returned to

its original path.

This disaster alarmed  the landowners of the valley.  The

Imperial Irrigation District of Southern California was the largest

single user of Colorado River water.  They campaigned for an All-American

Canal.  One that would divert the river above the Mexican  border and

leave the Mexicali desert with what they didn't use.  This was met with

much opposition from the largest landowner  in the Mexican desert, a

syndicate of wealthy Los Angeles businessmen, headed by Harry Chandler of

the Los Angeles Times.

The Imperial Valley landowners received support from the City of

Los Angeles.  The city was growing rapidly and the need for future

electric power was a major concern.  Water experts advocated a dam on the

Colorado.  Without this dam, the All-American Canal would be in danger of

breaching and flooding.  The two forces combined to work for a Dam in

Boulder Canyon on the Colorado River.

In Salt Lake City in January 1919, representatives from the seven

states that have tributaries emptying into the Colorado River met. "The

water should first be captured and used while it is young, for then it

can be recaptured as it returns from the performance of its duties and

thus be used over and over again ".(1)

On Nov. 24, 1922, the seven states signed the Colorado River

Compact.  This pact divided the waters into 2 basin areas, separated at

Lee's Ferry, at the head of the Grand Canyon.  The Upper states included

Colorado, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. The Lower states included

Arizona, California and Nevada.   Each area received 7.5 million acre

feet of water, with the lower basin getting an extra 1 million  acre feet

annually from its tributaries.  The allocation of river water was based

on an annual flow at Lee's Ferry of 16.5 million acre feet.  This was

later found to be inaccurate and did not take into account the rivers dry

years.  A more accurate flow is 13.5 million acre feet per year.  In

addition, any water given to Mexico by international treaty would be

supplied first from the surplus above the total of 16 million acre feet,

and if this was not sufficient, the deficiency would be shared equally by

the two basins.  The consensus was that the river and its tributaries

were American (244,000 sq. miles) originating in the United States, very

little of the Colorado River was in Mexico (2,000 sq. miles), and

therefore they deserved very little.  Herbert Hoover stated, "We do not

believe they (Mexicans) ever had any rights."  The Indian tribes along

the river were treated the same way.  Hoover inserted what was called the

'Wild Indian Article', "nothing in this compact shall be construed as

affecting the obligations of the United States of America  to Indian

tribes." (2)  It's obvious that the native Mexicans and Indians were

being deprived of what originally belonged to them.  The attitude of

Herbert Hoover left the local peoples with a taste of resentment.

The Colorado River Pact did not apportion water to individual

states.  Arizona would not ratify the pact, feeling that California was

taking all the water given to the lower basin.  Arizona contributed 3

major rivers, about 2 to 3 million acre feet, to the Colorado.

California farmers would be the largest single users of the water, but

would contribute nothing.  California finally agreed to some concessions.

All the waters of the Gila River in Arizona would go to Arizona, and be

exempted from the Mexican Treaty.  California also agreed to apportion

0.3 million acre feet of water to Nevada, 4.4 million acre feet and 1/2

of the surplus to California, 2.8 million acre feet to Arizona and the

other 1/2 of the surplus.  Arizona  was still not satisfied. The argument

went on for years, with Congress finally passing the Boulder Canyon Act

in 1928 without Arizona's ratification.

The Boulder Canyon Act of 1928 authorized the construction of a

hydro-electric plant at Black Canyon.  The cost to be off-set by the

selling of electric power over a total of 50 years.  All power privileges

at the dam were to be controlled by private interest. The Metropolitan

Water District controlled 36%, City of  LA 19%, Arizona 18%, and Nevada

18%.  The act also included the construction of the All-American Canal,

starting at Laguna Dam and crossing 75 miles of Imperial Valley to the

Salton Sea.

Arizona's share of the water made it possible for large

population increases in Phoenix and Tucson, two desert regions that would

not be able to exist with out the Colorado River.  Population increases

in Phoenix and Tucson were using much of  the state's water.  Arizona

wanted more water from the Colorado River, they continued to fight

California for it. In 1930 Arizona filed what was to be many lawsuits

against the State of California for more water rights.  It wasn't until

Arizona was granted electricity from Hoover Dam, and given assurances for

the Central Arizona Project, that Arizona ratified the 1922 Colorado

River Compact, 22 years later.  Nevada, the one state that has no major

river,  was largely unpopulated at this time and remained  unconcerned

about the water allocation.

During this time, The Federal Bureau of Reclamation built Davis

Dam, 66 miles below Hoover Dam to further regulate flows and provide

storage.  Parker Dam, below Davis was built in 1934 to facilitate the 242

mile long Colorado River Aqueduct.  This was another of Metropolitan

Water District's projects to transport water to Los Angeles.  With Hoover

and Parker, California could receive 5.6 million acre feet from the

Colorado River.

Mexico saw its share of the river water drying up with the

control of  the water at Hoover Dam.  In 1944 the United States, wanting

to continue a good relationship with her neighbor, signed an agreement

with Mexico giving them 1.5 million acre feet per year, with nothing said

about the quality of the water.  Mexico water, due to return irrigation

water from United States fields and evaporation was increasingly saline.

Additional water to flush the salts was tried, but the condition

worsened.  By 1955, the Mexicali Valley was a leading cotton producing

region.  By 1960, growing salinity of river water hurt the cotton crop

along with the decline in cotton prices.  Mexico and the United States

argued over the quality of water, and due to the administration's "Good

Neighbor Policy", the United States acquiesced, and  in 1973 signed a

water agreement with Mexico.  United States reduced salt by releasing

more water upstream, the quality of water arriving at Morelos Dam was to

be equal in quality to water behind Imperial Dam.  The silt was to be

removed by the giant desilting works at Imperial Dam, and then the water

was returned to the river above Morelos Dam at the Imperial Irrigation

District Pilot Knob power drop.

This policy promised Mexico that salinity levels would be no more than

115 parts per million.  It also obligated the United States to assume all

costs necessary to meet the salinity levels.  As a result, the United

States agreed to upstream salt control projects in Nevada, Utah, and

Colorado, and a 260 Million dollar desalination plant in Yuma, Arizona.

The desalination plant reclaims more than 70 million gallons of drainage

water a day from the Welton-Mohawk irrigation  project.  Fifty miles from

the Mexican border is Laguna Salada, the end of the Colorado River.  An

unlined canal carries  the water 50 miles and then empties it onto the

flat plain of sand and silt where the Sea of Cortez washes the last drops

into the gulf.   The Mexican water irrigates soil for 14,000 farmers and

supplies drinking water for the Mexicali Valley.  A 76 mile aqueduct

provides water for Tijuana, Mexico.

It was not until 1964 that Arizona finally got their share of the

water with the passage of the Central Arizona Project.  The Central

Arizona Project was the culmination of years of litigation.  The 3.5

million dollar project pumps water from Lake Havasu, 824 feet up and over

the Buckskin Mountains through a 7 mile tunnel along a concrete aqueduct

333 miles to the cities of Phoenix and Tucson.  The Central Arizona

Project was  built by the Bureau of Reclamation and finished in 1991.

In 1963 in Arizona vs. California, the Supreme Court allocated

900,000 acre feet of Colorado River water to 5 Indian tribes along the

river, and 79,000 acre feet for federal lands.  This gives them

sufficient water to meet needs of reservation.  Recently the tribes have

reasoned that farm lands were omitted from the original estimate and that

they want more water rights.  If tribes receive more water, this could

mean less water for the lower basin.  Opponents argue that the Navajo

Tribe bargained away some rights for other developments, such as the huge

coal burning power plant on Lake Powell.   The Federal Governments

outlook is, "why give the tribes more water?"  They gave away their

rights, and the Federal government does not have the money for water

irrigation projects that would benefit so few people.  There is another

side to the Indian issue,  "first in time, first in right".  this means

that the Indians were there first, before the laws, so therefore the

Indians have first right to the water.  This would put a totally

different slant on distribution of Colorado River water, but most people

feel that this issue would be tied up in litigation for years, and

because of the benefits of so few, the Indians would likely lose.

Citizens groups have become more vocal in the management of the

lower Colorado River Basin.  The river water has historically been given

to agricultural uses.  In recent times, urban sprawl has infringed on the

agriculture, 80% of the Colorado river water is still used for crops, but

scarcity and expensive water is limiting the agriculture.  The Imperial

Valley Irrigation district wastes about 15% of its water.  Conservation

has led to the lining of canals with cement.  This had brought about

charges that it prevents seepage from filling ground water aquifers.

Water experts fear that depleting local water supplies will empty

underground reservoirs, so they want more water from the Colorado.

Maintaining stream flow of tributaries is necessary for preserving

habitat and underground aquifers.

Infrared satellite photos which pick up plant growth as red, show the

area of the Colorado Delta in Mexico, the Mexicali, and San Louis Valley

as desolate, with few pale red patches, but the area of  the canals in

the Imperial Valley show vibrant red.

The growing population explosion in the southwest have given the

municipalities a loud voice in the fight for more water, but most of the

laws still favor agriculture.  Agriculture produces economic advantages,

government subsidies and facilities.  The Clean Water Act sets effluent

standards for water coming from 'point sources' (pipes and ditches), but

agricultural return flow is exempt.  In 1980, the State of Arizona passed

the most stringent water management program.  This law discourages

farmers from using Central Arizona Project (CAP) water to increase

production of heavy water user crops such as cotton, rice and citrus, by

having growers cut back on ground water use equal to their use of CAP

water.  The farmers can also sell their water rights to developers and

local water systems.

The City of Tucson is perhaps the most water conscience city in America.

They have mandatory conservation, all golf courses and city parks use

reclaimed water, or water that has been recycled.  They ban outdoor

fountains and utilize low flow toilets and showers.  The city has cut

their water consumption 25% since 1974.  Sadly, most of the west  has not

practiced water conservation.  The recent six year drought in Southern

California, when many of the cities were required to conserve water, and

some even had water patrols to cite people for wasting water, forced

people to conserve water or face stiff penalties.  For years California

had 'borrowed' water from the upper basin and used Arizona and New

Mexico's unused portion of  lower basin water.  The water supply of the

lower Colorado Rive Basin had, for the first time, used up its entire

share of river water.  This meant severe conservation of water.  By 1990,

after heavy rains in Arizona, California was again using other states

water.  People went back to their old habits of wasting precious water.

Many people felt that because conservationists are always crying about

water shortages, they have cried wolf too often, they don 't believe

there is a water shortage, that it is only an excuse for raising water

rates.  On April 1, 1994, California State water officials said that

California is again in a drought.  Many people will ignore this in view

of recent heavy rains.  People have to understand that the water is only

transported to Southern California.  If there is no rain or snow in

Colorado (or the Sierra's in California's case) it can result in water

shortages.

A threat of water allocation is a threat to a person or a communities way

of life.   New growth actually encourages more water consumption.  New

houses mean more dish washers, washing machines and backyard pools. This

is not the way to manage water.  A conscientious effort must be made by

government, and residents to share the water equally and conserve water

equally.

In  1980 legislature authorized the transfer of water rights, or water

marketing.  Some people believed this would lead to an open market, the

price of the water would reflect the cost of  developing and distributing

the water.  The highest bidder would receive the water.  In theory, the

more the water costs, the more people would conserve.  But agriculture is

heavily subsidized and therefore prices can fluctuate.  Commercial and

residential users would be subject to high water rates, with the wealthy

being  able to afford most of the water.  This is an unfair and unjust

system.  A marketing system that is fair and responsible, one that

mandates conservation, should be enacted.  Water needs to be dispersed

equally.  The 1922 compact, while good in its time, is antiquated by

today's standards and usage.  "The politics of the Colorado River Basin

is nothing more than a fabric of promise, incurred at different times,

under different conditions and often for different purposes'. (3)

The Colorado River could in the future be augmented by other water.  Some

have suggested connecting the Columbia River to the Colorado by way of

pumps, siphons and canals.  These plans are very costly and unless water

becomes scarce, this is not a reality.  Some California coastal cities

have made plans for alternate water in times of shortage.  Ocean water

desalination plants are in the planning stages or under construction.

This method of water augmentation is also very costly.

Water is a social good, a public trust, should communities be able to

decide independently about water use?  The seven states of the Colorado

River Basin should follow the advice of  Secretary of the Interior Bruce

Babbitt and form a commission, along with representatives of the Federal

Government with input from the Colorado River Indian Tribes, to regulate,

manage, control, enforce and educate the public and private sectors

regarding the Colorado River Water.  Too many agencies, too many private

water companies all add to the confusion of  the water rights of the

Colorado River.  Water banks need to be set up.  Lake Mead is designated

as a water bank for storage if all parties agree to this, but with the

history of regulations regarding Colorado River water, there will most

likely be a long and drawn out battle over this idea.  Only the fear of

no water or a severe drought seems to move passage on laws regarding the

water.

People come to the Colorado River to play and enjoy the water.  "Six

national parks and recreation areas along the Colorado's shores support a

multi-million dollar recreation industry of boating, hiking, fishing and

white water rafting". (4).   Recreation  has become a huge part of the

Colorado River System.  This has brought loud cries from the

conservationists.  In 1991 the Arizona stretch of the Colorado River was

named the most endangered river of 1991 by American Rivers, a

conservation group.  Many of the fish and wildlife have disappeared.

Special areas have been designated as wildlife protection areas.  The

Endangered Species Act protects the river and can be enacted

independently of the Clean Water Act.  Federal Fish and Game, state

resources and conservation groups have all worked to make the public

121.          The Egnigma Of Atlantis

The Enigma of Atlantis

I believe that there never was an island known as Atlantis.  If the people

of Atlantis made war against other countries to find wealth and power, don't

you think that anybody would know of the wars that went on?  Even though

the people of the ancient items didn't usually record events in history, have

you ever heard of passing it on from generation to generation?

Have gods ever laid before such cruel punishment on any civilization

like Plato claims was laid on Atlantis?  To say that there was terrible heat,

then tidal waves, and earthquakes during a twenty four hour period of time is

unheard of.

Atlantis is just an island of the Greek Myths and that's all the island of

Atlantis is a myth.  The idea that an island almost half the Atlantic Ocean

away (Thera) could be Atlantis is insane.  According to what Plato said the

island Thera was supposed to be west of the pillars of Hercules, (the pillars of

Hercules is the name the Greeks gave to the straight of Gibraltar) and Thera

is an island around Greece east of the Pillars of Hercules.  The island of

Atlantis couldn't have been so wealthy or other greedy kings and queens

would have searched for the riches themselves.

I truly believe that there never was an Atlantis and future scientists will

prove my theory.

122.          the forever shifting earth

The land below us is always in motion.  Plate tectonics studies these restless effects to give us a better understanding of the Earth and its past.  New molten rocks are poured out in the form of magma from the mid-ocean ridges.  The rock is recycled and re-entered back into the earth in deep ocean trenches through convection current.  The convection current in the mantle drives plates around either against or away from each other.  These collisions give rise to earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and continental drift.  The crashing and spreading of the plates forms the landscape of the Earth as we see it today.  The positions of the land masses today is a result of continental drift.  During the Earth's existance, the magnetic fields have never been stable.  Solidified magma containing magnetic imprints reveal periods of time when the Earth's magnetic fields have actually been reversed.

Approximately 4.55 billion years ago, the Earth was just a ball of molten material.  Since then, parts of the Earth have cooled forming the solid crust-mantle.  This process has been occurring for roughly about 3.8 billion years.  The mantle is about 2900 km. thick, which lies above a layer of molten magma that still exists today.  The immense heat from the magma (approximately 2700(C) causes convection in the mantle (Figure 1).  Convection is caused by non-uniform temperature in a fluid and density differences.  This continuous convection is the cause of plate movement.  Each complete cycle, called a convection cell, drives the plate in the direction of the cell.  How does a 'solid' mantle move?  The mantle may be solid but, as with most solids, it will deform if long term stress is applied;  "...like Silly Putty which seeps into the rug when left unattended, mantle material flows when subjected to small long-term stresses."1

Presently, there are more than fourteen plates in the Earth's crust (Figure 22).  Upwelling hot magma flows out from mid-ocean ridges and then cools down when exposed to the cooled environment outside;  the layer of cooled magma forms the lithosphere.  When magma flows out from the ridges, the crust is fractured and a new ocean floor is built spreading perpendicularly away from the ridge.  Because of this constant upwelling, the ocean is relatively shallow in these areas.  Sea floor spreading and continental drift are the products of this continual upwelling.  The cooled magma will, in time, sink back down into the Earth in the deep ocean trenches.  The mantle sinking down produces subduction zones or Benioff zones.  The deepest part of the ocean resides in these areas.  There are three types of boundaries where plates meet: divergent boundaries -- the upwelling of magma;  convergent boundaries where the plates collide producing mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes;  and transform boundaries -- lateral movement.  Transform plates are caused by fracture zones.  When a rift opens from the upwelling of magma it causes a crack in the crust.  As new magma rises to the surface, the crack increases caused by the pressure, resulting in a horizontal faulting.  The fractured plate pieces travel in the same direction as the original plate was traveling -- away from the ocean ridge.

During the early 1900's, a theory of a 'super-continent' was developed by Alfred Wegener.  He was ridiculed for his ideas that continental drift produced the present positions of the continents from a single 'super-continent' called Pangea.  This theory is widely accepted today, however.  There was abundant evidence for Wegener to believe in the existance of Pangea.  The shape of the continents could be pieced together like a giant jigsaw puzzle suggesting that the continents were once 'glued' together.  The fossils found on the continents were not distinct to that particular land, but were also found in lands that were separated by thousands of kilometers of water.  Fossils indicated that identical species existed in different continents.  Geological structures also demonstrated that the continents were, in fact, one giant land mass;  old mountain ranges from one continent matched with those from another (i.e., South America and Africa).

Ocean spreading has always been moving the continents towards or away from each other.  About 200 million years ago during the Jurassic period, Pangea began to separate (Figure 33).  Pangea's continental crust was subjected to many faults and rifts.  Hot magma would flow out, splitting the land apart and creating a rift valley.  When this valley became deep enough, water flowed in.  In time, the rift expanded so much that a sea began to form between thus creating two continents.  About 135 million years ago, because of sea floor spreading, Pangea separated into two large land masses: Laurasia (containing North America, Europe, and Asia) to the north, and Gondwana (containing South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India) to the south.  About 180 million years ago, Gondwana started to break up into South America-Africa, Australia-Antarctica, and India.  About 130 million years ago, the Atlantic started separating South America and Africa while India sailed towards Asia, crashing into it about 30 million years ago.  Australia and Antarctica split about 45 million years ago and North America separated from Europe 5-10 million years later.

