Common English Irregular Verbs

CHAPTER 1.  THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF THE VERB TO BE

EXERCISES for Chapter 1

CHAPTER 2.  THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF VERBS OTHER THAN THE VERB TO BE

EXERCISES for Chapter 2

CHAPTER 3.  THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

EXERCISES for Chapter 3

CHAPTER 4.  THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

EXERCISES for Chapter 4

CHAPTER 5.  THE SIMPLE PAST

EXERCISES for Chapter 5

CHAPTER 6.  THE PAST CONTINUOUS, THE PAST PERFECT AND THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

EXERCISES for Chapter 6

CHAPTER 7.  THE FUTURE TENSES

EXERCISES for Chapter 7

CHAPTER 8.  CONJUGATIONS WITH THE AUXILIARY WOULD

EXERCISES for Chapter 8

CHAPTER 9.  THE SUBJUNCTIVE

EXERCISES for Chapter 9

CHAPTER 10.  MODAL VERBS

EXERCISES for Chapter 10

CHAPTER 11.  TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

EXERCISES for Chapter 11

CHAPTER 12.  THE PASSIVE VOICE

EXERCISES for Chapter 12

CHAPTER 13.  NOUNS: THE FORMATION OF PLURALS

EXERCISES for Chapter 13

CHAPTER 14.  SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUNS

EXERCISES for Chapter 14

CHAPTER 15.  PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS

EXERCISES for Chapter 15

CHAPTER 16.  UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

EXERCISES for Chapter 16

CHAPTER 17.  NOUNS INDICATING POSSESSION AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS

EXERCISES for Chapter 17

CHAPTER 18.  PERSONAL PRONOUNS

EXERCISES for Chapter 18

CHAPTER 19.  OTHER PRONOUNS

CHAPTER 20.  DETERMINERS

EXERCISES for Chapter 20

CHAPTER 21.  ADJECTIVES: POSITION IN A SENTENCE

EXERCISES for Chapter 21

CHAPTER 22.  ADJECTIVES USED IN COMPARISONS: PART 1

EXERCISES for Chapter 22

CHAPTER 23.  ADJECTIVES USED IN COMPARISONS: PART 2

EXERCISES for Chapter 23

CHAPTER 24.  ADVERBS: POSITION IN A SENTENCE

EXERCISES for Chapter 24

CHAPTER 25.  ADVERBS OF MANNER AND ADVERBS USED IN COMPARISONS

EXERCISES for Chapter 25

CHAPTER 26.  PREPOSITIONS

EXERCISES for Chapter 26

CHAPTER 27.  PHRASAL VERBS

EXERCISES for Chapter 27

CHAPTER 28.  CONJUNCTIONS

EXERCISES for Chapter 28

Common English Irregular Verbs

Bare Infinitive

Simple Past

Past Participle

be

was/were

been

bear

bore

born

beat

beat

beaten

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

bend

bent

bent

bind

bound

bound

bite

Bit

bitten

bleed

Bled

bled

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

breed

bred

bred

bring

brought

brought

build

built

built

burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

cast

Cast

cast

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

cling

clung

clung

come

came

come

cost

cost

cost

creep

crept

crept

cut

Cut

cut

deal

dealt

dealt

dig

Dug

dug

do

Did

done

draw

drew

drawn

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

Ate

eaten

fall

Fell

fallen

feed

Fed

fed

feel

Felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

flee

Fled

fled

fling

flung

flung

fly

Flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

forecast

forecast

forecast

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

forsake

forsook

forsaken

freeze

froze

frozen

get

Got

got

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grind

ground

ground

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung

hung

have

Had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

Hid

hidden

hit

Hit

hit

hold

Held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

kneel

knelt

knelt

know

knew

known

lay

Laid

laid

lead

Led

led

leave

Left

left

lend

Lent

lent

let

Let

let

lie

Lay

lain

lose

Lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

Met

met

mistake

mistook

mistaken

partake

partook

partaken

pay

paid

paid

put

Put

put

read

read

read

rid

Rid

rid

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

Ran

run

say

Said

said

see

Saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

sell

Sold

sold

send

sent

sent

set

Set

set

shake

shook

shaken

shed

shed

shed

shine

shone

shone

shoe

shod

shod

shoot

shot

shot

show

showed

shown

shrink

shrank or shrunk

shrunk

shut

shut

shut

sing

sang

sung

sink

sank

sunk

sit

Sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

slide

Slid

slid

sling

slung

slung

slink

slunk

slunk

slit

Slit

slit

speak

spoke

spoken

speed

sped

sped

spend

spent

spent

spin

span or spun

spun

spit

spit or spat

spat

split

split

split

spread

spread

spread

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

steal

stole

stolen

stick

stuck

stuck

sting

stung

stung

stink

stank

stunk

stride

strode

strode

strike

struck

struck

string

strung

strung

strive

strove

striven

swear

swore

sworn

sweep

swept

swept

swim

swam

swum

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

Tore

torn

tell

Told

told

think

thought

thought

thrive

throve

thriven

throw

threw

thrown

thrust

thrust

thrust

tread

Trod

trodden

understand

understood

understood

wake

woke

woken

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove

woven

weep

wept

wept

win

won

won

wind

wound

wound

wring

wrung

wrung

write

wrote

written

CHAPTER 1.  THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF THE VERB TO BE

1. Grammar

The grammar of a language is an analysis of the various functions performed by the words of the language, as they are used by native speakers and writers.

There are many different ways of analyzing a language. In such an analysis, words can be given various names, depending on the function which they perform. For instance, words which perform the function of naming things are commonly referred to as nouns, and words which perform the function of expressing states or actions are commonly referred to as verbs.

It should be kept in mind that many English words can perform more than one function. For instance, in the following sentences, the underlined words can be referred to as nouns because they perform the function of naming things.
e.g. I have lost my comb.
Water is one of the necessities of life.

However, in the following sentences, the same words can be referred to as verbs because they perform the function of expressing actions.
e.g. I comb my hair every morning.
Do you water your plants once a week?

In this book, widely used terms such as noun, verb, pronoun and so on, will be used in order to explain the way in which words function in the English language.

2. Verb forms

English verbs may have different forms, depending on the subject of the verb, and depending on when the action expressed by the verb takes place.

In the following sentences, the subjects of the verbs indicate who or what is performing the actions expressed by the verbs. The verbs in these examples are underlined.
e.g. We live in the city.
He lives on Queen Street.

These examples illustrate how the form of a verb may vary, depending on the subject of the verb. In the first example, the subject is we, and the form of the verb is live. In the second example, the subject is he, and the form of the verb is lives.

The different verb forms which indicate when the action expressed by a verb takes place are usually referred to as tenses.
e.g. We always walk to work.
We walked to work yesterday.

In the first sentence, the verb walk is in the Simple Present tense. In the second sentence, the verb walked is in the Simple Past tense. Present tenses are usually used to express actions which are taking place in the present; whereas past tenses are usually used to express actions which took place in the past.

The infinitive form of a verb can be used without reference to any particular subject or any particular time. In English, the infinitive form of a verb begins with the word to. For instance, to walk is the infinitive of the verb used in the two preceding examples.

3. Uses of the simple present tense

The Simple Present is one of four present tenses in English, and is used in various ways. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Simple Present tense are underlined.

For instance, the Simple Present can be used to refer to actions which occur at regular intervals.
e.g. We visit our friends every Sunday.
They take a holiday once a year.
Geese fly south every fall.

The Simple Present is also used in stating general truths.
e.g. Gas expands when heated.
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.
Canada lies north of the United States.

In addition, the Simple Present is used when referring to printed material, and when describing events portrayed in a book, film, or other work of art.
e.g. The report presents the information clearly.
At the end of the film , the hero finds the hidden treasure.

Occasionally, the Simple Present is used to express actions occurring in the future or the past.

e.g. Our plane leaves at eight o'clock tomorrow night.
Burglar Steals Valuable Paintings

In the first example, the Simple Present is used to refer to something which will happen in the future. In the second example, which is written in the style of a newspaper headline, the Simple Present is used to refer to something which happened in the past.

4. The simple present of the verb To Be

A conjugation of a verb is a list showing the different forms a verb may take. When a verb is conjugated, it is usually accompanied by all of the personal pronouns which can act as subjects of a verb. Thus, a conjugation can show the different forms a verb must take when it is used with different subjects.

The English personal pronouns which may be used as subjects of verbs are as follows:

I

you

he

she

it

we

they

It should be noted that in modern English, the same verb forms are used with the subject you, whether you refers to one or more than one person or thing. In an older form of English, there was another personal pronoun, thou, which was used with different verb forms, and which generally referred to one person or thing.

The Simple Present of the verb to be is conjugated as follows. In spoken English, contractions are often used.

Without contractions

With contractions

I am

I'm

you are

you're

he is

he's

she is

she's

it is

it's

we are

we're

they are

they're

In written English, an apostrophe: ' is used in a contraction, to indicate that one or more letters have been omitted.

a. Affirmative statements
An affirmative statement states that something is true. In an affirmative statement, the verb follows the subject.
e.g. I am awake.
They are ready.

In the first example, the verb am follows the subject I. In the second example, the verb are follows the subject they. In written English, statements are always followed by a period: . Statements and questions must begin with a capital letter.

In order to review the preceding points, see Exercise 1.

b. Questions
For the Simple Present of the verb to be, questions are formed by reversing the order of the subject and the verb, so that the verb precedes the subject.
e.g. Am I awake?
Are they ready?

In the first example, the verb am precedes the subject I. In the second example, the verb are precedes the subject they. In written English, questions are always followed by a question mark: ?

See Exercise 2.

c. Negative statements
In the Simple Present of the verb to be, negative statements are formed by adding the word not after the verb.
e.g. I am not awake.
They are not ready.
In the first example, not follows the verb am. In the second example, not follows the verb are.

In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

Without contractions

With contractions

is not

isn't

are not

aren't

See Exercise 3.

d. Negative questions
In the Simple Present of the verb to be, negative questions are formed by reversing the order of the subject and verb, and adding not after the subject.
e.g. Am I not awake?
Are they not ready?

In spoken English, contractions are usually used in negative questions. In the contracted form of a negative question, the contraction of not follows immediately after the verb. For example:

Without contractions

With contractions

Are you not awake?

Aren't you awake?

Is he not awake?

Isn't he awake?

Are we not awake?

Aren't we awake?

Are they not awake?

Aren't they awake?

It should be noted that there is no universally accepted contraction for am not. In spoken English, am I not? is often contracted to aren't I?. However, although the expression aren't I? is considered acceptable in informal English, it is not considered to be grammatically correct in formal English. In formal English, no contraction should be used for am I not.

See Exercise 4.

e. Tag questions
A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. A tag question following an affirmative statement generally has the form of a negative question, with the meaning: Isn't that true? In some languages, such tag questions are invariable. However, in English, tag questions vary, depending on the verbs and subjects of the preceding statements.

In the following examples, the tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. For example:

Affirmative statement

Affirmative statement with tag question

Are you not awake?

Aren't you awake?

I am awake.

I am awake, am I not?

You are awake.

You are awake, aren't you?

She is awake.

She is awake, isn't she?

We are awake.

We are awake, aren't we?

They are awake.

They are awake, aren't they?

These examples illustrate how the subjects and verbs of the preceding statements are repeated in tag questions. For instance, in the first example, the subject I and the verb am are repeated in the tag question. In the second example, the subject you and the verb are are repeated in the tag question.

In spoken English, the expression aren't I? is often used as a tag question. However, this is not considered to be grammatically correct in formal, written English.

See Exercises 5 and 6.

EXERCISES for Chapter 1

1. Change the following pairs of words into sentences, using the correct forms of the Simple Present of the verb to be. For example:
I, cautious
I am cautious.

they, friendly
They are friendly.

1. you, careful
2. it, warm
3. he, here
4. we, bold
5. they, careless
6. she, clever
7. we, ready
8. you, reckless
9. I, shy
10. they, polite
Answers

2. Change the affirmative statements resulting from Exercise 1 into questions. For example:
I am cautious.
Am I cautious?

They are friendly.
Are they friendly?
Answers

3. Change the affirmative statements resulting from Exercise 1 into negative statements. For example:
I am cautious.
I am not cautious.

They are friendly.
They are not friendly.
Answers

4. Change the affirmative statements resulting from Exercise 1 into negative questions. Except where the subject of the verb is I, write both the form without contractions and the form with contractions. For example:
I am cautious.
Am I not cautious?

They are friendly.
Are they not friendly?
Aren't they friendly?
Answers

5. Add negative tag questions to the ends of the affirmative statements resulting from Exercise 1. Except where the subject of the verb is I, use contractions for the tag questions. For example:
I am cautious.
I am cautious, am I not?

They are friendly.
They are friendly, aren't they?
Answers

6. Using the Simple Present of the verb to be, and making sure that the word order is correct, form the following groups of words into grammatically correct statements or questions. If the symbol ? is present, form the words into a question. If the word not is present, form the words into a negative statement or negative question. Do not use contractions in this exercise. For example:
it, brown
It is brown.

you, ?, excited
Are you excited?

I, satisfied, not
I am not satisfied.

not, ?, they, ready
Are they not ready?

1. you, ?, hungry
2. we, ?, not, correct
3. he, ?, happy
4. not, ?, it, cold
5. she, here
6. I, early, ?
7. they, wrong, not
8. you, ?, comfortable
9. they, ?, not, strong
10. not, ?, I, fortunate
11. it, slippery, ?
12. not, you, late
13. it, not, ?, important
14. we, famous
15. they, present, ?
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 1

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. You are careful. 2. It is warm. 3. He is here. 4. We are bold. 5. They are careless. 6. She is clever. 7. We are ready. 8. You are reckless. 9. I am shy. 10. They are polite.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Are you careful? 2. Is it warm? 3. Is he here? 4. Are we bold? 5. Are they careless? 6. Is she clever? 7. Are we ready? 8. Are you reckless? 9. Am I shy? 10. Are they polite?

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. You are not careful. 2. It is not warm. 3. He is not here. 4. We are not bold. 5. They are not careless. 6. She is not clever. 7. We are not ready. 8. You are not reckless. 9. I am not shy. 10. They are not polite.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. Are you not careful? Aren't you careful? 2. Is it not warm? Isn't it warm? 3. Is he not here? Isn't he here? 4. Are we not bold? Aren't we bold? 5. Are they not careless? Aren't they careless? 6. Is she not clever? Isn't she clever? 7. Are we not ready? Aren't we ready? 8. Are you not reckless? Aren't you reckless? 9. Am I not shy? 10. Are they not polite? Aren't they polite?

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. You are careful, aren't you? 2. It is warm, isn't it? 3. He is here, isn't he? 4. We are bold, aren't we? 5. They are careless, aren't they? 6. She is clever, isn't she? 7. We are ready, aren't we? 8. You are reckless, aren't you? 9. I am shy, am I not? 10. They are polite, aren't they?

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. Are you hungry? 2. Are we not correct? 3. Is he happy? 4. Is it not cold? 5. She is here. 6. Am I early? 7. They are not wrong. 8. Are you comfortable? 9. Are they not strong? 10. Am I not fortunate? ii. Is it slippery? 12. You are not late. 13. Is it not important? 14. We are famous. 15. Are they present?

CHAPTER 2.  THE SIMPLE PRESENT OF VERBS OTHER THAN THE VERB TO BE

1. Formation of the simple present

The Simple Present of any verb other than the verb to be is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb. As shown in the following examples, the bare infinitive of a verb consists of the infinitive without the word to. The bare infinitive is the form in which English verbs are usually listed in dictionaries. For example:

Infinitive

Bare Infinitive

to be

be

to walk

walk

to work

work

In the Simple Present of verbs other than the verb to be, the form of the verb used with the subjects I , you, we and they is the same as the bare infinitive. The form of the verb used with the subjects he, she and it has the ending s added to the bare infinitive.

For example, the Simple Present of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I work

you work

he works

she works

it works

we work

they work

The form of the verb used with the subjects he, she and it is generally referred to as the third person singular

See Exercise 1.

a. The simple present of the verb To Have
The Simple Present of the verb to have is slightly irregular, since the bare infinitive is have, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular is has. The Simple Present of the verb to have is conjugated as follows:

I have

you have

he has

she has

it has

we have

they have

See Exercise 2.

2. Spelling rules for adding s in the third person singular

Some verbs change their spelling when s is added in the third person singular.

a. Verbs ending in y
The English letters a, e, i, o and u are generally referred to as vowels. The other English letters are generally referred to as consonants.

When a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to ie before the ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the consonant immediately preceding the final y is underlined.

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Study

studies

Fly

flies

Carry

carries

However, when a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed before the ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the vowel immediately preceding the final y is underlined.

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Say

says

Enjoy

enjoys

Buy

buys

See Exercise 3.

b. Verbs ending in o
When a verb ends in o, the letter e is added before the s ending. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Do

does

Echo

echoes

Go

goes

c. Verbs ending in ch, s, sh, x or z
When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the letter e is added before the s ending. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Pass

passes

Push

pushes

Watch

watches

Fix

fixes

Buzz

buzzes

See Exercise 4.

3. Pronunciation of the es ending

A syllable is a unit of pronunciation, usually consisting of a vowel sound which may or may not be accompanied by consonants.

When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the es ending of the third person singular is pronounced as a separate syllable. The reason for this is that these sounds are so similar to the sound of the es ending, that the ending must be pronounced as a separate syllable in order to be heard clearly.

In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one syllable, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular consists of two syllables.

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Pass

passes

Push

pushes

Catch

catches

Mix

mixes

Similarly, when s is added to verbs ending in ce, ge, se or ze, the final es is usually pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one syllable, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular consists
of two syllables.

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Race

races

Rage

rages

Praise

praises

Doze

dozes

However, when s is added to a verb ending in e preceded by a letter
other than c, g, s or z, the final es is not pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples, both the bare infinitive and the form of the verb used in the third person singular consist of one syllable.

Bare Infinitive

Third Person Singular

Make

makes

Smile

smiles

Dine

dines

Save

saves

See Exercise 5.

4. The auxiliary Do

With the exception of the verb to be, verbs in modern English use the auxiliary do to form questions and negative statements in the Simple Present.
The Simple Present of the verb to do is conjugated as follows:

I do

you do

he does

she does

it does

we do

they do

Auxiliaries are verbs which are combined with other verbs to form various tenses. It should be noted that when an auxiliary is combined with another verb, it is the auxiliary which must agree with the subject, while the form of the other verb remains invariable.

When the auxiliary do is combined with another verb, the other verb always has the form of the bare infinitive.

a. Questions
In order to form a question in the Simple Present of any verb other than the verb to be, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do is added before the subject, and the bare infinitive of the verb is placed after the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I work.

Do I work?

You work.

Do you work?

He works.

Does he work?

She works.

Does she work?

It works.

Does it work?

We work.

Do we work?

They work.

Do they work?

See Exercise 6.

b. Negative statements
In order to form a negative statement, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do followed by the word not is placed before the bare
infinitive of the verb. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I work.

I do not work.

You work.

You do not work.

He works.

He does not work.

She works.

She does not work.

It works.

It does not work.

We work.

We do not work.

They work.

They do not work.

See Exercise 7.
In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

Without contractions

With contractions

do not

don't

does not

doesn't

c. Negative questions
To form a negative question, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do is placed before the subject, and the word not followed by the bare infinitive is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the Simple Present of the auxiliary do. For example:

Without contractions

With contractions

Do I not work?

Don't I work?

Do you not work?

Don't you work?

Does he not work?

Doesn't he work?

Does she not work?

Doesn't she work?

Does it not work?

Doesn't it work?

Do we not work?

Don't we work?

Do they not work?

Don't they work?

See Exercise 8.

d. Tag questions
The auxiliary do or does is used for a tag question which follows a statement containing the Simple Present of a verb other than the verb to be. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I work.

I work, don't I?

You work.

You work, don't you?

He works.

He works, doesn't he?

She works.

She works, doesn't she?

It works.

It works, doesn't it?

We work.

We work, don't we?

They work.

They work, don't they?

See Exercise 9.

e. The verb To Have
It should be noted that, particularly in British English, in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to have, questions and negative statements are sometimes formed in the same way as for the verb to be, without the use of the auxiliary do.
e.g. He has a sister, hasn't he?

EXERCISES for Chapter 2

1. Using the Simple Present tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I ______ to the radio. (to listen)
I listen to the radio.

He _______ to the radio. (to listen)
He listens to the radio.

1. She __________ the guitar. (to play)
2. We __________ soccer. (to play)
3. They _________ to talk. (to like)
4. He __________ ice cream. (to like)
5. You _________ your friends often. (to call)
6. He _________ the office every day. (to call)
7. She __________ regularly. (to practise)
8. They __________ once a week. (to practise)
9. We __________ here. (to shop)
10. It __________ delicious. (to taste)
Answers

2. Using the Simple Present tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verb to have. For example:
I ____ a pen.
I have a pen.

He ___ two pencils.
He has two pencils.

1. I _______ many books.
2. You _______ an apartment.
3. He _______ a bicycle.
4. We _______ fun.
5. They _______ two sleds.
6. She _______ milk in her tea.
7. I _______ a warm sweater.
8. We _______ breakfast at eight o'clock.
9. He _______ an alarm clock.
10. They ________ a sense of humor.
Answers

3. Paying attention to which verbs change their spelling before adding s in the third person singular, fill in the blanks with the Simple Present of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He always _______ promptly. (to reply)
He always replies promptly.

She _____ little. (to say)
She says little.

They _____ bridge once a week. (to play)
They play bridge once a week.

1. He __________ it. (to deny)
2. They __________ to be on time. (to try)
3. It _________ to be careful. (to pay)
4. She __________ hard. (to study)
5. You __________ good manners. (to display)
6. He always __________ himself. (to enjoy)
7. She __________ to Ireland once a year. (to fly)
8. We __________ five people. (to employ)
9. He __________ his friends. (to accompany)
10. She __________ chocolate chip cookies every week. (to buy)
Answers

4. Paying attention to which verbs take s and which take es in the third person singular, fill in the blanks with the Simple Present of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He ____ everywhere on foot. (to go)
He goes everywhere on foot.

It _____ surprising. (to seem)
It seems surprising.

They _____ skiing. (to teach)
They teach skiing.

1. She __________ a great deal of work. (to do)
2. He __________ television every evening. (to watch)
3. She __________ a horse. (to own)
4. We __________ the dishes every night. (to do)
5. She __________ she had a pair of skates. (to wish)
6. He _________ us to call him. (to want)
7. She __________ she made a mistake. (to confess)
8. He usually __________ the truth. (to tell)
9. They __________ apples to make cider. (to press)
10. It __________ out easily. (to wash)
Answers

5. For each of the following verbs, underline the letter or letters representing the sound preceding the es ending, and then indicate the number of syllables in the verb. For example:
wishes __
wishes 2

laces __
laces 2

takes __
takes 1

1. watches __
2. teases __
3. likes __
4. rushes __
5. faces __
6. dines __
7. misses __
8. tames __
9. scares __
10. passes __
11. pinches __
12. wades __
Answers

6. Change the following affirmative statements into questions. For example:
She walks to work.
Does she walk to work?

They take the bus.
Do they take the bus?

1. I hurry home.
2. He drives a truck.
3. You follow the news.
4. They want a pet.
5. She likes flowers.
6. We need tea.
7. She answers the questions.
8. He drinks coffee.
9. I learn quickly.
10. It rains heavily.
Answers

7. Change the affirmative statements given in Exercise 6 into negative statements. For example:
She walks to work.
She does not walk to work.

They take the bus.
They do not take the bus.
Answers

8. Change the affirmative statements given in Exercise 6 into negative questions. Give both the forms without contractions, and the forms with contractions. For example:
She walks to work.
Does she not walk to work?
Doesn't she walk to work?

They take the bus.
Do they not take the bus?
Don't they take the bus?
Answers

9. Add negative tag questions to the affirmative statements given in Exercise 6. Use contractions for the tag questions. For example:
She walks to work.
She walks to work, doesn't she?

They take the bus.
They take the bus, don't they?
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 2

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. plays 2. play 3. like 4. likes 5. call 6. calls 7. practises 8. practise 9. shop 10. tastes

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. have 2. have 3. has 4. have 5. have 6. has 7. have 8. have 9. has 10. have

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. denies 2. try 3. pays 4. studies 5. display 6. enjoys 7. flies 8. employ 9. accompanies 10. buys

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. does 2. watches 3. owns 4. do 5. wishes 6. wants 7. confesses 8. tells 9. press 10. washes

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. watches 2 2. teases 2 3. likes 1 4. rushes 2 5. faces 2 6. dines 1 7. misses 2 8. tames 1 9. scares 1 10. passes 2 11. pinches 2 12. wades 1

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. Do I hurry home? 2. Does he drive a truck? 3. Do you follow the news? 4. Do they want a pet? 5. Does she like flowers? 6. Do we need tea? 7. Does she answer the questions? 8. Does he drink coffee? 9. Do I learn quickly? 10. Does it rain heavily?

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. I do not hurry home. 2. He does not drive a truck. 3. You do not follow the news. 4. They do not want a pet. 5. She does not like flowers. 6. We do not need tea. 7. She does not answer the questions. 8. He does not drink coffee. 9. I do not learn quickly. 10. It does not rain heavily.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. Do I not hurry home? Don't I hurry home? 2. Does he not drive a truck? Doesn't he drive a truck? 3. Do you not follow the news? Don't you follows the news? 4. Do they not want a pet? Don't they want a pet? 5. Does she not like flowers? Doesn't she like flowers? 6. Do we not need tea? Don't we need tea? 7. Does she not answer the questions? Doesn't she answer the questions? 8. Does he not drink coffee? Doesn't he drink coffee? 9. Do I not learn quickly? Don't I learn quickly? 10. Does it not rain heavily? Doesn't it rain heavily?

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. I hurry home, don't I? 2. He drives a truck, doesn't he?
3. You follow the news, don't you? 4. They want a pet, don't they? 5. She likes flowers, doesn't she? 6. We need tea, don't we? 7. She answers the questions, doesn't she? 8. He drinks coffee, doesn't he? 9. I learn quickly, don't I? 10. It rains heavily, doesn't it?

CHAPTER 3.  THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

1. Uses of the present continuous

In English, the Present Continuous tense is usually used to express continuing, ongoing actions which are taking place at the moment of speaking or writing. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Present Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. Right now I am cooking supper.
At the moment the plane is flying over the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The Present Continuous tense is often used in conversation.
e.g. "What are you doing?"
"I am working on my English assignment."

Occasionally, the Present Continuous tense is used to refer to a future event.
e.g. We are leaving tomorrow.

2. Formation of the present continuous

The Present Continuous tense of any verb is formed from the Simple Present of the auxiliary to be, followed by what is generally referred to as the present participle of the verb.

The present participle of a verb is formed by adding ing to the bare infinitive. For instance, the present participle of the verb to work is working.

Thus, the Present Continuous tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I am working

you are working

he is working

she is working

it is working

we are working

they are working

See Exercise 1.

3. Spelling rules for the formation of the present participle

Some verbs change their spelling when the ending ing is added to form the present participle.

a. Verbs ending in a silent e
When a verb ends in a silent e, the silent e is dropped before the ending ing is added. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to close

closing

to dine

dining

to leave

leaving

to move

moving

However, when a verb ends in an e which is not silent, the final e is not dropped before the ending ing is added. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to be

being

to see

seeing

b. Verbs ending in ie
When a verb ends in ie, the ie is changed to y before the ending ing is added. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to die

dying

to lie

lying

When a verb ends in y, no change is made before the ending is added. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to fly

flying

to play

playing

See Exercise 2.

c. One-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel
Except in the case of the final consonants w, x and y, when a one-syllable verb ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant must be doubled before the ending ing is added. The reason for this is to reflect the fact that the pronunciation of the single vowel does not change when the ending ing is added.

English vowels have a variety of pronunciations. For instance, each English vowel has two contrasting pronunciations, which are sometimes referred to as short and long. Vowels which are followed by two consonants, and vowels which are followed by a single consonant at the end of a word, are generally pronounced short. In contrast, vowels which are followed by a single consonant followed by another vowel are generally pronounced long.

In the table below, the underlined vowels in the left-hand column are pronounced short; whereas the underlined vowels in the right-hand column are pronounced long. For example:

Short Vowels

Long Vowels

fat

fate

tapping

taping

let

delete

win

wine

filling

filing

not

note

hopping

hoping

flutter

flute

Thus, in the case of most one-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the vowel is pronounced short. In order to reflect the fact that the vowel is also pronounced short in the corresponding present participle, except in the case of w, x and y, the final consonant must be doubled before the ending ing is added.

In the following examples, the consonants which have been doubled are
underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to nod

nodding

to dig

digging

to run

running

to clap

clapping

to set

setting

When a verb ends in w, x or y preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is not doubled before the ending is added. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to draw

drawing

to fix

fixing

to say

saying

It should also be noted that when a verb ends in a single consonant preceded by two vowels, the final consonant is not doubled before the ending is added. The reason for this is that two vowels together are generally pronounced long. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to rain

raining

to read

reading

to meet

meeting

to soak

soaking

See Exercise 3.

d. Verbs of more than one syllable which end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel
When a verb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled to form the present participle only when the last syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress.

For instance, in the following examples, the last syllables of the verbs have the heaviest stress, and the final consonants are doubled to form the present participles. In these examples, the syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to expel

expelling

to begin

beginning

to occur

occurring

to omit

omitting

When a verb of more than one syllable ends in w, x or y, the final consonant is not doubled before the ending ing is added. In the following examples, the syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to allow

allowing

to affix

affixing

to convey

conveying

When the last syllable of a verb is not pronounced with the heaviest stress, the final consonant is usually not doubled to form the present participle. For instance, in the following examples, the last syllables of the verbs do not have the heaviest stress, and the final consonants are not doubled to form the present participles. In these examples, the syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

to listen

listening

to order

ordering

to focus

focusing

to limit

limiting

If necessary, a dictionary can be consulted to determine which syllable of a verb has the heaviest stress. Many dictionaries use symbols such as apostrophes to indicate which syllables are pronounced with the heaviest stress.