To this day, the continents are continually moving and will still be moving until the liquid inner core cools and solidifies.  With the use of a highly-accurate distance-measuring device known as a geodimeter, the speed at which the continents are moving and the speed of ocean spreading could be measured.  A geodimeter uses a helium-neon laser that acts like radar to measure distances.  The average speed of sea floor spreading is about 2 cm. per year.  Africa, today, is traveling towards Europe and Asia, causing the Mediterranean to close in; in due time, this sea will vanish.  India, which is cemented to Asia, is an example of continental collision.  India's drift speed is about 17 cm. per year; this collision is shown physically by the Himalayan mountains.  In the far future, North America will, most likely, be placed more the west, possibly colliding with Asia; and Australia will drift north, colliding with South Asia.  Another possibility may be that, in a few hundred million years, all the continents may join together, creating another 'super-continent.'

One of the most destructive forces the plates generate are earthquakes.  There are earthquakes occurring every day of different intensity and magnitude, from 500,000 per year at a Richter scale of 1, to one every few years at a Richter scale of about 8.  Faults are produced when rock strata are stressed beyond their limits, forming cracks in the crust.  These cracks are fault zones where crustal movement is taking place.  There are three types of faults shown in Figure 4: normal, reverse, and strike slip.  Normal faults, also called tension faults, move up and down, caused by two plates pulling away at divergent boundaries.  These vertical movements cause one side of the land to slide downwards along a plane that is slanted.  This kind of 'downward-fault' produces trench-like valleys called grabens similar to the Rhine Valley on the border of France and West Germany.  Reverse faults, or compression faults, are caused by the collision of two plates at convergent boundaries.  Most faults are produced by this compressional force.  Like normal faults, these faults also cause vertical movements where one side is pushed upwards vertically on an inclined plane.  These faults produce high vertical 'upward-fault' structures called horst.

Strike slip or transform faults are lateral movements of faults at the transformed boundaries.  Strike-slip faults do not produce any cliffs but they can produce rift valleys.  Tectonic forces deform the rocks on both sides of the fault.  At this point, rocks are bending and storing potential energy.  Finally, when the force exceeds the frictional force between the two rocks, the plates suddenly slip at the most vulnerable place.  The initial slip causes more slippage along the fault which in turn causes energy to be released.  The released energy produces vibrations called seismic waves which originate at the epicenter.  The San Andreas Fault is a well-known example of this released energy from a transform fault.  At this location, an almost straight valley is produced by the parallel fractures.  The Pacific plate, in Canada, is sliding northwards and thus, in the future, California may end up where Vancouver is, today.

One of the most prominent signs that molten material resides below the crust and mantle is the display of volcanoes.  Magma seeks out weak spots on the crust where it could seep out.  Volcanoes are mostly present at fault lines especially at the ocean ridges where new magma is constantly being poured out.  This accounts for about 81% of all magma that escapes to the surface.  The other 19% rises at certain points rather than along fissures.  On of the most famous examples of volcanic activity is The Ring of Fire, located around the Pacific Plate.  There, a continuous 'ring' of volcanoes exists.  'Island arcs' are formed there by many volcanoes developing islands in the form of a curve.  The longest island arc is the Aleutian Islands stretching more than 3000 miles from Alaska to Asia.  One explanation for this arc is that the Pacific plate is rotating very slowly.  The westward-moving plate moves away from the source of volcanic activity making the volcanoes arise in an arc due to the rotation of the plate.

One of the beauties plate collisions could offer are mountains.  There are three types of tectonic mountains: volcanoes, block fault, and folding.  One way mountains are formed are by volcanoes such as the aforementioned island arcs.  In time, after numerous eruptions, more and more sediments are layered and compressed, forming mountainous islands.  Block fault mountains occur when two plates collide, causing one to climb up.  This is known also as a horst mentioned before.  Mountains such as the Sierra Nevada Range is a large tilted fault block.  Folding mountains occur when two converging plates bring two land masses together.  When a continent is pushing its way towards another, the oceanic crust sinks into the subduction zone.  As it moves down the zone, the sediment that makes up the crust is scraped off by the other continent.  With the continental crusts pushing together, the sedimentary rocks are compressed into complex folds where the folds themselves fold as well.  This process forms the high alpine mountains such as the Himalayas which were caused by India crashing into Asia.

If the mantle is always being convected back down into the depths of the Earth, then why doesn't the continents disappear in the deep ocean trenches as well?  The crust contains two different crusts: the granite continental crust and the basaltic oceanic crust.  Only the basaltic crust is thrust back into the Earth while the granite crust floats on top of it.  This is due to the difference in densities.  The granite crust is less dense (2.7 g/cm3) and thicker than the basaltic crust (2.8 g/cm3) making it seem as if the land is actually floating, instead of one big solid mass that extends down to the Earth.  Using Broecker analogy:

"...swimming pool with 4 x 4 hardwood beams and part with 8 x 8 softwood beams.  The softwood beams would float higher for two reasons: they are thicker and they are less dense."4

As new crust is formed from upwelling magma, the ocean floor spreads away from the source.  Because molten magma contains metallic substances such as iron, the cooled rock will possess a magnetic field parallel to the direction of the Earth's field.  The magnetic imprint occurs when certain substances cool after intense heating within a magnetic field.  The rock cools to the temperature when the magnetic field of the rock becomes permanent; this is called the Curie temperature.  During the history of the Earth, this 'normal' magnetic field (North pole to true North) has not been constant.  Over the past 110 million years, the Earth's magnetic field has reversed about 80 times with North becoming South and vice versa.  Figure 55 shows the chronological reversals of Earth's magnetic field over the past 4.5 million years.  The last major reversal was approximately 700,000 years ago called the Brunhes Epoch.  These magnetic reversals are symmetrical to either side of the ridge.  The reversals are also random with no determined period of time.

Radioactive dating along with magnetic reversals provides a means to record the speed at which the ocean floor is spreading.  The youngest crust is where the magma flows out from the ridges and the oldest being where the crust flows back in the trenches.  Figure 66 shows the age of the oceanic crust.  Deep sea drilling and the art of radioactive dating could tell us when the magnetic field was reversed.  Ships equipped with hollow drills would obtain samples of the ocean floor from various places around the ridge.  The procedure most widely used to date the ocean floor is the Potassium-Argon dating method.  It relies on any present radioactive material, Potassium-40.  Potassium-40 decays slowly (1250 x 106 years) but not as slow as Uranium, which decays too slowly for this purpose and Carbon, which decays too fast.  Potassium-40 decays into Argon-40 and Calcium-40.  By measuring the amount of decay, the age of the ocean floor can be determined.  Knowing the time and distance, the velocity of the ocean floor spreading can then be determined.  It takes about 50 to 150 million years for the crust to travel from its origin to where it will circulate back below.  The crust is relatively new because it is always being renewed.

Using the magnetic orientation of rocks, more evidence could be deduced that backs of the theory of Pangea: "...it is possible, using simple trigonometry, to determine the latitude at which the rock was formed and the past orientation of the continent upon which it lay."7  This practice is called paleomagnetism.  The readings can give the position of the magnetic North pole in any time period.  If the readings from a single continent is plotted, a smooth curve called the polar wander curve, could be attained.  The plot shows the curve leading away from the present pole.  This is only possible if either the magnetic pole moved or the continent moved.  When readings were calculated for other continents, the curves did not converge at a point.  This means that there was only one magnetic North pole at any one time and indicated that the continents moved in respect to each other.

Magnetic reversals are still a mystery, but many suggested hypothesis exists.  One reason was that collisions with meteorites or comets may have caused the reversals.  In fact, there was recent evidence that the Earth in fact, collided with a huge meteor.  This hypothesis corresponded to the periods of mass extinctions; "...of the eight species that vanished from the cores during the 2.5 million years for which the record was most complete, six disappeared close to the time of a reversal, as recorded in the magnetic particles of the same core."8  Tektites, glassy fragments from meteorites containing large amounts of iron and magnesium were scattered over large sections of the Earth which corresponded to the last major reversal.  The meteorites provided some proof to this hypothesis.  This theory is just one of the many scientists have come up with.  Others believed that the anomalies were formed by the compression of rocks -- the same kind of compression that existed during mountain building.

The drifting of plates could cause devastation or wonder.  Convection cells that propel the plates produces Earth's surface dynamics.  Murderous earthquakes and violent storms of volcanoes are a result from these ever-dynamic floating plates.  Earth's crust juts out as high as the sky along with the deep valleys that are being produced from the crashing and spreading of these plates.  Upwelling of hot magma separates the land and continents similar to the separation of Pangea, but in time the continents will meet yet again to form another 'super-continent.'  The ever new sea floor containing magnetic 'footprints' shows us of a time of magnetic field reversals.  These reversals could explain continental drift and its velocity.  There has been extensive study in tectonic plates, but there are still unsolved mysteries for one to discover.

ENDNOTES

1.         Wallace S. Broecker, How to Build a Habitable Planet.  (Palisades, New York:  Eldigio Press, 1985), p. 147.

2.         Robert W. Christopherson, Geosystems. 2nd. ed.  (New York: MacMillan College Publishing Company, 1994), p. 341.

3.         Ibid., p. 336-337.

4.         Wallace S. Broecker, How to Build a Habitable Planet.  (Palisades, New York:  Eldigio Press, 1985), p. 155-156.

5.         Walter Sullivan, Continents in Motion. 2nd. ed.  (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1991), p. 97.

6.         Wallace S. Broecker, How to Build a Habitable Planet.  (Palisades, New York:  Eldigio Press, 1985), p. 159.

7.         Peter J. Smith, The Earth.  (New York:  MacMillan Publishing Company, 1986), p. 13.

8.         Waltus Sullivan, Continents in Motion. 2nd. ed.  (New York:  McGraw Hill Book Company, 1991), p. 96.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bird, John M. and Isacks, Bryan, ed., Plate Tectonics.  Washington American Geophysical Union, 1972.

Broecker, Wallace S.  How to Build a Habitable Planet.  Palisades, New York: Eldigio Press, 1985.

Christopherson, Robert W.  Geosystems. 2nd. ed.  New York:  MacMillan College Publishing Company, 1994.

Erickson, Jon  Volcanoes and Earthquakes.  Blue Ridge Summit:  Tab Books Inc., 1988.

Smith, Peter J.  The Earth.  New York:  MacMillan Publishing Company, 1986.

Sullivan, Walter  Continents in Motion. 2nd. ed.  New York:  McGraw Hill Book Company, 1992.

123.          The Industrial HeartlandMegalopolis

The Industrial Heartland--Megalopolis

There are basically seven factors that must be met before an industry can start to take

place in a particular area.  Those seven factors are: raw materials, transportation, energy, markets,

labour, capital, and government.  The Industrial Heartland is almost like one big industry,

connected in a vast megalopolis.  I'll be taking a closer look at these factors and the way this area

meets the locational factors.

The Industrial Heartland is an area that includes: Quebec, Ontario, Michigan, Illinois,

Indiana, Connecticut, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, Washington DC,

West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Delaware, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New

Hampshire, and Vermont.

Raw Materials(ex.  iron ore, coal,  limestone etc.) is an unprocessed material used as the

base for primary industry.  The Industrial Heartland has many different mining sites throughout it.

(ex-the nickel mine in Ontario, mines in Pittsburgh, Gary, Baltimore, Hamilton, Sault Ste.

Marie....etc.)

Transportation is extremely important in this area.  Most mines and mills are located by

waterways to make transportation readily available for it's   transport's.  Coal, limestone, and

many other kinds of mines use the Great Lakes to transport,  which happens to be in the middle of

the Industrial Heartland.  They usually have tons of material to move so water transportation can

carry lots of material, it's cheap, but it's also slow.  Another important route in this region is  the

St. Lawrence Seaway, which was an significant factor in the decision of industries to locate in this

region.  Other main waterways in this region are:  Ohio River, Mississippi River, New York State

Barge Canal System, New York Harbour, Philadelphia Harbour, and  Baltimore Harbour.

There is also Railway to consider for transportation.  They can almost go anywhere in this

region,  but they are more expensive than Waterway transport,  and not as adaptable as trucks.

Truck hauling is considered the best for most of the transport.  Though the cost of fuel has

increased over the years,  trucks are still the main carrier of cargo.

Energy,  is one of the most, if not the most important factor for industries.  Every industry

needs power, energy.  Some sources of energy are: Hydroelectricity, Thermal electric, natural gas,

and coal.

Hydroelectricity is a good choice for energy for home requirements,  but for industry,

they need tremendous amounts of energy.   To meet the requirements of an industries power,  the

industry would have to locate near the hydroelectric plant,  and there is just simply not enough

hydroelectric sites.

Thermal electricity is a commonly used power source for industry.  It's convenient for the

industry.

Markets refer to trade, selling of goods to consumers.  The Industrial Heartland offers

many places for markets,  as it has a large population,  therefore, demand.  So, an industry close

to the demand wouldn't have to transport that much.  Usually if their is high request for an item,

the manufacturer would set prices higher to grasp extra transportation costs.

Labour-The Industrial Heartland would be an ideal place to locate,  as it has a very high

population, thus having           many people,  and workers looking for jobs.  Many people live,

locate to the Industrial Heartland to find jobs.  There is a widespread of jobs in the industrial

heartland-many different occupations are found there.

Capital is the cash flow, equipment, and buildings of/needed by a certain industry.

Obviously,  to set up an industry you need a capital.  It's like the starting money of the

business/industry.  Stocks are usually bought by consumers,  so an industry can raise it's capital

(stock-share in a company).  Bond issues and bank loans are just some of the other ways

industries start up.

Government-Municipal, provincial, and federal government are concerned with the

industry.  Government encourages industry, for the growth of the region.  The job of each part of

the government is as follows: municipal-choose land for the industry(make sure it's suitable),

provide sewers, roads, electrical lines, schools, health care, and police protection.  Provincial-sets

rules/regulations, so on, for the industry to obide by.  Provide energy, employee-training, enforce

labour laws, safety standards, & working conditions.  Federal-provides carriage and

facilities-finances the construction of highways, harbours and airports, and enforces tariff.

The Industrial Heartland meets all it's locational factors,  and provides many jobs for people in the

region.  I think transportation, markets,  and population of this region has greatly contributed to

the amount of industry within it.

124.          The Maori of New Zealand

The Maori of New Zealand

The Maori people, the natives of New Zealand, have played a strong

part in the development and success of the small island nation. Their ferocity

and determination won the respect of the colonizing English, and to this day

they are esteemed members of the society. They hold positions in their

government and are in control of their own destinies. Their greetings and

posture when having their picture taken for the outside world is a part of

culture that I would like to discuss.

Years ago, back in the days of rampant imperialism, the English navy

found the part of the world that today is referred to as "down under". They

originally came first to Australia, but it was only a matter of time before New

Zealand, Australia's tiny neighbor, was discovered also. The mighty English,

who at the time was one of the world powers, subjugated the natives of

Australia, the Aborigine people. The Aborigine, having very little technology,

were easily subdued and the land became an English colony, used at first for

its natural resources but also as a exile or prison colony. The lack of

resistance from the natives made it relatively easy for the English to

accomplish their task. This gave the Aborigine absolutely no respect from the

English, and almost to this day are they treated as inferiors, by the English.

This was not the case with the neighboring Maori's.

As stated before, the English eventually found their way to the south,

where the beautiful island lay untouched by foreign hands. They also found

that the island had a native populace just as Australia had had. But one thing

was very different from these natives. The English, thinking that this island

was also theirs for the taking, met heavy resistance from the Maori. Many an

English life was lost at the hands of these fiercesome warriors, and even

though they were outclassed technologically, still did the Maori fight on.

Their persistance and desire to defend their land from the invading outsiders

won them the respect and admiration of the English. Presently, they hold

positions of power in the  New Zealand parliament and are regarded as equals

in society.

When a Maori takes a picture for the outside world, e.g. for a post card

or tourist, their ferocity and determination are shown in their stance and

posture. They strike a fighting pose, with one arm raised above their heads in

an attack position and the other in front of them, ready to defend their

midsection. The best aspect is their facial expressions. Their tongues are out

and dipped down, while their eyes are open fully, as you might see a crazed

or intense individual do. The stance is tell outsiders that yes, we are mean and

we'll kick your --- if you come and try to take what's ours.

Because the Maori chose to fight the English, it earned them respect

and admiration. They are now in control of their own destiny and have been

since the English came. They send a message out with each and every

postcard, and although the stance has now become more of a show than

reality. its message can still remind us of determination of one tribe of people.

125.          The Namib Desert

5/13/96

Period 6

The Namib Desert

The Namib Desert is a parched and rippled desert, an endless expanse.  It stretches along the wouthwest coast of Africa from Angola in the north, through Namibia, into South Africa.  The name Namib means "emptiness."  About 1,700 km (1,060 mi long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, the desert is bordered on the west by the Atlantic Ocean.  The Namib has an approximate area of 170,000 sq km (65,640 sq mi).  It rises from sea level 914 m (3,000 ft).  Temperatures average 16 deg C (60 deg F).  Sands, varying from yellow to red in color, form dunes reaching 240 m (800 ft) in height.  The annual rainfall averages only 25 mm (1 in), but high humidity results in fog and dew.  In the north deeep canyons have been cut by streams.  The area's main rivers, the Orange and the Cunene, follow the southern and northern borders, respectively, of Namibia.  One river, the Queeseb, is made of water collected from over 160 km (100 mi) inward.  The Queeseb causes water holes, for which many organisms rely on for water besides the actual river itself.  Acacia trees grow along the rivers, and short grasses and succulents thrive everywhere.  One of the most important animals of the area is the baboon.  The baboons excavate for underground water that many other animals depend on.  There are many other animals that have adapted to live in the Namib desert farther away from the rivers and streams including 45 species of lizards and more than 200 species of beetles.  The nocturnal gecko, like many other animals, burrows in the sand to escape the days heat, 77 deg C (170 deg F).  The palmado gecko drinks the moisture that forms on its own body from the fog and dew, as does the sidewinder snake.  The sidewinder has adapted a special way of moving in the loose sand which gives it its name.  The backflip spider uses a mixture of sand and silk to create shade to keep it cool.  Some beetles extract moisture from trenches made in dunes.  Much of this knowledge about the animals of the Namib desert is made possible by a research institute in the desert that was established in 1963.  The Namib desert is a harsh biome to live in, but organisms have still adapted to life there and formed their own unique ecosystems.

126.          The Philippines and the World Market

April 7, 1997

The Philippines and the World Market

The Philippines is considered to be one of the most westernized countries in Asia. It has strong ties to the United States and the United Nations. In fact, It is the only charter member of the U.N. in all of Southeast Asia.