See Exercise 4.

It should be noted that British and American spelling rules differ for verbs which end in a single l preceded by a single vowel. In British spelling, the l is always doubled before the endings ing and ed
are added. However, in American spelling, verbs ending with a single l follow the same rule as other verbs; the l is doubled only when the last syllable has the heaviest stress. In the following examples, the syllables with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Present Participle

American Spelling

British Spelling

to signal

signaling

signalling

to travel

traveling

travelling

to compel

compelling

compelling

to propel

propelling

propelling

From these examples it can be seen that the American and British spellings for verbs ending in a single l differ only when the last syllable does not have the heaviest stress.

4. Questions and negative statements

a. Questions
In the Present Continuous, the verb to be acts as an auxiliary. As is the case with other English tenses, it is the auxiliary which is used to form questions and negative statements.

To form a question in the Present Continuous tense, the auxiliary is placed before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I am working.

Am I working?

You are working.

Are you working?

He is working.

Is he working?

She is working.

Is she working?

It is working.

Is it working?

We are working.

Are we working?

They are working.

Are they working?

See Exercise 5.

b. Negative statements
To form a negative statement, the word not is added after the auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I am working.

I am not working.

You are working.

You are not working.

He is working.

He is not working.

She is working.

She is not working.

It is working.

It is not working.

We are working.

We are not working.

They are working.

They are not working.

See Exercise 6.

c. Negative questions
To form a negative question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. Although there is no universally accepted contraction for am not, the expression aren't I? is often used in spoken English. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Am I not working?

[Aren't I working?] - used in speaking

Are you not working?

Aren't you working?

Is he not working?

Isn't he working?

Is she not working?

Isn't she working?

Is it not working?

Isn't it working?

Are we not working?

Aren't we working?

Are they not working?

Aren't they working?

See Exercise 7.

d. Tag questions
Tag questions are also formed using the auxiliary. In the following examples, the tag questions are underlined. In spoken English, aren't I? is often used as a tag question. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I am working.

I am working, am I not?

You are working.

You are working, aren't you?

He is working.

He is working, isn't he?

She is working.

She is working, isn't she?

It is working.

It is working, isn't it?

We are working.

We are working, aren't we?

They are working.

They are working, aren't they?

See Exercise 8.

5. Comparison of the uses of the simple present and present continuous

As pointed out in Chapter 1, the Simple Present tense may be used for stating general truths, and for referring to actions which occur at regular intervals. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Present tense are underlined.
e.g. Nova Scotia is a Canadian province. Geese fly south every winter.

In contrast, the Present Continuous tense is usually used to refer to ongoing actions happening at the time of speaking or writing. In the following examples, the verbs in the Present Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. Right now, I am visiting the province of Nova Scotia. At the moment, a flock of geese is flying overhead.

See Exercise 9.

EXERCISES for Chapter 3

1. Using the Present Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He _________ hard. (to work)
He is working hard.

We ____________ anxious. (to feel)
We are feeling anxious.

1. I _______________ the questions. (to answer)
2. You ________________ boots. (to wear)
3. We ______________ for work. (to look)
4. She ______________ her friend. (to call)
5. He _______________ a house. (to build)
6. They _______________ supper. (to cook)
7. We ______________ a story. (to tell)
8. You ______________ for the bus. (to wait)
9. I _______________ a book. (to read)
10. They _______________ berries. (to pick)
Answers

2. Using the Present Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
They _____________ the lemons. (to squeeze)
They are squeezing the lemons.

It ________ on the sidewalk. (to lie)
It is lying on the sidewalk.

I ___________ the groceries. (to carry)
I am carrying the groceries.

1. She ________________ a letter. (to write)
2. They _________________ about it. (to worry)
3. He _________________ jam. (to make)
4. It _________________. (to die)
5. We _______________ to school. (to hurry)
6. She _________________ us to do it. (to dare)
7. You ________________ on the blanket. (to lie)
8. He _________________ the problem. (to solve)
9. I _________________ now. (to leave)
10. They _________________ to help us. (to try)
Answers

3. Using the Present Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We ___________ to come. (to plan)
We are planning to come.

They _________ the lawn. (to mow)
They are mowing the lawn.

It __________. (to rain)
It is raining.

1. I _______________ the grass. (to cut)
2. It _______________ downstream. (to float)
3. They _________________ the game. (to win)
4. We _________________ the present. (to wrap)
5. She _________________ lettuce. (to grow)
6. He _________________ for us. (to look)
7. I _________________ a sweater. (to knit)
8. They _________________ wood. (to saw)
9. She _________________ the windows. (to clean)
10. We _________________ the floor. (to scrub)
11. I ________________ the toaster. (to fix)
12. He _________________ his coffee. (to sip)
13. They __________________ the hedge. (to trim)
14. You _________________ the ducks. (to feed)
15. She _________________ her head. (to nod)
Answers

4. Each of the following sentences is preceded by a bare infinitive, the most heavily stressed syllable of which is underlined. Paying attention to whether or not the final consonant should be doubled before ing is added, fill in the blanks with the present participles corresponding to the bare infinitives. Use the American spelling for verbs ending in l. For example:
whisper: They are __________ to their friends.
They are whispering to their friends.

refer: I was _________ to your letter.
I was referring to your letter.

1. open: I am _____________ the door.
2. display: She is ______________ her talents.
3. submit: He is _______________ his report tomorrow.
4. limit: The store is _____________ the number of items on sale.
5. permit: We are not _____________ him to go.
6. sharpen: They are _______________ the pencils.
7. confer: She is ________________ with her colleagues.
8. focus: He is ________________ the camera.
9. repel: They are ________________ the attack.
10. shovel: I am ________________ the steps.
11. destroy: Hail is _______________ the crops.
12. dispel: They are _______________ our doubts.
13. squander: He is _______________ his money.
14. prefer: We are _______________ our new school to the old one.
15. color: The child is ______________ the picture.
16. unravel: We are _____________ the wool.
17. propel: Jet engines are _______________ the plane.
18. flower: The pansies are _______________
19. infer: They are ______________ that we do not want to come.
20. listen: The children are ______________ to us.
Answers

5. Change the following affirmative statements into questions. For example:
It is snowing.
Is it snowing?

They are being cautious.
Are they being cautious?

1. I am learning English.
2. You are carrying a parcel.
3. It is growing colder.
4. We are living in Halifax.
5. They are running a race.
6. He is drinking coffee.
7. She is shopping for presents.
8. I am cleaning the window.
9. We are buying pencils.
10. They are playing football.
Answers

6. Change the affirmative statements given in Exercise 5 into negative statements. For example:
It is snowing.
It is not snowing.

They are being cautious.
They are not being cautious.
Answers

7. Change the affirmative statements given in Exercise 5 into negative questions. Except when the subject of the verb is I, write both the form without contractions and the form with contractions. For example:
It is snowing.
Is it not snowing?
Isn't it snowing?

They are being cautious.
Are they not being cautious?
Aren't they being cautious?
Answers

8. Add negative tag questions to the affirmative statements given in Exercise 5. Except when the subject of the verb is I, use contractions for the tag questions. For example:
It is snowing.
It is snowing, isn't it?

They are being cautious.
They are being cautious, aren't they?
Answers

9. For each of the following sentences, determine whether the Simple Present tense or the Present Continuous tense is more appropriate, and fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb given in brackets. For example:
Right now, he ________ ridiculous. (to be)
Right now, he is being ridiculous.

She ______ to Sydney every weekend. (to drive)
She drives to Sydney every weekend.

1. At the moment, I __________________ supper. (to cook)
2. He ________________ the paper every weekday. (to read)
3. We ________________ right now. (to study)
4. She ________________ every day. (to study)
5. Now it _______________. (to rain)
6. They ______________ to Mexico every year. (to travel)
7. Just now we ________________ the shopping. (to do)
8. She always ________________ correctly.( to answer)
9. You ________________ never late. (to be)
10. Now I ________________ to the radio. (to listen)
11. Each Sunday, we ________________ the flea market. (to visit)
12. At present, I ________________ for work. (to look)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 3

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. am answering 2. are wearing 3. are looking 4. is calling 5. is building 6. are cooking 7. are telling 8. are waiting 9. am reading 10. are picking

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. is writing 2. are worrying 3. is making 4. is dying 5. are hurrying 6. is daring 7. are lying 8. is solving 9. am leaving 10. are trying

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. am cutting 2. is floating 3. are winning 4. are wrapping 5. is growing 6. is looking 7. am knitting 8. are sawing 9. is cleaning 10. are scrubbing 11. am fixing 12. is sipping 13. are trimming 14. are feeding 15. is nodding

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. opening 2. displaying 3. submitting 4. limiting 5. permitting 6. sharpening 7. conferring 8. focusing 9. repelling 10. shoveling 11. destroying 12. dispelling 13. squandering 14. preferring 15. coloring 16. unraveling 17. propelling 18. flowering 19. inferring 20. listening

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Am I learning English? 2. Are you carrying a parcel? 3. Is it growing colder? 4. Are we living in Halifax? 5. Are they running a race? 6. Is he drinking coffee? 7. Is she shopping for presents? 8. Am I cleaning the window? 9. Are we buying pencils? 10. Are they playing football?

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. I am not learning English. 2. You are not carrying a parcel. 3. It is not growing colder. 4. We are not living in Halifax. 5. They are not running a race. 6. He is not drinking coffee. 7. She is not shopping for presents. 8. I am not cleaning the window. 9. We are not buying pencils. 10. They are not playing football.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Am I not learning English? 2. Are you not carrying a parcel? Aren't you carrying a parcel? 3. Is it not growing colder? Isn't it growing colder? 4. Are we not living in Halifax? Aren't we living in Halifax? 5. Are they not running a race? Aren't they running a race? 6. Is he not drinking coffee? Isn't he drinking coffee? 7. Is she not shopping for presents? Isn't she shopping for presents? 8. Am I not cleaning the window? 9. Are we not buying pencils? Aren't we buying pencils? 10. Are they not playing football? Aren't they playing football?

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. I am learning English, am I not? 2. You are carrying a parcel, aren't you? 3. It is growing colder, isn't it? 4. We are living in Halifax, aren't we? 5. They are running a race, aren't they? 6. He is drinking coffee, isn't he? 7. She is shopping for presents, isn't she? 8. I am cleaning the window, am I not? 9. We are buying pencils, aren't we? 10. They are playing football, aren't they?

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. am cooking 2. reads 3. are studying 4. studies 5. is raining 6. travel 7. are doing 8. answers 9. are 10. am listening 11. visit 12. am looking

CHAPTER 4.  THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. Use of the present perfect

The English Present Perfect tense is used to express actions which have already been completed, or perfected, at the time of speaking or writing. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Present Perfect tense are underlined.
e.g. I have done the work.
She has answered half the questions.

In the first example, the use of the Present Perfect tense emphasizes the fact that, at the time of speaking or writing, the work has already been completed. In the second example, the use of the Present Perfect indicates that, at the time of speaking or writing, half the questions have been answered.

2. Formation of the present perfect: Regular verbs

The Present Perfect tense of any English verb is formed from the Simple Present of the auxiliary to have, followed by what is generally referred to as the past participle of the verb.

Most English verbs form the past participle in a regular, predictable manner. These verbs are commonly referred to as regular verbs.

The past participle of a regular English verb is formed by adding the ending ed to the bare infinitive of the verb. For instance, the past participle of the verb to work is worked.

Thus, the Present Perfect tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I have worked

you have worked

he has worked

she has worked

it has worked

we have worked

they have worked

See Exercise 1.

The following contractions are often used in spoken English:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

I have

I've

you have

you've

he has

he's

she has

she's

it has

it's

we have

we've

they have

they've

It should be noted that the contractions for he has, she has and it has are the same as the contractions for he is, she is and it is.

See Exercise 2.

3. Spelling rules for adding ed to form the past participle

Some regular verbs change their spelling when the ending ed is added to form the past participle.

a. Verbs ending in a silent e
When a regular verb ends in a silent e, only the letter d must be added in order to form the past participle. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to close

closed

to move

moved

to please

pleased

to receive

received

b. Verbs ending in y
When a regular verb ends in y immediately preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i before the ending ed is added. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to study

studied

to rely

relied

to carry

carried

However, when a regular verb ends in y immediately preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed before the ending ed is added. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to play

played

to convey

conveyed

to enjoy

enjoyed

See Exercise 3.

c. Verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel
The rules concerning the doubling of final consonants which apply when adding the ending ing to form the present participle also apply when adding the ending ed to form the past participle.

Thus, when a one-syllable verb ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y immediately preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant must be doubled before the ending ed is added to form the past participle. In the following examples, the consonants which have been doubled are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to rub

rubbed

to trim

trimmed

to plan

planned

to stop

stopped

When a verb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y immediately preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled before the ending ed only when the last syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress. In the following examples, the syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to control

controlled

to infer

inferred

to occur

occurred

to permit

permitted

to fasten

fastened

to order

ordered

to focus

focused

to limit

limited

In the first four examples, the last syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress, and the final consonant is doubled before ed is added. In the last four examples, the first syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress, and the final consonant is not doubled before ed is added.

The final consonants w, x and y are never doubled when the ending ed is added. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to follow

followed

to box

boxed

to portray

portrayed

It should also be noted that final consonants immediately preceded by two vowels are not doubled when the ending ed is added. For example:

Infinitive

Past Participle

to greet

greeted

to rain

rained

to soak

soaked

to treat

treated

See Exercise 4.

4. Pronunciation of the ed ending

The ending ed is usually not pronounced as a separate syllable. For instance, in each of the following examples, both the bare infinitive and the past participle consist of one syllable. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Past Participle

puff

puffed

work

worked

miss

missed

watch

watched

However, when the ending ed is added to verbs which end in d or t, the ed ending of the past participle is pronounced as a separate syllable. The reason for this is that the sounds of d and t are so similar to the sound of the ed ending, that the ending must be pronounced as a separate syllable in order to be heard clearly.

In each of the following examples, the bare infinitive consists of one syllable; whereas the past participle consists of two syllables. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Past Participle

add

added

land

landed

hunt

hunted

wait

waited

Similarly, when d is added to verbs ending in a silent e preceded by d or t, the final ed of the past participle is pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples, the bare infinitive consists of one syllable; whereas the past participle consists of two syllables. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Past Participle

fade

faded

glide

glided

cite

cited

note

noted

See Exercise 5.

5. Formation of the present perfect: Irregular verbs

In addition to regular English verbs, there are many irregular English verbs, which do not form the past participle with the ending ed. The English irregular verbs are related to the strong verbs of the German language. The following are examples of irregular English verbs. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Past Participle

begin

begun

find

found

go

gone

let

let

take

taken

The past participles of irregular English verbs are formed in an unpredictable manner, and must be memorized. A table of common English irregular verbs is provided.

Except for the irregularity of the past participle, the formation of the Present Perfect tense is the same for an irregular verb as for a regular verb. In both cases, the Simple Present of the auxiliary to have is followed by the past participle of the verb.

For instance, the irregular verb to take has the past participle taken. Thus, the Present Perfect of the irregular verb to take is conjugated as follows:

I have taken

you have taken

he has taken

she has taken

it has taken

we have taken

they have taken

See Exercise 6.

6. Questions and negative statements

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Present Perfect are formed using the auxiliary. In the case of the Present Perfect, the auxiliary is have or has.

a. Questions
In order to form a question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject of the verb. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I have worked.

Have I worked?

You have worked.

Have you worked?

He has worked.

Has he worked?

She has worked.

Has she worked?

It has worked.

Has it worked?

We have worked.

Have we worked?

They have worked.

Have they worked?

b. Negative statements
In order to form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I have worked.

I have not worked.

You have worked.

You have not worked.

He has worked.

He has not worked.

She has worked.

She has not worked.

It has worked.

It has not worked.

We have worked.

We have not worked.

They have worked.

They have not worked.

The following contractions are often used in spoken English:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

have not

haven't

has not

hasn't

c. Negative questions
In order to form a negative question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Have I not worked?

Haven't I worked?

Have you not worked?

Haven't you worked?

Has he not worked?

Hasn't he worked?

Has she not worked?

Hasn't she worked?

Has it not worked?

Hasn't it worked?

Have we not worked?

Haven't we worked?

Have they not worked?

Haven't they worked?

d. Tag questions
Tag questions are also formed using the auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I have worked.

I have worked, haven't I?

You have worked.

You have worked, haven't you?

He has worked.

He has worked, hasn't he?

She has worked.

She has worked, hasn't she?

It has worked.

It has worked, hasn't it?

We have worked.

We have worked, haven't we?

They have worked.

They have worked, haven't they?

See Exercise 7.

7. The present perfect continuous

a. Use
The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to express continuous, ongoing actions which have already been completed at the time of speaking or writing.

In the following example, the verb in the Present Perfect Continuous tense is underlined.
e.g. The bus has been waiting for one hour.

The use of the Present Perfect Continuous tense in this example indicates that, at the time of speaking or writing, the bus has completed one hour of continuous waiting.

b. Formation
The Present Perfect Continuous tense of any English verb is formed from the Present Perfect of to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Present Perfect Continuous tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I have been working

you have been working

he has been working

she has been working

it has been working

we have been working

they have been working

Thus, it can be seen that the Present Perfect Continuous tense has two auxiliaries. The first auxiliary is have or has, and the second auxiliary is been.

See Exercise 8.

c. Questions and negative statements
When a verb has more than one auxiliary, it is the first auxiliary which must change its form to agree with the subject of the verb. It is also the first auxiliary which is used to form questions and negative statements.

Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject of the verb. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I have been working.

Have I been working?

You have been working.

Have you been working?

He has been working.

Has he been working?

She has been working.

Has she been working?

It has been working.

Has it been working?

We have been working.

Have we been working?

They have been working.

Have they been working?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I have been working.

I have not been working.

You have been working.

You have not been working.

He has been working.

He has not been working.

She has been working.

She has not been working.

It has been working.

It has not been working.

We have been working.

We have not been working.

They have been working.

They have not been working.

Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the first auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Have I not been working?

Haven't I been working?

Have you not been working?

Haven't you been working?

Has he not been working?

Hasn't he been working?

Has she not been working?

Hasn't she been working?

Has it not been working?

Hasn't it been working?

Have we not been working?

Haven't we been working?

Have they not been working?

Haven't they been working?

Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I have been working.

I have been working, haven't I?

You have been working.

You have been working, haven't you?

He has been working.

He has been working, hasn't he?

She has been working.

She has been working, hasn't she?

It has been working.

It has been working, hasn't it?

We have been working.

We have been working, haven't we?

They have been working.

They have been working, haven't they?

See Exercise 9.

EXERCISES for Chapter 4

1. Using the Present Perfect tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We ____________ the contest. (to enter)
We have entered the contest.

He ____________ the work. (to finish)
He has finished the work.

1. They _______________ a pizza. (to order)
2. It _______________ to rain. (to start)
3. You _______________ the question. (to answer)
4. I _______________ the eggs. (to cook)
5. We _______________ the sauce. (to heat)
6. He _______________ the room. (to clean)
7. She _______________ the car. (to start)
8. They _______________ on the door. (to knock)
9. You _______________ on the lights. (to turn)
10. She _______________ them to come. (to ask)
Answers

2. Rewrite the following sentences, using the contracted form of the auxiliary to have. For example:
It has started.
It's started.

We have telephoned.
We've telephoned.

1. I have agreed.
2. You have moved.
3. He has looked.
4. We have argued.
5. They have explained.
6. You have waited.
7. She has answered.
8. We have finished.
9. It has cooled.
10. I have ordered.
Answers

3. Paying attention to the spelling of the past participles, fill in the blanks using the Present Perfect tense of the regular verbs shown in brackets. For example:
She _________ hard. (to try)
She has tried hard.

He ___________ his friend. (to annoy)
He has annoyed his friend.

1. We _______________ them. (to envy)
2. She ________________ the clarinet for five years. (to play)
3. You _________________ for the job. (to apply)
4. We _______________ the eggs. (to fry)
5. They _________________ six people. (to employ)
6. He ________________ the wall with paint. (to spray)
7. I ________________ home. (to hurry)
8. They _________________ unusual intelligence. (to display)
9. It _________________ our chances. (to destroy)
10. You ________________ on your bicycle. (to rely)
Answers

4. Paying attention to the spelling of the past participles, fill in the blanks using the Present Perfect tense of the regular verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He __________ the child. (to scare)
He has scared the child.

They ____________ the hillside. (to scar)
They have scarred the hillside.

1. She __________________. (to apologize)
2. I ________________ the soup. (to stir)
3. It _________________. (to stop)
4. We _________________ what happened. (to explain)
5. They __________________ a concert. (to plan)
6. You ________________ the table. (to wipe)
7. We _________________ our hopes on you. (to pin)
8. She _________________ the choir. (to join)
9. They ________________ an eagle. (to spot)
10. It ___________ every day. (to rain)
11. You _______________ the cream. (to whip)
12. She _______________ everything. (to arrange)
Answers

5. Keeping in mind that the ending ed forms a separate syllable only when it follows the letter d or t, indicate the number of syllables in each of the following past participles. Read each of the the past participles aloud. For example:
__ pained
1 pained

__ painted
2 painted

1. ___ waited
2. ___ wailed
3. ___ pinned
4. ___ printed
5. ___ acted
6. ___ added
7. ___ wanted
8. ___ warned
9. ___ raced
10. ___ rated
11. ___ joined
12. ___ jumped
13. ___ folded
14. ___ frowned
15. ___ passed
16. ___ patted
17. ___ raided
18. ___ rained
19. ___ stared
20. ___ started
Answers

6. Referring to the table of irregular verbs if necessary, fill in the blanks with the Present Perfect tense of the irregular verbs shown in brackets. For example:
They _________ tall. (to grow)
They have grown tall.

He __________ it. (to choose)
He has chosen it.

1. We _____________ lunch. (to eat)
2. I ______________ the floor. (to sweep)
3. She ______________ in a choir. (to sing)
4. They ______________ to work. (to go)
5. You ______________ your way. (to lose)
6. He _____________ earlier than usual. (to rise)
7. We ______________ to everyone. (to speak)
8. I ______________ the kingfisher. (to see)
9. They _________ each other a long time. (to know)
10. She _______________ here from France. (to fly)
11. He ______________ very helpful. (to be)
12. I _______________ the blue cloth. (to cut)
13. We ______________ two letters. (to write)
14. They _______________ the competition. (to win)
15. She ________________ no one. (to tell)
16. It _______________ a long time. (to take)
17. You ________________ to do it. (to forget)
18. I ________________ it. (to hear)
19. They _______________ town. (to leave)
20. He ________________ the problem. (to understand)
Answers

7. Following the model of the examples, rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
I have read this book.
Have I read this book?
I have not read this book.
Have I not read this book?
Haven't I read this book?
I have read this book, haven't I?

He has found the answer.
Has he found the answer?
He has not found the answer.
Has he not found the answer?
Hasn't he found the answer?
He has found the answer, hasn't he?

1. They have eaten the cookies.
2. She has told the truth.
3. He has run fast.
4. We have watered the plants.
5. You have hurried.
Answers

8. Paying attention to the spelling of the present participles, fill in the blanks using the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I ________________ all night. (to work)
I have been working all night.

She ___________________ the trumpet. (to practise)
She has been practising the trumpet.

1. We ______________________ for you. (to wait)
2. They __________________________ a race. (to run)
3. He ___________________________ a book. (to read)
4. You ___________________________ a letter. (to write)
5. I __________________________ the table. (to set)
6. It __________________________ for hours. (to rain)
7. We __________________________ here for three years. (to live)
8. She ____________________________ to us. (to speak)
9. You ___________________________ presents. (to buy)
10. They ___________________________ a trip. (to plan)
Answers

9. Following the model of the example, rewrite the following two affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
They have been enjoying themselves.
Have they been enjoying themselves?
They have not been enjoying themselves.
Have they not been enjoying themselves?
Haven't they been enjoying themselves?
They have been enjoying themselves, haven't they?

1. It has been snowing.
2. You have been visiting your friends.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 4

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. have ordered 2. has started 3. have answered 4. have cooked 5. have heated 6. has cleaned 7. has started 8. have knocked 9. have turned 10. has asked

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. I've agreed. 2. You've moved. 3. He's looked. 4. We've argued. 5. They've explained. 6. You've waited. 7. She's answered. 8. We've finished. 9. It's cooled. 10. I've ordered.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. have envied 2. has played 3. have applied 4. have fried 5. have employed 6. has sprayed 7. have hurried 8. have displayed 9. has destroyed 10. have relied

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. has apologized 2. have stirred 3. has stopped 4. have explained 5. have planned 6. have wiped 7. have pinned 8. has joined 9. have spotted 10. has rained 11. have whipped 12. has arranged

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. 2 2. 1 3. 1 4. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 1 9. 1 10. 2 11. 1 12. 1 13. 2 14. 1 15. 1 16. 2 17. 2 18. 1 19. 1 20. 2

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. have eaten 2. have swept 3. has sung 4. have gone 5. have lost 6. has risen 7. have spoken 8. have seen 9. have known 10. has flown 11. has been 12. have cut 13. have written 14. have won 15. has told 16. has taken 17. have forgotten 18. have heard 19. have left 20. has understood

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Have they eaten the cookies? They have not eaten the cookies. Have they not eaten the cookies? Haven't they eaten the cookies? They have eaten the cookies, haven't they?
2. Has she told the truth? She has not told the truth. Has she not told the truth? Hasn't she told the truth? She has told the truth, hasn't she?
3. Has he run fast? He has not run fast. Has he not run fast? Hasn't he run fast? He has run fast, hasn't he?
4. Have we watered the plants? We have not watered the plants. Have we not watered the plants? Haven't we watered the plants? We have watered the plants, haven't we?
5. Have you hurried? You have not hurried. Have you not hurried? Haven't you hurried? You have hurried, haven't you?

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. have been waiting 2. have been running 3. has been reading 4. have been writing 5. have been setting 6. has been raining 7. have been living 8. has been speaking 9. have been buying 10. have been planning

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. Has it been snowing? It has not been snowing. Has it not been snowing? Hasn't it been snowing? It has been snowing, hasn't it?
2. Have you been visiting your friends? You have not been visiting your friends. Have you not been visiting your friends? Haven't you been visiting your friends? You have been visiting your friends, haven't you?

CHAPTER 5.  THE SIMPLE PAST

1. Uses of the simple past

The uses of the Simple Past are somewhat similar to the uses of the Simple Present, except that past states or actions are expressed. In the examples given below, the verbs in the Simple Past are underlined.

For instance, the Simple Past can be used to express actions which occurred at regular intervals in the past.
e.g. Last year I drove to Yarmouth once a week.

In addition, the Simple Past is used to describe situations which existed for a period of time in the past.
e.g. Millions of years ago, dinosaurs inhabited the earth.
George Washington was the first president of the United States.

The Simple Past is also used to express non-continuous actions which occurred at a definite time in the past.
e.g. Columbus reached America in 1492.
I graduated from school last year.

2. Formation of the simple past

a. The verb To Be
The Simple Past of the verb to be is conjugated as follows:

I was

you were

he was

she was

it was

we were

they were

See Exercise 1.

i. Questions and negative statements
The Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be do not use auxiliaries to form questions and negative statements. Instead, the verb itself is used.

The verb to be forms questions and negative statements in the same way in the Simple Past as in the Simple Present. In order to form a question, the verb is placed before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I was awake.

Was I awake?

They were ready.

Were they ready?

In order to form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the verb. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I was awake.

I was not awake.

They were ready.

They were not ready.

In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

was not

wasn't

were not

weren't

In order to form a negative question, the verb is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the verb. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Was I not awake?

Wasn't I awake?

Were they not ready?

Weren't they ready?

In order to form tag questions, the verb itself is used. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I was awake.

I was awake, wasn't I?

They were ready.

They were ready, weren't they?

See Exercise 2.

b. Other verbs
English verbs other than the verb to be have the same form in the Simple Past, regardless of the subject.

In the case of regular English verbs, the Simple Past has the same form as the past participle. For example, the Simple Past of the regular verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I worked

you worked

he worked

she worked

it worked

we worked

they worked

See Exercise 3.

In the case of irregular English verbs, the form of the Simple Past must be memorized. As illustrated by the examples below, for some irregular verbs, the Simple Past is the same as the past participle; whereas for others, the Simple Past differs from the past participle. A table of 140 common English irregular verbs is provided. For example:

Bare Infinitive

Simple Past

Past Participle

begin

began

begun

find

found

found

go

went

gone

let

let

let

take

took

taken

Like the regular verbs, irregular verbs other than the verb to be do not modify in the Simple Past, but have the same form, regardless of the subject. For example, the Simple Past of the irregular verb to take is conjugated as follows:

I took

you took

he took

she took

it took

we took

they took

See Exercise 4.

i. Questions and negative statements
In both the Simple Present and the Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, questions and negative statements are formed using the auxiliary to do and the bare infinitive.

For questions and negative statements in the Simple Past, the Simple Past of the auxiliary to do is used. The Simple Past of to do is conjugated as follows:

I did

you did

he did

she did

it did

we did

they did

In order to change an affirmative statement into a question, did is placed before the subject, and the form of the verb is changed from the Simple Past to the bare infinitive. In the following example, the regular verb to work is used. The verb to work has the Simple Past worked, and the bare infinitive work.

Affirmative Statement

Question

I worked.

Did I work?

You worked.

Did you work?

He worked.

Did he work?

She worked.

Did she work?

It worked.

Did it work?

We worked.

Did we work?

They worked.

Did they work?

See Exercise 5.

In order to change an affirmative statement into a negative statement, did not is placed after the subject, and the form of the verb is changed to the bare infinitive. In the following example, the irregular verb to speak is used. The verb to speak has the bare infinitive speak and the Simple Past spoke.

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I spoke.

I did not speak.

You spoke.

You did not speak.

He spoke.

He did not speak.

She spoke.

She did not speak.

It spoke.

It did not speak.

We spoke.

We did not speak.

They spoke.

They did not speak.

See Exercise 6.

In spoken English, the following contraction is often used:

Without Contraction

With Contraction

did not

didn't

In order to change an affirmative statement into a negative Question, did is placed before the subject, not is placed after the subject, and the form of the verb is changed to the bare infinitive. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary did. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Did I not work?

Didn't I work?

Did you not work?

Didn't you work?

Did he not work?

Didn't he work?

Did she not work?

Didn't she work?

Did it not work?

Didn't it work?

Did we not work?

Didn't we work?

Did they not work?

Didn't they work?

Tag questions are formed using the auxiliary did. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I worked.

I worked, didn't I?

You worked.

You worked, didn't you?

He worked.

He worked, didn't he?

She worked.

She worked, didn't she?

It worked.

It worked, didn't it?

We worked.

We worked, didn't we?

They worked.

They worked, didn't they?

See Exercise 7.

3. The simple past of To Use followed by an infinitive

The Simple Past of the verb to use, followed by an infinitive, generally refers to something which took place repeatedly or continuously in the past, but which no longer takes place.

In the following examples, the Simple Past of to use is printed in bold type, and the infinitives which follow it are underlined. The Simple Past of to use is used.
e.g. The ferry used to operate every day.
We used to live on Duke Street.

In the first example, the use of used followed by the infinitive indicates that in the past the ferry operated every day, but now it does not operate every day. In the second example, the use of used followed by the infinitive indicates that in the past we lived on Duke Street, but now we do not live on Duke Street.

See Exercise 8.

EXERCISES for Chapter 5

1. Using the Simple Past tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verb to be. For example:
I ___ calm.
I was calm.

You ____ right.
You were right.

1. He ________ happy.
2. We _________ students.
3. They ________ ambitious.
4. You _________ clever.
5. It _________ hot.
6. I _________ busy.
7. We _________ patient.
8. She _________ eleven years old.
9. They ________ intelligent.
10. He _________ in a hurry.
Answers

2. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
You were on time.
Were you on time?
You were not on time.
Were you not on time?
Weren't you on time?
You were on time, weren't you?

It was warm enough.
Was it warm enough?
It was not warm enough.
Was it not warm enough?
Wasn't it warm enough?
It was warm enough, wasn't it?

1. I was late.
2. They were in a hurry.
3. He was an artist.
4. We were right.
5. She was there.
Answers

3. Paying attention to the correct spelling, fill in the blanks with the Simple Past of the regular verbs shown in brackets. For example:
It _______ raining. (to stop)
It stopped raining.

I _________ myself. (to disguise)
I disguised myself.

1. She _____________ through the book. (to flip)
2. We _____________ the traffic. (to watch)
3. You _____________ the flowers carefully. (to arrange)
4. He _____________ about his success. (to brag)
5. They _____________ sightseeing. (to enjoy)
6. He _____________ us with pencils. (to supply)
7. I _____________ the child. (to reassure)
8. We _____________ for them. (to wait)
9. They _____________ the books overseas. (to ship)
10. She ____________ too much. (to worry)
Answers

4. Referring to the table of English irregular verbs if necessary, fill in the blanks with the Simple Past tense of the irregular verbs shown in brackets. For example:
They _____ a song. (to write)
They wrote a song.

We _____ the floor. (to sweep)
We swept the floor.

1. She ____________ the dishes. (to do)
2. They ___________ for a walk. (to go)
3. He __________ his time. (to take)
4. I ___________ the beds. (to make)
5. They ___________ to catch the bus. (to run)
6. She ___________ up quickly. (to get)
7. You ___________ the coffee. (to drink)
8. We ___________ soundly. (to sleep)
9. He ___________ his books. (to forget)
10. I ___________ the house. (to leave)
Answers

5. Paying attention to the correct forms of the bare infinitives, change the following affirmative statements into questions. For example:
He lifted the suitcase.
Did he lift the suitcase?

I paid the rent.
Did I pay the rent?

1. She hurried to school.
2. They carried the parcels.
3. You closed the door.
4. I plugged in the lamp.
5. They planned the party.
6. We taught the class.
7. She told a story.
8. They struck a bargain.
9. He met his friends.
10. I shook hands.
Answers

6. Paying attention to the correct forms of the bare infinitives, change the following affirmative statements into negative statements. For example:
I scanned the newspaper.
I did not scan the newspaper.

They flew to Toronto.
They did not fly to Toronto.

1. We enjoyed ourselves.
2. She pinned on the brooch.
3. I fanned myself.
4. They emptied their pockets.
5. You replied at once.
6. He went to work.
7. We swam across the river.
8. They took the bus.
9. I shut the windows.
10. You ran fast.
Answers

7. Paying attention to the correct forms of the bare infinitives, change the following affirmative statements into negative questions. Give both the forms without contractions and the forms with contractions. For example:
You walked quickly.
Did you not walk quickly?
Didn't you walk quickly?

He burst the balloon.
Did he not burst the balloon?
Didn't he burst the balloon?

1. You watched the game.
2. I climbed the ladder.
3. We pleased the visitors.
4. They canned the peaches.
5. He received the letter.
6. You saw the fireworks.
7. It cost five dollars.
8. She hit the ball.
9. He did his homework.
10. They cut the ribbon.
Answers

8. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the underlined verbs from the Simple Past to the form with used followed by the infinitive. For example:
They took the bus.
They used to take the bus.

She traveled every year.
She used to travel every year.

1. It snowed heavily.
2. I came often.
3. We were neighbors.
4. He wrote many letters.
5. They walked to work.
6. He teased us.
7. She told us stories.
8. You rode a bicycle.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 5

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. was 2. were 3. were 4. were 5. was 6. was 7. were 8. was 9. were 10. was

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Was I late? I was not late. Was I not late? Wasn't I late? I was late, wasn't I?
2. Were they in a hurry? They were not in a hurry. Were they not in a hurry? Weren't they In a hurry? They were in a hurry, weren't they?
3. Was he an artist? He was not an artist. Was he not an artist? Wasn't he an artist? He was an artist, wasn't he?
4. Were we right? We were not right. Were we not right? Weren't we right? We were right, weren't we?
5. Was she there? She was not there. Was she not there? Wasn't she there? She was there, wasn't she?

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. flipped 2. watched 3. arranged 4. bragged 5. enjoyed 6. supplied 7. reassured 8. waited 9. shipped 10. worried

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. did 2. went 3. took 4. made 5. ran 6. got 7. drank 8. slept 9. forgot 10. left

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Did she hurry to school? 2. Did they carry the parcels? 3. Did you close the door? 4. Did I plug in the lamp? 5. Did they plan the party? 6. Did we teach the class? 7. Did she tell a story? 8. Did they strike a bargain? 9. Did he meet his friends? 10. Did I shake hands?

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. We did not enjoy ourselves. 2. She did not pin on the brooch. 3. I did not fan myself. 4. They did not empty their pockets. 5. You did not reply at once. 6. He did not go to work. 7. We did not swim across the river. 8. They did not take the bus. 9. I did not shut the windows. 10. You did not run fast.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Did you not watch the game? Didn't you watch the game?
2. Did I not climb the ladder? Didn't I climb the ladder?
3. Did we not please the visitors? Didn't we please the visitors?
4. Did they not can the peaches? Didn't they can the peaches?
5. Did he not receive the letter? Didn't he receive the letter?
6. Did you not see the fireworks? Didn't you see the fireworks?
7. Did it not cost five dollars? Didn't it cost five dollars?
8. Did she not hit the ball? Didn't she hit the ball?
9. Did he not do his homework? Didn't he do his homework?
10. Did they not cut the ribbon? Didn't they cut the ribbon?

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. It used to snow heavily. 2. I used to come often. 3. We used to be neighbors. 4. He used to write many letters. 5. They used to walk to work. 6. He used to tease us. 7. She used to tell us stories. 8. You used to ride a bicycle.

CHAPTER 6.  THE PAST CONTINUOUS, THE PAST PERFECT AND THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. Summary of the uses of the English tenses

There are four types of verb tense in English: the Simple, the Continuous, the Perfect, and the Perfect Continuous. Each type of tense has a Present, a Past, and a Future form, as well as other modal forms.

Thus, just as there are four present tenses in English, there are also four past tenses: the Simple Past, the Past Continuous, the Past Perfect, and the Past Perfect Continuous.

As will be shown below, the three forms of each type of tense are closely related in terms of their use and formation. For instance, the Present Continuous, Past Continuous, and Future Continuous tenses are all used to express continuous, ongoing actions; and are all formed from the verb to be followed by the present participle. The differences are that the Present Continuous is formed with the Simple Present of the verb to be, and is used mainly to express present actions; the Past Continuous is formed with the Simple Past of the verb to be, and is used to express past actions; and the Future Continuous is formed with the Simple Future of the verb to be, and is used to express future actions.

The uses of the Simple, Continuous, Perfect, and Perfect Continuous tenses are summarized in the following table.

The Uses of the English Tenses

Type of Tense

Type of Action Expressed

Simple

- actions occurring at regular intervals

- general truths, or situations existing for a period of time

- non-continuous actions

Continuous

- continuous, ongoing actions

Perfect

- non-continuous actions completed before a certain time

Perfect Continuous

- continuous, ongoing actions completed before a certain time

2. The past continuous

a. Use
The Past Continuous tense is used to express continuous, ongoing actions which took place in the past. In the following examples, the verbs in the Past Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. He was traveling in Europe last summer.
They were playing tennis yesterday afternoon.

The Past Continuous tense is frequently used to refer to an ongoing action which was taking place when something else occurred in the past.
e.g. I was washing the dishes when the telephone rang.
We were entertaining friends when the parcel arrived.

In the first example, the use of the Past Continuous tense indicates that the action of washing the dishes was taking place at the time when the telephone rang. In the second example, the use of the Past Continuous tense indicates that the action of entertaining friends was taking place at the time when the parcel arrived.

b. Formation
The Past Continuous tense is formed from the Simple Past of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For example, the Past Continuous of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I was working

you were working

he was working

she was working

it was working

we were working

they were working

See Exercise 1.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past Continuous are formed using the auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I was working.

Was I working?

They were working.

Were they working?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the
auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I was working.

I was not working.

They were working.

They were not working.

In spoken English, the contractions wasn't and weren't are often used.

Negative questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the auxiliary. The following are examples of negative questions with and without contractions:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Was I not working?

Wasn't I working?

Were they not working?

Weren't they working?

Tag questions are formed using the auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I was working.

I was working, wasn't I?

They were working.

They were working, weren't they?

See Exercises 2 and 3.

3. The past perfect

a. Use
The Past Perfect tense is used to refer to a non-continuous action in the past, which was already completed by the time another action in the past took place. In the following examples, the verbs in the Past Perfect tense are underlined.
e.g. She had heard the news before I saw her.
I had finished my work by the time the clock struck twelve.

In the preceding examples, the verbs had heard and had finished are in the Past Perfect tense, and the verbs saw and struck are in the Simple Past. The use of the Past Perfect tense indicates that the actions of hearing the news and finishing the work were already completed by the time the actions expressed by the verbs in the Simple Past took place.

b. Formation
The Past Perfect tense is formed from the Simple Past of the auxiliary to have, followed by the past participle of the verb.

The Simple Past of to have is had. In spoken English, the auxiliary had is often contracted to 'd. For example, the Past Perfect of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

I had worked

I'd worked

you had worked

you'd worked

he had worked

he'd worked

she had worked

she'd worked

it had worked

it'd worked

we had worked

we'd worked

they had worked

they'd worked

The contraction it'd is less frequently used than the other contractions, since it is more difficult to pronounce.

See Exercise 4.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past Perfect tense are formed using the auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I had worked.

Had I worked?

They had worked.

Had they worked?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I had worked.

I had not worked.

They had worked.

They had not worked.

In spoken English, the following contraction is often used:

Without Contraction

With Contraction

had not

hadn't

Negative questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. For example:

Without Contraction

With Contraction

Had I not worked?

Hadn't I worked?

Had they not worked?

Hadn't they worked?

Tag questions are formed using the auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I had worked.

I had worked, hadn't I?

They had worked.

They had worked, hadn't they?

See Exercises 5 and 6.

4. The past perfect continuous

a. Use
The Past Perfect Continuous tense is used to refer to a continuous, ongoing action in the past which was already completed by the time another action in the past took place. In the following examples, the verbs in the Past Perfect Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. I had been waiting for two months by the time I received the reply.
He had been thinking about his friends shortly before they called.

In the preceding examples, the verbs had been waiting and had been thinking are in the Past Perfect Continuous tense, and the verbs received and called are in the Simple Past. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous tense indicates that the actions of waiting and thinking were continuous, and were completed by the time the actions expressed by the verbs in the Simple Past took place.

b. Formation
The Past Perfect Continuous tense is formed from the Past Perfect of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For example, the Past Perfect Continuous tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I had been working

you had been working

he had been working

she had been working

it had been working

we had been working

they had been working

The auxiliary had is often contracted to 'd in spoken English.

See Exercise 7.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past Perfect Continuous tense are formed using the first auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

I had been working.

Had I been working?

They had been working.

Had they been working?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

I had been working.

I had not been working.

They had been working.

They had not been working.

Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the first auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Had I not been working?

Hadn't I been working?

Had they not been working?

Hadn't they been working?

Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I had been working.

I had been working, hadn't I?

They had been working.

They had been working, hadn't they?

See Exercises 8 and 9.

5. Summary of the formation of the English present and past tenses

The following table summarizes the formation of the English present and past tenses.

Tense

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple Present

do/does *

bare infinitive **

Present Continuous

am/is/are

present participle

Present Perfect

have/has

past participle

Present Perfect Continuous

have/has  been

present participle

Simple Past

did *

bare infinitive ***

Past Continuous

was/were

present participle

Past Perfect

had

past participle

Past Perfect Continuous

had been

present participle

* In the Simple Present and Simple Past tenses, the auxiliaries are used only for emphasis, and for the formation of questions and negative statements. Auxiliaries are never used with the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be.

** When used without the auxiliary, the third person singular of the Simple Present has the ending s.

*** When the verb is used without the auxiliary, the Simple Past form of the verb is used. For regular verbs, and for many irregular verbs, the Simple Past has the same form as the past participle.

See Exercise 10.

6. Emphatic statements

In spoken English, words can be emphasized by being pronounced with a heavier stress than usual. This type of emphasis is usually indicated in written English by means of italics or underlining. In the following examples, emphasized words are indicated by means of underlining.

Emphatic statements are often used in conversation; for instance, when one speaker is contradicting another.
e.g. "I don't believe he works very hard."
"Yes, he does work hard."

When it is desired to emphasize a verb, it is generally the first auxiliary which is stressed. For instance, in the sentence I am working hard, the verb can be emphasized by stressing the auxiliary am.
e.g. I am working hard.

Usually, no auxiliary is required for affirmative statements in the Simple Present and Simple Past. However, in order to make such statements emphatic, for verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do is used, followed by the bare infinitive. For example, in the Simple Present, the emphatic form of the verb to work is formed with the Simple Present of the auxiliary to do, as shown below:

Affirmative Statement

Emphatic Affirmative Statement

I work.

I do work.

You work.

You do work.

He works.

He does work.

She works.

She does work.

It works.

It does work.

We work.

We do work.

They work.

They do work.

In the Simple Past, the emphatic form of the verb to work is formed with the Simple Past of the auxiliary to do, as shown below:

Affirmative Statement

Emphatic Affirmative Statement

I worked.

I did work.

You worked.

You did work.

He worked.

He did work.

She worked.

She did work.

It worked.

It did work.

We worked.

We did work.

They worked.

They did work.

For the emphatic form of the Simple Present of the verb to be, no auxiliary is used. Instead, the verb itself is stressed. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Emphatic Affirmative Statement

I am ready.

I am ready.

It is ready.

It is ready.

They are ready.

They are ready.

Similarly, for the emphatic form of the Simple Past of the verb to be, no auxiliary is used. Instead, the verb itself is stressed. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Emphatic Affirmative Statement

I was ready.

I was ready.

It was ready.

It was ready.

They were ready.

They were ready.

Examples of emphatic statements in all of the present and past tenses are given in the following table:

Tense

Affirmative Statement

Emphatic Statement

Simple Present

I work.

I do work.

Present Continuous

I am working.

I am working.

Present Perfect

I have worked.

I have worked.

Present Perfect Continuous

I have been working.

I have been working.

Simple Past

I worked.

I did work.

Past Continuous

I was working.

I was working.

Past Perfect

I had worked.

I had worked.

Past Perfect Continuous

I had been working.

I had been working.

Simple Present of to be

I am ready.

I am ready.

Simple Past of to be

I was ready.

I was ready.

It should be noted that questions may be emphasized in the same way as statements.
e.g. Did it work?
Are they ready?

Sometimes it is desired to emphasize a negative statement containing the word not. In spoken English, often both the auxiliary and the word not are stressed, but in written English, usually only the word not is underlined or written in italics. For example:

Negative Statement

Emphatic Negative Statement

He does not know the answer.

He does not know the answer.

When a contracted form of the word not is used, it is generally the auxiliary which is stressed in an emphatic statement. For example:

Negative Statement

Emphatic Negative Statement

He doesn't know the answer.

He doesn't know the answer.

See Exercise 11.

EXERCISES for Chapter 6

1. Using the Past Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I __________ a salad. (to make)
I was making a salad.

They ___________ to find some boots. (to try)
They were trying to find some boots.

1. He _______________ a book. (to read)
2. We _________________ money. (to save)
3. She _______________ school. (to attend)
4. It ________________. (to thunder)
5. They ________________ for the exam. (to study)
6. We ________________ ourselves. (to sun)
7. They ________________ they way. (to lead)
8. You _______________ by bus. (to leave)
9. We ________________ through the snow. (to plod)
10. You _______________ your goals. (to attain)
Answers

2. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
You were learning French.
Were you learning French?
You were not learning French.
Were you not learning French?
Weren't you learning French?
You were learning French, weren't you?

1. We were starting a business.
2. She was waiting outside.
3. He was singing.
Answers

3. Using the Past Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
____ you _______ last night? (to work)
Were you working last night?

It ___ not _______. (to rain)
It was not raining.

They _____________ home. (to hurry)
They were hurrying home.

1. We _________________ for the test. (to prepare)
2. ______ she ___________ notes? (to take)
3. I ______ not ___________ long. (to wait)
4. They __________________ at Woolco. (to shop)
5. ______ it not ____________ outside? (to freeze)
6. She _________________ on Almond Street last year. (to live)
7. ______ you ____________ supper when the phone rang? (to eat)
8. He ________________ asleep by the time the lesson ended. (to fall)
9. ______ we not _____________ the next chapter? (to discuss)
10. They ___________ their books away, when their friends arrived. (to put)
11. You ______ not _____________ the news. (to follow)
12. ______ I ____________ too much noise? (to make)
Answers

4. Using the Past Perfect tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I _________ the parcel. (to open)
I had opened the parcel.

They ________ to the opera. (to be)
They had been to the opera.

1. She ________________ a sweater. (to buy)
2. He _______________ to work. (to start)
3. You _________________ the message. (to understand)
4. We ________________ the appointment. (to forget)
5. They ________________ us. (to convince)
6. She ________________ the book. (to find)
7. He ________________ the envelope. (to tear)
8. You ________________ your breakfast. (to finish)
9. We ______________ to school. (to go)
10. They ________________ the beds. (to make)
Answers

5. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
He had attended the concert.
Had he attended the concert?
He had not attended the concert.
Had he not attended the concert?
Hadn't he attended the concert?
He had attended the concert, hadn't he?

1. You had entered the contest.
2. I had wanted to come.
3. We had arrived on time.
Answers

6. Using the Past Perfect tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He _____________ hard. (to practise)
He had practised hard.

___ they ____ a good job? (to do)
Had they done a good job?

I ___ not _____ the news. (to hear)
I had not heard the news.

1. You ________________ it carefully.(to consider)
2. She __________________ her way in the woods. (to lose)
3. _____ he not _____________ his hands? (to wash)
4. _____ they ____________ the letter? (to read)
5. I _____ not _____________ the words. (to forget)
6. We ____________ to come even before we received the letter. (to decide)
7. _____ he not _____________ everything well? (to organize)
8. They _____ not __________ a holiday in a long time. (to have)
9. She __________________ to talk to us. (to stop)
10. He _____ not yet ____________. (to arrive)
11. _____ you ___________ to meet him? (to plan)
12. I _____ not ____________ her for a long time. (to see)
Answers

7. Using the Past Perfect Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We __________________ for an apartment. (to search)
We had been searching for an apartment.

She _______________ extra courses. (to take)
She had been taking extra courses.

1. We ____________________ the grass. (to cut)
2. You ______________________ at the photographs. (to look)
3. They _____________________ you the letters. (to give)
4. He _____________________ for us. (to wait)
5. She _____________________ a business. (to run)
6. It ______________________ all night. (to rain)
7. We ______________________ them. (to encourage)
8. You ___________________ on the beach. (to lie)
9. They ______________________ the sauce. (to taste)
10. He ____________________ behind. (to lag)
Answers

8. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
She had been keeping a diary.
Had she been keeping a diary?
She had not been keeping a diary.
Had she not been keeping a diary?
Hadn't she been keeping a diary?
She had been keeping a diary, hadn't she?

1. We had been raking the leaves.
2. You had been visiting your cousins.
3. They had been swimming in the lake.
Answers

9. Using the Past Perfect Continuous tense, fill in the blanks with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We _______________. (to argue)
We had been arguing.

___ he ___________ well? (to feel)
Had he been feeling well?

I ___ not __________ much walking. (to do)
I had not been doing much walking.

1. You _______________________ the stove. (to clean)
2. She _____ not ___________________ regularly. (to come)
3. _____ they not ___________________ on you? (to count)
4. We ________________________ for shoes. (to look)
5. _____ it not ________________ that day? (to snow)
6. I ________________________ for groceries. (to shop)
7. _____ he not ___________________ to the news? (to listen)
8. They _____ not ___________________ to drive far. (to intend)
9. _____ we ___________________ on time? (to leave)
10. _____ you ____________________ that? (to expect)
11. They ________________________ television. (to watch)
12. He _____ not _________________ long when the bus arrived. (to wait)
Answers

10. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to whether the underlined auxiliary is a form of to be, to do or to have, fill in the blank with the bare infinitive, present participle, or past participle of the verb given in brackets, as appropriate. Refer if necessary to the table summarizing the formation of the English present and past tenses. For example:
He was ________ medicine. (to study)
He was studying medicine.

You have _______ the food. (to bring)
You have brought the food.

We had been _______ a long time. (to wait)
We had been waiting a long time.

Does she _______ classical music? (to like)
Does she like classical music?

1. She was _______________ a picture. (to draw)
2. We have ________________ our homework. (to finish)
3. I have been ________________ for an opportunity. (to wait)
4. Do you ________________ a bicycle? (to own)
5. We are ________________ coffee. (to drink)
6. Did he ________________ the book? (to enjoy)
7. They were ________________ us. (to expect)
8. You had ________________ a job. (to find)
9. He is ______________ the truth. (to tell)
10. It had been ________________ all morning. (to snow)
11. We had ________________ the window. (to open)
12. I am _______________ potatoes. (to peel)
13. You did not ________________ my letter. (to answer)
14. It does not __________________. (to matter)
15. I have ________________ this movie before. (to see)
Answers

11. Make the following statements emphatic. For example:
He likes cats.
He does like cats.

You have finished.
You have finished.

They were here.
They were here.

We are not ready.
We are not ready.

1. I enjoy reading.
2. They do not like music.
3. It snowed.
4. I have found my pen.
5. She cooks well.
6. You were listening to the radio.
7. They found the answer.
8. He was right.
9. She understands.
10. They had locked the door.
11. He did not arrive late.
12. You ran fast.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 6

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. was reading 2. were saving 3. was attending 4. was thundering 5. were studying 6. were sunning 7. were leading 8. were leaving 9. were plodding 10. were attaining

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Were we starting a business? We were not starting a business. Were we not starting a business? Weren't we starting a business? We were starting a business, weren't we?
2. Was she waiting outside? She was not waiting outside. Was she not waiting outside? Wasn't she waiting outside? She was waiting outside, wasn't she?
3. Was he singing? He was not singing. Was he not singing? Wasn't he singing? He was singing, wasn't he?

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. were preparing 2. Was, taking 3. was, waiting 4. were shopping 5. Was, freezing 6. was living 7. Were, eating 8. was falling 9. Were, discussing 10. were putting 11. were, following 12. Was, making

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. had bought 2. had started 3. had understood 4. had forgotten 5. had convinced 6. had found 7. had torn 8. had finished 9. had gone 10. had made

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Had you entered the contest? You had not entered the contest. Had you not entered the contest? Hadn't you entered the contest? You had entered the contest, hadn't you?
2. Had I wanted to come? I had not wanted to come. Had I not wanted to come? Hadn't I wanted to come? I had wanted to come, hadn't I?
3. Had we arrived on time? We had not arrived on time. Had we not arrived on time? Hadn't we arrived on time? We had arrived on time, hadn't we?

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. had considered 2. had lost 3. Had, washed 4. Had, read 5. had, forgotten 6. had decided 7. Had, organized 8. had, had 9. had stopped 10. had, arrived 11. Had, planned 12. had, seen

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. had been cutting 2. had been looking 3. had been giving 4. had been waiting 5. had been running 6. had been raining 7. had been encouraging 8. had been lying 9. had been tasting 10. had been lagging

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. Had we been raking the leaves? We had not been raking the leaves. Had we not been raking the leaves? Hadn't we been raking the leaves? We had been raking the leaves, hadn't we?
2. Had you been visiting your cousins? You had not been visiting your cousins. Had you not been visiting your cousins? Hadn't you been visiting your cousins? You had been visiting your cousins, hadn't you?
3. Had they been swimming in the lake? They had not been swimming in the lake. Had they not been swimming in the lake? Hadn't they been swimming in the lake? They had been swimming in the lake, hadn't they?

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. had been cleaning 2. had/been coming 3. Had/been counting 4. had been looking 5. Had/been snowing 6. had been shopping 7. Had/ been listening 8. had/been intending 9. Had/been leaving 10. Had/ been expecting 11. had been watching 12. had/been waiting

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. drawing 2. finished 3. waiting 4. own 5. drinking 6. enjoy 7. expecting 8. found 9. telling 10. snowing 11. opened 12. peeling 13. answer 14. matter 15. seen

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. I do enjoy reading. 2. They do not like music. 3. It did snow. 4. I have found my pen. 5. She does cook well. 6. You were listening to the radio. 7. They did find the answer. 8. He was right. 9. She does understand. 10. They had locked the door. 11. He did not arrive late. 12. You did run fast.

CHAPTER 7.  THE FUTURE TENSES

Just as there are four present tenses and four past tenses in English, there are also four future tenses: the Simple Future, the Future Continuous, the Future Perfect, and the Future Perfect Continuous.

1. The simple future

a. Use
The Simple Future tense is used to express non-continuous actions which will take place in the future. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Future tense are underlined.
e.g. They will finish the work tomorrow.
He will arrive next Saturday.

b. Formation
The Simple Future of any verb is formed from the auxiliary will or shall, followed by the bare infinitive of the verb.

In informal English, particularly in American English, the Simple Future is usually conjugated entirely with the auxiliary will. The auxiliary will is a modal auxiliary. Modal auxiliaries do not modify, but have the same form, regardless of the subject.

The auxiliary will is often contracted to 'll. Thus, in informal English, the Simple Future of the verb to work is usually conjugated as follows:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

I will work

I'll work

you will work

you'll work

he will work

he'll work

she will work

she'll work

it will work

it'll work

we will work

we'll work

they will work

they'll work

Verbs used with the subjects I and we are generally referred to as being in the first person; verbs used with the subject you are generally referred to as being in the second person; and verbs used with the subjects he, she, it and they are generally referred to as being in the third person.

For formal English, there is a rule which states that in the Simple Future, the auxiliary shall should be used in the first person, and the auxiliary will should be used in the second person and third person. Like the auxiliary will, the auxiliary shall is a modal auxiliary.

Thus, in formal English, the Simple Future of the verb to work may be conjugated as follows:

I shall work

you will work

he will work

she will work

it will work

we shall work

they will work

Even in informal English, the auxiliary shall is usually used in the first person for questions in which a request for permission is implied.
e.g. Shall I call the office?
Shall we go to the library?

However, the use of will for the first person of the Simple Future is beginning to be considered acceptable in formal English. Thus, except for questions where a request for permission is implied, either will or shall may be used for the first person of the Simple Future. In this chapter, the alternative use of the auxiliary shall in the first person will be indicated by the word shall in brackets.

The rules for the use of will and shall which apply to the Simple Future tense, also apply to the other future tenses.

See Exercise 1.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Simple Future are formed using the auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

It will work.

Will it work?

They will work.

Will they work?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

It will work.

It will not work.

They will work.

They will not work.

In spoken English, the following contraction is often used:

Without Contraction

With Contraction

will not

won't

The contracted form of will not is unusual, since it is not only the o of not which is omitted. In addition, the ll of will is omitted, and the i of will is changed to o. The contracted form, won't, is pronounced to rhyme with don't.

In addition, shall not is sometimes contracted to shan't. However, the word shan't is rarely used in modern American English.

Negative questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the auxiliary. The following are examples of negative questions with and without contractions:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Will it not work?

Won't it work?

Will they not work?

Won't they work?

Tag questions are formed using the auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

It will work.

It will work, won't it?

They will work.

They will work, won't they?

See Exercises 2 and 3.

2. The conjugation expressing determination and compulsion

In formal English, there is a rule which states that, in order to express determination and compulsion, the auxiliary will is to be used in the first person, and the auxiliary shall is to be used in the second person and third person. This is the reverse of the use of will and shall found in the Simple Future. The use of will in the first person is supposed to express determination, and the use of shall in the second person and third person is supposed to express compulsion.