The United States has a very close relationship with the economy and culture of the Philippines. For instance, Filipinos have a strong resentment toward communistic countries. During the cold war, the Philippines supported America by consistently being hostile toward communist countries, and did not maintain diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union or any other communist state.

The United States is the largest foreign consumer of Philippine products. In many ways the survival of the philippine economy depends on the united States. We purchase almost all of the sugar exports, most of the coconut oil, embroidery, at least half of the base metals, and a fourth of the lumber. The United States supplies most of the Philippine imports of machinery, dairy products, cotton, papers, drugs, automobiles and much or the petroleum products. Although countries like Japan, Canada Australia, and New Zealand are getting more and more involved in trade with the Philippines, America remains to be the Philippines most important trading partner.

When America acquired the Philippines and established free trade in 1909, the economy of the islands was tied to that parent country. As a result, the Philippines became almost entirely dependant upon United States markets. Thus, America has had a strong influence on not only the economy of the Philippines, but also the politics of it.

The United States established a public education system in the Philippines in the early 1900¹s. Although they were not American schools they had many similarities. American teachers were used as well as American books. The teachers also taught in english. The Philippine government is even designed after the American system and dedicated to democratic process.

All in all America has become a very strong influence on the Philippines. Even though the exterior plan was to build up the philippine economy and government then let them have their independence, it seems obvious there was a deeper plan to Americanize and economically control the county. Follow the money.

127.          The Physical and Economic Geography Of Canada

CANADA

Canada, is the world¹s second largest country and it is the largest country in the Western Hemisphere.  It comprises all of the North American continent north of the United States, with the exclusion of Alaska, Greenland, and the tiny French islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon.  Its most easterly point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland and its western limit is Mount St. Elias in the Yukon Territory, near the Alaskan border.  The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie and the northern tip is Cape Columbia, on Ellesmere Island.

Canada is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by the pacific Ocean, and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and its associated bodies of water, including Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea.

Canada has an abundance of mineral, forest, and water-power resources.  The mining industry has been a major force in Canada¹s economic development in the past and is still the main force in the advance and economic activity and permanent settlement into the northlands.  The principal minerals are petroleum, nickel, copper, zinc, iron ore, natural gas, asbestos, molybdenum, sulfur, gold, and platinum; in addition extensive beds of coal, potash, uranium, gypsum, silver, and magnesium are found.

Fresh water covers an estimated 756 276 sq km or 7.6% of Canada.  The many rivers and lakes supply ample fresh water to meet the nation¹s needs for its communities and for irrigation, agriculture, industries, transportation, and hydroelectric power generation.  Canada has four principal drainage basins:  the Atlantic Basin which drains to the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, the Hudson Bay Basin which drains northward into Hudson Bay via the Churchill, Nelson and Saskatchewan rivers, the Arctic Basin which is drained by the Mackenzie River and the Pacific Basin which drains into the Pacific Ocean via the Fraser, Yukon and Columbia rivers.

Canada has six major physical, or physiographic, regions:  the Canadian Shield, the Arctic Islands, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian Region, the Interior Plains, and the Cordilleran Region.

In simple terms, Canada can be considered a vast, saucer-shaped basin, bordered by mountainous lands on the west, east, and northeast.  Hudson Bay and the lowlands along its southern shore form the central depression of this ³saucer².  Surrounding this depression on all sides, including Baffin Island, is the Canadian Shield (also known as the Laurentian Plateau or Laurentian Upland).  The Canadian Shield is a region of ancient, mostly Precambrian rocks that covers nearly half of Canada.  The Canadian Shield includes all of Labrador and large areas of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and the Northwest Territories.  As a result of glacial action during the Pleistocene Ice Age, much of the region is covered with numerous lakes and marshy areas as well as rolling hills from worn down mountains.  The Canadian Shield was formed in the early Paleozoic era and is composed of igneous rock.  Podzolic soils, which are soils of low natural fertility cover much of this area, they are also quite wet from the climate.  The climate in this area varies quite a bit due to the different levels of elevation.  Arctic climate conditions are found in the northern areas, these areas generally have dry and cold conditions.  Boreal conditions are found in the midsection, the conditions are generally cold and wet.  South-Eastern climate conditions are found in the south, these climate conditions are generally cool and wet.  Precipitation is fairly heavy in northern Quebec and Labrador.  The climate and acidic soils in this area do not create proper conditions for agriculture.  Some coniferous and deciduous forests are found in this area as well as, shrubs, litchen and heath.

The Arctic Islands lie to the northwest of the central depression and constitute about 8.3% of Canada¹s land area.  They are mostly covered by permanent snow and ice fields.  The northern sections of the region include the United States Range, which reaches 2926 m in northern Ellesmere Island.  The southern sections are lower in altitude and are sometimes referred to collectively as the Arctic Lowlands and Plateaus.  The Arctic Mountains are primarily composed of igneous and metamorphic rock.  The mountains are very young mountains with jagged peaks.  The Arctic Lowlands are made solely of sedimentary rock.  Glaciation has worn down the land in this area leaving it flat with some rounded hills.  Tundra and subarctic soils cover all of this area and ice and stone deserts are found over large areas as well.  The subsoil in much of this area is permanently frozen, and the soils are unsuitable for agriculture.  The sparsely settled northern areas have an arctic, or tundra, type of climate on the islands and northern coastal areas and a subarctic type of climate in the vast transitional area between the frozen north and the settled south.  The arctic type of climate is characterized by long, very cold winters, with average temperatures far below freezing and no summer month with an average temperature higher than 10 degrees C.  In the subarctic areas, winters are similarly long and bitterly cold, but summers are warm enough to support some vegetation growth.  Precipitation is generally light in the western areas of the arctic and subarctic regions.  Despite the low precipitation, snow covers the ground permanently for more than 6 months of every year.  Tundra vegetation covers most of this area.  The low temperatures and permanently frozen subsoil inhibits the growth of most plants except the hardy mosses and lichens.  Various grasses and flowers are also found.  Trees are absent, except for dwarf trees and some berry-bearing shrubs.

The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands region constitutes only 1.3% of Canada but is the area where most people live.  It is composed of sedimentary rock.  It is a flat to gently rolling region that extends southwest from Quebec City to Lake Huron and includes all of the St. Lawrence River valley and the Ontario Peninsula, a triangular, densely populated area of southern Ontario that is bordered by the shores of Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario.  Brown and gray brown podzilic soils cover most of this area.  These soils are naturally fertile and, when properly farmed, support a wide range of crops and other agricultural activities.  The climate here is a more humid version of a continental type of climate.  The winters are long and cold with an average temperature of -10 degrees C in the eastern sections and -4 degrees C in the Ontario Peninsula, and short warm summers with average temperatures of near 20 degrees C.  Eastern forests are native to this area, both deciduous trees such as sugar maple and beech and coniferous trees such as yellow pine, white and red pine,and hemlock are found here.

The Appalachian Region occupies approximately 3.4% of Canada and is the northward continuation into Canada of the Appalachian Mountain system of the eastern United States.  It includes all of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and the island of Newfoundland and forms most of Quebec¹s Gaspe Peninsula.  It is composed of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.  It is a region of geologically old, worn-down uplands, with summits ranging from 150 m to more than 1270 m.  The highest and most rugged mountains are the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, where Mount Jacques Cartier rises to 1270 m.  Podzolic soils, which are soils of low natural fertility are most extensive in this area.  They are found to be quite acidic, gray in colour and leached of soil nutrients, but they are suitable for farming if fertilizers are used.  Frontal weather conditions are found here as a result of the meeting of the tropical maritime air mass and the maritime air mass.  The mean annual precipitation is quite high here as well.  Boreal, or northern, coniferous forest as well as deciduous forests are found here, but they are considered to be non-productive due to expensive costs.

The Interior Plains lie between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains and are a continuation of the Great Plains of the United States.  The region occupies 18.3% of Canada.  It extends to the Arctic coast and includes the northeastern section of British Columbia and parts of the prairie provinces of Alberta. Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.  The area is composed of sedimentary rock.  It is an area of flat land with some rolling hills.  The three chernozemic, or black earth, soils are the most important in this region.  They account for nearly all of Canada¹s wheat production.  The true chernozem, or black earth, is extremely productive and is found in an arc passing through Winnipeg, Edmonton, and Calgary.  To the south forming a more southerly arc passing through Regina, Saskatoon, and Lethbridge, and reflecting a somewhat drier climate of this region, are the dark brown soils.  Brown soils predominate in the southern, semiarid parts of the interior plains.  The Interior Plains have a middle-latitude steppe-type climate in the drier southern sections and a more humid and extreme continental type of climate elsewhere.  Temperatures average about -20 degrees to -15 degrees C in long winters and 18 degrees to 20 degrees C in short summers.  Precipitation is not very high here.  Many areas receive less than 500 mm a year.  Natural grasslands, or prairies, once extended across the southern part of the interior plains.  These natural grasslands have been largely plowed under and replaced by field crops, such as; grain, and other mixed farming.  The combination of the good soil conditions and climate conditions allows for the production of good crops.

The Cordilleran Region occupies 15.9% of all Canada and includes most of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory and the southwestern corner of Alberta.  It is a complex mountain system composed of sedimentary rock and young fold mountains with jagged peaks.  The mountains are approximately 800 km wide and they extend along the pacific coast.  The three main subsections of the region are the eastern ranges, the western ranges and an intermontane area between the two.  The eastern ranges include the Rocky Mountains in the south and the Mackenzie and Richardson Mountains in the north.  The western ranges of the region include the St. Elias Mountains, the scenic Coast Mountains, and a partially submerged range that appears offshore; Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands.  The intermontane section of the Cordilleran Region, located between the eastern and western ranges, is a series of wide, rolling tablelands, such as the Fraser and Kamloops plateaus, and short mountain ranges, such as the Cascade, Cariboo, Selkirk, Monashee, Purcell, Stikine, Skeena, and Hazelton mountains.  The soils of the Cordilleran Region, as in all mountain areas, follow attitudinal and climatic zones and, where topography and climate are suitable support a variety of agricultural activity.  Precipitation is quite heavy here where moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean are forced to rise over the mountainous coastal regions and bring more than 5000 mm of rain a year in some areas.  The third great forest zone is found here due to the humidity.  It is a dense, tall-timber forest where Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar are the dominant trees.

Most of Canada¹s people live in the southern part of the country, in an elongated, discontinuous belt of settlement parallel to the U.S.-Canadian border.  The most populated provinces are Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia.

During the last 75 years, the Canadian economy has been transformed from on based primarily on agricultural production and the export of agricultural products and raw materials to one based primarily on its manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a mining sector of continuing importance.  Canada¹s economy reflects an affluent high-tech industrial society and resembles the United States, with whom it has close economic ties.  This is one reason why a large percentage of the population live by the U.S.-Canadian border.  Another reason is because a large number of the manufacturing plants are located in the southern section of Canada.

Canada is rich in natural resources.  It is a world leader in value of mineral exports and produces and exports many of the mineral needed for modern industrial economies.  It¹s soils which are especially rich in the three prairie provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, are intensively utilized and make Canada one of the world¹s largest exporters of agricultural products.  Forests cover much of the land, and Canada is the world¹s largest exporter of newsprint and a leading supplier of lumber, pulp, paper, and wood products.

128.          The Population Solution

Question...

1. Most people assume that human numbers will stabilize at some point in the future. Discuss the conditions which can contribute to the solution of the population explosion.

- The Population Solution -

"Let us suppose that the average human being weighs 60 kilogram's. If that's the case then 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 people would weigh as much as the whole Earth does. That number of people is 30,000,000,000,000 times as many people as there are living today. It may seem to you that the population can go up a long, long time before it reaches the point where there are 30,000,000,000,000 times as many people as there are today. Let's think about that though. Let us suppose that the population growth rate stays at 2.0 per cent so that the number of people in the world continues to double every 35 years. How long, then, will it take for the world's population to weigh as much as the entire planet? The answer is - not quite 1,600 years. This means that by 3550 AD, the human population would weight as much as the entire planet.... Even if that were possible, it wouldn't give us much time. If the growth-rate stays at 2.0 per cent, then in a little over 2,200 years - say, by 4220 AD - the human population would weigh as much as the entire Solar system, including the Sun... and by about 6700 AD - the human population would weigh as much as the entire Universe." The preceding paragraph, by Isaac Asimov describes quite alarmingly just how bad the population problem really is, that in considerably less time that has passed since the days of Julius Caesar the population will equal in mass of that of the earth. Most people assume that human numbers will stabilize at some point in the future. Hopefully it will, but not without conditions that will contribute to the solution of the population explosion, conditions which include education, birth control methods and government action.

Although not the largest in terms of population size, Kenya has one of the highest rates natural increase in the world. This rapid growth rate, which is predicted to reach 120 million by the year 2050, is primarily due to high birthrates and low death rates. Alarmingly, more than half of its population is under the age of 15. This is partly due to the fact that before western influence, health care was relatively poor and families needed to be large in order to guarantee the survival of at least a couple of children to take care of both the land and the elderly. Presently, with much improved health care and substantially lower infant mortality rates, Kenyans are still opting for large family sizes, an average of 8 children per family. This is where education can inform Kenyans and citizens of other countries facing similar problems that large families are no longer necessary to ensure survival. There are also some serious problems that come with educating completely different cultures. For example, Kenyan men believe that if you do not have a large family and many male offspring, you are not considered a man. Also, many cultures promote large family sizes to ensure security and military status. Some may even reject education for the fear that it is a continuing form of colonialism or imperialism and that western attempts to reduce Third World populations is backed up by racist rational. These problems could be overcome by exposing children at a young age in their schools with material promoting small family sizes. The education of adults can also contribute to reducing the population explosion, mainly with the education of women. In most third world countries, the woman's job is to take care of the children, but when educated, most will want to pursue other lifestyles such as a career instead of adding to the population problem. Another form of education that can contribute to the population problem is to educated both men and women on the use of contraceptives or birth control.

Even though statistics say that the world is headed towards a disastrously increasing overuse of precious resources because of its increasing population, many still stand against the use of contraceptives and other forms of birth control. Even those educated on the population problem regard birth control as unnecessary and perhaps even undesirable. Individuals, groups and nations who hold such views may do so for military, political, religious or even economic reasons. At one time, the Roman government rewarded mothers and taxed bachelors and the USSR passed laws that made abortion and even contraception illegal. Many pronationalist equate military or political power with a larger population and believe that it provides both a larger labour force and a larger market. They must be informed that birth control can avoid a large population which presses on the environment and its resources and take away from the capital available for new investment. Crowded cities usually equals mass unemployment which causes political turmoil. At present, the strongest opposition to birth control comes as a result to religious ideals. The Roman Catholic church still continues to ban all forms of birth control except periodic abstinence. The global education of birth control must not only encourage the use of birth control and make it more readily available, but also dispel any myths about it. A common myth among Italian women are that pills are harmful to the body, causing circulation problems, tumors and even deforming future children.

When most people learn of China's one child policy, they usually declare it a violation of the basic human right of reproduction. This may be true, but the one child policy is working in reducing China's rate of natural increase. Even still, the one child policy will not stop the growth in population, with an estimated increase of roughly the population of the United States by the year 2000. On the other hand, without it, China's population will reach gigantic numbers. Implementing such a policy in other countries such as the democratic United States will most likely create a severe opposition from such groups as the woman's rights movement. One possibility to avoid a national uprising is to instead of creating an actual policy, is to campaign through the use of television, radio, and other forms of communication that strongly promotes a two child or even one child family. Nevertheless, government action must be taken now, whether it be to create more jobs, improve pensions, reduce family sizes and/or promote the use of birth control.

As Isaac Asimov clearly states it, our planet is facing certain doom if measures are not taken quickly to avoid it. At different points in human history, we faced the danger of becoming extinct, from the overpowering animals in prehistoric times to the overpowering nuclear weapons during the Cold War. Today, our problem is very different and much more severe, the problem is that there will be simply too many humans for the earth to handle. As Tomas Robert Malthus puts it, "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man." Without conditions such as global education, birth control and government action which will contribute to the population problem, Isaac Asimov's unbelievable theory may one day speak the truth.

Bibliography

Asimov, Isaac. "Let's suppose..." Earth: Our Crowded Spaceship. New York: John Day Co., 1974

Global Issues, 96/97 ed. Connecticut: Dushkin Publishing Group / Brown & Benchmark Publishers. Pp. 42-44, 45-49,50-59,73-77

Malthus, Thomas Robert. An Essay on the Principle of Population. London: Printed for J. Johnson, in St. Paul's Church-yard, 1798.

http://fisher.ecn.bris.ac.uk/het/malthus/popu

Myers, Norman Dr. Gaia. An Atlas of Planet Management. New York: Anchor Press / Doubled & Company Inc., 1984

Noble, Mike. Population http://oasis.bellevue.k12.wa.us/sammamish...dies.dir/hist_doces.dir/population.mn.html

Suzuki, David. Exponential Growth us Merely Another case if False Worship, unknown source

129.          The principal problems now facing Mexico City

The principal problems now facing Mexico City are its overcrowding and overpopulation, its dangerous environment, its dwindling water supply, and its terrible air pollution.

One of Mexico City's problems is that it has an enormous population that continues to rapidly increase every day.  There are many people that move to Mexico City and many people that are born there every year.  These factors contribute even more to its overcrowding and overpopulation.  Another problem is Mexico City's habitat.  It is located in the Valley of Mexico, which is highly vulnerable to volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.  These natural disasters cause much destruction to Mexico City.  Yet still another problem with Mexico City's habitat is the overall instability that is caused by the fact that much of the city is located on a weak, dry-lakebed surface.

Mexico City's rapidly diminishing water supply creates another dangerous problem.  Once its water supply is gone, the only way to receive water will be to transport it from across the mountains.  Not only does the city have to pipe water in, but it also has to pipe the sewage out of waste-filled areas.  This would be a very expensive undertaking and could cost Mexico City a large amount of money.  Mexico City's worsening air pollution is the most dangerous problem and health hazard presently facing the city.  The air in the city is so polluted that at times the air quality exceeds 100 times the acceptable level.  Thousands of factories and millions of vehicles are the main causes of the air pollution in Mexico City.  Mexico City has many problems at the present time, and it does not look as if it is going to get much better in the future.