For instance, for the verb to work, the Simple conjugation which expresses determination and compulsion is as follows:

I will work

you shall work

he shall work

she shall work

it shall work

we will work

they shall work

In this conjugation, the expressions I will work, and we will work, have the meaning I am determined to work, and we are determined to work. In contrast, the expressions you shall work, and they shall work, for instance, have the meaning you will be compelled to work, and they will be compelled to work.

See Exercise 4.

The rule for expressing determination and compulsion which applies to the Simple conjugation, also applies to the Continuous, Perfect, and Perfect Continuous conjugations.

However, particularly in American English, the use of the conjugations expressing determination and compulsion is beginning to be considered old-fashioned.

3. The present continuous of To Go followed by an infinitive

The Present Continuous tense of to go, followed by an infinitive, is often used to refer to an event which is about to happen, or to refer to an action which someone intends to carry out in the future.

The Present Continuous tense of the verb to go is conjugated as follows:

I am going

you are going

he is going

she is going

it is going

we are going

they are going

The examples below illustrate the use of the Present Continuous tense of to go, followed by an infinitive, to refer to a future event. In each of these examples, the Present Continuous of to go is printed in bold type, and the infinitive which follows it is underlined.
e.g. It is going to rain.
I am going to write a letter tonight.
They are going to study in France next year.
In the first example, the use of the Present Continuous of to go followed by the infinitive to rain indicates that it is about to rain. In the second and third examples, the use of the Present Continuous of to go followed by the infinitives to write and to study indicates that the actions of writing and studying are intended to be carried out in the future.

See Exercise 5.

It should also be noted that the Past Continuous tense of to go can be used to express actions which were about to happen in the past.
e.g. I was going to write a letter last night.
In this example, the use of the Past Continuous of to go followed by the infinitive to write indicates that the action of writing was intended to be carried out in the past.

4. The future continuous

a. Use
The Future Continuous tense is used to express continuous, ongoing actions which will take place in the future. In the following examples, the verbs in the Future Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. He will be waiting for us.
They will be arriving tomorrow.

b. Formation
The Future Continuous of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Continuous of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I will (shall) be working

you will be working

he will be working

she will be working

it will be working

we will (shall) be working

they will be working

See Exercise 6.

It can be seen that the Future Continuous tense has two auxiliaries. The first auxiliary is will or shall, and the second auxiliary is be.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future Continuous are formed using the first auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

It will be working.

Will it be working?

They will be working.

Will they be working?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

It will be working.

It will not be working.

They will be working.

They will not be working.

Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the first auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Will it not be working?

Won't it be working?

Will they not be working?

Won't they be working?

Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

It will be working.

It will be working, won't it?

They will be working.

They will be working, won't they?

See Exercises 7 and 8.

5. The future perfect

a. Use
The Future Perfect tense is used to refer to a non-continuous action which will be completed by a certain time in the future. In the following examples, the verbs in the Future Perfect tense are underlined.
e.g. She will have finished the work by Wednesday.
I will have cleaned the room before the guests arrive.
They will have eaten breakfast by the time he gets up.

In these examples, the use of the Future Perfect indicates that the actions of finishing the work, cleaning the room, and eating breakfast will have been completed before the coming of Wednesday, the arrival of the guests, and his getting up take place.

b. Formation
The Future Perfect of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to have, followed by the past participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Perfect of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I will (shall) have worked

you will have worked

he will have worked

she will have worked

it will have worked

we will (shall) have worked

they will have worked

See Exercise 9.

c. Questions and negative statements
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future Perfect are formed using the first auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

It will have worked.

Will it have worked?

They will have worked.

Will they have worked?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

It will have worked.

It will not have worked.

They will have worked.

They will not have worked.

Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the first auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Will it not have worked?

Won't it have worked?

Will they not have worked?

Won't they have worked?

Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

It will have worked.

It will have worked, won't it?

They will have worked.

They will have worked, won't they?

See Exercises 10 and 11.

6. The future perfect continuous

a. Use
The Future Perfect Continuous tense is used to express a continuous, ongoing action which will be completed by a certain time in the future. In the following examples, the verbs in the Future Perfect Continuous tense are underlined.
e.g. By next January, she will have been living here for a year.
You will have been traveling a great deal by the time you return home.
He will have been working for ten months by the time he takes his vacation.

In these examples, the use of the Future Perfect Continuous indicates that the continuous, ongoing actions of living, traveling, and working, will have been completed before the events of the coming of January, your returning home, and his taking a vacation, take place.

b. Formation
The Future Perfect Continuous of any verb is formed from the Future Perfect of the auxiliary to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Perfect Continuous of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I will (shall) have been working

you will have been working

he will have been working

she will have been working

it will have been working

we will (shall) have been working

they will have been working

See Exercise 12.

c. Questions and negative statements

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future Perfect Continuous are formed using the first auxiliary.

Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

It will have been working.

Will it have been working?

They will have been working.

Will they have been working?

Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

It will have been working.

It will not have been working.

They will have been working.

They will not have been working.

Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately follows the first auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Will it not have been working?

Won't it have been working?

Will they not have been working?

Won't they have been working?

Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

It will have been working.

It will have been working, won't it?

They will have been working.

They will have been working, won't they?

See Exercises 13 and 14.

7. Summary of the formation of the English future tenses

The following table summarizes the formation of the English future tenses.

Tense

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple Future

will (shall)

bare infinitive

Future Continuous

will (shall) be

present participle

Future Perfect

will (shall) have

past participle

Future Perfect Continuous

will (shall) have been

present participle

8. Clauses

If a sentence has only one subject and one verb, it is said to consist of a single clause, called the main or principal clause. A main clause is a clause which can stand alone to form a complete sentence. Each of the following sentences has only one clause. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. It is cold.
The flowers are blooming.

If a sentence contains more than one verb, and each verb has its own subject, the sentence is said to consist of more than one clause. The following sentences each have two clauses. The verbs are underlined.
e.g. He said that he was ready.
The door opened, and my uncle entered the room.

In the first example, he said is the first clause, and that he was ready is the second clause. In the second example, the door opened is the first clause, and my uncle entered the room is the second clause.

a. Coordinate clauses
When two clauses are joined by a word such as and, or or but, the two clauses are called coordinate clauses, and the word which joins them is called a coordinate conjunction. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. It is cold, but the flowers are blooming.
The flowers are blooming and the birds are singing.

In the first example, the coordinate conjunction but joins the clause it is cold to the clause the flowers are blooming. In the second example, the coordinate conjunction and joins the clause the flowers are blooming to the clause the birds are singing. The clauses in these examples are coordinate clauses.

b. Subordinate clauses
Coordinate clauses are main clauses. A main clause is grammatically independent, in that it may stand alone to form a complete sentence. In contrast, a clause which describes some part of the main clause, or which is in some other way grammatically dependent on the main clause, is called a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone to form a complete sentence.

In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. The book which I lent you is a library book.
He told me what he had seen.
If you are ready, we will go.

In the preceding examples, the main clauses are the book is a library book, he told me and we will go; and the subordinate clauses are which I lent you, what he had seen and if you are ready. A subordinate clause usually begins with a connecting word or phrase which joins it to the main clause. In the preceding examples, these connecting words are which, what and if.

c. The past perfect and the simple past
It has already been seen that the tense of a verb in one clause is related to the tenses of verbs in other clauses in the same sentence. For instance, if one action happened before another in the past, the action that happened first would usually be expressed by a verb in the Past Perfect tense, and the action that happened subsequently would usually be expressed by a verb in the Simple Past tense.

For instance, each of the following sentences has one verb in the Past Perfect tense, and one verb in the Simple Past tense. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. She was late, because she had lost her way.
It had started to snow before we reached the inn.

In the first example, the verb had lost is in the Past Perfect, and the verb was is in the Simple Past. This indicates that the action of losing the way occurred before the action of being late. In the second example, the verb had started is in the Past Perfect, and the verb reached is in the Simple Past. This indicates that the action of starting to snow occurred before the action of reaching the inn.

d. The use of the present in subordinate clauses to express future actions
It should be noted that if the verb in the main clause of a sentence is in a future tense, the verb of any subordinate clause which refers to the future is usually in a present tense. This is illustrated in the following examples. The verbs are underlined.
e.g. We will welcome him when he arrives.
I will have finished the work before it is time to leave.

In these examples, the main clauses are we will welcome him and I will have finished the work; and the subordinate clauses are when he arrives and before it is time to leave. In the main clauses, the will welcome is in the Simple Future tense, and the will have finished is in the Future Perfect tense. However, in the subordinate clauses, the verbs arrives and is are both in the Simple Present, even though they refer to future events.

In most cases, the rule is that if the verb in the main clause of a sentence is in a future tense, the verb of any subordinate clause which refers to the future must be in a present tense. There is usually no ambiguity in such sentences, because the fact that the verb in the main clause is in a future tense is generally enough to indicate that all of the actions expressed in the sentence are to take place in the future.

See Exercise 15.

However, there are a few cases in which the verb in a subordinate clause must be put into a future tense in order to avoid ambiguity. For instance, in subordinate clauses beginning with although or because, it is sometimes necessary to use future tenses, to make it clear that the actions expressed relate to the future, rather than the present.

e.g. We will not need to send for her, because she will already be here.
Although he will be in the neighborhood, we will have to search for him.

In these examples, the use of the Simple Future tense in the subordinate clauses because she will already be here and although he will be in the neighborhood is necessary to make it clear that the events of her being here, and his being in the neighborhood, relate to the future rather than the present.

EXERCISES for Chapter 7

1. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Simple Future of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I ___________. (to agree)
I shall agree or I will agree.

You ____________ the results. (to publish)
You will publish the results.

1. We ___________. (to succeed)
2. They _________________ the site. (to excavate)
3. He _________________ the situation. (to study)
4. We _________________. (to hurry)
5. I _________________ soon. (to follow)
6. It _________________ a surprise. (to be)
7. He _________________ us. (to remind)
8. She _________________ tomorrow. (to depart)
9. I _________________ here. (to remain)
10. They __________________ university. (to enter)
Answers

2. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
She will notice us.
Will she notice us?
She will not notice us.
Will she not notice us?
Won't she notice us?
She will notice us, won't she?

1. You will wash the windows.
2. They will help you.
Answers

3. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Simple Future of the verbs shown in brackets. Use shall in the first person for questions in which a request for permission is implied. For example:
I ________ out soon. (to go)
I shall go out soon. or I will go out soon.

_____ we _____ now? (to leave)
Shall we leave now?

____ they _____ France? (to visit)
Will they visit France?

It ____ not ____ long. (to take)
It will not take long.

1. We _________________ you at the museum. (to meet)
2. _______ you _______ me a pen? (to lend)
3. _______ they not _______ the competition? (to win)
4. She _______ not ___________ to come. (to forget)
5. _______ he not _______ the boat? (to sail)
6. You _________________ the expedition. (to enjoy)
7. _______ I ________ this? (to order)
8. _______ you not _______ for me? (to wait)
9. We _______ not _______ late. (to be)
10. He ________________ us the news. (to send)
11. I ______ not _______ my way. (to lose)
12. _______ they __________ the program? (to watch)
Answers

4. Using the Simple conjugation which expresses determination and compulsion, fill in the blanks with the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We _________ the exam. (to pass)
We will pass the exam.

You ____________ the work on time. (to finish)
You shall finish the work on time.

1. They ________________ the tickets. (to buy)
2. I _________________ home. (to go)
3. He _________________ our guide. (to be)
4. You _________________ with me. (to come)
5. I ________________ it. (to remember)
6. She ________________ us. (to call)
7. We ________________ the money. (to earn)
8. They _________________ us. (to respect)
9. I ________________ you. (to help)
10. It _______ not __________ us. (to hinder)
11. We ________________ it. (to find)
12. You ________ not __________ it. (to regret)
Answers

5. The following sentences refer to future events. Complete each sentence by filling in the blank with the correct form of the Present Continuous tense of to go, followed by the infinitive of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
She _________________ swimming. (to teach)
She is going to teach swimming.

___ we _____________ home? (to walk)
Are we going to walk home?

He __ not _____________ us. (to find)
He is not going to find us.

1. ______ he ____________________ horseback riding? (to learn)
2. I __________________________ the windows. (to wash)
3. ______ you ____________________ with us? (to come)
4. It ______ not ____________________ cold tonight. (to be)
5. ______ he not ____________________ the letter? (to answer)
6. We _________________________ to the library. (to go)
7. ______ she ____________________ a sweater? (to buy)
8. ______ you not ___________________ us? (to call)
9. I ______ not ____________________ late. (to stay)
10. They ________________________ supper. (to cook)
Answers

6. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Continuous of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
We _______________ you tomorrow. (to see)
We shall be seeing you tomorrow. or We will be seeing you tomorrow.

He _________________ school next year. (to attend)
He will be attending school next year.

1. You _____________________ with us. (to come)
2. It _____________________ warmer. (to grow)
3. They ____________________ new furniture. (to buy)
4. She _____________________ the clock. (to watch)
5. I ____________________ downtown. (to go)
6. You _____________________ the cake. (to cut)
7. They ____________________ the newspaper. (to read)
8. We __________________ the museum. (to visit)
Answers

7. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
They will be serving the dessert.
Will they be serving the dessert?
They will not be serving the dessert.
Will they not be serving the dessert?
Won't they be serving the dessert?
They will be serving the dessert, won't they?

1. He will be needing this.
2. They will be living here.
Answers

8. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Continuous of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
I ________________ soon. (to leave)
I shall be leaving soon. or I will be leaving soon.

____ you _________ coffee? (to make)
Will you be making coffee?

He ____ not ________ the bus. (to use)
He will not be using the bus.

1. He _____________________ a new language. (to learn)
2. ______ she ___________________ help? (to need)
3. ______ you not __________________ your jacket? (to mend)
4. He ______ not ___________________ here. (to stay)
5. ______ we not ___________________ them a card? (to mail)
6. They __________________________ the telephone. (to answer)
7. ______ you ___________________ downtown? (to go)
8. I _____ not __________________ at the school. (to stop)
9. ______ she not ___________________ a trip? (to plan)
10. I ___________________________ the arrangements. (to make)
11. They ______ not __________________ tired. (to feel)
12. ______ we ___________________ at the library? (to meet)
Answers

9. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Perfect of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
She _________________ by then. (to arrive)
She will have arrived by then.

We ______________ everyone. (to meet)
We shall have met everyone or We will have met everyone.

1. You ________________________ the advertisement. (to study)
2. He _________________________ the newspapers. (to scan)
3. I _________________________ here for five years. (to be)
4. They ________________________ the proposal. (to consider)
5. It ________________________ raining by tomorrow. (to stop)
6. You _______________________ your plans. (to make)
7. I _______________________ the flowers. (to pick)
8. They ________________________ their minds. (to change)
Answers

10. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
She will have foreseen the difficulty.
Will she have foreseen the difficulty?
She will not have foreseen the difficulty.
Will she not have foreseen the difficulty?
Won't she have foreseen the difficulty?
She will have foreseen the difficulty, won't she?

1. It will have happened by then.
2. You will have paid the rent.
Answers

11. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Perfect of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
He __________________ it soon. (to finish)
He will have finished it soon.

You ____ not ________ time to read the book. (to have)
You will not have had time to read the book.

____ they __________ before? (to fly)
Will they have flown before?

1. I ________________________ for a walk. (to go)
2. They _______ not yet _________________. (to arrive)
3. _______ she not __________________ the apples? (to eat)
4. _______ you __________________ the letter? (to send)
5. They _________________________ an apartment by then. (to find)
6. He _______ not __________________ soundly. (to sleep)
7. _______ I  not _________________ you before then? (to see)
8. _______ he __________________ the puzzle? (to solve)
9. We _________________________ the parcel by Monday. (to receive)
10. _______ she not ________________ the chairs? (to sell)
11. _______ we __________________ the bus schedules? (to study)
12. You _______ not _________________ the rabbits. (to feed)
Answers

12. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Perfect Continuous of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
You ______________________ all night. (to wait)
You will have been waiting all night.

They _____________________ a good time. (to have)
They will have been having a good time.

1. She __________________________________ with them. (to argue)
2. We __________________________________ the city. (to tour)
3. He ____________________________________ what happened. (to wonder)
4. I ___________________________________ inventory. (to take)
5. It ___________________________________ for two days. (to snow)
6. They __________________________________ to come. (to long)
7. You ____________________________________ a speech. (to give)
8. We ___________________________________ our breath. (to hold)
Answers

13. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
You will have been reading the timetable.
Will you have been reading the timetable?
You will not have been reading the timetable.
Will you not have been reading the timetable?
Won't you have been reading the timetable?
You will have been reading the timetable, won't you?

1. He will have been guarding the luggage.
2. They will have been preparing the meal.
Answers

14. Using either the auxiliary shall or the auxiliary will for the first person, fill in the blanks with the Future Perfect Continuous of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
They _______________________ the house. (to clean)
They will have been cleaning the house.

____ you ________________ to call? (to try)
Will you have been trying to call?

He ____ not _________________ the paper. (to read)
He will not have been reading the paper.

1. She _________________________________ to help us. (to offer)
2. _______ it not __________________________ by then? (to snow)
3. We _______ not ___________________________ to leave. (to plan)
4. _______ they __________________________ for rain? (to hope)
5. I __________________________________ my friends. (to visit)
6. He _______ not ___________________________ the pictures. (to develop)
7. _______ she _________________________ the hedge? (to clip)
8. _______ we not _________________________ them often? (to see)
9. They ________________________________ for twenty-four hours. (to wait)
10. _______ he not __________________________ down? (to lie)
11. _______ you _________________________ croquet? (to play)
12. They _______ not _________________________ here long. (to live)
Answers

15. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to the tense of the underlined verb, complete the sentence correctly by filling in the blank with either the Past Perfect or the Simple Present of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
When I first met him, he ___ already _________. (to graduate)
When I first met him, he had already graduated.

We will read the information before we ____ a decision. (to make)
We will read the information before we make a decision.

1. They ______ already _______________ the letter when they heard the news.
2. They will wait until he __________________. (to come)
3. She will help us if we ___________________ for assistance. (to ask)
4. Although I _______________ him to come, he stayed away. (to beg)
5. He will send for us as soon as he ____________________ time. (to have)
6. After I __________________ the grass, it started to rain. (to water)
7. When we called, they _______ already ________ the house. (to leave)
8. He will watch while they _______________________ their tricks. (to perform)
9. By the time I ___________________ everything, it was past nine o'clock. (to organize)
10. They will signal when they ____________________ ready. (to be)
11. Even though we _________________ warm clothes, we became quite cold. (to bring)
12. If it __________________ tomorrow, we will go skiing. (to snow)
13. We _______ just _________________ supper, when the phone rang. (to finish)
14. I will let you know when I ______________________ it. (to find)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 7

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. shall succeed or will succeed 2. will excavate 3. will study 4. shall hurry or will hurry 5. shall follow or will follow 6. will be 7. will remind 8. will depart 9. shall remain or will remain 10. will enter

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Will you wash the windows? You will not wash the windows. Will you not wash the windows? Won't you wash the windows? You will wash the windows, won't you?
2. Will they help you? They will not help you. Will they not help you? Won't they help you? They will help you, won't they?

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. shall meet or will meet 2. Will, lend 3. Will, win 4. will, forget 5. Will, sail 6. will enjoy 7. Shall, order 8. Will, wait 9. shall or will, be 10. will send 11. shall or will, lose 12. Will, watch

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. shall buy 2. will go 3. shall be 4. shall come 5. will remember 6. shall call 7. will earn 8. shall respect 9. will help 10. shall, hinder 11. will find 12. shall, regret

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Is, going to learn 2. am going to wash 3. Are, going to come 4. is, going to be 5. Is, going to answer 6. are going to go 7. Is, going to buy 8. Are, going to call 9. am, going to stay 10. are going to cook

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. will be coming 2. will be growing 3. will be buying 4. will be watching 5. shall be going or will be going 6. will be cutting 7. will be reading 8. shall be visiting or will be visiting

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Will he be needing this? He will not be needing this. Will he not be needing this? Won't he be needing this? He will be needing this, won't he?
2. Will they be living here? They will not be living here. Will they not be living here? Won't they be living here? They will be living here, won't they?

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. will be learning 2. Will, be needing 3. Will, be mending 4. will, be staying 5. Shall or Will, be mailing 6. will be answering 7. Will, be going 8. shall or will, be stopping 9. Will, be planning 10. shall be making or will be making 11. will, be feeling 12. Shall or Will, be meeting

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. will have studied 2. will have scanned 3. shall have been or will have been 4. will have considered 5. will have stopped 6. will have made 7. shall have picked or will have picked 8. will have changed

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. Will it have happened by then? It will not have happened by then. Will it not have happened by then? Won't it have happened by then? It will have happened by then, won't it?
2. Will you have paid the rent? You will not have paid the rent. Will you not have paid the rent? Won't you have paid the rent? You will have paid the rent, won't you?

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. shall have gone or will have gone 2. will, have arrived 3. Will, have eaten 4. Will, have sent 5. will have found 6. will, have slept 7. Shall or Will, have seen 8. Will, have solved 9. shall have received or will have received 10. Will, have sold 11. Shall or Will, have studied 12. will, have fed

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. will have been arguing 2. shall have been touring or will have been touring 3. will have been wondering 4. shall have been taking or will have been taking 5. will have been snowing 6. will have been longing 7. will have been giving 8. shall have been holding or will have been holding

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. Will he have been guarding the luggage? He will not have been guarding the luggage. Will he not have been guarding the luggage? Won't he have been guarding the luggage? He will have been guarding the luggage, won't he?
2. Will they have been preparing the meal? They will not have been preparing the meal. Will they not have been preparing the meal? Won't they have been preparing the meal? They will have been preparing the meal, won't they?

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. will have been offering 2. Will, have been snowing 3. shall or will, have been planning 4. Will, have been hoping 5. shall have been visiting or will have been visiting 6. will, have been developing 7. Will, have been clipping 8. Shall or Will, have been seeing 9. will have been waiting 10. Will, have been lying 11. Will, have been playing 12. will, have been living

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. had, mailed 2. comes 3. ask 4. had begged 5. has 6. had watered 7. had, left 8. perform 9. had organized 10. are 11. had brought 12. snows 13. had, finished 14. find

CHAPTER 8.  CONJUGATIONS WITH THE AUXILIARY WOULD

1. Uses of the auxiliary Would

English verbs conjugated with the auxiliary would are used in a variety of ways. For instance, the auxiliary would is often used in polite requests and suggestions. In the following examples, the verbs conjugated with would are underlined.
e.g. Would you please tell me the time?
Perhaps it would be a good idea to call the office.

The auxiliary would can also express a future in the past, and is used in reporting statements and questions which pertained to the future at the time they were made.
e.g. She asked if we would help her the next day.
They said they would arrange to meet us the following week.

The auxiliary would can also be used in wishes pertaining to the future, and in the main clauses of sentences containing false or improbable conditions. These two uses of the auxiliary would will be discussed in the next chapter.
e.g. I wish they would help us.
It would have saved time if I had known what to do.

2. Formation of conjugations with the auxiliary Would

There are four types of conjugation formed with the auxiliary would: the Simple, the Continuous, the Perfect, and the Perfect Continuous.

The conjugations with would are formed in the same way as the Future conjugations, except that instead of will and shall, would and should are used. In the conjugations with would, should may be used for the first person in British English; however, would is normally used for the first person in American English.

Like will and shall, would is a modal auxiliary. When verbs are conjugated with modal auxiliaries, the results are sometimes referred to as moods rather than tenses.

a. The simple conjugation with the auxiliary Would
The Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is used to express non-continuous actions.

In spoken English, the auxiliary would is frequently contracted to 'd. It should be noted that this contraction is the same as that used for had.

In the case of the verb to work, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is as follows:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

I would work

I'd work

you would work

you'd work

he would work

he'd work

she would work

she'd work

it would work

it'd work

we would work

we'd work

they would work

they'd work

The contraction it'd is used less frequently than the other contractions, since it is more difficult to pronounce.

As illustrated below, the word order for questions and negative statements in the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is similar to that in other English conjugations. The negative tag questions are underlined.

In spoken English, would not is frequently contracted to wouldn't.

Simple conjugation with Would

Type of Statement

Examples

Affirmative Statement:

I would work.

They would work.

Question:

Would I work?

Would they work?

Negative Statement:

I would not work.

They would not work.

Negative Question without

Would I not work?

Contractions:

Would they not work?

Negative Question with

Wouldn't I work?

Contractions:

Wouldn't they work?

Negative Tag Question:

I would work, wouldn't I?

They would work, wouldn't they?

See Exercises 1 and 2.

The Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is often used in polite requests and suggestions.
e.g. Would you please pass the butter?
Perhaps it would be best to postpone the meeting.
In the first example, would pass is used in a polite request. In the second example, would be is used in a polite suggestion.

See Exercise 3.

b. The continuous conjugation with the auxiliary Would
The Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is used to express continuous, ongoing actions.

In the case of the verb to work, the Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is as follows:

I would be working

you would be working

he would be working

she would be working

it would be working

we would be working

they would be working

As illustrated below, the word order for questions and negative statements in the Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is similar to that in other English conjugations. The negative tag questions are underlined.

Continuous conjugation with Would

Type of Statement

Examples

Affirmative Statement:

I would be working.

They would be working.

Question:

Would I be working?

Would they be working?

Negative Statement:

I would not be working.

They would not be working.

Negative Question without

Would I not be working?

Contractions:

Would they not be working?

Negative Question with

Wouldn't I be working?

Contractions:

Wouldn't they be working?

Negative Tag Question:

I would be working, wouldn't I?

They would be working, wouldn't they?

See Exercises 4 and 5.

c. The perfect conjugation with the auxiliary Would
In the case of the verb to work, the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would is as follows:

I would have worked

you would have worked

he would have worked

she would have worked

it would have worked

we would have worked

they would have worked

As illustrated below, the word order for questions and negative statements in the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would is similar to that in other English conjugations. The negative tag questions are underlined.

Perfect conjugation with Would

Type of Statement

Examples

Affirmative Statement:

I would have worked.

They would have worked.

Question:

Would I have worked?

Would they have worked?

Negative Statement:

I would not have worked.

They would not have worked.

Negative Question without

Would I not have worked?

Contractions:

Would they not have worked?

Negative Question with

Wouldn't I have worked?

Contractions:

Wouldn't they have worked?

Negative Tag Question:

I would have worked, wouldn't I?

They would have worked, wouldn't they?

See Exercises 6 and 7.

Unlike the Perfect conjugations in the English past, present, and future tenses, the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would is not generally used to express an action completed by a certain time.

Instead, the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would may be used as a past form of the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would. The verbs in the following examples are underlined.

Present Form

Past Form

I would like that.

I would have liked that.

We would write to him.

We would have written to him.

In the first example, the Perfect conjugation would have liked is used as the past form of the Simple conjugation would like. In the second example, the Perfect conjugation would have written is used as the past form of the Simple conjugation would write.

See Exercises 8 and 9.

d. The perfect continuous conjugation with the auxiliary Would
In the case of the verb to work, the Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is as follows:

I would have been working

you would have been working

he would have been working

she would have been working

it would have been working

we would have been working

they would have been working

As illustrated below, the word order for questions and negative statements in the Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is similar to that in other English conjugations. The negative tag questions are underlined.

Perfect continuous conjugation with Would

Type of Statement

Examples

Affirmative Statement:

I would have been working.

They would have been working.

Question:

Would I have been working?

Would they have been working?

Negative Statement:

I would not have been working.

They would not have been working.

Negative Question without

Would I not have been working?

Contractions:

Would they not have been working?

Negative Question with

Wouldn't I have been working?

Contractions:

Wouldn't they have been working?

Negative Tag Question:

I would have been working, wouldn't I?

They would have been working, wouldn't they?

See Exercises 10 and 11.

Like the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would, the Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would is not generally used to express an action completed by a certain time.

Instead, the Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would may be used as a past form of the Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would. The verbs in the following examples are underlined.

Present Form

Past Form

I would be waiting outside.

I would have been waiting outside.

He would be helping you.

He would have been helping you.

In the first example, the Perfect Continuous conjugation would have been waiting is used as the past form of the Continuous conjugation would be waiting. In the second example, the Perfect Continuous conjugation would have been helping is used as the past form of the Continuous conjugation would be helping.

See Exercise 12.

3. Summary of the formation of the conjugations with the auxiliary Would

The following table summarizes the formation of the conjugations with the auxiliary would.

Conjugation

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple

would

bare infinitive

Continuous

would be

present participle

Perfect

would have

past participle

Perfect Continuous

would have been

present participle

4. The "future in the past"

The modal auxiliary would is the past form of the modal auxiliary will. For this reason, the auxiliary would can be used to form what is sometimes called a future in the past.

The future in the past is used in reporting statements and questions which pertained to the future at the time they were made. In the following examples, the verbs in the main clauses are printed in bold type, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are underlined.

Tense of Verb in Main Clause

Complete Sentence

Simple Present

I think you will succeed.

Simple Past

I thought you would succeed.

In the sentence I think you will succeed, the verb of the main clause, think, is in the Simple Present, and the verb of the subordinate clause, will succeed, is in the Simple Future. If the verb think is changed to the Simple Past, then the verb will succeed must also be put into the past, by using the auxiliary would instead of will.

The following are other examples of the use of the future in the past:

Tense of Verb in Main Clause

Complete Sentence

Simple Present

She says she will visit us next week.

Simple Past

She said she would visit us the following week.

Simple Present

They know that we will be arriving tomorrow.

Simple Past

They knew that we would be arriving the next day.

In both pairs of examples, when the verb in the main clause is changed from the Simple Present to the Simple Past, the verb in the subordinate clause is changed from a future tense to the future in the past, by changing the auxiliary will to would.

It should be noted that adverb and adverb phrases such as tomorrow, yesterday and next year can be used only with reference to present time. When used with reference to past or future time, as in reported speech, these adverbs and adverb phrases must be changed.