130.          THE RELEVANCY OF THE HEARTLANDHINTERLAND DISTINCTION IN CANA

THE RELEVANCY OF THE HEARTLAND - HINTERLAND DISTINCTION

IN CANADA'S ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Until the early 20th century, Canada was primarily an agricultural nation.  Since then it has become one of the most highly industrialized countries in the world as a direct result of the development of the 'heartland'.  To a large extent the manufacturing industries present in the heartland are supplied with raw materials produced by the agricultural, mining, forestry, and fishing sectors of the Canadian economy, a region known as the 'hinterland'.   The 'heartland-hinterland' concept in Canada describes patterns of economic power, namely, where economic power and control resides within the nation. Thus, the heartland-hinterland concept distinguishes raw-material and staple-producing hinterlands from the capital service industrial heartland and reveals the metropolis or dominating city of the system.  At a national scale, the Canadian metropolis is Toronto, and the region with the most influence is the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands.  But while immense influence radiates outward from the metropolis located in the heartland, the relationship between hinterland and heartland is one of intimate mutual dependency.  In modern Canadian economics, neither region can exist without each other, and the well-being of one directly affects the other.  These two regions show remarkable contrasts, yet they are to a large extent interdependent on each other, clearly suggesting that the heartland-hinterland distinction is quite relevant in terms of Canada's economic geography.

Upon discussing the importance of the heartland-hinterland in Canada, it is necessary to discuss what each term refers to.  According to McCann the heartland is an area "... which possesses favourable physical qualities and grant food accessibility to markets;  they display a diversified profile of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary industries;  they are characterized by a highly urbanized and concentrated population which participates in a well-integrated urban system;  they are well advanced along the development path and possess the capacity for innovative change."   Literally, hinterland means 'the land behind', the area from which a heartland draws its raw materials and which, in turn, serves as a market for the heartland's manufactured goods.

The demographic and economic characteristics of Canada's heartland are that it contains over 50% of the nation's population and 70% of its manufacturing industries in only 14% of the nation's area.  Canada's heartland is southern Ontario and Quebec stretching from Quebec City to Windsor.  This heartland, occupying the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, coincides with several favourable physical characteristics such as fertile Class 1 and 2 soils in addition to humid continental climate for optimal agricultural conditions.  However, the "hinterland regions display harsher or more limiting physical characteristics.  The Cordillera, Interior Plains, Canadian Shield, and Appalachian regions yield tremendous resource wealth, but their soils, vegetation, and climatic patterns do not favor wide distributions of population and concentrated development."    Canada's heartland is illustrated on the map below.

With the overwhelming presence of the above-mentioned features, this region dominates Canada's economy due to diverse agricultural production as well as its accessibility to the heartland of its major international trade partner, the Untied States, which is focused around New York City.   "It is the heartland that creates the demand for staple commodities, supplying the hinterland, in turn, with capital, labour, technology, and entrepreneurship, those factors of production which are so essential for the initial growth and sustained development of the hinterland."

The relationship between the hinterland and heartland is complex.  Resources flowing from hinterland areas largely go directly to other countries without passing through the heartland.  Yet, it is from the heartland that an economy's organization, financial means, equipment, and technical services arise and are paid for by the sale of the resources.  Thus, it can be said the hinterland contributes to the support and development of the heartland.  The hinterland also benefits from the interaction of its well-developed internal linkages and a large and concentrated workforce that provides a manufacturing core and specialized services.

Another important aspect of the heartland-hinterland distinction is with respect to regional structure, which involves the interaction of both regions.  "Locational forces and even policy decisions of a political nature draw secondary manufacturing and service activities, as well as skilled labour force, to core areas."   The concentration of corporate headquarters and financial institutions in the core also causes a flow of profits from the hinterland to the heartland, ultimately causing difficulty for the generation of capital within the periphery.  These circumstances which arise from the root of the hinterland underdevelopment problem are difficult to overcome without political involvement.  Although government assistance by means of transfer payments and developmental projects helps the underdeveloped hinterland, it can by no means resolve the apparent disparities present among the core and periphery regions in Canada.  "If the disparities are to be diminished, it seems more likely that hinterland areas must develop generally according to the ways in which heartland areas have developed, although the specific growth factors need not, nor would they likely, be the same."   A hinterland region, wishing to achieve heartland status, must be capable of innovating change and wielding power, while progressing beyond the staple production phase for the heartland.

In terms of merchandise trade, Canada is an importer of end-products while the export of crude materials indicate the staple nature of the export economy.  The hinterland dominates the export trade in crude materials such as oil, natural gas, and forest products.  Fabricated materials are largely produced in the core, and most of the products (steel, copper wire, refined nickel, and rolled aluminum) are exported.  Canada's exports therefore are primarily staples from the hinterland, and as the amount of processing increases the role of the heartland becomes more dominant.

In terms of imports, crude materials, largely crude oil to eastern Canada and subtropical foods, are the main imports.  Fabricated materials and end-products imported from the United States were predominantly motor vehicles and auto parts, and the exports from Canada also involved the motor vehicle sector.  Thus, the hinterland clearly dominates exports of crude materials and foods, while the heartland is the centre of both exports and imports of fabricated products.

The economic emphasis of the 'heartland-hinterland' distinction is quite pronounced in Canada. Various aspects of the Canadian economy dictate the undoubted relevance between the core and periphery of this vast nation.  At one extreme, the heartland is a thriving economic region, with the Golden Horseshoe region acting as the collective metropolis, whereas the hinterland, 'the rest of Canada', is characterized by primary resource production, scattered population and a limited innovative capacity.  Despite the interdependency of these two regions, they are nonetheless separated by both economic and physical factors, thereby preventing the union of a common region.  Therefore, there is an unquestionable 'heartland-hinterland' distinction present in Canada in terms of its economic geography.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Matthews, G.  1995.  Canada and the World, An Atlas Resource, 2nd Edition.  Scarborough:

Prentice Hall Canada Inc.

McCann, L.D.  1987.  Heartland and Hinterland.  Scarborough:  Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.

131.          Top of Volcano Blown of in Blast!

Top of Volcano Blown Off In Blast! 18/04/82

60 people were killed today when Mt. St Helens blew its top

Mt. St Helens erupted two years ago today in a blast that caused the volcano to be reduced by 451 metres (1313 feet). The volcano is south-western Washington and is part of the Cascade Range.

Mt. St Helens had been dormant since 1859 and has let off its first blast since then today. The volcano killed all life in an area of 180 sq. cm(70 sq. miles) including at least 60 people! The ash and dust spread much farther than this, of course. Today it is continuing to emit to emit dust and ash at intervals. Today a monument has been erected called the National Volcano Monument, in memory of this tragedy.

How A Volcano is Formed

A volcano is formed in this way:

1)Magma starts off below the crust.

2)Magma collects in chamber.

3)  Pressure rises.

4)  The pressure rises so high that the magma breaks through the crust and volcano erupts.

Often volcanoes are cone shaped. You might ask: "How do they get like that?"

This is the answer:

When a volcano erupts many minerals and fragments are blown up, many falling in a circle around the volcano. As lava flows onto this it builds up around the volcano, so the volcano gets higher still. Each time the volcano erupts, more lava, minerals and fragments are emitted. Therefore every time a volcano erupts it erupts it gets taller, and some like Mt. St. Helens have even become tall enough to be classed a mountain.

NB: This article originally contained pictures, elongating it and making it better presented.

(c)Aron Cohen,1991

132.          Tour Of France

Introduction

France is a beautiful country. It has lots to do like skiing, swimming, shopping, gambling, drinking, and dining. Here are the topics I will include in my report, government, history, culture, tourist attractions, language, entertainment, transportation, climate, currency, accommodations, and travel tips. Sit back have some wine because you are about to embark on a journey, A Journey to France!

Government

France is a republic with a  president and a premier. The president is Jacques Chirac and the premier is Alain Juppe. The legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. The president appoints the premier. He also serves a 7-year term. Ages 18 and up can vote for the president and the legislature. The National Assembly consists of 577 deputies that are elected in their political division. They serve a five-year term. The senate has 319 members that are elected for a five-year term. France is divided into 22 regions, 96 metropolitan areas, 4 overseas departments, 4 overseas territories, and 2 collective territories.

History

In ancient times the Celts and Germanic tribes lived in France. When the romans invaded, they called France Gaul. Gaul was eventually annexed. In 400 A.D. the west roman empire's defense began to fall. After that France was an independent country. Hugh Carpet was crowned the first king of France in 987 A.D. In the 1700's the French Revolution started. The end of the French revolution marked the end of absolute power for the French kings. Napoleon seized power in 1799. He founded the first empire in 1804. He was exiled in 1814.

Culture

The 1993 estimate of the French population was 57,566,091. The average population density is  105.8 people per square kilometer. The population distribution is 76% for urban areas and 26% for rural areas. Studies show that the majority prefer houses to apartments. The major religion is Roman Catholic. 99% of the French population is literate. There are 72 universities in France.

Tourist Attractions

Shopping is a big attraction in France. In Paris, department stores are good places to shop. In Normandy, shops have a rich selection of antiques. Sunday is a good day to shop on in Normandy because many stores have discounts. Normandy has a lot of lace too. The prices are high and the pieces are labor intensive. There are some good beaches in Normandy. It has lots of seaside coasts. There are many widely spaced resorts. On the Atlantic coast there are many waterslides, wavepools, and other water goodies. Paris has lots of culture. The Eiffel Tower was built in 1889. It costs $8 to go to the top. It's open daily from 9:30 A.M. to 11 P.M. At night you can almost see all of Paris. In case you get hungry there are cafes to eat at on the Eiffel Tower. The Louvre has a collection of great art works throughout history. It was built in the 13th century. It has the Mona Lisa by Leonardo Divinci. There are seven sections at the Louvre. They are ancient civilizations, sculptures, furniture, drawings, paintings, prints, and arms armor. Don't try to see it all at once. The hours are wed-Mon. 9-6 and Tuesday open til 9:45. Admission $10 for adults, $7 for ages 18-25, 18 and under are free.

Language

In France the official language is French. English is usually understood in most tourist areas. Speak slowly in either English or French. Your French may sound prickly. If your French isn't that good just try to learn a few words.

Entertainment

So you need something to do in your free time? Okay now listen well. At night you may want to go to a nightclub. Many have an English atmosphere and lots of whiskeys. Try Le Queen's Bar, it has a karioke machine and a video recorder so you can see your performance later. There are hundreds of theaters in France. Look at "Officiel du Spectacle" for the movies you want. If you want to "jazz" it up a little go to Le Petit Journal for tradional jazz. Bring $20 per person and some money for food. Wait til 10 or 11 P.M. for some "real" music. Go to Centr la Meret des Eaux, it is an aquarium. It costs $5 per person. It's open from Tues.-Friday from 10- 12:30 A.M. and 1:15-5:30  P.M.

Transportation

In France many places are accessible to cars. Some high-cost hotels have car-renting services. Paris has 6 train stations, so you could get around easily. Most taxis will charge $2-3 per mile.                                                           Fashion

In France you should bring sweaters and sweatshirts because it can get cold. Also, you should bring winter coats. You should try to wear dressy clothes as much as you can because many fashion designers are in France.

Currency

The french currency is a franc. Five francs are equal to one dollar. Some hotels accept American money, but don't depend on it. Also, some hotels have a currency exchange.

Accommodations      A lot of good hotels are in Paris. The Meurice Hotel costs about $ 300 per night. This hotel has Persian carpets and big rooms with a bath. The Fleurie Hotel costs up to $ 300 per night, this hotel has exceptional dining and a bath. The Imperial Palace is in Lyons, it costs $ 200 per night it also has a bath. The Alexandria costs about $ 150 per night. It has a bath. Most hotels in France do not have bathes.

Travel Tips

For traveling on the airplane try to get a nonstop flight. Most flights do not allow smoking. Get as much sleep as you can. In customs don't worry about your laptops, video cameras, etc. They won't be damaged by the x-rays. Change the batteries before leaving on all of your electronics. Bring all of the lenses for cameras. Wear dressy clothes at the restaurants. Tip about 10% of the bill for restaurants.

133.          Ukraine

UKRAINE.

Ukraine - basic facts

Ukraine is a state in Eastern Europe, bounded on the north by Belarus, on the north and east by the Russian Federation, on the

west by Poland, Slovakia, on the southwest by Hungary, Rumania, and Moldova, and on the south by the Black Sea and the

Sea of Azov.

Ukraine includes the Crimean Autonomous Republic, which was elevated from an oblast to a constituent republic in 1991.

Kyiv is the capital and largest city.

Ukraine is the second largest country in Europe after Russia. The total area of Ukraine is 603,700 sq. km (compare the area

of France - 551,000 sq. km; Germany - 356,000; Great Britain - 244,000; Italy - 301,000; Spain - 505,000). The area

spanned in a west-east direction is 1300 km; from north to south - 900 km.

The population of Ukraine is 52 million (Germany - 78 million; France - 56 million; Great Britain - 58 million; Italy - 59 million;

Spain - 40 million).

Ukraine's state border extends for a total of 7698 km: with Russia - 2484 km; Belarus - 952 km; Rumania - 608 km; Poland -

542 km; Slovakia - 98 km; Hungary - 135 km; Moldova - 1194 km. The total length of Ukraine's sea coast is 1758 km

(Black Sea - 1533 km; Sea of Azov - 225 km).

The climate of Ukraine is moderate-continental; in the southernmost region of the Crimea the climate is sub-tropical. The

largest river of Ukraine is the Dnipro, which is 2201 km in length, of which 981 km flow through Ukraine. The largest mountain

system in Ukraine is the Carpathian Mountains that extend for more than 270 km and are 100-110 km wide. The highest peak

is the Hoverla (2061 m).

Government

Names:

conventional long form: none

conventional short form: Ukraine

local long form: none

local short form: Ukrayina

former: Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic

Digraph: UP

Type: republic

Capital: Kiev (Kyyiv)

Administrative divisions: 24 oblasti (singular - oblast'), 1 autonomous republic* (avtomnaya respublika), and 2 municipalites

(mista, singular - misto) with oblast status**; Cherkas'ka (Cherkasy), Chernihivs'ka (Chernihiv), Chernivets'ka (Chernivtsi),

Dnipropetrovs'ka (Dnipropetrovs'k), Donets'ka (Donets'k), Ivano-Frankivs'ka (Ivano-Frankivs'k), Kharkivs'ka (Kharkiv),

Khersons'ka (Kherson), Khmel'nyts'ka (Khmel'nyts'kyy), Kirovohrads'ka (Kirovohrad), Kyyiv**, Kyyivs'ka (Kiev),

Luhans'ka (Luhans'k), L'vivs'ka (L'viv), Mykolayivs'ka (Mykolayiv), Odes'ka (Odesa), Poltavs'ka (Poltava), Respublika

Krym* (Simferopol'), Rivnens'ka (Rivne), Sevastopol'**, Sums'ka (Sevastopol'), Ternopil's'ka (Ternopil'), Vinnyts'ka

(Vinnytsya), Volyns'ka (Luts'k), Zakarpats'ka (Uzhhorod), Zaporiz'ka (Zaporizhzhya), Zhytomyrs'ka (Zhytomyr)

note: names in parentheses are administrative centers when name differs from oblast' name

Independence: 1 December 1991 (from Soviet Union)

National holiday: Independence Day, 24 August (1991)

Constitution: using 1978 pre-independence constitution; new constitution currently being drafted

Legal system: based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Executive branch:

chief of state: President Leonid D. KUCHMA (since 19 July 1994); election last held 26 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be

held NA 1999); results - Leonid KUCHMA 52.15%, Leonid KRAVCHUK 45.06%

head of government: Acting Prime Minister Yeuben MARCHUK (since 3 March 1995); First Deputy Prime Ministers

Yevhen MARCHUK and Viktor PYNZENYK (since 31 October 1994) and six deputy prime ministers

cabinet: Council of Ministers; appointed by the president and approved by the Supreme Council

National Security Council: originally created in 1992, but signficantly revamped and strengthened under President

KUCHMA; members include the president, prime minister, Ministers of Finance, Environment, Justice, Internal Affairs,

Foreign Economic Relations, Economic and Foreign Affairs; the NSC staff is tasked with developing national security policy

on domestic and international matters and advising the president

Presidential Administration: helps draft presidential edicts and provides policy support to the president

Council of Regions: advisory body created by President KUCHMA in September 1994; includes the Chairmen of Oblast

and Kiev and Sevastopol City Supreme Councils

Legislative branch: unicameral

Supreme Council: elections last held 27 March 1994 with repeat elections continuing through December 1998 to fill empty

seats (next to be held NA); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (450 total) Communists 91, Rukh 22, Agrarians 18,

Socialists 15, Republicans 11, Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists 5, Labor 5, Party of Democratic Revival 4, Democrats 2,

Social Democrats 2, Civil Congress 2, Conservative Republicans 1, Party of Economic Revival of Crimea 1, Christian

Democrats 1, independents 225; note - 405 deputies have been elected; run-off elections for the remaining 45 seats to be held

by December 1998

Judicial branch: joint commission formed in April 1995 to define a program of judicial reform by year-end

Political parties and leaders: Green Party of Ukraine, Vitaliy KONONOV, leader; Liberal Party of Ukraine; Liberal

Democratic Party of Ukraine, Volodymyr KLYMCHUK, chairman; Democratic Party of Ukraine, Volodymyr

Oleksandrovych YAVORIVSKIY, chairman; People's Party of Ukraine, Leopol'd TABURYANSKYY, chairman; Peasants'

Party of Ukraine, Serhiy DOVHRAN', chairman; Party of Democratic Rebirth (Revival) of Ukraine, Volodymyr FILENKO,

chairman; Social Democratic Party of Ukraine, Yuriy VUZDUHAN, chairman; Socialist Party of Ukraine, Oleksandr

MOROZ, chairman; Ukrainian Christian Democratic Party, Vitaliy ZHURAVSKYY, chairman; Ukrainian Conservative

Republican Party, Stepan KHMARA, chairman; Ukrainian Labor Party, Valentyn LANDYK, chairman; Ukrainian Party of

Justice, Mykhaylo HRECHKO, chairman; Ukrainian Peasants' Democratic Party, Serhiy PLACHINDA, chairman; Ukrainian

Republican Party, Mykhaylo HORYN', chairman; Ukrainian National Conservative Party, Viktor RADIONOV, chairman;

Ukrainian People's Movement for Restructuring (Rukh), Vyacheslav CHORNOVIL, chairman; Ukrainian Communist Party,

Petr SYMONENKO; Agrarian Party; Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists, S. STESTKO; Civil Congress, O. BAZYLUK;

Party of Economic Revival of Crimea; Democratic Party Of Ukraine, Serhiy DOVMAN', chairman

Other political or pressure groups: New Ukraine (Nova Ukrayina); Congress of National Democratic Forces

Member o, CEI (associate members), CIS, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC,

ILO, IMF, IMO, INMARSAT, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NACC,

OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNPROFOR, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO

Diplomatic representation in US:

chief of mission: Ambassador Yuriy SHCHERBAK

chancery: 3350 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007

telephone: [1] (202) 333-0606

FAX: [1] (202) 333-0817

consulate(s) general: Chicago and New York

US diplomatic representation:

chief of mission: Ambassador William Green MILLER

embassy: 10 Yuria Kotsyubinskovo, 252053 Kiev 53

mailing address: use embassy street address

telephone: [7] (044) 244-73-49, 244-37-45

FAX: [7] (044) 244-73-50

Flag: two equal horizontal bands of azure (top) and golden yellow represent grainfields under a blue sky

People

Population: 51,867,828 (July 1995 est.)