For instance, tomorrow must be changed to an expression such as the next day or the following day; and next year must be changed to an expression such as the next year or the following year. Other examples are given in the table below.

Used with Reference to Present Time

Used with Reference to Past or Future Time

tomorrow

the next day or the following day

today

that day or the same day

yesterday

the day before or the previous day

next week

the next week or the following week

this week

that week or the same week

last week

the week before or the previous week

next year

the next year or the following year

this year

that year or the same year

last year

the year before or the previous year

See Exercise 13.

EXERCISES for Chapter 8

1. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
He would like to help us.
Would he like to help us?
He would not like to help us.
Would he not like to help us?
Wouldn't he like to help us?
He would like to help us, wouldn't he?

1. She would find it easy.
2. They would be on time.
Answers

2. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would. For example:
I __________ some coffee. (to like)
I would like some coffee.

_____ he _______ us? (to believe)
Would he believe us?

They _____ not ____ the interruption. (to mind)
They would not mind the interruption.

_____ you not ______ to stay at home? (to prefer)
Would you not prefer to stay at home?

1. We ____________ our best. (to try)
2. _______ you not __________ your glasses? (to need)
3. I ________________ everything carefully. (to plan)
4. _______ they _____________ us? (to remember)
5. _______ he not ________ willing to help them? (to be)
6. _______ she not ________ a good job? (to do)
7. We _______ not __________ much luggage. (to bring)
8. _______ they _____________ their decision? (to reconsider)
9. You _______________ a great deal. (to learn)
10. _______ he not ____________ the tickets ahead of time? (to purchase)
Answers

3. Complete the following polite requests and suggestions, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would. For example:
_____ you ____ some help? (to like)
Would you like some help?

_____ you please ____ me the way to the post office? (to tell)
Would you please tell me the way to the post office?

1. _________ you _________ for some coffee? (to care)
2. ________ you not _________ to visit the library? (to prefer)
3. I think it ______________ wise to let them know. (to be)
4. _________ you please __________ here? (to wait)
5. I _________ not _____________ that excursion. (to recommend)
6. _________ you ___________ the door open? (to hold)
Answers

4. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
She would be arriving by bus.
Would she be arriving by bus?
She would not be arriving by bus.
Would she not be arriving by bus?
Wouldn't she be arriving by bus?
She would be arriving by bus, wouldn't she?

1. You would be coming with us.
2. He would be setting an example.
Answers

5. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would. For example:
I ________________ for good weather. (to wish)
I would be wishing for good weather.

_____ you ___________ them? (to visit)
Would you be visiting them?

He _____ not ____________ to come. (to expect)
He would not be expecting to come.

______ they not ____ their car? (to drive)
Would they not be driving their car?

1. I _______ not _____________ overtime. (to work)
2. _______ she not ______________ to stay? (to intend)
3. He _________________ for us to call. (to wait)
4. _______ they ___________ warm clothes? (to wear)
5. You ____________________ twenty dollars on books. (to spend)
6. _______ we _____________ early? (to arrive)
7. _______ I not _____________ the guests? (to receive)
8. They _______ not ____________ him for a long time. (to see)
9. _______ he not _____________ what to do? (to wonder)
10. She _______ not _____________ her bicycle. (to ride)
Answers

6. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
It would have been a disaster.
Would it have been a disaster?
It would not have been a disaster.
Would it not have been a disaster?
Wouldn't it have been a disaster?
It would have been a disaster, wouldn't it?

1. We would have told you.
2. They would have won.
Answers

7. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would. For example:
They ________________ this interesting. (to find)
They would have found this interesting.

_____ she __________ without us? (to come)
Would she have come without us?

He _____ not _________ the map. (to lose)
He would not have lost the map.

_____ we not ________ him the news? (to tell)
Would we not have told him the news?

1. I _____________________ everything. (to arrange)
2. She _______ not ______________ to come. (to forget)
3. _______ they not ______________ what to do? (to know)
4. _______ he _______________ this route? (to choose)
5. We _______________________ them make a contribution. (to let)
6. _______ you not _________________ it was missing? (to notice)
7. He ______ not _______________ it to your old address. (to send)
8. ______ you ________________ it? (to mention)
9. I ____________________ able to find you. (to be)
10. _______ they not _______________ us? (to join)
Answers

8. Rewrite the following sentences so that they refer to the past, by changing the verbs from the Simple conjugation to the Perfect conjugation. For example:
I would like to come.
I would have liked to come.

Would he appreciate it?
Would he have appreciated it?

They would not mind.
They would not have minded.

Would she not remember us?
Would she not have remembered us?

1. They would mail us their address.
2. Would you recognize him?
3. He would not order pizza.
4. Would I not need your help?
5. She would prefer to play the violin.
6. Would they not provide clear instructions?
7. It would not be a good idea.
8. Would you feel left out?
Answers

9. Rewrite the following sentences so that they refer to the present, by changing the verbs from the Perfect conjugation to the Simple conjugation. For example:
It would have been preferable.
It would be preferable.

Would we have succeeded?
Would we succeed?

They would not have understood.
They would not understand.

Would you not have preferred to go?
Would you not prefer to go?

1. Would she have drunk the lemonade?
2. You would not have wanted to be late.
3. We would have begun at once.
4. I would not have stayed up all night.
5. Would he not have eaten the ice cream?
6. Would they have made the dessert?
7. She would have known what to do.
8. Would you not have recommended it?
Answers

10. Rewrite the following affirmative statements as questions, negative statements, negative questions without contractions, negative questions with contractions, and affirmative statements followed by negative tag questions. For example:
I would have been playing in the orchestra.
Would I have been playing in the orchestra?
I would not have been playing in the orchestra.
Would I not have been playing in the orchestra?
Wouldn't I have been playing in the orchestra?
I would have been playing in the orchestra, wouldn't I?

1. He would have been listening to the radio.
2. She would have been watering the lawn.
Answers

11. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Perfect Continuous conjugation with the auxiliary would. For example:
He ____________________ to see us. (to hope)
He would have been hoping to see us.

_____ you __________________ to come? (to plan)
Would you have been planning to come?

We _____ not _________________ rubber boots. (to wear)
We would not have been wearing rubber boots.

_____ she not ___________________ this? (to expect)
Would she not have been expecting this?

1. I _______________________ to catch the bus. (to hurry)
2. _______ you __________________ with us? (to stay)
3. He _______ not ___________________ by train. (to travel)
4. _______ we not ____________________ you here? (to meet)
5. They ______________________ to Halifax. (to come)
6. _______ we __________________ a report? (to make)
7. _______ she not ___________________ the parcels? (to open)
8. We _______ not ___________________ to the radio. (to listen)
9. You _______________________ for a long time. (to wait)
10. _______ they _____________________ the operation? (to run)
Answers

12. Put each of the following sentences into the past, by changing the verb from the Continuous conjugation to the Perfect Continuous conjugation. For example:
I would be enjoying it.
I would have been enjoying it.

Would she be preparing for the trip?
Would she have been preparing for the trip?

We would not be entertaining such suspicions.
We would not have been entertaining such suspicions.

Would he not be organizing the evidence?
Would he not have been organizing the evidence?

1. I would be investigating the report.
2. Would he be following the shoreline?
3. You would not be listening to rumors.
4. It would be growing colder.
5. They would not be exceeding the speed limit.
6. Would she not be weeding the garden?
7. Would we be receiving the messages?
8. They would be reporting to us.
Answers

13. For each of the following sentences, change the verb in the main clause from the Simple Present to the Simple Past; and change the verb in the subordinate clause from the Simple Future to the future in the past. If necessary, alter the adverb or adverb phrase referring to time. For example:
He thinks it will snow tomorrow.
He thought it would snow the next day.

We believe she will succeed.
We believed she would succeed.

I think she will come next week.
I thought she would come the next week.

1. I promise I will help you.
2. She says the letter will arrive tomorrow.
3. The boys are certain that their plane will fly.
4. We expect the weather will improve.
5. He maintains that he will win next year.
6. We feel that the plan will not work.
7. You know I will return next week.
8. They tell us that the harvest will be good.
9. He hopes the circus will come tomorrow.
10. I am sure they will be welcome.
11. We think the fruit will be ripe next month.
12. They say they will follow us.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 8

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. Would she find it easy? She would not find it easy. Would she not find it easy? Wouldn't she find it easy? She would find it easy, wouldn't she?
2. Would they be on time? They would not be on time. Would they not be on time? Wouldn't they be on time? They would be on time, wouldn't they?

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. would try 2. Would, need 3. would plan 4. Would, remember 5. Would, be 6. Would, do 7. would, bring 8. Would, reconsider 9. would learn 10. Would, purchase

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. Would, care 2. Would, prefer 3. would be 4. Would, wait 5. would, recommend 6. Would, hold

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. Would you be coming with us? You would not be coming with us. Would you not be coming with us? Wouldn't you be coming with us? You would be coming with us, wouldn't you?
2. Would he be setting an example? He would not be setting an example. Would he not be setting an example? Wouldn't he be setting an example? He would be setting an example, wouldn't he?

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. would, be working 2. Would, be intending 3. would be waiting 4. Would, be wearing 5. would be spending 6. Would, be arriving 7. Would, be receiving 8. would, be seeing 9. Would, be wondering 10. would, be riding

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. Would we have told you? We would not have told you. Would we not have told you? Wouldn't we have told you? We would have told you, wouldn't we?
2. Would they have won? They would not have won. Would they not have won? Wouldn't they have won? They would have won, wouldn't they?

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. would have arranged 2. would, have forgotten 3. Would, have known 4. Would, have chosen 5. would have let 6. Would, have noticed 7. would, have sent 8. Would, have mentioned 9. would have been 10. Would, have joined

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. They would have mailed us their address. 2. Would you have recognized him? 3. He would not have ordered pizza. 4. Would I not have needed your help? 5. She would have preferred to play the violin. 6. Would they not have provided clear instructions? 7. It would not have been a good idea. 8. Would you have felt left out?

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. Would she drink the lemonade? 2. You would not want to be late. 3. We would begin at once. 4. I would not stay up all night. 5. Would he not eat the ice cream? 6. Would they make the dessert? 7. She would know what to do. 8. Would you not recommend it?

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. Would he have been listening to the radio? He would not have been listening to the radio. Would he not have been listening to the radio? Wouldn't he have been listening to the radio? He would have been listening to the radio, wouldn't he?
2. Would she have been watering the lawn? She would not have been watering the lawn. Would she not have been watering the lawn? Wouldn't she have been watering the lawn? She would have been watering the lawn, wouldn't she?

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. would have been hurrying 2. Would, have been staying 3. would, have been traveling 4. Would, have been meeting 5. would have been coming 6. Would, have been making 7. Would, have been opening 8. would, have been listening 9. would have been waiting 10. Would, have been running

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. I would have been investigating the report. 2. Would he have been following the shoreline? 3. You would not have been listening to rumors. 4. It would have been growing colder. 5. They would not have been exceeding the speed limit. 6. Would she not have been weeding the garden? 7. Would we have been receiving the messages? 8. They would have been reporting to us.

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. I promised I would help you. 2. She said the letter would arrive the next day. 3. The boys were certain that their plane would fly. 4. We expected the weather would improve. 5. He maintained that he would win the next year. 6. We felt that the plan would not work. 7. You knew I would return the next week. 8. They told us that the harvest would be good. 9. He hoped the circus would come the next day. 10. I was sure they would be welcome. 11. We thought the fruit would be ripe the next month. 12. They said they would follow us.

CHAPTER 9.  THE SUBJUNCTIVE

1. Uses of the subjunctive

In modern English, the Simple Present Subjunctive is most commonly used in formal commands and requests. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Present Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. They demand that he submit a report.
We request that you be here tomorrow.

The Simple Present Subjunctive is also still used in a few traditional expressions.
e.g. Long live the King!

The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, are used in expressing wishes.
e.g. I wish you were here.
I wish I had known that.
I wish the rain would stop.

The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, can also be used in order to indicate that conditions being expressed are false or improbable.
e.g. If I were rich, I would travel around the world.
If he had been here, he would have been glad to see you.

In the first example, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive were and the Simple conjugation with would indicates that the condition expressed in the clause If I were rich is false or improbable. In the second example, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive had been, and the Perfect conjugation with would, indicates that the condition expressed in the clause If he had been here is false.

2. Formation of the subjunctive

The English past and present tenses discussed in previous chapters are in what is usually referred to as the Indicative Mood. Each of the past and present tenses in the Indicative Mood has a corresponding tense in the Subjunctive Mood.

In modern English, most verb tenses in the Subjunctive Mood are similar or identical to the corresponding tenses in the Indicative Mood. It should be noted that verbs in the Subjunctive Mood do not modify, but have the same form regardless of the subject.

The Simple Present Subjunctive and Simple Past Subjunctive of the verb to be are shown below. The Indicative forms are also given, for purposes of comparison. The Subjunctive forms which differ from the corresponding Indicative forms are shown in bold type.

The simple indicative and subjunctive tenses of the verb To Be

Simple Present

Indicative

Subjunctive

I am

I be

you are

you be

he is

he be

she is

she be

it is

it be

we are

we be

they are

they be

Simple Past

Indicative

Subjunctive

I was

I were

you were

you were

he was

he were

she was

she were

it was

it were

we were

we were

they were

they were

For any verb, the Simple Present Subjunctive is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb.

For any verb except the verb to be, the Simple Past Subjunctive is identical to the Simple Past Indicative.

For all of the past and present tenses conjugated with auxiliaries, the Subjunctive tenses are formed in the same way as the Indicative tenses, except that the Subjunctive of the auxiliaries is used.

Using the example of the verb to work, the following table compares the tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive Moods. The Subjunctive forms which differ from the corresponding Indicative forms are printed in bold type.

The indicative and subjunctive tenses of the verb To Work

Simple Present

Indicative

Subjunctive

I work

I work

you work

you work

he works

he work

she works

she work

it works

it work

we work

we work

they work

they work

Present Continuous

Indicative

Subjunctive

I am working

I be working

you are working

you be working

he is working

he be working

she is working

she be working

it is working

it be working

we are working

we be working

they are working

they be working

Present Perfect

Indicative

Subjunctive

I have worked

I have worked

you have worked

you have worked

he has worked

he have worked

she has worked

she have worked

it has worked

it have worked

we have worked

we have worked

they have worked

they have worked

Present Perfect Continuous

Indicative

Subjunctive

I have been working

I have been working

you have been working

you have been working

he has been working

he have been working

she has been working

she have been working

it has been working

it have been working

we have been working

we have been working

they have been working

they have been working

Simple Past

Indicative

Subjunctive

I worked

I worked

you worked

you worked

he worked

he worked

she worked

she worked

it worked

it worked

we worked

we worked

they worked

they worked

Past Continuous

Indicative

Subjunctive

I was working

I were working

you were working

you were working

he was working

he were working

she was working

she were working

it was working

it were working

we were working

we were working

they were working

they were working

Past Perfect

Indicative

Subjunctive

I had worked

I had worked

you had worked

you had worked

he had worked

he had worked

she had worked

she had worked

it had worked

it had worked

we had worked

we had worked

they had worked

they had worked

Past Perfect Continuous

Indicative

Subjunctive

I had been working

I had been working

you had been working

you had been working

he had been working

he had been working

she had been working

she had been working

it had been working

it had been working

we had been working

we had been working

they had been working

they had been working

The following table summarizes the formation of the English Subjunctive tenses:

Tense

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple Present

do

bare infinitive

Present Continuous

be

present participle

Present Perfect

have

past participle

Present Perfect Continuous

have been

present participle

Simple Past

did

bare infinitive

Past Continuous

were

present participle

Past Perfect

had

past participle

Past Perfect Continuous

had been

present participle

3. Formal commands and requests

The Simple Present Subjunctive was once more extensively used than it is today. In modern American English, the Simple Present Subjunctive is still used in clauses beginning with the word that which express formal commands or requests. In the following examples, the word that is printed in bold type, and the verbs in the Simple Present Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. They requested that she arrive early.
It is important that they be present at the meeting.
The demand that he provide identification will create a delay.

The main clauses of the preceding examples are they requested, it is important and the demand will create a delay. In the first example, the verb requested is in the Simple Past; in the second example, the verb is is in the Simple Present; and in the third example, the verb will create is in the Simple Future.

As illustrated in these examples, the use of the Simple Present Subjunctive in the subordinate clause of a formal command or request is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause.

The Simple Present Subjunctive is more commonly used in formal English than in informal English. For instance, the sentence "He advises that you not be late," is an example of formal English. In informal English, the same idea would probably be expressed by the sentence "He advises you not to be late," in which the infinitive is used, rather than a clause requiring the Simple Present Subjunctive.

See Exercise 1.

4. Wishes

The past tenses of the Subjunctive, and the auxiliary would, are used in the subordinate clauses of sentences which use the verb to wish in the main clause. In the following examples, the verb to wish is printed in bold type, and the verbs in the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. He wishes that he were rich.
They wish that they had studied harder when they were young.
She wishes that you would come to the meeting tomorrow.

It should be noted that the word that can be omitted from a sentence which uses the verb to wish in the main clause.
e.g. He wishes he were rich.
They wish they had studied harder when they were young.
She wishes you would come to the meeting tomorrow.

The form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is independent of the tense of the verb in the main clause. As explained below, the form of the verb used in the subordinate clause of a wish is determined by whether the time of the action referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than, the same as, or later than the time of the action referred to in the main clause.

a. An earlier time
When the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause, the Past Perfect Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Past Perfect Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. We wished he had spoken to us.
I wish you had called earlier.
They will wish they had listened to us sooner.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive may be used instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive. In the following example, the verb in the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. She wishes she had been staying with us last week.

In each of these examples, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive or the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to an earlier time than the main clause.

See Exercise 2.

b. The same time
When the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause, the Simple Past Subjunctive is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Past Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. When she was at the party, she wished she were at home.
Now that he is in China, he wishes he understood Chinese.
When we begin the trip, they will wish they were with us.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Continuous Subjunctive may be used instead of the Simple Past Subjunctive. In the following example, the verb in the Past Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. They wish they were traveling now.

In each of these examples, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive or the Past Continuous Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause refers to the same time as the main clause.

See Exercise 3.

c. A later time
When the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is usually used in the subordinate clause. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple conjugation with would are underlined.
e.g. You wished she would arrive the next day.
I wish she would change her mind.
He will wish we would join him the following week.

In each of these examples, the use of the Simple conjugation with would indicates that the subordinate clause refers to a later time than the main clause.

See Exercise 4.

d. Summary
The following table summarizes the verb forms most often used in the subordinate clauses of sentences expressing wishes.

Time Referred to in Subordinate Clause

Compared to Time Referred to in Main Clause

Form of Verb Used in Subordinate Clause

Earlier

Past Perfect Subjunctive or

Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive

e.g. I wish it had snowed yesterday.

Same

Simple Past Subjunctive or

Past Continuous Subjunctive

e.g. I wish it were snowing now.

Later

Simple conjugation with would

e.g. I wish it would snow tomorrow.

See Exercise 5.

e. Use of the auxiliary Could in expressing wishes
It should be noted that the modal auxiliary could, which will be discussed further in the next chapter, can also be used in the subordinate clause of a sentence expressing a wish. The auxiliary could forms conjugations in the same way as the auxiliary would.
e.g. I wish I could help you tomorrow.
I wish I could help you now.

As illustrated in the preceding examples, the Simple conjugation with could may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is later than, or the same as, the time referred to in the main clause.

As illustrated in the following example, the Perfect conjugation with could may be used when the time referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than the time referred to in the main clause.
e.g. I wish I could have helped you yesterday.

5. Conditions which are false or improbable

Conditions are most often expressed in subordinate clauses beginning with the word if. In the following examples, the word if is printed in bold type.
e.g. If it had rained yesterday, we would have stayed at home.
The condition contained in this sentence is expressed in the subordinate clause if it had rained yesterday.

Sometimes the word if is omitted from a subordinate clause expressing a condition. When the word if is omitted, the verb (in the case of the Simple tenses of to be), or the first auxiliary, must be placed before the subject. The following pairs of sentences illustrate the change in word order which occurs when the word if is omitted from a clause expressing a condition. In these examples, the verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. If I were braver, I would challenge him.
Were I braver, I would challenge him.

If they had been expecting us, they would have arranged to meet us.
Had they been expecting us, they would have arranged to meet us.

If I had not received your message, I would have left.
Had I not received your message, I would have left.

See Exercise 6.

As well as being expressed in subordinate clauses beginning with the word if, conditions may also be expressed in subordinate clauses beginning with the word unless.
e.g. Unless he were a giant, he would not be able to see over the wall.

Either the Indicative Mood or the Subjunctive Mood can be used to express a condition.

In the case of a condition which is considered true or probable, the Indicative Mood is used.
e.g. If she is here now, we will ask her opinion.
In this example, the verb is is in the Simple Present Indicative. The use of the Simple Present Indicative indicates that the condition if she is here now is considered to be probable.

In the case of a condition which is considered false or improbable, the Subjunctive Mood is used.
e.g. If she were here now, we would ask her opinion.
In this example, the verb were is in the Simple Past Subjunctive. The use of the Simple Past Subjunctive indicates that the condition if she were here now is considered to be false or improbable.

a. Forms of the verb used in the main clause
When a sentence contains a condition which is considered false or improbable, the verb in the main clause is usually in the Simple or Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would.

i. Referring to present or future time
In a sentence containing a false or improbable condition, if the main clause refers to present or future time, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary would is usually used. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple conjugation with would are underlined.
e.g. If he were ready, I would accompany him.
If she came, I would lend her my bicycle.

In these examples, the use of the Simple conjugation with would indicates that the main clauses I would accompany him and I would lend her my bicycle refer to present or future time.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Continuous conjugation with would may be used. In the following examples, the verbs in the Continuous conjugation with would are underlined.
e.g. If they were here, he would be speaking to them now.
If they arrived tomorrow, he would be giving them a tour of the city.

See Exercise 7.

ii. Referring to past time
In a sentence containing a false or improbable condition, if the main clause refers to past time, the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary would is usually used. In the following example, the verb in the Perfect conjugation with would is underlined.
e.g. If it had snowed, I would have skied in the park.

In this example, the use of the Perfect conjugation with would indicates that the main clause I would have skied in the park refers to past time. The use of the Perfect conjugation with would, combined with the use of the Past Perfect in the subordinate clause, indicates that the condition it had snowed is false, and that the action of skiing did not take place.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Perfect Continuous conjugation with would may be used. In the following example, the verb in the Perfect Continuous conjugation with would is underlined.
e.g. If they had been here, he would have been speaking to them.

See Exercise 8.

iii. Summary
The forms of the verb most commonly used in the main clauses of sentences containing false or improbable conditions are summarized in the following table.

Referring To

Verb in Main Clause

Present or

Simple conjugation with would

future time

or Continuous conjugation with would

e.g. If you started now, you would arrive on time.

Past time

Perfect conjugation with would

or Perfect Continuous conjugation with would

e.g. If you had started yesterday, you would have arrived on time.

See Exercise 9.

iv. Use of the auxiliary Could in sentences containing false or improbable Conditions
It should be noted that the auxiliary could can be used in either the main clause or the subordinate clause of a sentence containing a false or improbable condition. The first pair of examples illustrates the use of the auxiliary could in the main clause. The second pair of examples illustrates the use of the auxiliary could in the subordinate clause.
e.g. If they studied hard, they could pass the exam next year.
If they had studied hard, they could have passed the exam last year.

If you could see me now, you would not recognize me.
If you could have seen me yesterday, you would not have recognized me.

In these examples, the verbs could pass and could see are in the Simple conjugation with could; and the verbs could have passed and could have seen are in the Perfect conjugation with could. As illustrated in these examples, the Simple conjugation with could may be used to refer to present or future time; whereas the Perfect conjugation with could may be used to refer to past time.

b. Forms of the verb used in the subordinate clause
i. Referring to present or future time
In a sentence containing a false or improbable condition, if the subordinate clause refers to present or future time, the Simple Past Subjunctive is usually used. In the following examples, the verbs in the Simple Past Subjunctive are underlined.
e.g. If it snowed, I would ski in the park.
If he were here, I would give him the books.

In these examples, the use of the Simple Past Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clauses if it snowed and if he were here refer to present or future time.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Continuous Subjunctive may be used. In the following example, the verb in the Past Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
If she were staying here now, I would let her ride my horse.

See Exercise 10.

It should be noted that, in the case of the verb to be, in informal English, the Simple Past Indicative is often used instead of the Simple Past Subjunctive. For instance, the following pair of examples shows how the same idea might be expressed in formal and informal English.

Formal: If he were here now, I would give him the books.
Informal: If he was here now, I would give him the books.

It should be observed that, even when the Indicative is used instead of the Subjunctive, the use of a past tense for an action pertaining to present time, combined with the use of the conjugation with would in the main clause, is enough to indicate clearly that the condition expressed is considered false or improbable. However, this use of was instead of were is considered grammatically incorrect in formal English.

ii. Referring to past time
In a sentence containing a false or improbable condition, if the subordinate clause refers to past time, the Past Perfect Subjunctive is usually used. In the following example, the verb in the Past Perfect Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. If he had wanted to come, he would have called us.

In this example, the use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive indicates that the subordinate clause if he had wanted to come refers to past time. The use of the Past Perfect Subjunctive also indicates that the condition he had wanted to come is false.

In the case of a continuous, ongoing action, the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive may be used. In the following example, the verb in the Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive is underlined.
e.g. If it had been raining yesterday, I would have taken my umbrella.

See Exercise 11.

iii. Summary
The forms of the Subjunctive most commonly used in subordinate clauses expressing false or improbable conditions are summarized in the following table.

Referring To

Verb in Subordinate Clause

Present or

Simple Past Subjunctive

future time

or Past Continuous Subjunctive

e.g. If you started now, you would arrive on time.

Past time

Past Perfect Subjunctive

or Past Perfect Continuous Subjunctive

e.g. If you had started yesterday, you would have arrived on time.

See Exercise 12.

c. Changing a statement containing a probable condition into a statement containing an improbable condition
A statement containing a probable condition can be changed into a statement containing an improbable condition, by changing the forms of the verbs.

For instance, in each of the following pairs of examples, the first statement contains a probable condition; whereas the second statement contains an improbable condition. The verbs in the subordinate clauses and main clauses are underlined.

Probable: If he is here now, we will give him the book.
Improbable: If he were here now, we would give him the book.

Probable: If I have time tonight, I will help you with your homework.
Improbable: If I had time tonight, I would help you with your homework.

In these examples, he is here now and I have time tonight express probable conditions; whereas he were here now and I had time tonight express improbable conditions.

These examples illustrate how, when referring to non-continuous actions in present or future time, a statement containing a probable condition can be changed into a statement containing an improbable condition. The verb in the subordinate clause is changed from the Simple Present Indicative to the Simple Past Subjunctive; and the verb in the main clause is changed from the Simple Future to the Simple conjugation with would.

See Exercise 13.

It is sometimes said that when a verb is in the Indicative Mood, the use of a past tense indicates remoteness in terms of time; however, when a verb is in the Subjunctive Mood, the use of a past tense indicates remoteness in terms of probability.

6. The imperative mood

The Imperative Mood is used for giving commands. Like the Simple Present Subjunctive, the Imperative Mood of a verb is formed from the bare infinitive of the verb. For instance, the Imperative of the verb to work is work. In the following examples, the verbs in the Imperative Mood are underlined.
e.g. Work!
Work harder!

Likewise, the Imperative of the verb to be is be.
e.g. Be more alert!
You be ready to come with us.

The Imperative Mood can be used only in the second person. As shown in the first three examples above, the subject of the sentence is often omitted when the Imperative Mood is used. In such sentences, the subject you is said to be "understood". In written English, when the subject of the verb is omitted from a command, the command is often followed by an exclamation mark: !

The Imperative Mood can also be used in negative statements. Negative statements are formed using the auxiliary do, followed by the word not. The contraction don't is often used in spoken English. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Do not work so hard.

Don't work so hard.

Do not be afraid.

Don't be afraid.

See Exercise 14.

EXERCISES for Chapter 9

1. Fill in the blanks with the Simple Present Subjunctive of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
They insisted that she _____ at once. (to come)
They insisted that she come at once.

The proposal that she ______ us has merit. (to meet)
The proposal that she meet us has merit.

1. He suggested that I _________ ready by eight o'clock. (to be)
2. We request that she _________ the window. (to open)
3. They demanded that he _________ the room. (to leave)
4. I will ask that she _____________ me. (to accompany)
5. They recommended that he _________ to Bermuda. (to fly)
6. The request that we ______ ready to leave at six is a nuisance. (to be)
7. The recommendation that she ______ a holiday was carried out. (to take)
8. It is necessary that you _________ able to come with us. (to be)
9. They asked that we _________ standing. (to remain)
10. The requirement that he _________ work will be hard to meet. (to find)
11. It is important that he _________ everything he can. (to learn)
12. The demand that she __________ the report has been carried out. (to complete)
Answers

2. Complete each of the following sentences with the Past Perfect Subjunctive of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
They wished they ___ not ____. (to come)
They wished they had not come.

I wish I ________ ready on time. (to be)
I wish I had been ready on time.

Will she wish she __________ her bicycle? (to ride)
Will she wish she had ridden her bicycle?

1. I wish I ______ not ____________ the answers. (to lose)
2. They wished they ______ not _____________ the appointment. (to forget)
3. He will wish he __________________ us the book. (to show)
4. Will they wish we __________________ them some food? (to give)
5. We wish it _______________ yesterday. (to snow)
6. She wished she ______ not _________ the window. (to open)
7. I wished I _______________ the news. (to hear)
8. You wish you _______________ what to do. (to know)
Answers

3. Complete each of the following sentences with the Simple Past Subjunctive of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
He wished he ____ able to do it. (to be)
He wished he were able to do it.

I wish I ______ with you. (to agree)
I wish I agreed with you.

They will wish they _____ time to come. (to have)
They will wish they had time to come.

1. I wish it _________ possible to finish the work tonight. (to be)
2. Will he wish he ______ ready? (to be)
3. She wished she _________ how to sing. (to know)
4. We wish they ____________ to come with us. (to want)
5. You wished you ___________ better. (to feel)
6. They will wish it _________ warmer. (to be)
7. Does he wish he ____________ younger? (to be)
8. I wish I _________ the subject more interesting. (to find)
Answers

4. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with would. For example:
They wished the sun ___________. (to shine)
They wished the sun would shine.

Does she wish it __________? (to snow)
Does she wish it would snow?

You will wish the bell _________. (to ring)
You will wish the bell would ring.

1. They wished she __________________ the arrangements. (to make)
2. He will wish you __________________ him. (to help)
3. She wishes the mail _______________. (to come)
4. We wished they _________________. (to hurry)
5. You will wish the door _________________. (to open)
6. They wish we _________________ for them. (to wait)
7. I wish you _________________ to me. (to write)
8. Will she wish you _______________ her? (to join)
Answers

5. Paying attention to the underlined adverbs indicating time, complete each of the following sentences with the correct form of the verb shown in brackets. Use the Past Perfect Subjunctive, the Simple Past Subjunctive, or the Simple conjugation with would, depending on whether the time of the action referred to in the subordinate clause is earlier than, the same as, or later than, the time of making the wish. For example:
We wished they _________ us earlier. (to call)
We wished they had called us earlier.

She wishes she ____ in Rome now.
She wishes she were in Rome now.

I wish you __________ with us tomorrow. (to come)
I wish you would come with us tomorrow.

1. I wish he ___________ here now. (to be)
2. I wish that you _____________ here yesterday. (to be)
3. We wish you ________________ tomorrow. (to come)
4. You will wish you ______________ earlier. (to leave)
5. They wished he _________________ with them the next day. (to come)
6. We wish you ________________ yesterday. (to arrive)
7. I wish that he ______________ us next year. (to visit)
8. She wishes that she ___________ at home now. (to be)
9. You wish that he ______________ you last week. (to help)
10. He will always wish he ____________ rich. (to be)
11. The boy wished that he ____________ the competition the next day. (to win)
12. She will wish she _____________ the arrangements earlier. (to make)
13. I wish the weather ____________ warmer now. (to be)
14. We always wished we ____________ fluent in other languages. (to be)
15. They wish he ________________ them next week. (to telephone)
Answers

6. For each of the following sentences, rewrite the subordinate clause, using the form in which the word if is omitted. For example:
If I were in your position, I would pay close attention.
Were I in your position, I would pay close attention.

If it had been raining, we would have used our umbrellas.
Had it been raining, we would have used our umbrellas.

1. If he were here, he would lend us his car.
2. If I had remembered their address, I would have sent them a card.
3. If we were not waiting for a telephone call, we would go downtown.
4. If they had recognized her, they would have spoken to her.
5. If I had been intending to go shopping, I would have let you know.
6. If you had seen the movie, you would have liked it.
7. If it were not snowing, we would go out.
8. If he had been shoveling the walk, we would have seen him.
Answers

7. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with would. For example:
We __________ if we were ready. (to come)
We would come if we were ready.

_____ you _____ more if you had time? (to travel)
Would you travel more if you had time?

If they saw us, they _____ not _________ us. (to recognize)
If they saw us, they would not recognize us.

_____ you not ____ glad if you were rich? (to be)
Would you not be glad if you were rich?

1. If we were hitchhiking, ________ you ________ to pick us up? (to stop)
2. If we waited for him, we ________ not ________ on time. (to be)
3. ________ he ________ us know if we made a mistake? (to let)
4. I ________ not _______ to have a party if you were not there. (to want)
5. If you knew more about her, you ________________ your opinion. (to change)
6. ________ you ________ pizza if you did not like it? (to order)
7. ________ they not ________ to come if we asked them? (to agree)
8. We ________ not _________ a car unless we were insured. (to drive)
Answers

8. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Perfect conjugation with would. For example:
If it had rained, I ________________ at home. (to stay)
If it had rained, I would have stayed at home.

_____ you _________ with us if we had asked you? (to come)
Would you have come with us if we had asked you?

If he had hurried, he _____ not ___________ the bus. (to miss)
If he had hurried, he would not have missed the bus.

_____ she not __________ if she had seen us? (to wave)
Would she not have waved if she had seen us?

1. If he had arrived late, ________ we ______________ without him? (to begin)
2. If they had felt thirsty, ________ they not _____________ the lemonade? (to drink)
3. If we had been here, we _______ not ______________ the fireworks. (to miss)
4. If his office had called, _______ he not _______________ to work? (to return)
5. She _______ not _______________ early if she had not had a good reason. (to leave)
6. If they had searched more carefully, they _____________________ the watch sooner. (to find)
7. If you had visited Rome, _______ you ____________ to the opera? (to go)
8. She ______________________ down if she had been tired. (to lie)
Answers

9. The following statements contain false or improbable conditions. Paying attention to the underlined adverbs indicating time, complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the appropriate conjugations with would. use the Simple conjugation for actions pertaining to the present or the future, and use the Perfect conjugation for actions pertaining to the past. For example:
If you came with us now, you _________ everything. (to see)
If you came with us now, you would see everything.

_____ he __________ us yesterday if we had slept in? (to wake)
Would he have woken us yesterday if we had slept in?

1. If he were here now he _______ not ___________ to help us. (to hesitate)
2. I ___________________ the book last week if I had known you wanted it. (to finish)
3. ______ you ______________ to him last night if you had seen him? (to speak)
4. If they were old enough, they __________________ the contest next week. (to enter)
5. ______ she not ____________ a vacation now if she had more time? (to take)
6. If he had sent a message, we ______________________ it two days ago. (to receive)
7. I ____________________ it if you came with me now. (to appreciate)
8. ______ she not ________ grateful if we offered to help her tomorrow? (to be)
9. ______ he _____________ yesterday if he had entered the race? (to win)
10. _______ they not __________________ more books last month if they had noticed the stock was low? (to order)
11. _______ she not ___________ us now if she knew where we lived? (to visit)
12. _______ you _________________ cucumbers yesterday if they had been on sale? (to buy)
Answers

10. For each of the following sentences, complete the subordinate clause with the Simple Past Subjunctive of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
If he ____ in town, he would call us. (to be)
If he were in town, he would call us.

Would you go to the party if you ________ an invitation? (to receive)
Would you go to the party if you received an invitation?

If he ___ not ____ his work, he would find another job. (to like)
If he did not like his work, he would find another job.

1. If he ________ rich, he would travel. (to be)
2. _________ I not anxious to meet him, I would stay at home. (to be)
3. He would have more free time if he ______ not _________ so hard. (to work)
4. If I _________ a car, I would visit Cape Breton. (to have)
5. We would take the bus if it _________ to snow. (to begin)
6. If you _________ him, you would surely recognize him. (to see)
7. I would not confide in him if I _______ not _________ him. (to trust)
8. If we _______ not _________ time, we would let you know. (to have)
9. If he _____________ an expedition, I would certainly join it. (to organize)
10. I would not worry about it if I _________ you. (to be)
Answers

11. For each of the following sentences, complete the subordinate clause with the Past Perfect Subjunctive of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
If I __________ him to do it, he would have obeyed me. (to order)
If I had ordered him to do it, he would have obeyed me.

Had it not ______ yesterday, we would have raked the leaves. (to snow)
Had it not snowed yesterday, we would have raked the leaves.

1. I would not have got lost if I ______________ the map. (to study)
2. _______ he _________ at home, we would have visited him. (to be)
3. We would have invited him if we ________________ he would come. (to think)
4. He would have applied for the job if he _______________ the advertisement. (to see)
5. We would not have ordered tea, ______ we __________ how late it was. (to know)
6. ______ it not __________, they would have held the party in the park. (to rain)
7. We would have agreed with you if we _________________ what you meant. (to understand)
8. If you _____________ salt on the steps, they would not have been so slippery. (to put)
9. ______ he ___________ to us, we would have known when to expect him. (to write)
10. If he ________________ to take the course, he would have had to work hard. (to choose)
Answers

12. The following statements contain false or improbable conditions. Paying attention to the underlined adverbs indicating time, complete the subordinate clauses with the correct forms of the verbs shown in brackets. Use the Simple Past Subjunctive for actions pertaining to the present or the future, and use the Past Perfect Subjunctive for actions pertaining to the past. For example:
If she ____ here now, she would be admiring the rose bushes. (to be)
If she were here now, she would be admiring the rose bushes.

___ he ______ here last week, we would have met him. (to stay)
Had he stayed here last week, we would have met him.

1. If he _________ here now, we would ask his opinion. (to be)
2. We would have forgotten our tickets last night, if she ____not ________ us. (to remind)
3. _____ I ________ earlier, I would have arrived on time yesterday. (to leave)
4. Would you visit Spain next summer, if you _________ enough money? (to have)
5. If it _________________ yesterday, we would not need to water the lawn. (to rain)
6. If he _________ you last Wednesday, he would have asked your advice. (to see)
7. If they __________ to leave now, they would need special permission. (to want)
8. _____ they _________ of the concert yesterday, they would have arranged to go. (to know)
9. Would you not have stayed longer last week, if you ___________ able to? (to be)
10. If they ____________ the letter tomorrow, they would receive an answer in two weeks. (to write)
11. If he _____________ the book now, he would enjoy it. (to read)
12. If we _____________ more attention yesterday, we would know what time to be there. (to pay)
Answers

13. Change each of the following sentences from a statement containing a probable condition to a statement containing a false or improbable condition. Following the model of the examples, change the underlined verb in the subordinate clause from the Simple Present Indicative to the Simple Past Subjunctive; and change the underlined verb in the main clause from the Simple Future to the Simple conjugation with would. For example:
If she is angry, she will scold us.
If she were angry, she would scold us.

If he wins, we will congratulate him.
If he won, we would congratulate him.

They will join us, if we send them a message.
They would join us, if we sent them a message.

1. If they want to see you, they will come to the party.
2. If he is curious, he will ask what we are doing.
3. She will help us, if she has time.
4. If they work hard, they will succeed.
5. If I find the culprits, I will teach them a lesson.
6. If she recognizes us, she will wave.
7. They will treat you well, if you are honest with them.
8. If she likes you, she will tell you.
9. If he is ready, we will invite him to come.
10. If they see me, they will want to speak to me.
Answers

14. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the Imperative form of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
____ the door. (to open)
Open the door.

Don't ______ to come. (to forget)
Don't forget to come.

1. Don't __________ out late. (to stay)
2. Please _________ ready on time. (to be)
3. Don't ___________ about that. (to worry)
4. _________ your own business! (to mind)
5. _________ careful not to trip. (to be)
6. Do not ____________ everything you hear. (to believe)
7. Always ___________ both ways before crossing the street. (to look)
8. You __________ here while I go into the store. (to wait)
9. __________ me! (to excuse)
10. _________ me a postcard if you have time. (to send)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 9

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. be 2. open 3. leave 4. accompany 5. fly 6. be 7. take 8. be 9. remain 10. find 11. learn 12. complete

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. had, lost 2. had, forgotten 3. had shown 4. had given 5. had snowed 6. had, opened 7. had heard 8. had known

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. were 2. were 3. knew 4. wanted 5. felt 6. were 7. were 8. found

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. would make 2. would help 3. would come 4. would hurry 5. would open 6. would wait 7. would write 8. would join

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. were 2. had been 3. would come 4. had left 5. would come 6. had arrived 7. would visit 8. were 9. had helped 10. were 11. would win 12. had made 13. were 14. were 15. would telephone

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. Were he here, he would lend us his car. 2. Had I remembered their address, I would have sent them a card. 3. Were we not waiting for a telephone call, we would go downtown. 4. Had they recognized her, they would have spoken to her. 5. Had I been intending to go shopping, I would have let you know. 6. Had you seen the movie, you would have liked it. 7. Were it not snowing, we would go out. 8. Had he been shoveling the walk, we would have seen him.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. would, stop 2. would, be 3. Would, let 4. would, want 5. would change 6. Would, order 7. Would, agree 8. would, drive

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. would, have begun 2. would, have drunk 3. would, have missed 4. would, have returned 5. would, have left 6. would have found 7. would, have gone 8. would have lain

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. would, hesitate 2. would have finished 3. Would, have spoken 4. would enter 5. Would, take 6. would have received 7. would appreciate 8. Would, be 9. Would, have won 10. Would, have ordered 11. Would, visit 12. Would, have bought

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. were 2. Were 3. did, work 4. had 5. began 6. saw 7. did, trust 8. did, have 9. organized 10. were

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. had studied 2. Had, been 3. had thought 4. had seen 5. had, known 6. Had, rained 7. had understood 8. had put 9. Had, written 10. had chosen

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. were 2. had, reminded 3. Had, left 4. had 5. had rained 6. had seen 7. wanted 8. Had, known 9. had been 10. wrote 11. read 12. had paid

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. If they wanted to see you, they would come to the party. 2. If he were curious, he would ask what we are doing. 3. She would help us, if she had time. 4. If they worked hard, they would succeed. 5. If I found the culprits, I would teach them a lesson. 6. If she recognized us, she would wave. 7. They would treat you well, if you were honest with them. 8. If she liked you, she would tell you. 9. If he were ready, we would invite him to come. 10. If they saw me, they would want to speak to me.

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. stay 2. be 3. worry 4. Mind 5. Be 6. believe 7. look 8. wait 9. Excuse 10. Send

CHAPTER 10.  MODAL VERBS

There are nine modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would. Two of these, will and would, have already been discussed in detail.

1. Formation of the modal conjugations

All of the modal verbs are used as auxiliaries, and all of them form conjugations in the same way. Thus, the other modal auxiliaries form conjugations in the same way as will and would. For instance, the conjugation of the modal auxiliary could with the verb to work is formed as follows:

Conjugations of the modal auxiliary Could with the verb To Work

Simple

Continuous

I could work

I could be working

you could work

you could be working

he could work

he could be working

she could work

she could be working

it could work

it could be working

we could work

we could be working

they could work

they could be working

Perfect

Perfect Continuous

I could have worked

I could have been working

you could have worked

you could have been working

he could have worked

he could have been working

she could have worked

she could have been working

it could have worked

it could have been working

we could have worked

we could have been working

they could have worked

they could have been working

The formation of conjugations using the modal auxiliaries can be summarized as follows:

Conjugation

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple

modal auxiliary

bare infinitive

Continuous

modal auxiliary + be

present participle

Perfect

modal auxiliary + have

past participle

Perfect Continuous

modal auxiliary + have been

present participle

Verbs in the Simple conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer to present or future time; whereas verbs in the Perfect conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer to past time.

Verbs in the Continuous conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer to continuous, ongoing actions in present or future time; whereas verbs in the Perfect Continuous conjugation with a modal auxiliary generally refer to continuous, ongoing actions in past time.

The word order for questions and negative statements in the conjugations with the modal auxiliaries is similar to that in other English conjugations.

a. Questions
To form a question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

She can work.

Can she work?

He would be working.

Would he be working?

They should have worked.

Should they have worked?

I could have been working.

Could I have been working?

See Exercise 1.

b. Negative statements
To form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the first auxiliary. It should be noted that the auxiliary can, followed by not, is written as a single word. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Negative Statement

She can work.

She cannot work.

He would be working.

He would not be working.

They should have worked.

They should not have worked.

I could have been working.

I could not have been working.

See Exercise 2.

In spoken English, the following contractions may be used:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

cannot

can't

could not

couldn't

might not

mightn't

must not

mustn't

shall not

shan't

should not

shouldn't

will not

won't

would not

wouldn't

However, it should be noted that the contractions mightn't and shan't are rarely used in modern American English.

c. Negative questions
To form a negative question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. For example:

Without Contractions

With Contractions

Can she not work?

Can't she work?

Would he not be working?

Wouldn't he be working?

Should they not have worked?

Shouldn't they have worked?

Could I not have been working?

Couldn't I have been working?

See Exercise 3.

d. Tag questions
Tag questions are formed using the first auxiliary. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined.

Affirmative Statement

Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

She can work.

She can work, can't she?

He would be working.

He would be working, wouldn't he?

They should have worked.

They should have worked, shouldn't they?

I could have been working.

I could have been working, couldn't I?

2. Relationships among the modal auxiliaries

Just as would can be used as the past of will; could can be used as the past of can; might can be used as the past of may; and should can be used as the past of shall. The auxiliary must can refer either to the present or to the past. These relationships among the modal auxiliaries can be summarized as follows:

Present

Past

can

could

may

might

must

must

shall

should

will

would

The following examples illustrate these relationships:

Tense of Verb in Main Clause

Complete Sentence

Simple Present

I think I can do it.

Simple Past

I thought I could do it.

Simple Present

He predicts it may rain.

Simple Past

He predicted it might rain.

Simple Present

She knows she must be there.

Simple Past

She knew she must be there.

Simple Present

I wonder what we shall do tomorrow.

Simple Past

I wondered what we should do the next day.

See Exercises 4 and 5.

Each of the modal auxiliaries has more than one meaning. The meaning depends upon the context in which the auxiliary is used.

3. Can and Could

The modal auxiliary can is most often used in the Simple conjugation.

The most important meaning of can and could is to be able to.
e.g. He can walk thirty miles a day.
When she was young, she could swim across the lake.
The first example has the meaning, He is able to walk thirty miles a day. The second example has the meaning, When she was young, she was able to swim across the lake.

Like the auxiliary would, could can be used in polite requests and suggestions.
e.g. Could you please tell me how to get to Almond Street?
You could try asking the bus driver to help you.

As indicated in the previous chapter, could can be used in sentences expressing wishes.
e.g. He wished he could visit France.
I wish I could have helped you.

See Exercise 6.

It has also been pointed out that could can be used in either the main clause or the subordinate clause of a statement expressing a false or improbable condition.
e.g. If he were stronger, he could help us push the car out of the snow.
She could have caught the bus if she had left right away.
I would be glad if I could help you.
If he could have solved the problem, he would have felt happier.

See Exercises 7 and 8.

In informal English, can is often used with the meaning to be allowed to.
e.g. He says I can take the day off.
Can I have some more soup?

However, in formal English, it is considered more correct to use the auxiliary may in such situations.
He says I may take the day off.
May I have some more soup?

4. May, Might and Must

One of the meanings of may and might is to be allowed to.
e.g. The members of the organization agree that I may join it.
The members of the organization agreed that I might join it.

The auxiliary must is a stronger form of may and might. One of the meanings of must is to be obliged to or to have to.
e.g. You must provide proper identification in order to cash a check.
They must work harder if they are to succeed.

It should be noted that the meaning of must not is to be obliged not to.
e.g. You must not leave.
He must not speak.
The first example has the meaning, You must stay. The second example has the meaning, He must be silent.

In order to express the idea of not being obliged to do something, an expression such as not to be obliged to or not to have to is generally used.
e.g. You do not have to leave.
He is not obliged to speak.
The first example has the meaning, You may stay, if you wish. The second example has the meaning, He may be silent, if he wishes.

Like could and would, might can be used in polite requests and suggestions. The auxiliaries could, would and might can be used to express differing degrees of politeness:

Degree of Politeness

Auxiliary

somewhat polite

could

quite polite

would

very polite

might

Thus, might expresses the highest degree of politeness.
e.g. Might I observe what you are doing?
Might I offer some advice?

See Exercise 9.

May, might and must are also used to express differing degrees of probability:

Degree of Probability

Auxiliary

somewhat probable

may, might

highly probable

must

For instance, may and might are often used in the Simple conjugation to express the idea that an event is somewhat probable.
e.g. You might be right.
It may snow later this afternoon.

Similarly, must can be used in the Simple conjugation to express the idea that an event is highly probable.
e.g. He must be mistaken.

In the following examples, the Perfect conjugations with may, might and must are used to express differing degrees of probability relating to past events.
Rupert might have taken the money, but it seems unlikely.
It is possible he may have called while we were out.
It must have rained last night, because the streets are wet.

See Exercise 10.

5. Should

In British English, the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary should is often used in subordinate clauses stating conditions. This construction is usually used to refer to events that may occur by chance.
e.g. If I should see him, I will tell him what I think.

Should is also used with the meaning ought to. This is the most common use of should in American English.
e.g. You should take an umbrella with you, in case it starts to rain.
I should answer his letter as soon as possible.

Ought is said to be a defective verb, since it has no infinitive, or present or past participle. It does not modify, but has the same form, regardless of the subject. Ought can be used only in combination with other verbs. Unlike the modal auxiliaries, which are followed by the bare infinitive, ought is followed by the infinitive of whatever verb it accompanies.

In each of the following examples, ought is underlined, and the infinitive which follows it is printed in bold type.
e.g. You ought to take an umbrella with you.
He ought to stop smoking.
They ought to drive more carefully.

6. Expressions which are synonymous with the modal auxiliaries

The modal verbs can be used only as auxiliaries; they cannot be used on their own. They are defective, since they have no infinitive, or present or past participle.

It should be noted that in addition to the modal auxiliaries will and can, there are two other English verbs, to will and to can, which are conjugated regularly. The verb to will has the meaning to direct one's willpower toward something, or to bequeath by means of a will. The verb to can has the meaning to put into a can.

Because the modal auxiliaries are defective, they cannot be combined with one another. Thus, the fact that the English future tenses are formed with the modal auxiliaries will and shall means that the other modal auxiliaries cannot be put into the future.

When it is desired to put the ideas expressed by the modal auxiliaries into the future, synonymous expressions must be used. The following are the synonymous expressions most often used:

Modal Auxiliary

Synonymous Expression

can

be able to

may

be allowed to

must

have to

It should be noted that the expression be allowed to is synonymous with may only when may is used in the sense of permission being granted.

The following examples illustrate how synonymous expressions may be used when it is desired to put the modal auxiliaries can, may and must into the future.

Present

Future

I can work.

I will be able to work.

You may work.

You will be allowed to work.

He must work.

He will have to work.

See Exercise 11.

a. The pronunciation of Have To
The following table illustrates how the pronunciation of the words have and has in the expression have to differs from the usual pronunciation of the verb to have. In the expression have to, the consonant preceding the t of to is unvoiced. An imitated pronunciation of has and have is indicated in the right-hand column.

Usual pronunciation of Have

Example

Imitated Pronunciation

She has two children.

"haz"

We have two children.

"hav"

Pronunciation of Have in the expression Have To

Example

Imitated Pronunciation

She has to leave.

"hass"

We have to leave.

"haff"

7. The use of auxiliaries in tag questions, short answers and ellipsis

In English, the verbs used as auxiliaries are to be, to do, to have, and the modal auxiliaries. All of these auxiliaries can be used in tag questions and short answers.

a. Negative tag questions
Negative tag questions have already been discussed. An affirmative statement is often followed by a negative tag question, in order to ask for confirmation of the affirmative statement. In the following examples, the negative tag questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.
e.g. You are coming with me, aren't you?
You like coffee, don't you?

For the Simple Present and the Simple Past of the verb to be, tag questions are formed using the verb itself. For instance, in the following examples, the verbs is and were are used in negative tag questions.
e.g. She is very nice, isn't she?
They were ready on time, weren't they?

For the Simple Present and the Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do is used in tag questions. For instance, in the following examples, the auxiliaries does and did are used in negative tag questions.
e.g. He rides a bicycle, doesn't he?
They ordered pizza, didn't they?

For all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used in tag questions. For instance, in the following examples, the first auxiliaries have, would, should and can are used in negative tag questions.
e.g. You have worked all night, haven't you?
He would have helped us, wouldn't he?
They should get more exercise, shouldn't they?
She can speak five languages, can't she?

See Exercise 12.

b. Affirmative tag questions
A negative statement is often followed by an affirmative tag question, in order to ask for confirmation of the negative statement, or in order to ask for more information. In the following examples, the affirmative tag questions are underlined.
e.g. He is not very tall, is he?
They don't want to work, do they?

The rules for forming affirmative tag questions are similar to those for forming negative tag questions. In the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be, the verb itself is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used.
e.g. He wasn't much help, was he?
They didn't want to come with us, did they?
You hadn't slept well, had you?
She can't speak Greek, can she?
They wouldn't mind helping us, would they?

See Exercise 13.

c. Short answers
Sometimes it is possible to reply to a question by means of a short answer, consisting of a subject, followed by the verb or first auxiliary used in the question. The rules for forming affirmative and negative short answers are similar to those for forming affirmative and negative tag questions. Thus, in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be, the verb itself is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used.

The following are examples of questions with affirmative and negative short answers. The verbs and auxiliaries are underlined.

Contractions are usually used in negative short answers.

Question

Affirmative Short Answer

Negative Short Answer

Is he ready?

Yes, he is.

No, he isn't.

Were you finished?

Yes, I was.

No, I wasn't.

Do you know them?

Yes, I do.

No, I don't.

Did we win?

Yes, we did.

No, we didn't.

Has he left?

Yes, he has.

No, he hasn't.

Will they need help?

Yes, they will.

No, they won't.

Could you help me?

Yes, I could.

No, I couldn't.

It should be noted that the form of the verb in a short answer is not always the same as the form of the verb in the question, since the verb of a short answer must agree with its subject. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and their subjects are printed in bold type.
e.g. Are you ready? Yes, I am.
Were you excited? Yes, I was.

See Exercises 14 and 15.

d. Ellipsis
In English, words can sometimes be omitted from a sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence. The words which are omitted are said to be "understood". This type of short form is usually referred to as ellipsis.

Short answers are one kind of ellipsis. For instance, in the example:
Can you speak Spanish? Yes, I can.
the short answer Yes, I can, means Yes, I can speak Spanish. The words speak Spanish are understood.

Another kind of ellipsis uses the words and so, followed by the verb or first auxiliary, followed by the subject.

For instance, the sentence:
He can speak Spanish, and I can speak Spanish too.
would normally be shortened to:
He can speak Spanish, and so can I.

Other examples of this type of ellipsis are given below. The verbs and auxiliaries are underlined.

Without Ellipsis: She is tired, and I am tired too.
With Ellipsis: She is tired, and so am I.

Without Ellipsis: They like ice cream, and we like ice cream too.
With Ellipsis: They like ice cream, and so do we.

Without Ellipsis: He wrote a letter, and I wrote a letter too.
With Ellipsis: He wrote a letter, and so did I.

Without Ellipsis: You had worked all night, and I had worked all night too.
With Ellipsis: You had worked all night, and so had I.

Without Ellipsis: You should get more sleep, and we should get more sleep too.
With Ellipsis: You should get more sleep, and so should we.

As illustrated above, the rules for forming the construction with and so are similar to the rules for forming tag questions and short answers. Thus, in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be, the verb itself is used; in the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do is used; and in the case of all other tenses and conjugations, the first auxiliary is used.

See Exercise 16.

The construction using the words and so is used to express an affirmative idea, following an affirmative statement.

In contrast, a similar construction, using the words and neither, is used to express a negative idea, following a negative statement.

For instance, the sentence:
He cannot speak Danish, and I cannot speak Danish either.
would normally be shortened to:
He cannot speak Danish, and neither can I.

Other examples of this type of ellipsis are given below. The verbs and auxiliaries are underlined.

Without Ellipsis: She is not ready, and you are not ready either.
With Ellipsis: She is not ready, and neither are you.

Without Ellipsis: They do not own a car, and he does not own a car either.
With Ellipsis: They do not own a car, and neither does he.

Without Ellipsis: We have not forgotten, and she has not forgotten either.
With Ellipsis: We have not forgotten, and neither has she.

Without Ellipsis: They couldn't find it, and we couldn't find it either.
With Ellipsis: They couldn't find it, and neither could we.

See Exercise 17.

EXERCISES for Chapter 10

1. Change the following affirmative statements into questions. For example:
I may go.
May I go?

We could have found it.
Could we have found it?

1. I must leave at four o'clock.
2. He might be leaving for work now.
3. We can solve the puzzle.
4. You should have called him.
5. They could have been waiting for the bus.
6. I shall go out now.
7. You will have finished the book.
8. We should be making the arrangements.
9. She would like to know the answer.
10. They can explain what happened.
Answers

2. Change the following affirmative statements into negative statements. For example:
I can answer the question.
I cannot answer the question.

He shall be sorry.
He shall not be sorry.

1. You must come with us.
2. It may be sunny tomorrow.
3. She could have won the race.
4. We might be right.
5. You would have liked that movie.
6. They can swim very well.
7. She might be finishing school now.
8. He should have been walking to work.
9. I shall be happy to see him.
10. You will have been working all night.
Answers

3. Change the following affirmative statements into negative questions. Do not use contractions in this exercise. For example:
He must be at work now.
Must he not be at work now?

They might call us later.
Might they not call us later?

1. You should be wearing a warm hat.
2. He could have decided to stay at home.
3. They might have forgotten the message.
4. She will see you again next week.
5. They would enjoy riding on the ferry.
6. He may decide to go camping.
7. They could have been playing football yesterday.
8. We shall visit our friends.
9. She must have wanted to join us.
10. He should be getting more sleep.
Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, change the verb in the main clause from the Simple Present to the Simple Past; and change the modal auxiliary from the present to the past. For example:
He says he can do it.
He said he could do it.

Do you think she will manage it?
Did you think she would manage it?

1. She says he may go.
2. I think we can finish on time.
3. They know we will help them.
4. He says he must leave.
5. We believe she will be there.
6. Do you hope they will reply soon?
7. Does he not realize we may meet him there?
8. You think we can reach our destination by nightfall.
9. I suppose he must be at home.
10. I predict I shall succeed.
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, change the verb in the main clause from the Simple Past to the Simple Present; and change the modal auxiliary from the past to the present. For example:
They felt they could not win.
They feel they cannot win.

He believed he would reach the Amazon River in a few days.
He believes he will reach the Amazon River in a few days.