Age structure:

0-14 years: 21% (female 5,217,850; male 5,407,450)

15-64 years: 65% (female 17,563,924; male 16,334,299)

65 years and over: 14% (female 4,976,893; male 2,367,412) (July 1995 est.)

Population growth rate: 0.04% (1995 est.)

Birth rate: 12.31 births/1,000 population (1995 est.)

Death rate: 12.67 deaths/1,000 population (1995 est.)

Net migration rate: 0.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1995 est.)

Infant mortality rate: 20.5 deaths/1,000 live births (1995 est.)

Life expectancy at birth:

total population: 70.11 years

male: 65.59 years

female: 74.87 years (1995 est.)

Total fertility rate: 1.81 children born/woman (1995 est.)

Nationality:

noun: Ukrainian(s)

adjective: Ukrainian

Ethnic divisions: Ukrainian 73%, Russian 22%, Jewish 1%, other 4%

Religions: Ukrainian Orthodox - Moscow Patriarchate, Ukrainian Orthodox - Kiev Patriarchate, Ukrainian Autocephalous

Orthodox, Ukrainian Catholic (Uniate), Protestant, Jewish

Languages: Ukrainian, Russian, Romanian, Polish, Hungarian

Literacy: age 15 and over can read and write (1989)

total population: 98%

male: 100%

female: 97%

Labor force: 23.55 million (January 1994)

by occupation: industry and construction 33%, agriculture and forestry 21%, health, education, and culture 16%, trade and

distribution 7%, transport and communication 7%, other 16% (1992)

Copyright by Vitaly Kukshin.

134.          Under the files

"The great advantage of having an ancestry like that of a mongrel dog is I

have so many ancestral homes to go home to."

UNDER THE SPELL

A travel tale by Danny O'brien

We caught the ferry from Le Havre, France to Ireland, land of my ancestors. Every since I was

a wee lad, my mind has been used as a canvas by every Irishman who has been  displaced

from  the Emerald Isle. A picture of quaintness bordering upon myth. Cute I thought it would

be, but never as much as the tourist hype I had read. I donned my suit of armor constructed of

cynicism, forged by age. Protected thus from the hype, I the ancestral child would see Ireland

as it really is. Mind you, no tourist hype for me.

The ship pulled in to Rosslare Harbor near Wexford and lowered its gangplank. I made it most

of the way down before I was sucked clean out of my armor into, head over heels, and  under

the spell of the Emerald Isle.

We had arranged for a rental car, to be picked upon arrival at the harbor. I thought perhaps we

would be shown how to operate it. Instead the attendant said in his sweet Irish brogue, "It's

the wee red one over there," and handed me the keys.

Still dazed by the sudden entrance in to "The Spell" we sped off in our wee red Ford Fiesta.

Every so many hundred yards along the road signs reminded us to "Drive to the left." On the

open road it was no problem, however moments later in the congestion of Wexford I was near

panic,  yelling at Travis to help remind me what side of the street I was on. It didn't help that

he often mixes left and right up in his mind, some sort of hereditary functional disorder. I

almost broke out in sweat when I had to make my first right turn feeling as though I was going

head on into the oncoming traffic.

By the time we got through Wexford I was in desperate need to stop for a wee pee. I saw a

small side road and took that hoping to find a secluded spot to relieve myself.

I discovered that when you leave the main roads in Ireland you are almost immediately

secluded. We stopped in front of an old abandoned barn made of stone with an unusual door

shaped like a horseshoe. The earth smelled wet and fresh and was a bit boggy, more

so when I departed. It was only a few hundred yards before we learned our first rule of driving

in Ireland. One must share the road with all other life forms. In this case a herd of very big fat

black and white milk cows. First in front of us and soon all about us. The rear end of the heard

lead cow was in front of the car, walking down the center of the road in a very leisurely

manner, lots of large bovine eyes were peering through the side windows. Patience is

definitely a virtue when driving in Ireland. Never, never be in a hurry to get anywhere. The

roads are almost all narrow and two lanes but the surfaces are quite good and it is

a pleasure to drive without feeling separated from your surroundings. Any less separation at

this moment and we would have been up to our noses in cowtits.

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One of the mysteries of Ireland is how such a small country can be so big. We arrived at

Rosslare Harbor at two thirty in the afternoon and managed to drive the total distance of thirty

five long miles before seeking shelter for the night in Slieveroe near Waterford. The whole of

Ireland is ninety miles across by one hundred miles long, yet the thought of driving across

Ireland in one day would be unthinkable. We would contemplate driving on to another location

only to decide that it would be too long a journey for one day, then check the map to discover

that our destination was the huge distance of fifty four miles.

A great part of the mystery was solved when we realized that the purchase of the wonderful

Michelin No.405 map of Ireland contributed to this illusion. The map scale is 1 inch equals

6.30 miles. A map of California at this scale would be over eleven feet long.

Our wee map of Ireland was only four and a half by three feet, perfect to unfold in our wee red

Ford Fiesta. There was barely a cow path in the whole of Ireland that did not exist on this map.

Fortunately neither one of us are one of those people who can't fold up a map. Neither could

we unfold it the car. The map became part of the adventure.

Suddenly there seemed to be an infinite number of roads to take. Some roads we soon dis-

covered would slowly diminish in size and driving surface until we would find ourselves

wedged between two stone walls on little more than a dirt path wondering how and if we could

ever turn around. Eventually and miraculously, we came to a break in the walls just large

enough to get the car turned around, with me inside the car screeching out for directions like

a trapped wild bird, and Travis outside the car frantically waving directions, none of which I

could decipher or see. We had no choice but to go back the way we came. Travis' propensity,

i.e. natural inclination, for always taking a different return route was unsatisfied. He was not

amused. Nor is he presently amused by my description of his abilities at hand signaling.

I am compelled as a seeker of truth, mind you, certainly not for our mutual amusement, to

describe another Irish road story, much to the dismay of the Irish Tourist Board and Ministry

of Roads.

It was another typical Irish day, soft rain falling. While driving on a rather nice road I saw what

appeared to be nothing more than a large shallow puddle on the road, the kind that are great

fun to run through to hear the sound of the water hitting the underside of the car. Naturally

seeking amusement, I made no attempt to avoid it. The front end of the car dropped suddenly

and for the longest moment I had the feeling we would not come out the other side of this

newly discovered monster pothole. The sound of the tire rim striking the other shore of the

pothole quickly dispelled this feeling. We stopped and checked for damage, only to find

indications that the tire rim had previously experienced such transgressions to its integrity.

Later over a cup of tea in a local pub we told our "monster pothole" story to one of the locals,

expecting a reply of sympathy about local road conditions.

Without the least hesitation he replied "Now, I hope you didn't go and disturb the wildlife in it

did you?" Our first, but not last lesson in the sharp wit and tongue of the Irish.

After spending the night in a charming B&B in Slieveroe, we headed off in a generally west-

ward fashion on N24 to Carrick-on-Suir where with luck we would find and take N25 or R676,

Page 3 of 9

same road, south almost to Dungraven where we would go west again on N72 to Cappoquin

where, exhausted from the long drive of thirty four and a half miles we stopped for a reward of

the best tea and scones we had ever had.

Now for some inexplicable reason N72 became R666 for all the twenty miles to Fermoy  where

we once again needed to find and take N8 south to outside Cork where N8 ended and became

N25 for the last two and a half miles into Cork City.

We reached Cork about mid afternoon proud that we have covered almost ninety, as the crow

flies sixty five, miles without getting completely lost more than once.  One of life's less

forgettable experiences is an Irish road signpost. It is usually a post near an intersection

which usually has three or more roads intersecting at the same point. On this post are a

multitude of narrow long boards pointed at one end and pointing in every conceivable

direction. In whatever language the local population accept as politically correct in that region

is the name of another town or village that is in the general direction from that intersection. I

say general direction, it may or may not be on the road that the sign points toward.

Theoretically there will be a sign further down that road that points in the new general

direction where that village may exist. Sometimes, but most times not. Sometimes there are

miles indicated, sometimes not. It is a foregone conclusion that if you drive in Ireland you will

experience adventure. It is a foregone conclusion you will get lost. You will almost love every

minute of it.

LOST IN CORK

Once in the city center we found a large open parking lot, which one is supposed to somehow

pay to park in. We did not know how to pay or where to pay, only that we saw some kind of

parking tags with holes punched out for the hours you were allowed to park. These were

placed on the dash boards of the parked cars. After much debate and finally asking a

stranger he informed us we needed to purchase a parking tag at a local tobacco stand, and

after finding one we did.  Now very legal and proper for the next two hours of our existence we

set off to explore Cork. For Travis exploring Cork meant the shortest distance to the closest

book store or music store.

There were no particular sights we had planned to see in Cork so together we set off for the

book stores. Before we knew it our legal existence was coming to an end. The City of Cork

wanted its ransom. Travis had not covered every book and music store in Cork yet so I

volunteered to go back and take care of the parking ransom and meet him at the car.

As much as you love and care for someone there are times after traveling closely for

extended  periods that it is great to be off alone to explore on one's own. With a sense of

freedom I headed back toward the parking lot, having some parking time left, I browsed here

and there along the street until the time was almost up. I turned to head back to the parking

lot, nothing looked familiar. I realized a horrible truth, I was completely lost. Lost in Cork, lost

from Travis, lost from the car, lost thousands of miles from home, completely lost. Alone!

I spun around in panic, nothing looked familiar anymore, I spun around again, nothing

looked familiar again. I wanted my Mama. Suddenly I heard laughing behind me. It was Travis,

he was headed back to the car and saw me there rushing down the street in the wrong.........

Page 4 of 9

.......direction, eyes open wide, panic stricken, looking like a lost dog searching for his master.

I was so relieved at being found that his amusement at my expense was quickly forgiven . My

desire for freedom greatly diminished also. Now and then for the rest of the trip I would hear

him chuckling to himself as we drove along, and when probed as to about what. After an

interminable pause he would admit that he was remembering the look on my face, lost and

frightened in Cork.  Right then I could have used a cork..from a wine bottle!

Ireland does villages and small towns well, however cities are not its forte. We were relieved

to get out of the congestion of Cork and back on the road to Clonakilty.

We had passed through Inishannon traveling on N71 when beside the road ahead stood a

young local lad with his arm outstretched, hitching for a ride. We being from the land of

violence and crime and wary of all strangers particularity hitchhiking strangers hesitated, then

realizing we were in Ireland, stopped just in time to give him a lift. Suddenly relieved to be

temporarily free from the paranoia and constant vigil for one's safety. Here to give a stranger

a ride seemed quite the normal thing to do. No one is a stranger for long in the Irish country-

side. He looked to be in his mid teens, a handsome reddish blond boy, bright and fair with

just enough of his childhood freckles left to add boyish charm. The harsh Irish weather and

life appeared not to have taken its toll yet....So we thought.

He was in good spirits and quickly we struck up a conversation. At first the polite formalities

of name and where we all came from. That out of the way, he excitedly informed us that

he had just got the results of his national school tests. These tests are given to all school

children in Ireland to determine if they qualify for advanced education, if not its back to the

farm or factory. Proudly he told us he had just learned that he had passed his exam. We

congratulated him and wished him well for his future. The word future fell heavy upon the

exhilarated mood swiftly killing it. There was silence and his face suddenly took on a look of

age well beyond his sixteen years. To break the awkward silence I asked him what occupation

he planned to pursue.

With sadness in his voice he spoke, "I would like to go to the university, but you see, if I want

to stay in Ireland it would have little meaning." "Why?" I inquired.

"There are few jobs in Ireland now that I could apply an advanced education to, there are

simply no jobs. You must leave for England or the States for employment. I want to stay in

Ireland."

I had read about large electronic firms that had located in Ireland. I asked if they had brought

employment. "Yes at first, but as soon as we want decent wages they leave."

I understood, and became very sad, very angry. It is the way now all over the world. Large

multinationals move into countries to take advantage of cheap labor. As soon as the

standard of living rises and the local population asks for fair wages they pack up and leave for

other third world country. The potato famine is not over yet. Then, Irish food was shipped to

England while millions of Irish starved or had to leave their homes and country. The same

wolf now lives in different sheep's clothing. The mood lightened, too soon his destination

arrived. We said our farewells feeling as if we were comrades in arms.

Page 5 of 9

One of our "places to stay" books listed a Georgian farmhouse outside of Clonakilty and that

seemed appropriately romantic for Ireland. We located it where it was said to be in spite of the

Irish road signs. It was set imposingly on a knoll above the town. Georgian farmhouses

appear large however it is partially an illusion. Downstairs there are basically two large areas.

One for the living room and another for the kitchen and dining. At each end of the building

was a large chimney for the upper and lower floor fireplaces. One fire place for each room in

the house.  The upstairs had been further divided into four small bedrooms, unfortunately

leaving two bedrooms without a fireplace. Each room had a large window which even when

closed let in as much cold wind as it kept out.

The owners were past their romantic infatuation with the building. They now lived nearby in a

modern ranch style house with double glazed windows and central heating.

It was for us travelers to endure the cold charm of the older house. In fairness, the living room

was kept reasonably heated for the early evening and definitely had all the charm one would

expect. It was full of the family heirlooms. We could not help but wonder how they trusted so

many with their unguarded family heirlooms. It was a bit removed from contemporary Ireland

yet not enough to be a glaring for-tourist-only trap. After one night in the upstairs bedroom

with its quintessential Georgian farmhouse charm and wonderful view of the valley and town

we understood why the owners lived in their warm, insulated, and centrally heated house.

That evening, as soon as the last warmth from the fireplace died, the dampness of the Irish

mist permeated the house. We retreated under the down comforters seeking refuge from

the cold for the night.

The next morning the fires were burning again and a large breakfast of eggs, ham and toast

was waiting downstairs. The inconvenience of a bit of Irish dampness was quickly forgiven.

Particularly since it was a rare sunny day out.

This "farm" was also a rest stop for horse drawn caravans. Outside the window we could hear

the caravan for hire crowd getting ready to head out on their journeys. We got into our wee for

hire red Ford Fiesta and headed off for Killarney.

A rare sunny day in Ireland is a day when the sun is out over a few hours and it doesn't rain

too much. By the time we reached Ballydehob on the Mizen peninsula our thoughts were back

to finding the appropriate weather gear for Ireland. The prevailing direction of Ireland's rain is

horizontal, our umbrellas were useless.

On the main street of the village of Ballydehob we spotted a very small bright red store with

rainwear, boots, and about everything else hanging outside the door. Across the front large

letters proclaimed that "J. O'Farrell" was the proprietor of this establishment . Once inside the

store there was little clothing in sight. On shelves going up the walls to well beyond reach

were stacked bundles all carefully wrapped in plain brown paper and meticulously tied with

cord. Behind the small worn counter were Mr. and Mrs. J. O'Farrell, a cheerful elderly couple.

Mr. O'Farrell was thin and weathered and spoke with a heavy County Cork dialect which was

rather unintelligible to our ears.

Page 6 of 9

We inquired about rain gear. He looked me over, thought for a moment and then purposefully

retrieved a bundle from among the hundreds stored on the tall shelves. Mr. O'Farrell carefully

untied and unwrapped it. There was the perfect rain jacket and pants I had been looking for in

the proper size. I chose a blue pair. He slowly re-wrapped the bundle, put it back, then looked

at Travis for a moment. Another bundle was pulled from the hundreds and carefully opened.

Travis' choice was green as there was no other color in his size. He wrapped our purchases

in plain brown paper, the same brown paper every bundle in the store was wrapped in. The

sum was quite reasonable. We paid, bid a fond farewell to the O'Farrells, then drove out to

Mizen head to test our new rainwear and a good test it was.

At the end of the peninsula on a rough promontory on which stands the Mizen Head light-

house we stood facing the wild Atlantic Ocean in our dashing blue and green rainwear waiting

for the next gale to blow in, little realizing greater tests were yet to come.

THE PILGRIMAGE

Travis is into Irish music. Mind you, I love Irish music but Travis is into Irish music. A minor

obsession you might say.

In County Clare, on the rugged western shore of Ireland lies a small village called Doolin.

Doolin is to Irish musicphiles as Nashville is to country and western lovers, a Mecca. Doolin is

so small it is not on our monster map. This much we do know. It is near and just north of the

Cliffs of Moher. Offshore are the Aran Islands. We would have to rely on the Irish road sign-

posts and the kindness of strangers to find Doolin. It seemed a good idea to begin our

search from the Cliffs of Moher which, being well known, we could easily find.

We caught the ferry near Tarbert to cross the Shannon River which at that point was more like

a wide bay. Once on the small open car ferry we donned our "J O'Farrell" weather wear. With

the wind bellowing up our blue and green rain jackets we looked like balloons with legs as we

stood on the ferry deck, faces pelted by the wind and rain enjoying the beauty of the Shannon

River.

Upon disembarking the ferry we took N67 to Kitrush (Cill Rois in Irish) then R483 through

Creegh to Quilty on the Mal Bay, there intersecting N67 again which took us north to Lahinch

(An Leacht) and finally R478 to the Cliffs of Moher. Four road changes in thirty miles, not too

bad for Ireland.

The rain had increased and could no longer be called soft rain. However the wind had picked

up off the Atlantic and the rain in, spite of it size, was still traveling horizontal along the wet

and slippery Irish sod. This time rather than looking like balloons the wind caught our

amply large jackets and created blue and green sails. Our arms flapping in the wind we slowly

worked our way up the incline towards the Cliffs of Moher. Once at the top we came across

other brave fools who had come to see the natural wonders of the cliffs. There we all were

sliding about on the slippery, muddy paths laughing at each other's attempts at remaining

vertical in a decidedly  horizontal prone environment.

Page 7 of 9

The edge of the cliffs were fenced with nothing more than large flat slabs of stone hopefully to

keep us from going over the edge and provide some wind break. The wind striking the face

of the cliffs would be forced upward capturing the water runoff, propelling it straight up and

back over the cliffs at us.

There were causalities strewn about everywhere slipping and sliding about and down into the

well trampled mud. Are we having fun yet? It was so insanely ridiculous that no one could

help but laugh at the madness of it all.