1. He thought he might arrive early.
2. She felt she must make a phone call.
3. I maintained they would not have any difficulty.
4. They realized they could not do all the work in one day.
5. We knew we should not be able to return home for Christmas.
6. They hoped they could find their way.
7. He imagined he would be able to convince us.
8. She suspected they must be living nearby.
9. I hoped you would enjoy the play.
10. We thought you might know him.
Answers

6. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary could. For example:
I wish I ___________ Portuguese. (to speak)
I wish I could speak Portuguese.

They will wish they ____________ the questions. (to answer)
They will wish they could answer the questions.

You wished you _________ some chocolate. (to buy)
You wished you could buy some chocolate.

1. He wishes he ______________ them. (to call)
2. We wish we _______________ more time sightseeing. (to spend)
3. She wished she _______________ you. (to visit)
4. They will wish they _______________ to the concert. (to go)
5. I wished I _______________ my way home. (to find)
6. He wishes he _______________ famous. (to become)
7. I wish I _______________ it to you. (to describe)
Answers

7. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Simple conjugation with the auxiliary could. For example:
If he wanted to, he ___________ how to sail a boat. (to learn)
If he wanted to, he could learn how to sail a boat.

If we ____________ anywhere, we would visit Greece. (to travel)
If we could travel anywhere, we would visit Greece.

1. If I _____________ you, I would be glad to do it. (to help)
2. If she played the piano, she ______________ your singing. (to accompany)
3. We _____________ before dawn if we made all our preparations tonight. (to depart)
4. He would be thrilled if he ___________ to ride a horse. (to learn)
5. If she came with us, we ______________ her all the sights. (to show)
6. If they gave us their address, we ______________ them a card. (to send)
7. He would move at once if he _____________ a better place to live. (to find)
Answers

8. Complete the following sentences, using the indicated verbs in the Perfect conjugation with the auxiliary could. For example:
Had I studied harder, I ___________________ every question. (to answer)
Had I studied harder, I could have answered every question.

_____ she ________ you earlier, she would have spoken to you. (to see)
Could she have seen you earlier, she would have spoken to you.

1. If you ___________________ him trying to skate, you would have laughed. (to see)
2. If I had experienced difficulties, I __________________ him for help. (to ask)
3. It would have been better if we __________________ everything to her. (to explain)
4. Had they had permission, they ______________ the arrangements themselves. (to make)
5. We _______ easily our way if we had not brought a compass with us. (to lose)
6. ______ they _____________ what he had in mind, they would not have been so complacent. (to know)
7. Had a flying saucer landed on the roof, he _______ not ___________ more surprised. (to be)
8. If only I __________________ them of the truth, much time and trouble would have been saved. (to convince)
9. If you ____________________ what might happen, would you have acted differently? (to guess)
10. Had I realized he was in town, I __________________ him. (to contact)
Answers

9. Fill in the blanks, indicating whether each of the following sentences is somewhat polite (S), quite polite (Q), or very polite (V). Notice the indirect phrasing of the most polite requests and suggestions. For example:
Could you pass the butter? S
Would you please pass the butter? Q
Might I trouble you to pass the butter? V

1. Could you help me? ___
2. Would you like some help? ___
3. Might I be of assistance? ___
4. You could come with us. ___
5. You might wish to accompany us. ___
6. Would you like to come with us? ___
7. Might I trouble you for two pounds of fish? ___
8. I would like to buy two pounds of fish, please. ___
9. Could you give me two pounds of fish? ___
10. Could I have your opinion on this? ___
11. Would you please tell me what you think? ___
12. Might I know your feelings on the matter? ___
Answers

10. Complete each of the following sentences with the auxiliary may, might or must. Use may or might when the event described seems somewhat probable, and use must when the event described seems very probable. For example:
You ___ be right; we shall have to wait and see.
You may be right; we shall have to wait and see. or You might be right; we shall have to wait and see.

That ____ be our landlord; I would recognize him anywhere.
That must be our landlord; I would recognize him anywhere.

1. Although it _________ be true, it seems unlikely.
2. That _________ have been the number 10 bus, because no other bus runs on this street.
3. We __________ have to wait a long time for a bus, because they do not run very frequently.
4. That ________ be the right answer; there is no other possibility.
5. Tell me your problem; I _________ be able to help you.
6. It _________ have been he who answered the phone, because no one else was at home.
7. Since we have never been to this store before, we _________ have difficulty finding what we want.
8. You _________ be pleased that you are doing so well in your new job.
9. I _________ go downtown tomorrow; it depends on the weather.
10. Although he is a very careful worker, it is possible that he _________ have made a mistake.
Answers

11. Rewrite the following sentences, putting the underlined verbs into the future. For example:
They can explain the situation to us.
They will be able to explain the situation to us.

May they leave whenever they wish?
Will they be allowed to leave whenever they wish?

She must obtain a license.
She will have to obtain a license.

1. She can describe it to you.
2. You must lock the doors when you leave.
3. He can follow the instructions.
4. May they stay overnight?
5. We must remember to buy groceries.
6. She can finish the work on time.
7. Must he take his glasses with him?
8. Can they buy the tickets in advance?
9. She must learn to be more careful.
10. You may choose your own seat.
Answers

12. Add negative tag questions to the following affirmative statements. For example:
They are lucky.
They are lucky, aren't they?

You know what I mean.
You know what I mean, don't you?

We will tell him the truth.
We will tell him the truth, won't we?

She could try harder.
She could try harder, couldn't she?

1. You are cold.
2. They passed the test.
3. I can do this well.
4. You live near the school.
5. He went downtown.
6. We should call them.
7. She likes toffee.
8. They could help us.
9. I won the race.
10. You were reading.
11. He rides a bicycle.
12. We would need more time.
Answers

13. Add affirmative tag questions to the following negative statements. For example:
She isn't well.
She isn't well, is she?

You don't eat fish.
You don't eat fish, do you?

He hadn't found it.
He hadn't found it, had he?

They won't mind.
They won't mind, will they?

1. They won't reach their destination before five o'clock.
2. He doesn't want to come with us.
3. She hasn't eaten breakfast yet.
4. They aren't very clever.
5. I couldn't have persuaded you.
6. You won't forget to come.
7. We weren't expecting company.
8. They wouldn't like that.
Answers

14. Write affirmative short answers to the following questions. For example:
Is he thirsty?
Yes, he is.

Haven't they read the book?
Yes, they have.

Can they finish the work by themselves?
Yes, they can.

Should she leave now?
Yes, she should.

1. Do we need any butter?
2. May they send for you?
3. Is she sure she is right?
4. Does he enjoy studying?
5. Had they been meaning to call us?
6. Couldn't he send us the information?
7. Would she like to listen to the radio?
8. Had he been wanting to travel?
Answers

15. Write negative short answers to the following questions. For example:
Wasn't he thirsty?
No, he wasn't.

Were they watching television?
No, they weren't.

Should we turn left here?
No, we shouldn't.

Will they want some coffee?
No, they won't.

1. Isn't she driving her own car?
2. Will he be visiting Denmark?
3. Would she mind?
4. Could they understand everything?
5. Will she have to get up early?
6. Should he warn them?
7. Didn't we sell all the chocolate bars?
8. Couldn't they find any evidence?
Answers

16. Add the short form construction using the words and so to each of the following affirmative statements. Use the subjects shown in brackets. For example:
He is lucky. (I)
He is lucky, and so am I.

She likes chocolate. (you)
She likes chocolate, and so do you.

They can swim well. (we)
They can swim well, and so can we.

1. We are thirsty. (they)
2. You have been helpful. (she)
3. I swam to the island. (he)
4. He was riding a horse. (you)
5. They can understand Dutch. (we)
6. She enjoyed the trip. (I)
7. You should study hard. (they)
8. He reads a great deal. (she)
Answers

17. Add the short form construction using the words and neither to each of the following negative statements. Use the subjects shown in brackets. For example:
He is not angry. (we)
He is not angry, and neither are we.

They didn't visit you. (I)
They didn't visit you, and neither did I.

I couldn't understand it. (she)
I couldn't understand it, and neither could she.

1. You haven't finished supper. (she)
2. He couldn't tell the time. (they)
3. She is not planning to go. (we)
4. We didn't wait long. (he)
5. He has not been feeling well. (I)
6. She cannot run fast. (they)
7. We do not own a canary. (he)
8. You won't be needing an umbrella. (we)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 10

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. Must I leave at four o'clock? 2. Might he be leaving for work now? 3. Can we solve the puzzle? 4. Should you have called him? 5. Could they have been waiting for the bus? 6. Shall I go out now? 7. Will you have finished the book? 8. Should we be making the arrangements? 9. Would she like to know the answer? 10. Can they explain what happened?

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. You must not come with us. 2. It may not be sunny tomorrow. 3. She could not have won the race. 4. We might not be right. 5. You would not have liked that movie. 6. They cannot swim very well. 7. She might not be finishing school now. 8. He should not have been walking to work. 9. I shall not be happy to see him. 10. You will not have been working all night.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. Should you not be wearing a warm hat? 2. Could he not have decided to stay at home? 3. Might they not have forgotten the message? 4. Will she not see you again next week? 5. Would they not enjoy riding on the ferry? 6. May he not decide to go camping? 7. Could they not have been playing football yesterday? 8. Shall we not visit our friends? 9. Must she not have wanted to join us? 10. Should he not be getting more sleep?

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. She said he might go. 2. I thought we could finish on time. 3. They knew we would help them. 4. He said he must leave. 5. We believed she would be there. 6. Did you hope they would reply soon? 7. Did he not realize we might meet him there? 8. You thought we could reach our destination by nightfall. 9. I supposed he must be at home. 10. I predicted I should succeed.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. He thinks he may arrive early. 2. She feels she must make a phone call. 3. I maintain they will not have any difficulty. 4. They realize they cannot do all the work in one day. 5. We know we shall not be able to return home for Christmas. 6. They hope they can find their way. 7. He imagines he will be able to convince us. 8. She suspects they must be living nearby. 9. I hope you will enjoy the play. 10. We think you may know him.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. could call 2. could spend 3. could visit 4. could go 5. could find 6. could become 7. could describe

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. could help 2. could accompany 3. could depart 4. could learn 5. could show 6. could send 7. could find

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. could have seen 2. could have asked 3. could have explained 4. could have made 5. could, have lost 6. Could, have known 7. could, have been 8. could have convinced 9. could have guessed 10. could have contacted

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. S 2. Q 3. V 4. S 5. V 6. Q 7. V 8. Q 9. S 10. S 11. Q 12. V

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. may or might 2. must 3. may or might 4. must 5. may or might 6. must 7. may or might 8. must 9. may or might 10. may or might

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. She will be able to describe it to you. 2. You will have to lock the doors when you leave. 3. He will be able to follow the instructions. 4. Will they be allowed to stay overnight? 5. We will have to remember to buy groceries. 6. She will be able to finish the work on time. 7. Will he have to take his glasses with him? 8. Will they be able to buy the tickets in advance? 9. She will have to learn to be more careful. 10. You will be allowed to choose your own seat.

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. You are cold, aren't you? 2. They passed the test, didn't they? 3. I can do this well, can't I? 4. You live near the school, don't you? 5. He went downtown, didn't he? 6. We should call them, shouldn't we? 7. She likes toffee, doesn't she? 8. They could help us, couldn't they? 9. I won the race, didn't I? 10. You were reading, weren't you? 11. He rides a bicycle, doesn't he? 12. We would need more time, wouldn't we?

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. They won't reach their destination before five o'clock, will they? 2. He doesn't want to come with us, does he? 3. She hasn't eaten breakfast yet, has she? 4. They aren't very clever, are they? 5. I couldn't have persuaded you, could I? 6. You won't forget to come, will you? 7. We weren't expecting company, were we? 8. They wouldn't like that, would they?

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. Yes, we do. 2. Yes, they may. 3. Yes, she is. 4. Yes, he does. 5. Yes, they had. 6. Yes, he could. 7. Yes, she would. 8. Yes, he had.

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. No, she isn't. 2. No, he won't. 3. No, she wouldn't. 4. No, they couldn't. 5. No, she won't. 6. No, he shouldn't. 7. No, we didn't. 8. No, they couldn't.

Answers to Exercise 16:
1. We are thirsty, and so are they. 2. You have been helpful, and so has she. 3. I swam to the island, and so did he. 4. He was riding a horse, and so were you. 5. They can understand Dutch, and so can we. 6. She enjoyed the trip, and so did I. 7. You should study hard, and so should they. 8. He reads a great deal, and so does she.

Answers to Exercise 17:
1. You haven't finished supper, and neither has she. 2. He couldn't tell the time, and neither could they. 3. She is not planning to go, and neither are we. 4. We didn't wait long, and neither did he. 5. He has not been feeling well, and neither have I. 6. She cannot run fast, and neither can they. 7. We do not own a canary, and neither does he. 8. You won't be needing an umbrella, and neither will we.

CHAPTER 11.  TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

1. Direct objects

Most of the verbs examined so far have been in the Active Voice. When a verb is in the Active Voice, the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing performing the action described by the verb; and the object of the verb refers to the person or thing receiving the action described by the verb.

In the following examples, the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. He read the book.
I did not see the balloon.
They ate the potatoes quickly.
She rode her bicycle along the sidewalk.
Do we understand it?

In these sentences, the verbs read, did see, ate, rode and do understand are in the Active Voice; and the words book, balloon, potatoes, bicycle and it are the objects of the verbs. These objects are said to be direct objects, because they refer to things which receive directly the actions described by the verbs.

See Exercise 1.

2. Lay and Lie, Raise and Rise, and Set and Sit

Verbs which take an object are usually called transitive verbs. Verbs which do not take an object are usually called intransitive verbs.

Many English verbs can be used either intransitively or transitively. For instance, in the sentence Most birds can fly, the verb to fly is intransitive, since it is used without an object. But in the sentence This pilot will fly the plane, the verb to fly is transitive, since it takes the object plane.

However, some English verbs can be used only intransitively. A few pairs of verbs should be noted. The two verbs of each pair have similar meanings, but one of the verbs can take an object, and the other cannot. In the following table, the verbs labeled intransitive are those which cannot take an object.

Infinitive

Simple Past

Past Participle

Transitive:

to lay

laid

laid

Intransitive:

to lie

lay

lain

Transitive:

to raise

raised

raised

Intransitive:

to rise

rose

risen

Transitive:

to set

set

set

Intransitive:

to sit

sat

sat

Particular care must be taken not to confuse the verbs to lay and to lie, since, as shown above, the Simple Past of the verb to lie has the same form as the bare infinitive of the verb to lay.

a. To Lay and To Lie
To lay is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to lay. The verbs are underlined, and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. I am laying the table.
He laid a bet on the white horse.
The hen has laid an egg.

To lie is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to lie.
e.g. She is lying on the sofa.
We lay on the beach in the sun.
He has lain in bed for a week.

In these examples, it might appear that the words sofa, beach, and bed act as objects of the verb to lie. However, this is not the case.

Not only verbs, but also prepositions have the ability to take objects. A few commonly used English prepositions are at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to and with. Prepositions will be discussed in detail in a later chapter.

In the examples above, sofa, and beach are objects of the preposition on; and bed is the object of the preposition in.

See Exercise 2.

b. To Raise and To Rise
To raise is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to raise. The verbs are underlined, and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. She is raising poodles.
He raised the window.
They have raised a crop of wheat.

To rise is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to rise.
e.g. The moon is rising in the east.
They rose to the occasion.
The temperature has risen by five degrees.

In these sentences, the verbs have no objects. The words east, occasion and degrees are the objects of the prepositions in, to and by.

See Exercise 3.

c. To Set and To Sit
To set is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to set. The verbs are underlined, and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. They are setting a record.
We set the jars on a shelf.
Have you set the date for your trip?

To sit is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb to sit.
e.g. They are sitting by the front steps.
I sat at my desk for an hour.
You have sat on the couch all afternoon.

In these sentences, the verbs have no objects. The words steps, desk, and couch are the objects of the prepositions by, at and on.

See Exercises 4 and 5.

3. Indirect objects

In addition to taking direct objects, some verbs also take indirect objects. In the following examples, the direct objects are printed in bold type, and the indirect objects are underlined.
e.g. We gave the child a toy.
I sent the man the information.

In these examples, the words child and man are said to be the indirect objects of the verbs gave and sent. Indirect objects refer to things which receive indirectly the actions described by the verbs. In the above examples, the words toy and information are the direct objects of the verbs.

Indirect objects usually refer to living things.

It is possible for a sentence containing an indirect object to be rewritten by placing a preposition before the indirect object. When this is done, the original indirect object can be regarded either as the indirect object of the verb, or as the object of the preposition.

For example, the sentence We gave the child a toy, can be rewritten as follows:
We gave a toy to the child.
In the rewritten sentence, child can be regarded either as the indirect object of the verb gave, or as the object of the preposition to.

The following examples illustrate the position of the indirect object in a sentence. The direct object, toy, is printed in bold type, and the indirect object, child, is underlined.
e.g. We gave the child a toy.
We gave a toy to the child.

When an indirect object is not preceded by a preposition, the indirect object must be placed before the direct object. Thus, in the sentence We gave the child a toy, the indirect object child is placed before the direct object toy.

However, when an indirect object is preceded by a preposition, the indirect object must be placed after the direct object. In the sentence We gave a toy to the child, the indirect object child is preceded by the preposition to. Therefore, the indirect object, child is placed after the direct object toy.

The object which is placed last in a sentence tends to receive greater emphasis than the object which is placed first. Thus, the word order of a sentence can be varied in order to give greater emphasis to one object or the other. For instance, in the sentence We lent the teacher a book, the direct object book is slightly emphasized. However, in the sentence We lent a book to the teacher, the indirect object teacher is emphasized.

See Exercises 6 and 7.

A few English verbs, such as to describe, to distribute, to explain and to say, can take an indirect object only when the indirect object is preceded by a preposition. In the following examples, the direct objects are printed in bold type, and the indirect objects are underlined.
e.g. He described his experiences to the reporters.
They distributed the leaflets to their friends.
We explained the situation to the participants.
She said something to her teacher.

These verbs cannot take an indirect object which immediately follows the verb. One reason for this may be to avoid creating sentences which are ambiguous or confusing. For instance, a sentence which began with the words He described the reporters... would create the impression that it was the reporters who were being described. When the reporters is preceded by the preposition to, there is no ambiguity.

EXERCISES for Chapter 11

1. In each of the following sentences, underline the direct object of the verb. For example:
She forgot the pencils.
She forgot the pencils.

Was he writing a letter?
Was he writing a letter?

You did not answer the question.
You did not answer the question.

1. I watched the birds.
2. He did not close the window.
3. She rang the bell.
4. Did you find the answer?
5. I opened the door.
6. Did she play the violin?
7. You will need an umbrella.
8. They are not carrying the parcels.
9. You organized the race.
10. Were they using the blankets?
Answers

2. In the following sentences, the direct objects of the verbs are printed in bold type. In addition, each sentence contains an adverb or adverb phrase indicating time. Depending upon whether or not there is a direct object, complete each sentence using either to lay or to lie, as appropriate. Use the Present Continuous tense if the action takes place in the present, and use the Simple Past tense if the action took place in the past. For example:
They __________ the bricks now.
They are laying the bricks now.

I _______ the money on the counter last night.
I laid the money on the counter last night.

Right now, the dogs _________ in the middle of the road.
Right now, the dogs are lying in the middle of the road.

Yesterday, he ___ in bed until ten o'clock.
Yesterday, he lay in bed until ten o'clock.

1. Now I ______________ too close to the fire.
2. Last night he _____________ twenty dollars on top of the bookcase.
3. Right now she _______________ a fire.
4. Until last year, the treasure ______________ hidden under the earth.
5. Yesterday she ______________ her coat on the bed.
6. His books _____________ on the floor all last week.
7. Right now he _______________ low in order to stay out of danger.
8. Yesterday morning he ______________ the parcel close to the door.
9. Last night they _____________ in wait for the thieves.
10. Now they ________________ their cards on the table.
Answers

3. In the following sentences, the direct objects of the verbs are printed in bold type. In addition, each sentence contains an adverb or adverb phrase indicating time. Depending upon whether or not there is a direct object, complete each sentence using either to raise or to rise, as appropriate. Use the Present Continuous tense if the action takes place in the present; and use the Simple Past tense if the action took place in the past. For example:
Right now, he __________ sheep.
Right now, he is raising sheep.

Last night he ______ their expectations.
Last night he raised their expectations.

The price of housing _________ now.
The price of housing is rising now.

Last year she ______ at six o'clock every morning.
Last year she rose at six o'clock every morning.

1. Last night, when we heard the news, our hopes _____________.
2. Last year they _________ six hundred dollars by selling chocolate bars.
3. Now they ______________ the price of gasoline.
4. The price of gold _____________ yesterday.
5. At the moment, he ______________ corn.
6. Right now mist _______________ from the water.
7. Last week, you _____________ a difficult question.
8. The temperature _____________ at the moment.
9. Now he _____________ his hat.
10. The water level ______________ last week.
Answers

4. In the following sentences, the direct objects of the verbs are printed in bold type. In addition, each sentence contains an adverb or adverb phrase indicating time. Depending upon whether or not there is a direct object, complete each sentence using either to set or to sit, as appropriate. Use the Present Continuous tense if the action takes place in the present; and use the Simple Past tense if the action took place in the past. For example:
Now they ___________ the table.
Now they are setting the table.

Last night we ___ our alarm clock for six o'clock.
Last night we set our alarm clock for six o'clock.

At the moment, the cat __________ on top of the car.
At the moment, the cat is sitting on top of the car.

Yesterday he ___ at his desk all afternoon.
Yesterday he sat at his desk all afternoon.

1. Right now they ______________ down to a good meal.
2. Yesterday they _____________ the empty bottles on the front step.
3. At the moment, she _______________ in front of the fire.
4. Now we _______________ the suitcases on the moving belt.
5. In ancient times, King Arthur's knights ____________ at the Round Table.
6. Yesterday morning the doctor _____________ the broken bone.
7. Right now, we _______________ around the table.
8. He ______________ a good example last week, by studying hard.
9. Now she ______________ her watch to the correct time.
10. Yesterday afternoon we ___________ at the end of the dock, in the sun.
Answers

5. In the following sentences, the direct objects of the verbs are printed in bold type. Paying attention to whether or not there is a direct object, for each sentence, choose the correct verb from the pair given in brackets, and complete the sentence using the Present Perfect tense of the verb. For example:
I ________ two blankets on the bed. (to lay, to lie)
I have laid two blankets on the bed.

He ________ down for half an hour. (to lay, to lie)
He has lain down for half an hour.

They ___________ the flag. (to raise, to rise)
They have raised the flag.

Our opinion of them _________. (to raise, to rise)
Our opinion of them has risen.

We ________ the electric train in motion. (to set, to sit)
We have set the electric train in motion.

She ___ just ___ down. (to set, to sit)
She has just sat down.

1. They ____________ a limit of four cartons per customer. (to set, to sit)
2. We ______________ our plans carefully. (to lay, to lie)
3. You ____________ very early for the past three weeks. (to raise, to rise)
4. We _______________ in the car all afternoon. (to set, to sit)
5. They _______________ four children. (to raise, to rise)
6. He _____________ a record for endurance. (to set, to sit)
7. I _____________ awake half the night. (to lay, to lie)
8. They _______________ the table. (to lay, to lie)
9. She _______________ still for fifteen minutes. (to set, to sit)
10. You _______________ your standards. (to raise, to rise)
11. Your standards ________________. (to raise, to rise)
12. Your gloves ________________ on the table all week. (to lay, to lie)
Answers

6. Rewrite each of the following sentences, omitting the underlined preposition which precedes the indirect object, and making the necessary changes in word order. For example:
I bought a rose for the singer.
I bought the singer a rose.

She gave an apple to the boy.
She gave the boy an apple.

1. I handed the book to the student.
2. He wrote a letter to the twins.
3. She made a scarf for the girl.
4. I told the story to the audience.
5. We paid the money to the dentist.
6. He sent a reply to the doctor.
7. We offered the job to the students.
8. She told the news to her friends.
Answers

7. Rewrite each of the following sentences, inserting the preposition to before the indirect object, and making the necessary changes in word order. For example:
I wrote the president a letter.
I wrote a letter to the president.

They showed the visitor the garden.
They showed the garden to the visitor.

1. We sent the reporters a photograph.
2. They mailed the agency a postcard.
3. I paid the manager the fee.
4. We sold the students the doughnuts.
5. You read the teacher the story.
6. She mailed the seamstress the material.
7. I sent the workers a message.
8. He offered his guest the wine.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 11

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. birds 2. window 3. bell 4. answer 5. door 6. violin 7. umbrella 8. parcels 9. race 10. blankets

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. am lying 2. laid 3. is laying 4. lay 5. laid 6. lay 7. is lying 8. laid 9. lay 10. are laying

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. rose 2. raised 3. are raising 4. rose 5. is raising 6. is rising 7. raised 8. is rising 9. is raising 10. rose

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. are sitting 2. set 3. is sitting 4. are setting 5. sat 6. set 7. are sitting 8. set 9. is setting 10. sat

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. have set 2. have laid 3. have risen 4. have sat 5. have raised 6. has set 7. have lain 8. have laid 9. has sat 10. have raised 11. have risen 12. have lain

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. I handed the student the book. 2. He wrote the twins a letter. 3. She made the girl a scarf. 4. I told the audience the story. 5. We paid the dentist the money. 6. He sent the doctor a reply. 7. We offered the students the job. 8. She told her friends the news.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. We sent a photograph to the reporters. 2. They mailed a postcard to the agency. 3. I paid the fee to the manager. 4. We sold the doughnuts to the students. 5. You read the story to the teacher. 6. She mailed the material to the seamstress. 7. I sent a message to the workers. 8. He offered the wine to his guest.

CHAPTER 12.  THE PASSIVE VOICE

1. Use of the passive voice

As explained in the preceding chapter, the Active Voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing performing the action described by the verb.

In contrast, the Passive Voice of a verb is used when the subject of the verb refers to the person or thing receiving the action described by the verb. Only a verb which can take an object can be put into the Passive Voice.

The Passive Voice is more commonly used in English than it is in other European languages such as German or French. As well as being used in everyday English, the Passive Voice is used extensively in official documents and scientific papers.

In the following examples, the verbs in the Passive Voice are underlined.
e.g. The ball was struck by the boy.
Gold has been found by the explorers.
In these examples, the verbs was struck and has been found are in the Passive Voice. The subjects ball and gold refer to things receiving the actions described by the verbs.

2. Formation of the indicative mood of the passive voice

For every tense in the Active Voice, there is a corresponding tense in the Passive Voice. In the Passive Voice, the verb to be acts as an auxiliary. The Passive Voice tenses of an English verb are formed from the corresponding conjugations of to be, followed by the past participle of the verb.

a. The simple present indicative
For instance, the Simple Present Indicative of to be, and the Simple Present Indicative of the Passive Voice of the verb to show are conjugated as follows:

Simple Present Indicative

Simple Present Indicative

of To Be

of Passive Voice of To Show

I am

I am shown

you are

you are shown

he is

he is shown

she is

she is shown

it is

it is shown

we are

we are shown

they are

they are shown

b. The other indicative tenses
Similarly, the other Indicative tenses of the Passive Voice of the verb to show are conjugated as indicated in the following table. The corresponding tenses of the verb to be are included for purposes of comparison.

The verb To Be compared with the Passive Voice of the verb To Show

Present Continuous

Present Continuous

I am being

I am being shown

you are being

you are being shown

he is being

he is being shown

she is being

she is being shown

it is being

it is being shown

we are being

we are being shown

they are being

they are being shown

Present Perfect

Present Perfect

I have been

I have been shown

you have been

you have been shown

he has been

he has been shown

she has been

she has been shown

it has been

it has been shown

we have been

we have been shown

they have been

they have been shown

Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Continuous

have been being

I have been being shown

you have been being

you have been being shown

he has been being

he has been being shown

she has been being

she has been being shown

it has been being

it has been being shown

we have been being

we have been being shown

they have been being

they have been being shown

Simple Past

Simple Past

I was

I was shown

you were

you were shown

he was

he was shown

she was

she was shown

it was

it was shown

we were

we were shown

they were

they were shown

Past Continuous

Past Continuous

I was being

I was being shown

you were being

you were being shown

he was being

he was being shown

she was being

she was being shown

it was being

it was being shown

we were being

we were being shown

they were being

they were being shown

Past Perfect

Past Perfect

I had been

I had been shown

you had been

you had been shown

he had been

he had been shown

she had been

she had been shown

it had been

it had been shown

we had been

we had been shown

they had been

they had been shown

Past Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Continuous

I had been being

I had been being shown

you had been being

you had been being shown

he had been being

he had been being shown

she had been being

she had been being shown

it had been being

it had been being shown

we had been being

we had been being shown

they had been being

they had been being shown

Simple Future

Simple Future

I will (shall) be

I will (shall) be shown

you will be

you will be shown

he will be

he will be shown

she will be

she will be shown

it will be

it will be shown

we will (shall) be

we will (shall) be shown

they will be

they will be shown

Future Continuous

Future Continuous

I will (shall) be being

I will (shall) be being shown

you will be being

you will be being shown

he will be being

he will be being shown

she will be being

she will be being shown

it will be being

it will be being shown

we will (shall) be being

we will (shall) be being shown

they will be being

they will be being shown

Future Perfect

Future Perfect

I will (shall) have been

I will (shall) have been shown

you will have been

you will have been shown

he will have been

he will have been shown

she will have been

she will have been shown

it will have been

it will have been shown

we will (shall) have been

we will (shall) have been shown

they will have been

they will have been shown

Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous

I will (shall) have been being

I will (shall) have been being shown

you will have been being

you will have been being shown

he will have been being

he will have been being shown

she will have been being

she will have been being shown

It will have been being

it will have been being shown

we will (shall) have been being

we will (shall) have been being shown

they will have been being

they will have been being shown

c. Summary of the formation of the indicative tenses of the passive voice
The following table summarizes the formation of the Indicative tenses of the Passive Voice.