There was a sudden break in the weather and we all got to see what we had braved the

elements and insanity for. Spectacular cliffs rising hundreds of feet straight up out of the

ocean mist extending down the coast as far as the eye could see, bathed in an eerie glow of

light illuminating the green moss growing on their surfaces. The land above the cliffs green

and soft as velvet. I had the sudden desire to have the hands of a giant so I could stroke the

land and feel the softness of the Irish earth beneath my fingertips. A sensuous orgy of sight

and texture.

Still dazed by the beauty of it all we descended back down the slope and attempted to clean

he Irish mud from our shoes.

Nine miles up the road we came to an intersection, there was one of those notorious Irish

signposts, its flat pointed boards pointing in all directions. Definitely too many to read on the

fly. We stopped and desperately searched the post for that special one that would point

toward Doolin. Much to our surprise it was there, pointing toward R479.

A mile or so later we came upon another intersection, turned left, and appearing before us

along a lovely stream was Doolin.

We drove over a small bridge crossing the stream and onto the main street of the village

which ran parallel to the stream. There was O'Connor's Pub. Travis had arrived at his Mecca.

There was not a single person or car in sight. Our anxiety rising, had we come six thousand

miles for nothing? We parked the car across the road from the pub and walked over to the pub

door.

Closed. Mecca was Closed. Just as panic began to set in a man appeared on the street, we

rushed over to ask him what was up.

"Oh its Sunday," he replied. Seeing the look of dismay on our faces he added "Holy Hours,

closed till noon."

Greatly relieved, we used the "Holy Hours" to find a B&B. A block up the road from the pub

was a sign that proclaimed Sancta Maria Bed and Breakfast. A bit odd of a name for a Bed

and Breakfast, we thought, even in Catholic Ireland.

We walked up and rang the bell. The door slowly opened and staring at us was the propri-

etress. She looked near middle age, bright blue eyes, straight pitch black hair combed

straight down the sides of her face of pale white skin which was carefully embellished.....

Page 8 of 9

......with bright ruby red lipstick and a slight touch of rouge. Her eyes, her hair color, her skin

and her accent, everything about her appearance seemed to be a contra-diction. She

appeared about as strange as the name outside.

"Would you have a room for two for one night?" we asked.  After an uncomfortably long

pause she finally spoke. "Yes," she said in a pleasant but acquired sounding Irish accent.

She stood there staring at us unblinking just as a child would. We didn't quite know how to

respond. Fortunately, eventually, she did.

She turned and led us down a narrow hallway which had evenly spaced doors along each

side, each had a clear glass transom above it. There was certainly nothing we could see to

indicate it was another kind of establishment. She opened one of the doors but said nothing.

The room was small and very clean. Inside was a small single bed, a small night stand and a

simple wooden chair. The walls of natural finished wood were bare of adornment except for a

small nondescript print. The room gave one the impression of a small monk's cell. I had dis-

covered a new style of architecure, "Pseudo Monastery."

She stood there with that stare, saying nothing until we broke the silence by asking, "Do you

have a double room?"  Without replying she closed the door and led us to another room

which was identical to the previous room but had two very small beds

Still dazed by the bizarreness of it all we brought in our bags and freshened up. Looking at

our watches we realized it was noon. "Holy Hours" were over.   We quickly left the B&B. Much

to our surprise there was a traffic jam on the one narrow street of Doolin. A stream of local

humanity was entering the door of O'Conners Pub.

Old weathered men, women, children, babies, teenagers, fishermen, the young and the old

arriving by every form of transportation, horse and wagon, tractors and cars. If the small

stream had been big enough we would not have been surprised to see boats docking. We

rushed down the road hoping there would be room for a few Yanks too. A matter of minutes

after Holy Hours ended the Pub was full and the music was a-going. Travis was in hog

heaven. I was having one great time too.

There were several rooms inside O'Connors's. The regular clientele appeared to each have a

preference for a particular room or area of that room. One large room struck me as the family

room. It had a long bar along one wall lined with the older men in their Sunday best jackets

and caps. Along the opposite wall sat as if holding court, older women, some holding

children, I assumed to be either their grandchildren or simply those of the young ones who

wished to go listen to the music or have an ale without their children in tow. Something told

me I was not In England.

Once, while on an outing in England with friends who had a eighteen month old child we were

forced to sit outside on a cold windy patio for a pub lunch because "children were not allowed

inside pubs." This room was the largest and had plenty of room for the kids to play and when

the mood stuck anyone to dance though most seemed content at this point in the..................

Page 9 of 9

......afternoon to just have a drink and chat. A lone fiddler played in one corner, basking in the

attention he received.

There were no paid musicians, anyone who had the calling brought their instruments and

played when they felt like playing either with a group or alone. There seemed to be no system

or pattern. Some groups obviously had played often together and were very good. Age did not

matter. A weathered old fisherman could be seen playing a one row accordion along with a

twelve year old lad on his penny flute. Ability, while appreciated, didn't seem to matter. There

was a marvelous tolerance for even the worst musicians. Anyone who played was treated with

respect for trying. The old fiddler in the corner of the family room, though sometimes off a

note and a bit slow in his playing, was obviously appreciated. Especially by those, I imagined,

who remembered his playing when he was younger and quicker to the beat. You could tell he

had entertained them for many a year and no one would cast him out over something so small

as a sour note. The Grim Reaper would say when this man played his last sour note and spare

we mortals the task. Though, when he played a few particularly sour notes, I did see a few

looks that lead me to suspect that he had a few friends who marveled at the patience of the

Grim Reaper.

To be continued..

135.          Ural Mountains

David Bennington                                                                                         Bennington 1

Mr. Macintosh

Environmental Science CP9

HR. 5    1/6/96

Ural Mountains

The Ural Mountains are a rugged spine across Russia, running 1,300 miles from the fringe of the Arctic in the North, to the bend of the Ural River in the South. Traditionally they form a boundary between Europe and Asia. The north-south course of the Urals is relatively narrow, varying from about 20 to 90 miles in width, but it cuts across the vast latitude landscape regions of the Eurasian landmass, from Arctic waste to semidesert; the Urals also are part of the Ural economic region, a highly developed industrial complex closely tied to the mineral-rich Siberian region, and are the home of people with roots reaching deep into history.

Physical Features

The Urals divide into five sections.  The northernmost Polar Urals extend some 240 miles from Mount Konstantinov Kamen in the north-east to the Khulga River the southeast; most mountains rise to 3300-3600 feet above sea level, although the highest peak, Mount Payer reaches 4829 ft. The next stretch, the Nether-Polar Urals, extends for more than 140 miles south to the Shchugor River. This section contains the highest peaks of the entire range, including Mount Narodnaya which reaches 6217 ft. and Mount Karpinsk Which is 6161 ft.

These first two sections are typically Alpine and are Strewn with Glaciers and are heavily marked with permafrost. Farther south come the Northern Urals, which stretch for more than 340 miles to the Usa River in the south; most mountains top 3300 feet, and the highest peak, Mount Telpos-Iz, rises 5305 ft. Many of the summits are flattened, the remnants of the ancient Peneplains uplifted by geographically tectonic movements. In the north, intensive weathering has resulted in vast "seas of stone" on mountain slopes and summits. The lower Central Urals extend more than 200 miles to the Ufa river, rarely exceeding 1600 ft., althought the highest peak Mount SrednyBascy, rises to 3261 ft. The summits are smooth, with isolated residual outcrops. The last portion, the Southern Urals, extends some 340 miles to the westward bend of the Ural River and consists of several parallel ridges rising to 3900 ft. and culminating in Mount Yamantau, 580 ft.; the section terminates in the wide uplands of the Mugadozer hills.

The People

Human habitation of the Urals dates to the distant past, The Nenetes are Sanoyed people of the Pay-Khoyregion, and their language belongs to the Samoyedic group of languages, which is widespread throughout northern Siberia. The most numerous indigenous groups the Bashkir, long settled in the southern Urals speak a tongue relater to the Turkic group. The Russian population is the largest group of people and is concentrated primarily in the central and southern Urals. Most Russians live in cities notably Yekaterianburg, Chelyabinsk, Perm, Ufa, and work in industries.

Bennington 2

The Economy

The Urals are extremely rich in mineral resources. Ore deposits for example notably Magnetite, predominate the Eastern slope, where contact deposits are found, as at Vysokogorsk and Mount Blagodat. Some ore's contain alloy metals, Vanadium and Titanium are two. The largest Copper ore deposits are at Gay and Sebia and Nickel ore's are found at Ufaley. There are also large deposits of bauxite, gold, platinum, and cromite. There are Petroleum and Natural Gas deposits in the Ishimbay and Karasnokamsk areas.

Because of it's wealth of mineral resources, the leading industries in the Urals are Mining, Metallurgy, machine building, and chemicals. Of National importance are the metallurgical plants at Magmitogorsk, Chelyabinsk, and NizhnyThigl; chemical plants at Perm, Ufa, and Oremburg; and large scale engineering at Yekaterinburg.

136.          Vietnam

VIETNAM.  The Socialist Republic of Vietnam consists of the former Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The division of the country resulted from the defeat of the French by Communist-inspired nationalists in 1954. A prolonged civil war resulted in a victory for the Communist north, and reunification occurred in mid-1976.

Physical Setting

Vietnam has an area of 127,207 square miles (329,465 square kilometers) and is located in Southeast Asia. The country has a coastline of nearly 1,440 miles (2,317 kilometers), much of which fronts on the South China Sea. Border countries are China, Cambodia, and Laos. The latter two countries, along with Vietnam, constituted the former French Indochina.

Northern Vietnam is quite mountainous, especially the extreme north and northwest. The Red River (Song Hong), which originates in China's Yunnan Province, is the principal river of the north and is about 725 miles (1,167 kilometers) in length. The major lowland area is a delta that has been created by deposits from the Red River as it enters the Gulf of Tonkin. The river passes through the capital city of Hanoi. For more than 2,000 years the Tonkin Lowland, considered the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, has been the scene of considerable water control efforts in the form of canals and dikes.

The southernmost portion of the country is dominated by another lowland that is much more extensive than that in the north. This lowland has essentially been created by the Mekong River (Song Cuu Long) and its various tributaries. Just north of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) the landscape becomes more varied and rolling with forested hills.

The central portion of Vietnam varies in width but is only 35 miles (56 kilometers) at its narrowest point. This region has only a narrow coastal strip in contrast to the rest of the coastline, where wider lowlands exist.

The westernmost portion of the area is dominated by the Annamese, or Annamite, Cordillera, a major mountain chain, which forms the spine of the country from north to south. Along with the two major rivers, there are many shorter rivers that drain the highlands and flow eastward to the South China Sea. The country also has six island groups, 14 separate mountain ranges, and three large lakes.

The climate of Vietnam is largely tropical, though the north may be distinguished as subtropical. Differences in humidity, rainfall, and temperature are caused largely by changes in elevation. The north has a hot and humid five-month-long wet season lasting from May through September. The remainder of the year is relatively warm and rainfree, but humid. A prolonged period of fog, cloudiness, and drizzle occurs from December through April in the central zone and coastal lowlands. The south is characterized by a monsoon-type climate dominated by a changing wind pattern that brings rainfall. The rainy period is shorter than in the north.

In the north maximum rainfall occurs in July and August, while in the south these peaks are in June and September. Average rainfall at Hanoi is 72 inches (183 centimeters) per year, at Hue 117 inches (297 centimeters), and at Ho Chi Minh City 81 inches (206 centimeters). In the higher elevations of the Annamese mountain chain, rainfall can exceed 175 inches (445 centimeters). The region is subject to typhoons, which may occur from July through November. Daily temperatures in the south range between 64  and 92  F (18  and 33  C), while in the north the climate is considerably cooler. Average summer temperatures are approximately 82  F (28  C) with the winter average at 63  F (17  C).

People and Culture

The population of Vietnam in the early 1990s was estimated at more than 67 million. Birth- and death rates respectively were 31 and 9 per thousand. The natural rate of increase per year is 2.3 percent. If this rate continued, the population of the country would double within 30 years. Family planning services, including contraception and abortion, are widely available. A major goal is to reduce the rate of population growth to less than 2 percent per year. The infant mortality rate of 69 per 1,000 live births is close to that of the Philippines but higher than that of Malaysia. The average life expectancy is 60 years.

Given the contrasting landforms of the country, the distribution of the population is very uneven. Major concentrations are found in the Red and Mekong river deltas, where densities may exceed 2,000 persons per square mile (772 per square kilometer). The average density, however, is much lower 488 persons per square mile (188 per square kilometer).

A major element of current development planning is the forced relocation of more than 10 million Vietnamese into new economic zones that are scattered throughout the country. Earlier movements of people occurred largely in response to war activity, with refugees migrating from north to south and subsequently into urban areas. In the mid-1970s there also was an evacuation effort carried out by the United States that took more than 135,000 Vietnamese to that country. Movement out of Vietnam in small fishing vessels continues. These migrants seek destinations largely in other Southeast Asian countries.

As a result of a United Nations effort, a coordinated orderly departure program has been in place since 1980. Ethnic Chinese and children of American

and Asian (Amerasian) descent are conspicuous in this program because they are the objects of discrimination if they remain in Vietnam. Illegal emigration continues but at a reduced rate, as the penalty when caught is severe. Property confiscation and hard labor and reeducation camps are common punishments.

The urban population in Vietnam is 19 percent of the total, comparable to that of Thailand and Myanmar. The largest cities are Ho Chi Minh City in southern Vietnam and Hanoi in the north. Other large cities are Haiphong (the major port for Hanoi), Da Nang, Bien Hoa, Can Tho, Nha Trang, Qui Nhon, Hue, and Cam Ranh. The latter was for many years the site of the Soviet naval fleet, which occupied the facility built by the United States during the Vietnam War.

The Vietnamese are descended from both Chinese and Thai peoples. Originating in southern China, the Vietnamese people pushed southward over the course of several hundred years to occupy much of the current area of Vietnam. A strong sense of national identity was produced as a result of the struggle for political independence from China. Vietnamese culture, however, still reflects the strong influence of Chinese civilization. Nearly 100 years of French rule instilled many European cultural traits as well. The Vietnamese, however, continue to maintain their own culture through such customs as attaching great importance to the family and observing rites honoring their ancestors.

Although 90 percent of the population is Vietnamese, there are several significant minorities. The largest of these is the Chinese, who number about 4.1 million and constitute nearly 7 percent of the total population. The Chinese minority is concentrated largely in urban areas, especially the Cholon section of Ho Chi Minh City. The Chinese have long played major roles in the Vietnamese economy, being active in rice trade and milling, real estate, banking, shopkeeping, stevedoring, and mining.

Another minority group, known collectively as Montagnards, is made up of two main ethnic-linquistic groups Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. More than 25 tribes of various cultures and dialects are spread throughout the hill areas of the country. Still another minority group is the Khmer, or Cambodians. These people, perhaps numbering 1 million, are concentrated in the southern provinces near the Cambodian border and at the delta of the Mekong River. Most of them are farmers.

Government policy appears to be directed toward the assimilation of minorities into the mainstream culture. There are attempts to place ethnic Vietnamese among minority peoples in order to strengthen control. A further emphasis is the encouragement of minorities to emigrate, as noted above. Ethnic Chinese are often denied official employment and educational opportunities.

The three traditional religions are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Buddhism was brought into Vietnam from China in the 2nd century AD and has the largest number of followers. About 32 million Vietnamese follow Buddhism, and most of these followers are Mahayana Buddhists . Both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism are practiced. Most of Vietnam's Theravada Buddhists are Khmer Krom. They number about 900,000 and live in southern and southwestern Vietnam. It is this group that has supplied the Vietnamese army in Cambodia with interpreters and staff for its government there. Confucianism serves as a means of forming social patterns. Rules for social interaction, the cult of ancestor worship, and the male-dominated family structure are by-products of the religion. Roman Catholicism was introduced into Vietnam in the 16th century and flourished especially under the French. There are about 2 million followers of the religion today.

The government tolerates religion and permits religious services but restricts conversion activities and growth in general. Reports indicate that the Roman Catholic church is a special target for control, and as a result church membership has begun to dwindle. Since 1975 government authorities have attempted to suppress and intimidate the Mahayana Buddhist leaders. Temples have been closed, and monks have been forced into reeducation camps.

The official language of the country is Vietnamese. It is monosyllabic and belongs to the Mon-Khmer family. There is considerable borrowing from Chinese in the vocabulary. Of the numerous other languages spoken, Thai, Sino-Tibetan and Miao-Yao are the most widespread. Once widely spoken, French has fallen from use. Given the American intervention in Vietnamese affairs, English is not encouraged. Russian is of some importance because of the history of support and economic cooperation that Vietnam had with the Soviet Union.

Education in Vietnam is universal and compulsory for children ages 6 to 11. The educational system has been altered somewhat since reunification. This basically involves the use of new texts in the south to conform to those in the north. In addition many teachers in the south have undergone political indoctrination programs. Private schools are now under government control. The school year extends from September to May. Primary and secondary education accounts for more than 12,600 schools, 566,000 teachers, and 15.8 million students. There were more than 80 institutions of higher learning with a total enrollment of 160,000 in the mid-1980s.

Health services and facilities are being refurbished and expanded to make up for wartime destruction. Yet expenditures on health services are grossly inadequate. It is estimated that only 15 percent of the population has access to safe water. The government appears to have eliminated such major diseases as tuberculosis, smallpox, malaria, leprosy, and bubonic plague. In the early 1980s there were approximately 11,000 hospitals and 14,000 physicians in the country.

Vietnamese cooking has been influenced by Chinese, French, and Malay food preparation. The Vietnamese cuisine in upper-class homes has a rich sophistication that rivals Chinese and Thai cooking. A fermented fish sauce called nuoc mam is used in many prepared dishes. Rice, the staple food, is usually eaten with cooked leafy green vegetables or in soup. Rice is grown wherever possible in irrigated rice fields. Rice is supplemented by corn, sweet potatoes, and cassavas. Many people raise fruits and vegetables. Meat is only consumed at festivals or sacrifices. Fresh fish and dried fish, however, are readily available. Red chili is used in most meals in some form, and occasionally boiled maize is eaten as a snack. Agriculture in the south-central coastal plain and on the Cambodian border has been historically dominated by market gardening rather than wet rice agriculture.

Economy

Vietnam is viewed by the World Bank as one of 37 low-income countries. It has a centrally planned economy in which the dominant sector is public. Very few current statistics are available because no financial or production information is reported to outside agencies. Gross national product was estimated for 1982 at 9 billion dollars, with a per capita income of 175 dollars. The economy has evolved in phases that have attempted to eliminate capitalism, elevate state control and planning, and deal with financial indebtedness and weak resources. Efforts to redistribute land in the north were coupled with an attempt to implement a cooperative movement. Cooperative land has been contracted to families or production teams to meet production targets. Excess production above a quota may be sold by peasants on the open market. Individual land ownership is still widespread in the south. Similarly, private enterprise in the south has only gradually changed and continues to play a significant role.

The economy is guided by a five-year development plan that corresponded to the Soviet and Eastern European planning cycle. During the 1970's emphasis moved from heavy industry to agriculture and light industry in order to improve material living standards within Vietnam as well as develop exports to earn foreign exchange. The south was viewed as the main food basket and supplier for the nation as well as a producer of light industrial goods.

The plan was built on the assumption of United States aid after normalization of ties. However, contrary to expectations, little aid from the United States was delivered, and foreign aid in general was reduced in reaction to Vietnam's invasion of Kampuchea (Cambodia). Conflict with China further drained resources. It is estimated that more than 40 percent of the country's budget is being spent on defense.

A new plan not yet implemented emphasizes small practical projects in agriculture, consumer goods, energy, and communications. The new domestic economic policy, which was announced in early 1988, in effect abandoned centralized planning in favor of managerial decision making at the factory level in state enterprises. Worker incentives, quality control, shareholding, an expanded banking industry, and wage scales linked to productivity were part of this sweeping reform.

In 1976 Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and Asian Development Bank, but no requests for loans have been honored since 1978. Most aid has come from the United Nations Development Program, France, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries. The Soviet Union assisted with major development projects during the 1970s and 1980s.

Agriculture the mainstay of the economy employs 60 percent of the labor force. It accounts for an estimated 45 percent of the gross domestic product. Only 23 percent of the total land area is cultivated. The deltas of the Red and Mekong rivers, as well as other lowland areas, are the prime rice-growing regions. Multiple cropping is common in the north, accomplished through an extensive system of irrigation. Single cropping is the rule in the south because of dry conditions half of each year and an inadequate water supply. High-yielding varieties of rice are commonly used. Elsewhere such dry crops as corn, sweet potatoes, cassavas, and pulse plants are grown.

Before 1980 chronic food shortages consistently caused widespread malnutrition. Natural disasters as well as collectivist policies were responsible for the food deficits. Food production improved as a result of production contracts and increased prices. Mechanization of agriculture is thwarted by the lack of fuel, so the raising of draft animals is encouraged. In the absence of adequate local fertilizer production, there is increased use of green and natural fertilizers in rice terraces. Commercial forest production was affected by the war, but more than 800 million cubic feet (22.7 million cubic meters) of valuable hardwoods were harvested in 1982.

There is considerable potential for the fishing industry in the rich offshore fishing grounds. A variety of fish species are caught in addition to prawns, lobsters, and crayfish. The collective model has been employed in this industry and has adversely affected the annual catch and fishermen's incomes. Refugee movements have gradually removed vessels from the fishing fleet, and this, too, has hurt the industry.

The heavy industrial base of Vietnam is concentrated in the north. Productive capacity rebounded after the destruction of the war period. Machine tools, iron and steel, and fertilizer operations contribute to the industrial output. Light manufacturing and processed agricultural products are focused in the south. Industrial production is difficult to monitor, but apparently growth rates have been stronger in locally run and handicraft industries and weaker in large-scale industries. Consumer industries too often require imported components or materials that are difficult to obtain because of inadequate foreign exchange. Emigration has seriously affected the industrial sector, as management expertise is conspicuously uneven. Vietnamese industry continues to be troubled by power shortages.

The north is endowed with mineral resources that include coal, tin, chrome, and phosphate. The coal mines of Hong-Quong are quite large and produced more than 800,000 tons of coal in 1982.

The railway system includes more than 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers) of track. Since 1976 a trans-Vietnam railway links the two largest cities. There are more than 22,500 miles (36,200 kilometers) of roads, of which only 15 percent are paved. Human-powered three-wheel vehicles are more common than motorized vehicles. Major ports are at Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Da Nang, Qui Nhon, and Hon Gai. Vietnam's national airline, Hang Khong Vietnam, has an old fleet of DC-4 aircraft along with some newer aircraft that operate primarily on domestic routes.

Telephones are a rare luxury in Vietnam. In the late 1980s only 116,000 were in operation.

Trade figures for 1984 show that imports far exceeded exports: 596 million dollars and 254 million dollars, respectively. Manufactured goods, handicrafts, and agricultural products were the major export goods and were sold principally to Japan, Hong Kong, the Soviet Union, and Singapore. Imported goods consisted of fuels, raw materials, machinery, and food products. Some 60 percent of these came from the Soviet Union, Japan, India, Singapore, and Hong Kong.

History

In the 2nd century BC the northern area of Vietnam and part of southern China were conquered by the army representing the Han Dynasty of China. Chinese rule lasted for more than 1,000 years until AD 939, when the Vietnamese managed to throw off their conquerors. A southward expansion continued over the following 800 years, reaching as far as the Gulf of Siam (now the Gulf of Thailand). Internal strife, however, produced a struggle that lasted more than two centuries. Essentially Vietnam was divided near the 17th parallel with two states Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south. Following a civil war the country was reunited briefly in 1802.

Political weakness permitted French intervention and expansion. Cochinchina became a French colony in 1867, and Annam and Tonkin became French protectorates in 1883. Later all three were merged with Laos and Cambodia to form French Indochina. Throughout the period of French rule, strong nationalist and revolutionary movements were present. During World War II the French yielded Indochina to Japan. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, a nationalist coalition known as the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

. French resistance to the Viet Minh led to a war that lasted eight years. After a crucial battle at Dienbienphu, a cease-fire agreement was signed in 1954. The cease-fire provided for a partitioned Vietnam, the south becoming the Republic of Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem. This anti-Communist southern regime was opposed by a growing resistance movement that became known as the Viet Cong.

Just prior to the overthrow of Diem in the south, the United States joined the conflict between north and south. Ground forces were committed, and bombing was carried out against the north from 1965 to 1968. Peace negotiations began between the Hanoi government and the United States in 1969; the Paris accord was signed on Jan. 27, 1973. More than 47,000 American troops were killed before the last forces departed in March 1973. Two years later the National Liberation Front forces of the north pushed southward and captured Saigon. The three-decade war produced an estimated toll of 2 million Vietnamese dead with another 4 million wounded. More than half of the population were left homeless, and large areas of cultivated land and infrastructure were devastated.Vietnam was admitted to the United Nations in 1977. Close cooperation has existed with the Soviet Union, and a quest for authority over Laos and Cambodia has been maintained. Some 50,000 to 70,000 Vietnamese troops are permanently based in Laos. Cambodian resistance to Vietnamese demands led to full-scale warfare and Vietnamese occupation of the country. This conquest has made it necessary for Vietnam to deploy troops on the Chinese and Thai borders in addition to maintaining armies of occupation in both Cambodia and Laos.

Governmental ties and commercial relations have been established with all members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Vietnam also has close ties to India. More significant is the restoration of relations with France. The settlement of many issues, including compensation for the seizure of French property, opened the way for French development aid. Vietnam and the United States have no diplomatic relations, though discussions continue on the subject of American military personnel missing in action. This matter and the occupation of Cambodia hinder the resumption of any official relationship. In 1989 Vietnam announced that it would withdraw its remaining troops from Cambodia by the fall.

By 1992 Vietnam had altered its domestic and foreign policies significantly. In response to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, it began to modify its economic policies. No further assistance would be forthcoming from its old ally the Soviet Union, since that nation was in the process of disintegration. The leaders of Vietnam sought foreign investment to help their economy. Vietnamese forces did pull out of Cambodia, and a Cambodian peace agreement was signed on Oct. 23, 1991. Relations were renewed with China in mid-1991 after 13 years of hostility. Relations with the United States also showed signs of improvement in October 1991, when United States Secretary of State James Baker met with the Vietnamese foreign minister in Paris.

Vietnam Fact Summary

Official Name. Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Capital. Hanoi.

NATURAL FEATURES

Principal Physical Features. Annamese Cordillera, Mekong River delta, Red River delta, Tonkin Lowland.

Mountain Ranges. Annamese Cordillera.

Highest Peak. Fan Si Pan, 10,308 feet (3,142 meters).

Major Rivers. Mekong, Red.

PEOPLE

Population (1991 estimate). 67,589,000; 519.6 persons per square mile (200.6 persons per square kilometer); 20 percent urban, 80 percent rural.

Major Cities (1989 census). Ho Chi Minh City (3,169,135), Hanoi (1,088,862), Haiphong (456,049), Da Nang (370,670), Long Xuyen (217,171).

Major Religions. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism.

Major Language. Vietnamese (official).

Literacy. 94 percent.

Leading Universities. College of Pharmacy, Hanoi; Hanoi University; Technical University of Hanoi; Technical University of Ho Chi Minh City; University of Ho Chi Minh City.

GOVERNMENT

Form of Government. People's Republic.

Chief of State. President.

Head of Government. Premier.

Legislature. National Assembly; one legislative house of 496 members; four-year terms.

Voting Qualification. Age 18.

Political Divisions. 36 provinces, 3 municipalities, and 1 special zone.

ECONOMY

Chief Agricultural Products. Crops rice, corn, sweet potatoes, cassavas, pulse plants, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, yams, peanuts. Fish freshwater fish and seafood.

Chief Mined Products. Coal, tin, chrome, phosphate.

Chief Manufactured Products. Machine tools, iron and steel, fertilizers, processed agricultural products, handicrafts.

Chief Exports. Manufactured goods, handicrafts, agricultural products, fish and shellfish.

Chief Imports. Fuels, raw materials, machinery, food products.

Monetary Unit. 1 dong = 10 hao = 100 xu.

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR VIETNAM

E.B. Fincher The Vietnam War

The World Book Encyclopedia (94 editon)

Stanley Karnow Vietnam: A History

Tim Page Ten Years After: Vietnam Today

137.          We have an environmental crisis because we have a people cris

"We have an environmental crisis because we have a people crisis - a crisis of population growth, of wasteful consumption of resources, and a crisis of apathy and inaction."

An environmental crisis is an emergency concerned with the place in which every human lives - the environment. A people crisis is an emergency with the community that inhabits the world environment. A crisis of population growth is  a turning point where the environment can no longer sustain the amounts of people  which it contains. A crisis of apathy and inaction is one where the human race cannot be motivated to solve the problems with the environment that they themselves have created.

The claim that we have an environmental crisis because we have a people crisis is valid

because our environmental problems have largely resulted from population growth, which has lead to  apathy and inaction with regard to the wasteful consumption of resources. Examples are the desertification of the Sahel in Africa, the one child policy in China and the mis-management of our oceans.

The Sahel is a strip of land that extends for more than 6000 kilometres across the southern edge of the Sahara desert. It stretches from Senegal  and Mauritania in the west to Ethiopia and Somalia in the east. These nations are among the world's poorest.

The area is one of social and biophysical crisis because of the way the population  are forced to live; they are destroying the productivity of the land. The alarming rate of population growth and ever increasing pressure on the land have initiated an expansion of desert-like conditions into the Sahel - a process called desertification.

Traditionally, the people of the drier, northern Sahel followed a nomadic lifestyle, constantly moving their herds of cattle, sheep and goats over large areas in the search for suitable grazing land. These movements prevented overgrazing and lessened the likelihood of land degradation. With increasing human numbers, the increased intensity of land use, and the harvesting of trees and scrub for fuel wood threaten to overwhelm the region's fragile environment and result in permanent ecological damage and declining standard of living.

During the 20th century 3.9 billion people have been added to the world's population.

This is an increase of 244%. Rapid  growth occurred because of the improvement of living conditions, reduced child mortality rates and increased life expectancy.

The population of undeveloped nations will continue to grow  in the foreseeable future because at present 45% of the population is under 15 years of age.

In the North the population growth is slowing down because children are considered an expense. In Italy, Germany and Austria, the growth rate is negative.

The slowdown in population growth is a result of the lower fertility rates that have accompanied improvements in the quality of people's lives and the increasing use of contraceptives throughout the South. As peoples' economic well-being improves they tend to have less children.

Future efforts to control population growth will depend on the North's capacity to share the world's resources and the ability of poor nations to improve the quality of life experienced by their people.

At the beginning of this century there were some 426 million people living in China. This has resulted in a country that has endured the demographic effects of devastating famines, wars, and epidemics for millennia; the population growth and change that occurred in the 20th century is unprecedented.

By the year 2000, the Chinese population is officially projected to top the 1.3 billion mark. About two-thirds of this 900 million increase was added within the last 50 years, as mortality was reduced amid high fertility rates.

The Chinese government has been moved by this "demographic affluence" to curb fertility. China's strategic demographic initiatives (SDI) were contrived out of this need. The government installed numerous measures for curbing fertility, embracing delayed marriage, sterilisation, all known contraceptive methods, and abortion. Exhortations, campaigns, financial and material incentives, and numerous other sanctions were used to implement the policies. All these efforts were, at first, to redirect young couples to have fewer offspring and, later, to heed the one-child-per-couple, or "minimal

reproduction," policy.

The purpose of this call for minimal reproduction was to keep the population from exceeding 1.2 billion by the year 2000. The scheme has proved problematic inside the country and controversial abroad for practical, political, ethical, and religious reasons.

The massive gain in population in recent decades has intensified old difficulties in the country's effort to raise living standards, and has ignited new economic, environmental, and social concerns within the nation's borders. The major issues range from China's population carrying capacity, unemployment and underemployment in the countryside, surging urbanisation, and spreading air and water pollution to mass illiteracy and education in relation to development. SDI itself has added such new concerns as the effect of son preference on female infanticide and the sex ratio, the impact of a fast fertility reduction on population aging, and the implications of exempting the country's 55 minority groups from the nation's fertility control measures.

The global significance of China's demographics is likewise enormous. Whatever the size of China's population is at the dawn of the 21st century it is certain to account for twenty percent of the world's projected population. China's industrialisation, modernisation, expanding use of natural resources, and rising consumption will increasingly disrupt the earth's ecosystem.

It has been thought that the world's seas would provide an inexhaustible supply of fish, however, this has been found to be untrue. Since the 1950's there has been a rapid increase in the amount of fish caught and most traditional food fishes are now over-exploited and stocks are falling.

Overfishing is partly the result of the belief that the world's oceans are common property, and belong to everyone. They have been seen as a resource open to everyone with  no one responsible for their protection. This has led to exploitation and the 'Tragedy of the Commons". This tragedy occurs when a resource is freely available to everyone; everyone uses the resource to the maximum so that the resource is eventually destroyed.

Each year the cities of the world flush enough  oil down their storm water drains and sewers  into the sea to fill three Exxon Valdez supertankers. Large areas of seas such as the Baltic and Mediterranean are now dead from pollution.

Fishing is the most traditional activity in Australian waters . Today a fleet of 10,000 boats lands a harvest of 200,000 tonnes of fish, prawns lobsters ad shellfish worth $1.2 billion a year.

Being long-established, the fishing industry was also first to encounter the biological limits of local waters: of our top 10 fisheries, five are now classed as over-exploited and five fully exploited. Now, if a particular fishery drops to unsustainable levels, catch limits may be imposed. In greatest difficulties are southern bluefin tuna, southern shark and gemfish. New fishery prospects are few and costly to develop, most being in deep water.

Related problems in fishing include the extent to which trawling damages the sea-bottom and changes the populations of sea creatures, and the growing confrontation between inshore fishers and recreational anglers, which many now predict will end in bans on professional fishing.

The ever increasing need for food due to population growth, has led to wider areas of the oceans being fished. Increasingly, fishing is taking place far out to sea, beyond the continental shelf in the waters of the continental slopes and ocean depths. Large fishing nations such as Japan, the USSR and the USA have fleets of trawlers that operate in these areas using the latest technology which further deplete ocean stocks.

These modern methods exploit the ocean resources by catching too much fish and by not being selective in what fish they catch before it is too late to throw them back. This will eventually deplete world's fish supplies and if trawler companies do not start to limit catches.

The major issue concerned with the downfall of our oceans is that marine life is vital to the food  chain which includes our survival in the future.

There are many other  long term issues involved within environmental crisis. Some of these are air pollution, garbage, logging and erosion. Often governments overlook these problems when creating new policies because they seem to be more concerned with immediate  economic considerations. Globally, there is an indifference towards  environmental issues and a lack of concern for the well-being of the world environment today. These examples have illustrated that people put their own personal needs before the survival of the earth. The developed nations of the earth need to take a larger responsibility for the environment, as they have been educated to the ill effects of pollution and over-population and they have only themselves to blame for environmental destruction. As for the people in the nations of the South, population growth needs to be slowed possibly by educating women about contraception, economic incentives, people interested in careers, less infant mortality and increasing the cost of children.

Apathy and inaction can be reversed by concerted and effective  Government policies

that encourage personal, social and economic benefits. Apathy must be resisted if our planet is to survive.

138.          What are the main contrasts to be found in Portugal

What are the main contrasts to be found in Portugal?

When answering a question such as this, one must primarily begin by pointing out that not only does Portugal have a great many contrasts within its land, but also that it contrasts greatly with the other Mediterranean countries. Portugal is not to be considered by any means as Spain's poor neighbour, nor should a shadow be cast over it by such a formidable nation. Portugal has a great deal to offer any visitor, it is not merely a tourist's paradise, yet this is regrettably how it is viewed by a large number of individuals. One must also not forget Portugal's history of being, in days gone by, one of the greater maritime nations, one of the more advanced exploring countries of Europe. Whilst Spain was occupied with discovering the Indias and consequently the Americas, Portugal was itself busy exploring Africa and making its own invaluable discoveries, although these are for the most part overlooked.

Being situated on the westernmost edge of Europe and the Iberian Peninsula, Portugal enjoys a relative privacy and independence from the rest of Mediterranean countries. Bordering on Spain on two sides and the sea on the others, the nation as naturally turned towards the sea, from which it draws both its strength and wealth and turned its back on its greatest rival, Spain. Due to its constant waves of invasion throughout the ages, Portugal is a vastly diverse land, not only in geographical terms but also in terms of heritage. It is true to say that Portugal does share a number of similarities with Spain, but it is by no means identical. Rather it is a nation which blends Moorish influences, British tradition and Mediterranean culture to form a truly unique land of peoples.

When considering the diversity of a country such as Portugal, the mention of which immediately conjures up a melange of images from North African to Western European, from hot and balmy weather to snow capped mountains, one must really begin by describing the two principle factors, those of climate and geography, which themselves are interwoven.

These in turn have a great effect on and to a certain extent bring about other differences which can be noted within the narrow confines of this nation, such as those of vegetation, economy and landscape.

On examining Portugal in terms of contrasting regions or areas, one must obviously have a starting point and that is generally considered to be a comparison between north and south, the River Tagus (Tejo) being the dividing line. However, Portugal can naturally be divided into three great natural regions, the North- West Atlantic, the North-East and the south. It is here that one truly becomes aware of substantial differences, therefore it is from this point where one must begin.

Although one might imagine the climate of Portugal to be almost the same as that of Spain, due to it geographical  position this is not so. The country is much more open to the Atlantic winds which in the winter warming influence, ensuring temperatures seldom drop below seven degrees Celsius. In the summer, the opposite is the case, the Atlantic wind have cooling influence which maintains temperatures reasonably lower than the interior, where they can reach about forty two degrees Celsius.

Generally speaking, the high, mountainous land of the north enjoys a humid Atlantic climate which maintains the soil well-watered and fertile, making it possible for it to be covered in a rich mantle of vegetation. The south in comparison is far less mountainous, it is more gently rolling, the climate itself not being as extreme as in the north. The region known as the North-West Atlantic tends to have a rather plentiful amount of rainfall, whilst the North- East enjoys a more continental climate, whose extremes are felt both in the summer and in the winter.

Due to the variety of climates, which can be noted in Portugal, it should not be unusual to discover that the country also produces a number of a different crops, making the agriculture a considerable factor. Fishing, (Which was once the most important factor in the economy, but which sadly has become less so due to the introduction of EC regulations), textile,(also important since 1960s), and tourism, (which has unfortunately shown a decline in the last ten years due to the overdevelopment of the country and the deviation of holiday makers from Europe to other continents), are also major factors, which together make have always been of great importance to the country and carry on being so, although nowadays other factors have been added. These are all common to the country as a whole , but there are obviously regions where such produce is more easily grown and found.

One might easily decide to device Portugal once again into three parts, the three great natural regions which have previously been mentioned, yet contrast exist within such large areas that this is nor really feasible. It would be much easier to compare different regions of the country individually, because although some similarities may be noted, there are also a number of contrasts to be made.

The area around Coimbra and along the western coast of the country is one where the farming and fishing are the main sources of income. Along the coast, covered with extensive sand dunes, a small number of fishing villages still remain, whose catch regrettably is on a rather small scale. The farms which exist in this area are small, (the properties being divided amongst heirs), and their methods somewhat primitive compared with those elsewhere in the country, yet the crops which are produced are substantial. At low-level, crops such as maize, wheat and barely are produced. Fig trees are also kept and vines known as "vinhas de enforcar",  (hanging vines),  are grown everywhere in the fertile land of this region. At sea-level rice is grown and at high-level olive trees are kept which produce a good quality oil.

Salt is also plentiful in this region, which  in turn means that this area of the country has all that it requires for salt preservation of fish right on its own door-step.

In the very north-east of the country, in Tars-os-montes, larger fields are used to produce cereal crops such as wheat, rye and barely, which are capable of withstanding harsher climates. However, in the northern area, more specifically in the Douro region, the winter climate is mild and the summers warm or hot. The infertile land found here makes it necessary for fields to be small and a variety of crops to be grown such as maize, and barely, along with potatoes, vegetables and chick-peas. At high altitude cherry and apple trees blossom, whilst at lower altitude near the coast,  a  few  orange  and  apricot  trees may be seen. Fishing around the coast is fairly important, with catches of sardines, tunny, crab and lamprey, plentiful.

Due to the mineral composition of the soil and intensity of the sunlight, a very special wine is produced in this area called " vinho maduro", otherwise called port wine, renowned for its sweetness. In Minho, in the northern most coastal corner of Portugal, a wine known as "vinho verde" is produced, its name coming from the greeness of the grapes. This is due partly to the fact that they are harvested slightly earlier than is usual and also to the fact that they are grown so close to the sea, where the Atlantic winds do not allow them to fully reach maturity.

The Douro region is one with a variety of economies, not only replying on agriculture as its source of income, but also on wine production, fishing and textile industry around Guimaraes, famous for being the chief centre for Portuguese linen. Also important are Braga, best known for its fine cotton, manufacture of firearms and cutlery and Oporto, renowned not only for its textile industry but also for its production of requirements for the wine industry, (bottles, corks and barrels). One could quite reasonably argue that it is here that one encounters the greatest contrasts to be found in Portugal, in this richly diverse region.

The areas along the coast of Portugal known as Estremadura and the Tagus Plains, one of the most ancient provinces, is the richest plain  of the country, with intensely cultivated fields  and an abundance of orchards and cork-oak woods. The climate of this picturesque region is extremely mild and the scenery immensely varied, made up of wild limestone, rocky cliffs and wooded hills. Much of the vast land is flat and low-lying and sparsely populated. the crops grown here, much the same as those further north are wheat, barley, maize and rice. Almost every  farm grows its own vines and lemon, orange and olive trees. Livestock is also important to this area; along the River Tabus, bulls, reared for Portuguese bullfighting , graze and in the Ribatejo area, fine horses are bred. The fishing industry along this cost is important as is fish preserving, due to cheap labour, the proximity and high quality of the olive oil (produced at Abrantes) and cheap salt which is evaporated near by.

South of Lisbon, the landscape begins to take on a different aspect. Alentejo, nearest to the Tabus, begins by being made up valleys. Its climate is rather more continental than regions further west, encouraging the growth of pine trees, whose products: resin, turpentine, and pit props, have been an important element of the economy. Cork-oak trees are of mayor significance to this area as they make up a large and valuable export for the nation.

Cereals produced here are primarily wheat, barley and maize, which are grown in small plots around the more plentiful cork and olive trees. The land, in contrast to regions further north, such as the Douro Valley, is not divided into small parcels, rather it is divided into vast estates, limiting both the number of crops and their variety.

The Algarve is another rather diverse region in itself. It is geographically divided into two separate areas, made up of mountains in the north and relatively flat coastal lands. The weather here is mild, with warm winters, scant rainfalls and sunny skies, making it natural paradise for tourists from northern Europe. The region however, is not merely appealing solely for its tourism value, agriculture of fresh fruit, ( oranges, peaches, pomegranates, bananas, plantains, figs and almonds), olives, cereals, (wheat, barley and maize) is also encouraged. Fishing of sardines, anchovies, and tunny, and in the coastal waters, of shell-fish, lobster and crayfish are also important, as is intense garden cultivation.

One can see how vastly diverse Portugal is, not only from  its other Mediterranean counterparts but also within its own confines. It is the geography and climate, which are responsible various regions, although some similarities may be observed. One would not find it possible, when viewing the nation in terms of contrasts, not to draw comparisons between the produce and economies of the different regions and merely discuss climate and geography in a general manner, as this would be glossing over the  question and not portraying Portugal in its true form. However, in order to fully appreciate the diversity of this land, one must visit the country and see for oneself, by exploring it not interested in discovering more about the land, the culture and the people which make up Portugal, not merely by lying on the beaches of the Algarve.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

British Admiralty

(Naval Int. Division)   Spain & Portugal Vol. 2                      1942

Gottmann, Jean                       A Geography of Europe                     1969

Hoffman, George W.  A Geography of Europe                     1969

Way, Ruth                               A Geography of Spain &        1962

Portugal

139.          What I understand from term development

What I understand from term "development"

From what I understand from the term, a developed country, it is the

dividing line between an advanced country and  a developing country. It is

generally based on per capita income. Those with per capita incomes of less

than one fifth of the level of those in the US are considered 'undeveloped'.

The definition is very similar to explanation of wealth and poverty. It

also suggests the balance of power between the two countries which are at

different stages of development.

This definition of development is not totally agreeable because it is

quitecommon for a country's national income to grow quite substantially

without benefiting the poor sections of the country as much as the rich.

In fact further development could elevate poverty. This approach emphasises

development now became a synonym for social improvement and could only be

measured by the extent to which the social objectives were achieved.

My personal definition of 'development' is to include not only basic

needs but emotionalm spiritual and political needs as well.

Freedom in political sense is important, but freedom from ignorance,

misery and hatred will contribute to our spiritual needs.

Development is the multi dimentional process whereby societies improves

their living standard, reduce inequalities and abolish poverty among their

members.

The state of development theory is not of a standard that enables us to

make generalised statements. IUt sounds very idelaistic. However the term

development just cannot be measures on statistics and incomes of the

population. It needs to be investigated whether the income i eequally

distributed and whether there is an availability of various services.

140.          why koreans came to usa

WHEN AND WHY DID THEY COME?

At the end of the 19th century the USA received it's first refugees from Korea, three pro-Japanese activists seeking exile after an unsuccessful attempt to over throw the government. (Moynihan 45) They were followed by 64 students between 1890 and 1905 to purse further education in the USA. Between 1902 and 1905, 7,000 Korean immigrants arrived in Hawaii. (Thernstrom)  From 1903 to 1905, 65 ships carrying 7,226 Koreans, set sail from Inchon for Honolulu. (Bandon 18) When each group arrived they settled on a sugar plantation. (Bandon 18) In 1907 the US government refused to recognize the Korean passport. From that point on, any Korean entering the US had to have a Japanese passport. (Bandon 18) These developments effectively ended almost all Korean immigration to Hawaii and the US for forty years.

Many of the Koreans came because of the sugar industry in Hawaii. It was booming and plantations needed more workers than the native population could supply. (Moynihan 45) At this time, rumors spread among the plantation owners that Koreans were more industrious then either the Chinese or the Japanese. After consulting with the US ambassador to Korea, recruiters became journeying to the peninsulas. (Moynihan 45)

The Hawaii Sugar Planters Association struck a deal with David Declare, who was paid five dollars for every laborer he lured to the Hawaiian Islands. (Moynihan 45) Deshler even offered unsuspecting Koreans loans of $100 so they could travel to Hawaii and get settled. (Moynihan 45)

Despite their distrust of Western ways and people, Koreans of early 1900's found terms of migration attractive: a monthly wage of $15, free housing, health care, English lessons, and the predominately warm Hawaiian climate. (Moynihan 45) Recruiters in Korea used the upbeat slogan "The country is open- go forward," which portrayed that Hawaii is a land of opportunity. (Moynihan 46) Like the Chinese and Japanese who were  before the Koreans, found plantation life hard an unrewarding. (Moynihan 47) The immigrants were drained by 10-hour work days and 6-day work weeks.  (Moynihan 48) Their exhaustion was not related by conditions on the plantation, which in variably included squalid housing, isolation and poor food. (Moynihan 48) One person described his experience as follows:

"I got  up at four-thirty in the morning and made my            breakfast.        I had to be out to the field at five o'clock. I worked ten            hours a day      with a sixty-seven cent wage. My supervisor ... was very             strick with us. He ... did not allow us to stand up straight once we   started to work. He treated us like cows and horses. We carried            our number all the time as an identification card and we were never            called by name, but number."

141.          World Demographic Development and Food Supply

1.)        The Neolithic and Industrial Revolutions

The two changes in the use of the earth's resources that had the greatest effect on the world population were

the neolithic and the industrial revolutions.

The neolithic revolution (a.k.a. agricultural revolution) was a change in the way of life of our ancestors. It

took place about 8000 years ago among various tribes in Asia and the Middle East. It included a transition

from foraging and hunting to the domestication of animals (most probably starting with the dog) and to

farming. Tribes settled in fertile areas and formed agricultural communities many of which grew into villages

and cities. This relatively stable way of life and the more reliable food supply (and surplus) led to the

development of new professions, to labor specialization and ultimately to the stratification of these societies.

Improved conditions of life led to somewhat longer life spans. Nevertheless population growth remained low

due to high infant mortality rates. The impact of the neolithic revolution was not as much on immediate

population growth (even though it did have a long term impact on population growth) as on the material and

spiritual development of the human race. It is widely regarded as the beginning of civilization.

Industrial revolution was another process of change. It was the process of substituting muscle power with

machine power. It took place in the 18th century in Europe and is still happening in many parts of the world.

In many characteristics it has been similar to the neolithic revolution: it increased production, it led to the

use of resources that had been mostly unused until then and it improved the overall quality of life. It also led

to changes in the structure of society.

What was different, was its impact on population growth. It was quick and easily noticeable. Advanced

sanitation, hygiene and medicine led to longer life spans and declining death rates, with the birth rates

remaining high. This resulted in a high rate of population growth that still continues in many countries.

The information revolution is the process of change that began in the second half of the 20th century in the

developed countries of the world. It is the process of substituting "brain power" with "machine power". It

leads to increased production and has the potential to create a more even distribution of the world's

population on the surface of the earth. It also has the potential to decrease the differences between the less

developed and the highly developed nations of the world. Then again it also has the potential to increase

those differences. It causes changes in the structure of society. Many of its impacts are still to be

experienced.

2.)        Thomas Malthus

Thomas Robert Malthus, an English economic thinker published a theory in 1798 concerning the relationship

between population growth and food supply. He said that population always increases exponentially, while

food supplies increase only arithmetically. He advocated that moral restraints can not be implemented on the

scale of the whole population because most individuals are will seek their own pleasure ignoring the global

impacts of their actions. The growing population will therefore put a strain on the limited food resources

that will lead to wars, famine and disease, decreasing the population thus restoring the equilibrium.

I think it is obvious that the first part of his theory, while it does apply to certain countries, proved to be

completely wrong on a global scale. There is no world-wide calorie deficit. The "food supply increase to

population increase" ratio is substantially higher in the developed world than in the less developed countries.

On a global scale, current food supplies do exceed the needs of the world's population, but they are not

distributed in a way that benefits the whole population. Fortunately international programs aimed at

achieving a better distribution of food resources do make an impact in decreasing the calorie deficit, and it is

quite likely that the inhabitants and the leaders of the developed nations will eventually come to the

conclusion that it is better to "share some" than to risk loosing all. So, even where moral restraints don't

work, common sense just might have a chance.

3.)        Population Growth, Demographics

A.) In the early prehistoric times (1 million years ago) there were no more humans on the whole earth than

in a modern American town (such as Provo). For a long time the growth rate was slow. The difficulties of

obtaining food, the lack of sanitation or advanced medicine, the living conditions in general meant short life

spans (20-25 years in average) and a high death rate. Even the largest communities (tribes) rarely exceeded

100 people.

B.) The neolithic revolution about 8000 years ago meant that tribes began to domesticate animals and plant

food crops. Tribes settled and developed into larger communities. The reliable food source and relatively

peaceful existence led to the development of many new professions and inventions. It also led to the division

of society into different classes (peasants, artisans, rulers, etc.). The continuing process of advances in

technology led to faster population growth and by the time of Christ the world's population numbered more

than half of the current population of the USA.

C.) The different rates of population growth in various areas of the world, the different levels of

development (nomadic vs. civilized) and the differences in the availability of resources led to numerous

migrations over the centuries.

- Asian tribes moved to the west and south (5th century BC - 16th century AD);

- Europeans colonized large areas of the Americas, Australia and the Pacific region, India and Africa;

- African slaves were bought and taken to the Americas and to Arabic and Turkish areas;

- Russians "colonized" the eastern reaches of Eurasia.

By the 18th century the world's population numbered about the same as the current population of the whole

American continent. (Heavy population decrease occurred during the Black Death in Europe and South-

Eastern Asia.)

D.) In the 18th century AD, technological development finally reached a level where it became possible to

substitute muscle power with machines in many areas. A virtual chain reaction of inventions began.

Increased production, advances in medicine and other areas resulted in increased life expectancy and

decreased death rates with the birth rates remaining high. This led to noticeably faster population growth.

E.) Finally in this century the developed countries experienced a decline in birthrates and thus a slowing

population growth. Many countries of the world, mostly the less developed ones have not yet achieved this

stage. Most of today's highly developed countries were able to exploit the resources of the less developed

nations of Africa and Asia long enough to give time for the impacts of the higher standards of living, longer

life spans and abundant resources to change the attitude of these nations and result in decreased population

growth. The less developed countries of the world have no other nations to exploit. Most often the

improvements in technology simply lead to population increase that "eats up" the fruits of the improvements,

making further development and investment nearly impossible.

It is especially important to understand that we all live on the same planet. Cooperation and assistance to the

developing nations are usually cheaper than another set of missile defenses...

4.)        Migrations

Europeans traveled to America, Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand. These were the migrations that

were the most important of this period. They allowed the ever growing population of Europe to find a new

habitat. These migrations resulted in European dominance of these newly colonized territories and spread

the fast pace of technological development experienced in Europe to all the continents (although in varying

degrees).

The migration of Europeans to the Americas was soon followed by a flow of African slaves (as many as 20

million) who provided cheap labor. African slaves were also sold in Arab and Turkish areas.

The eastward migration of Russians is also to be noted. The interaction with and the "colonization" of

territories east and southeast of Russia (Siberia, Caspian region, Caucasian region, etc.) ultimately led to the

formation of a much larger empire.

5.)        Stages of Demographic Transition

"Demographic transition" is a process of population change that can be divided into four stages.

a.) Before the industrial revolution the majority of the world experienced low life expectancy, high birth

rates and high death rates resulting in slow population growth;

b.) Western Europe entered the second stage with the onset of the industrial revolution in the 18th century

while other parts of the world entered it later, when they, too had either made technological advances or the

benefits of industrialization were introduced to them by more developed countries. This stage is

characterized by longer life expectancy, high birth rates and declining or low death rates, resulting in a

high and continuous increase in population.

c.) With changes occurring in the "value" of children as opposed to their costs many industrialized countries

have entered stage three. It is characterized by long life expectancy, rapidly declining birth rates and low

death rates, resulting in slow growth rates, similar to the rates in the first stage.

d.) Some industrialized countries have progressed even further and have entered the fourth stage. It is

usually characterized by long life expectancy*, low birth rates and low death rates, with the birthrates

sometimes falling below the death rates, resulting in minimal population growth or no growth at all and

sometimes even a population decline.

Countries in the second stage of demographic transition experience great difficulties in technological

development because improvements result in larger population that automatically negates the benefits of

those improvements. Many of these nations make great efforts to educate their people about the benefits of

small families and the negative impact of large families.

6.)        Comparing the 5 most populated countries of the world; birth/death rate, lifespan, income.

- Among the five most populated countries of the world India has the highest birth rate, while the birth rate

in Africa is an average 50% higher than in India.

- Among the five most populated countries of the world India also has the highest death rate, while the death

rate in Africa is an average 20% higher than in India.

- Among the five most populated countries of the world Indonesia has the lowest life expectancy; life

expectancy in Africa is almost the same as in Indonesia.

- Among the five most populated countries of the world China has the lowest per capita income; more than

half of the African nations have a per capita income lower than in China. The average, however, is about

twice as high due to a few mineral rich countries.