The Formation of the Indicative Mood of the Passive Voice

Tense

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple Present

am/is/are

past participle

Present Continuous

am/is/are being

past participle

Present Perfect

have/has been

past participle

Present Perfect Continuous**

have/has been being

past participle

Simple Past

was/were

past participle

Past Continuous

was/were being

past participle

Past Perfect

had been

past participle

Past Perfect Continuous**

had been being

past participle

Simple Future

will (shall) be*

past participle

Future Continuous**

will (shall) be being

past participle

Future Perfect

will (shall) have been

past participle

Future Perfect Continuous**

will (shall) have been being

past participle

* The other modal auxiliaries form conjugations in the same way as shown for will and shall.

** The Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Future Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous tenses of the Passive Voice are cumbersome, and are rarely used. Only the more commonly used tenses of the Passive Voice will be discussed below.

3. Questions and negative statements

As is the case for other English conjugations, verbs in the Passive Voice form questions and negative statements using the first auxiliary.

a. Questions
To form a question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject. For example:

Affirmative Statement

Question

You were shown the sights.

Were you shown the sights?

She is being shown the sights.

Is she being shown the sights?

He will have been shown the sights.

Will he have been shown the sights?

We should be shown the sights.

Should we be shown the sights?

See Exercise 1.

b. Negative statements
To form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the first auxiliary. For example:

Negative Statements
You were not shown the sights.
She is not being shown the sights.
He will not have been shown the sights.
We should not be shown the sights.

See Exercise 2.

c. Negative questions
To form a negative question, the first auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the auxiliary. Contractions are often used in spoken English. For example:

Without Contractions
Were you not shown the sights?
Is she not being shown the sights?
Will he not have been shown the sights?
Should we not be shown the sights?

With Contractions
Weren't you shown the sights?
Isn't she being shown the sights?
Won't he have been shown the sights?
Shouldn't we be shown the sights?

See Exercise 3.

4. Changing the voice of a verb

When the verb of a sentence is changed from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice and the other words in the sentence are left unaltered, a change in meaning results. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. Active Voice: He is driving to the airport.
Passive Voice: He is being driven to the airport.
The person referred to by the subject of the first sentence is behaving actively; the person is doing the driving. The person referred to by the subject of the second sentence is behaving passively; someone else is doing the driving.

Using the first person singular of the verb to show as an example, the following table compares the most commonly used tenses of the Indicative Mood of the Passive Voice with the corresponding tenses of the Active Voice.

Tense

Active Voice

Passive Voice

Simple Present

I show

I am shown

Negative Statement:

I do not show

I am not shown

Present Continuous

I am showing

I am being shown

Present Perfect

I have shown

I have been shown

Simple Past

I showed

I was shown

Negative Statement:

I did not show

I was not shown

Past Continuous

I was showing

I was being shown

Past Perfect

I had shown

I had been shown

Simple Future

I will show

I will be shown

Future Perfect

I will have shown

I will have been shown

Simple, with would

I would show

I would be shown

Perfect, with would

I would have shown

I would have been shown

See Exercises 4 and 5.

5. Changing the voice of a verb while preserving the meaning of a sentence

In order to preserve the meaning of a sentence when the Voice of the verb is changed, it is necessary to alter the order of the words in the sentence.

a. Changing the verb from the active voice to the passive voice
When a verb which takes an object is changed from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice, in order to preserve the meaning of the sentence, the former object becomes the subject of the verb, and the former subject may be preceded by the preposition by, and placed after the verb. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the direct objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.

For instance, in the sentence:
The wind is rippling the water.
the verb is rippling has the subject wind and takes the object water. When the verb is put into the Passive Voice and the meaning of the sentence is preserved, the former object, water, becomes the subject of the verb, and the former subject, wind, becomes the object of the preposition by, as follows:
The water is being rippled by the wind.

Other examples are:
Active: The squirrel ate the nut.
Passive: The nut was eaten by the squirrel.

Active: The child will open the parcel.
Passive: The parcel will be opened by the child.

In the first pair of examples, the verb ate, in the Active Voice, is changed to was eaten, in the Passive Voice. In order to preserve the meaning, nut, the object of the verb in the Active Voice, becomes the subject of the verb in the Passive Voice, and is placed before the verb; and squirrel, the subject of the verb in the Active Voice, becomes the object of the preposition by, and is placed after the verb.

Similarly, in the second pair of examples, parcel, the object of the verb in the Active Voice, becomes the subject of the verb in the Passive Voice and is placed before the verb; and child, the subject of the verb in the Active Voice, becomes the object of the preposition by, and is placed after the verb.

See Exercise 6.

It should be noted that, when changing the Voice of a verb in a sentence while preserving the meaning of the sentence, it is necessary to make sure that the verb agrees with its new subject.
e.g. Active: The boys are mowing the lawn.
Passive: The lawn is being mowed by the boys.

In the first sentence, the subject boys is plural; therefore a plural auxiliary are is used. In the second sentence, the subject lawn is singular; therefore a singular auxiliary is is used. The agreement of verbs with noun subjects is discussed in the next chapter.

b. Changing the verb from the passive voice to the active voice
When a verb is changed from the Passive Voice to the Active Voice, in order to preserve the meaning of the sentence, the former subject becomes the object of the verb, and, if the sentence includes a phrase beginning with the preposition by, the former object of the preposition becomes the subject of the verb.
e.g. Passive: The clover is being eaten by the cow.
Active: The cow is eating the clover.

In this pair of examples, the verb is being eaten, in the Passive Voice, is changed to is eating, in the Active Voice. In order to preserve the meaning of the sentence, clover, the subject of the verb in the Passive Voice, becomes the object of the verb in the Active Voice, and is placed after the verb; and cow, the object of the preposition by, becomes the subject of the verb in the Active Voice, and is placed before the verb.

Other examples are:
Passive: The wine was ordered by the dealer.
Active: The dealer ordered the wine.

Passive: The deer could have been killed by the poacher.
Active: The poacher could have killed the deer.

See Exercise 7.

c. Changing the voice of a verb which takes both a direct object and an indirect object
When a verb in the Active Voice takes both a direct object and an indirect object, either object can become the subject of the verb when the verb is put into the Passive Voice, and the meaning of the sentence is preserved. The object which does not become the subject remains as an object. When a verb in the Passive Voice takes an indirect object, the indirect object is usually preceded by a preposition.
e.g. Active: The guide will show you the museum.
Passive: You will be shown the museum by the guide.
Passive: The museum will be shown to you by the guide.

In the first sentence, the verb will show, in the Active Voice, takes the direct object museum, and the indirect object you. In the second and third sentences, the verb will be shown is in the Passive Voice, and the meaning has been preserved by altering the word order and using the preposition by. In the second sentence, the former indirect object, you, is the subject of the verb, and the former direct object, museum, remains the direct object. In the third sentence, the former direct object, museum, is the subject of the verb, and the former indirect object, you, is preceded by the preposition to.

A similar example is:
Active: The policeman gave you a medal.
Passive: You were given a medal by the policeman.
Passive: A medal was given to you by the policeman.

In the first sentence, the verb gave, in the Active Voice, takes the direct object medal and the indirect object you. In the second and third sentences, the verb was given is in the Passive Voice. In the second sentence, the former indirect object, you, is the subject of the verb, and the former direct object, medal, remains the direct object. In the third sentence, the former direct object, medal, is the subject of the verb, and the former indirect object, you, is preceded by the preposition to.

6. The subjunctive mood of the passive voice

The Passive Voice tenses discussed so far have all been in the Indicative Mood. However, verbs in the Passive Voice can also be put into the Subjunctive Mood.

It has been seen that all of the tenses in the Passive Voice are formed using auxiliaries. As has already been explained, the Subjunctive Mood of tenses using auxiliaries is formed by putting the first auxiliary into the Subjunctive Mood.

Using the verb to show as an example, the following table illustrates the formation of the tenses of the Subjunctive Mood of the Passive Voice.

The Subjunctive Mood of the Passive Voice of the verb To Show

Simple Present

Simple Past

I be shown

I were shown

you be shown

you were shown

he be shown

he were shown

she be shown

she were shown

it be shown

it were shown

we be shown

we were shown

they be shown

they were shown

Present Continuous

Past Continuous

I be being shown

I were being shown

you be being shown

you were being shown

he be being shown

he were being shown

she be being shown

she were being shown

it be being shown

it were being shown

we be being shown

we were being shown

they be being shown

they were being shown

Present Perfect

Past Perfect

I have been shown

I had been shown

you have been shown

you had been shown

he have been shown

he had been shown

she have been shown

she had been shown

it have been shown

it had been shown

we have been shown

we had been shown

they have been shown

they had been shown

Present Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Continuous

I have been being shown

I had been being shown

you have been being shown

you had been being shown

he have been being shown

he had been being shown

she have been being shown

she had been being shown

it have been being shown

it had been being shown

we have been being shown

we had been being shown

they have been being shown

they had been being shown

The following table summarizes the formation of the Subjunctive tenses of the Passive Voice.

The Formation of the Subjunctive Mood of the Passive Voice

Tense

Auxiliary

Verb Form

Simple Present

be

past participle

Present Continuous

be being

past participle

Present Perfect

have been

past participle

Present Perfect Continuous

have been being

past participle

Simple Past

were

past participle

Past Continuous

were being

past participle

Past Perfect

had been

past participle

Past Perfect Continuous

had been being

past participle

a. Use of the simple present subjunctive
Like the Simple Present Subjunctive of the Active Voice, the Simple Present Subjunctive of the Passive Voice is often used in subordinate clauses beginning with that in sentences which contain formal commands, or requests.

As can be seen from the preceding table, the Simple Present Subjunctive of The Passive Voice is formed from the invariable auxiliary be, followed by the past participle of the verb. The following sentences are examples of the use of the Simple Present Subjunctive of the Passive Voice.
e.g. I request that he be invited to speak.
We asked that our suggestions be considered.
They will insist that their colleague be admitted to the association.

See Exercise 8.

b. Use of the past forms of the subjunctive
Like the past forms of the Subjunctive of the Active Voice, the past forms of the Subjunctive of the Passive Voice are used in wishes, and in statements containing false or improbable conditions.
e.g. I wish he were allowed to come.
It would have been better if they had been invited.

In the first example, the Simple Past Subjunctive of the Passive Voice, were allowed, is used in expressing a wish. In the second example, the Past Perfect Subjunctive of the Passive Voice, had been invited, is used in expressing the false condition they had been invited.

EXERCISES for Chapter 12

1. Change the following affirmative statements into questions. For example:
You are required to attend the meeting.
Are you required to attend the meeting?

She is being ignored.
Is she being ignored?

1. They should be notified.
2. He might have been allowed to come.
3. You had been told about it.
4. They will be needed.
5. It has been adjourned.
6. They were being prepared.
Answers

2. Change the following affirmative statements into negative statements. For example:
They would have been instructed to join us.
They would not have been instructed to join us.

It was sent on time.
It was not sent on time.

1. We could have been seen from the island.
2. It is being dealt with satisfactorily.
3. They were being kept under observation.
4. You will be held responsible.
5. They were expected at six o'clock.
6. He will be asked to participate.
Answers

3. Change the following affirmative statements into negative questions. Do not use contractions in this exercise. For example:
He is respected by everyone.
Is he not respected by everyone?

She should be consulted.
Should she not be consulted?

1. They were recognized immediately.
2. We were being assisted by volunteers.
3. It had been delivered.
4. They should have been guarded more carefully.
5. We will be given financial assistance.
6. It had been organized by the club members.
Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, first indicate the tense of the underlined verb, and then change the verb from the Active Voice to the corresponding tense in the Passive Voice. Take note of the resulting change in the meaning of the sentence. For example:
They drive to work at seven o'clock every morning.
Simple Present: They are driven to work at seven o'clock every morning.

Did he notice?
Simple Past: Was he noticed?

She is not telling the truth.
Present Continuous: he is not being told the truth.

We have sent a message.
Present Perfect: We have been sent a message.

I will pay.
Simple Future: I will be paid.

1. Do they expect to leave? _________________
2. He is giving instructions. __________________
3. They have moved to a new location. __________________
4. She will fly to London. _________________
5. He has offered a discount. __________________
6. They have stopped. __________________
7. Will you have given the order? _________________
8. We sent a favorable reply. __________________
9. We were teaching German. __________________
10. I understand. ___________________
11. He is offering free advice. _________________
12. She will rush to the reception. __________________
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, first indicate the tense of the underlined verb, and then change the verb from the Passive Voice to the corresponding tense in the Active Voice. Take note of the resulting change in the meaning of the sentence. For example:
We are paid regularly.
Simple Present: We pay regularly.

She is not assisted every day.
Simple Present: She does not assist every day.

Was he not being flown to Boston?
Past Continuous: Was he not flying to Boston?

It has been grown here for the past twenty years.
Present Perfect: It has grown here for the past twenty years.

Might they be called at nine o'clock?
Simple conjugation with might: Might they call at nine o'clock?

1. We can be heard easily. _________________
2. She is being given advice. __________________
3. Were they not flown over the lake? ________________
4. I had been transferred to another department.
5. He is being stopped. __________________
6. We have been sent a letter. __________________
7. He is not being taught music theory. _________________
8. Should they have been flown to their next destination? ______________
9. They will be watched constantly. __________________
10. We had been driven to the beach this morning. __________________
11. Has he been checked into the hotel? ______________
12. Could I have been told the news yesterday? __________________
Answers

6. Change the underlined verbs in the following sentences from the Active Voice to the corresponding tenses in the Passive Voice. Preserve the meaning of the sentences by using the preposition by and making the necessary changes in word order. For example:
The teenager rowed the boat.
The boat was rowed by the teenager.

The girl is riding the horse.
The horse is being ridden by the girl.

The student has prepared the lunch.
The lunch has been prepared by the student.

The president will thank the members.
The members will be thanked by the president.

The children can understand the poem.
The poem can be understood by the children.

1. The woman founded the club.
2. This entry took the prize.
3. The girl is playing the guitar.
4. The mailman has delivered the letter.
5. The chauffeur can drive the car.
6. The child chose the hat.
7. The cat chased the mouse.
8. The workers will weave the carpet.
9. The stranger could have bought the hiking boots.
10. The dealer has sold the car.
11. The dog splashed the water.
12. The man has watered the garden.
Answers

7. Change the underlined verbs in the following sentences from the Passive Voice to the corresponding tenses in the Active Voice. Preserve the meaning of the sentences by omitting the preposition by and making the necessary changes in word order. For example:
The news was heard by everyone.
Everyone heard the news.

The orders were followed by the officials.
The officials followed the orders.

The money is being counted by the cashier.
The cashier is counting the money.

The ducks have been fed by the tourists.
The tourists have fed the ducks.

The flowers will be photographed by the naturalist.
The naturalist will photograph the flowers.

1. The bill was paid by the manager.
2. The bread was made by the baker.
3. The wiring must be checked by the electrician.
4. The crow was being scolded by the squirrel.
5. The book was written by a doctor.
6. The house was painted by a student.
7. The seeds were taken by the chickadee.
8. The cider has been drunk by the guest.
9. The mail is opened by the secretary.
10. The ingredients have been measured by the cooks.
11. The bird was seen by the photographers.
12. His work will be published by the magazine.
Answers

8. Complete the following sentences using the Simple Present Subjunctive of the Passive Voice of the verbs shown in brackets. For example:
She ordered that the most important details _______ known. (to make)
She ordered that the most important details be made known.

He advises that the plane ________ at a high altitude. (to fly)
He advises that the plane be flown at a high altitude.

1. They demand that the change of plans _____________ at nine o'clock. (to announce)
2. We ask that permission to compete ____________ to everyone. (to grant)
3. It is important that their accomplishments ____________. (to recognize)
4. It is crucial that we _____________ of any change. (to advise)
5. He asks that his affairs ____________ in order. (to put)
6. They requested that their qualifications ______________. (to accept)
7. We insist that he not _____________ his rights. (to deny)
8. It is necessary that the requirements _____________. (to meet)
9. She requests that the most experienced candidate ___________. (to choose)
10. It is recommended that care __________ in making the repairs. (to take)
11. He insists that smoking ______________. (to forbid)
12. It is essential that supplies _____________ well in advance. (to order)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 12

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. Should they be notified? 2. Might he have been allowed to leave? 3. Had you been told about it? 4. Will they be needed? 5. Has it been adjourned? 6. Were they being prepared?

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. We could not have been seen from the island. 2. It is not being dealt with satisfactorily. 3. They were not being kept under observation. 4. You will not be held responsible. 5. They were not expected at six o'clock. 6. He will not be asked to participate.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. Were they not recognized immediately? 2. Were we not being assisted by volunteers? 3. Had it not been delivered? 4. Should they not have been guarded more carefully? 5. Will we not be given financial assistance? 6. Had it not been organized by the club members?

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. Simple Present: Are they expected to leave?
2. Present Continuous: He is being given instructions.
3. Present Perfect: They have been moved to a new location.
4. Simple Future: She will be flown to London.
5. Present Perfect: He has been offered a discount.
6. Present Perfect: They have been stopped.
7. Future Perfect: Will you have been given the order?
8. Simple Past: We were sent a favorable reply.
9. Past Continuous: We were being taught German.
10. Simple Present: I am understood.
11. Present Continuous: He is being offered free advice.
12. Simple Future: She will be rushed to the reception.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Simple conjugation with can: We can hear easily.
2. Present Continuous: She is giving advice.
3. Simple Past: Did they not fly over the lake?
4. Past Perfect: I had transferred to another department.
5. Present Continuous: He is stopping.
6. Present Perfect: We have sent a letter.
7. Present Continuous: He is not teaching music theory.
8. Perfect conjugation with should: Should they have flown to their next destination?
9. Simple Future: They will watch constantly.
10. Past Perfect: We had driven to the beach this morning.
11. Present Perfect: Has he checked into the hotel?
12. Perfect conjugation with could: Could I have told the news yesterday?

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The club was founded by the woman. 2. The prize was taken by this entry. 3. The guitar is being played by the girl. 4. The letter has been delivered by the mailman. 5. The car can be driven by the chauffeur. 6. The hat was chosen by the child. 7. The mouse was chased by the cat. 8. The carpet will be woven by the workers. 9. The hiking boots could have been bought by the stranger. 10. The car has been sold by the dealer. 11. The water was splashed by the dog. 12. The garden has been watered by the man.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. The manager paid the bill. 2. The baker made the bread. 3. The electrician must check the wiring. 4. The squirrel was scolding the crow. 5. A doctor wrote the book. 6. A student painted the house. 7. The chickadee took the seeds. 8. The guest has drunk the cider. 9. The secretary opens the mail. 10. The cooks have measured the ingredients. 11. The photographers saw the bird. 12. The magazine will publish his work.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. be announced 2. be granted 3. be recognized 4. be advised 5. be put 6. be accepted 7. be denied 8. be met 9. be chosen 10. be taken 11. be forbidden 12. be ordered

CHAPTER 13.  NOUNS: THE FORMATION OF PLURALS

A noun is a word used as the name of a person or a thing. In the following examples, the nouns are underlined.
He opened the parcel.
She is a student.
The weather is warm.
A cat is sitting on the steps.

1. Proper nouns

Names of individual persons or things are referred to as proper nouns. In English, proper nouns must begin with a capital letter. The underlined words in the following sentences are proper nouns.
e.g. The capital of England is London.
My friend, George, is an American.

2. Countable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can form a plural, and which can be preceded by a, an, or a number. In the following examples, the countable nouns are underlined.
e.g. A bus is coming.
You may need an umbrella.
Here are two books.
Twenty students are present.

3. The formation of plurals

In general, when a countable noun refers to two or more things, it must be put into the plural. In English, the plural of most countable nouns is formed by adding s. For example:

Singular

Plural

hat

hats

letter

letters

pencil

pencils

student

students

It has already been explained that a verb must agree with its subject. When the subject of a verb is a singular noun, the verb must be in the third person singular. The third person singular is the form of the verb used with the personal pronouns he, she, and it.

When the subject of a verb is a plural noun, the verb must be in the third person plural. The third person plural is the form of the verb used with the personal pronoun they. In the following examples, the verbs are printed in bold type and their subjects are underlined.

Singular Subject: The book is interesting.
Plural Subject: The books are interesting.

Singular Subject: A duck was flying overhead.
Plural Subject: Two ducks were flying overhead.

Singular Subject: One student lives here.
Plural Subject: Three students live here.

See Exercise 1.

a. Nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x or z
For nouns ending in ch, s, sh, x or z, the plural is formed by adding es. The reason for this is that these words would be difficult to pronounce if only s were added. The ending es is pronounced as a separate syllable. For example:

Singular

Plural

branch

branches

match

matches

bus

buses

pass

passes

dish

dishes

marsh

marshes

ax

axes

fox

foxes

buzz

buzzes

It should be noted that when a plural is formed by adding s to words ending in ce, ge, se or ze, the final es is pronounced as a separate syllable. For example:

Singular

Plural

place

places

voice

voices

change

changes

page

pages

house

houses

phrase

phrases

size

sizes

In each of the preceding examples, the singular noun consists of one syllable, whereas the plural noun consists two syllables.

See Exercise 2.

b. Nouns ending in y
Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant usually form the plural by changing the y to i and adding es. For example:

Singular

Plural

candy

candies

city

cities

lady

ladies

story

stories

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel usually form the plural simply by adding s. For example:

Singular

Plural

boy

boys

day

days

key

keys

toy

toys

See Exercise 3.

c. Plurals of proper nouns
Proper nouns form plurals following the rules given above, except that proper nouns ending in y always form the plural simply by adding s, even when the y is preceded by a consonant. For example:

Singular

Plural

Jill

Jills

Tom

Toms

George

Georges

Grace

Graces

Jones

Joneses

Max

Maxes

May

Mays

Nancy

Nancys

Sally

Sallys

See Exercise 4.

d. Nouns ending in f or fe
Some English nouns ending in f or fe change the f to v when forming the plural. For instance, the following nouns ending in f form the plural by changing the f to v and adding es:

Singular

Plural

calf

calves

elf

elves

half

halves

leaf

leaves

loaf

loaves

self

selves

sheaf

sheaves

shelf

shelves

thief

thieves

wolf

wolves

In addition, the following nouns ending in fe form the plural by changing the f to v and adding s:

Singular

Plural

knife

knives

life

lives

wife

wives

There are also a few nouns ending in f which can form the plural in two different ways. For example:

Singular

Plural

hoof

hoofs or hooves

scarf

scarfs or scarves

staff

staffs or staves

wharf

wharfs or wharves

Most other nouns ending in f or fe form the plural simply by adding s.

See Exercise 5.

e. Nouns ending in o
Some English nouns ending in o form the plural by adding s, some form the plural by adding es, and some can form the plural by adding either s or es. The following fairly commonly used nouns form the plural by adding es:

Singular

Plural

archipelago

archipelagoes

cargo

cargoes

echo

echoes

hero

heroes

innuendo

innuendoes

mosquito

mosquitoes

potato

potatoes

tomato

tomatoes

tornado

tornadoes

torpedo

torpedoes

veto

vetoes

volcano

volcanoes

Most other nouns ending in o, particularly those of Spanish or Italian origin, can form the plural simply by adding s; however a good dictionary should be consulted in cases of doubt. For example:

Singular

Plural

albino

albinos

alto

altos

casino

casinos

piano

pianos

radio

radios

ratio

ratios

silo

silos

solo

solos

sombrero

sombreros

soprano

sopranos

studio

studios

See Exercise 6.

f. Foreign words
Many words from other languages have been adopted into the English language. Most of these form the plural by adding s or es, but some, particularly Greek and Latin words used for scientific purposes, form the plural in the same way that they do in the original language. For example:

Singular

Plural

analysis

analyses

axis

axes

basis

bases

crisis

crises

criterion

criteria

honorarium

honoraria

hypothesis

hypotheses

medium

media

nebula

nebulae

nucleus

nuclei

oasis

oases

parenthesis

parentheses

phenomenon

phenomena

spectrum

spectra

stimulus

stimuli

stratum

strata

synopsis

synopses

synthesis

syntheses

thesis

theses

vertebra

vertebrae

See Exercise 7.

g. Hyphenated nouns
In the case of nouns formed from two or more words joined by hyphens, usually only the last word forms a plural. However, there are a few cases in which only the first word forms a plural. For example:

Singular

Plural

brother-in-law

brothers-in-law

daughter-in-law

daughters-in-law

father-in-law

fathers-in-law

mother-in-law

mothers-in-law

runner-up

runners-up

sister-in-law

sisters-in-law

son-in-law

sons-in-law

h. Numbers and letters
Numbers, letters, and other symbols can form plurals by adding 's. For example:

Singular

Plural

3

3's

b

b's

%

%'s

i. Irregular plurals
The English language has not always used s to form plurals. There are still a few words surviving from Old English, which do not use s to form the plural. For example:

Singular

Plural

child

children

foot

feet

goose

geese

tooth

teeth

louse

lice

mouse

mice

ox

oxen

man

men

woman

women

Nouns ending in man usually form the plural by changing man to men. For example:

Singular

Plural

gentleman

gentlemen

policeman

policemen

policewoman

policewomen

A few nouns do not change in the plural. For example:

Singular

Plural

deer

deer

sheep

sheep

salmon

salmon

See Exercise 8.

EXERCISES for Chapter 13

1. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The room is large.
The rooms are large.

The letter was delivered yesterday.
The letters were delivered yesterday.

The tourist has a map.
The tourists have a map.

The girl studies hard.
The girls study hard.

1. The book was heavy.
2. The train has left.
3. The bird was singing.
4. The door was closed by the superintendent.
5. The shoe fits well.
6. The parcel is being opened.
7. The newspaper is read by many people.
8. The flame is flickering.
9. The ship has been sighted.
10. The street was being cleaned.
Answers

2. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The beach is supervised by lifeguards.
The beaches are supervised by lifeguards.

The singer performs twice a week.
The singers perform twice a week.

The class was visiting the museum.
The classes were visiting the museum.

The vase has been filled with flowers.
The vases have been filled with flowers.

1. The box was empty.
2. The river flows to the sea.
3. The bush has grown in the last two months.
4. The hat was on sale.
5. The bench is made of stone.
6. The plant has been watered.
7. The hedge is being trimmed.
8. The process was invented last year.
9. The sketch is nearly finished.
10. The breeze was warm.
11. The wall is being painted.
12. The church is two hundred years old.
13. The bridge will soon be completed.
14. The carpet has been cleaned.
15. The branch is covered with ice.
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The party was held downtown.
The parties were held downtown.

The society accomplishes a great deal.
The societies accomplish a great deal.

The day seemed long.
The days seemed long.

1. The berry was red.
2. The key was difficult to use.
3. The valley is very beautiful.
4. The eddy can be dangerous for swimmers.
5. The journey was undertaken by pilgrims.
6. The daisy was picked by the child.
7. The monkey is considered to be sacred.
8. The gully is full of water.
9. The boy ran to school.
10. The facility is open to the public.
11. The secretary works overtime.
12. The toy was being sold at a discount.
13. The tray is being piled high with dishes.
14. The dairy opens at nine o'clock.
15. The chimney has been repaired.
Answers

4. Rewrite each of the following sentences, adding the word two before the proper noun. Change the proper noun to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
Smith lives in this building.
Two Smiths live in this building.

Harry was nominated for the position.
Two Harrys were nominated for the position.

Alex is here.
Two Alexes are here.

1. Maurice is volunteering.
2. Jones was ordered to leave.
3. Harrison owns land.
4. Sandy has telephoned us.
5. Susan met us.
6. Trish is studying French.
7. Pat does well in school.
8. Liz has arrived early.
9. Jacky was making the cake.
10. Russ knows all the answers.
11. Eric is planning the party.
12. Terry has difficulty understanding Spanish.
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The knife has been sharpened.
The knives have been sharpened.

The reef attracts tourists.
The reefs attract tourists.

The thief will be caught.
The thieves will be caught.

1. The leaf has turned red.
2. The fife had the solo.
3. The calf is hungry.
4. The scarf kept him warm.
5. The knife will be useful.
6. The giraffe was eating leaves.
7. The cliff is being explored by geologists.
8. The wolf howls every night.
9. The loaf is rising.
10. The chief will decide.
11. The shelf is being used.
12. The proof is convincing.
Answers

6. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The hero was enthusiastically welcomed.
The heroes were enthusiastically welcomed.

The studio is used by many artists.
The studios are used by many artists.

1. The radio is broadcasting news every hour.
2. The tomato was being baked.
3. The mosquito woke us up.
4. The soprano performed with the orchestra.
5. The solo was played by the violinist.
6. The archipelago lies off the coast of South America.
7. The silo is used for storing corn.
8. The potato has been boiled.
9. The volcano is not active.
10. The casino was open until one o'clock in the morning.
11. The innuendo should be ignored.
12. The ratio has been favorable.
Answers

7. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The hypothesis is still tentative.
The hypotheses are still tentative.

The nebula has been studied by many scientists.
The nebulae have been studied by many scientists.

The thesis will have been reviewed by experts.
The theses will have been reviewed by experts.

1. The synopsis is accurate.
2. The phenomenon surprised us.
3. The stratum contains fossils.
4. The analysis was proved correct.
5. The crisis has caused concern.
6. The spectrum includes many different colors of light.
7. The axis of rotation will be investigated.
8. The stimulus has been found to be effective.
9. The criterion was used to judge which proposals should be accepted.
10. The oasis is visited by many travelers.
11. The honorarium is being presented today.
12. The parenthesis was omitted.
Answers

8. For each of the following sentences, change the subject of the verb to the plural, and change the verb so that it agrees with its subject. For example:
The goose likes to eat daisies.
The geese like to eat daisies.

The ox was being led to the barn.
The oxen were being led to the barn.

The salmon has been caught by the bear.
The salmon have been caught by the bear.

1. The child is happy.
2. The sheep has been sheared.
3. The man was being given directions.
4. The deer is eating the hay.
5. The woman has visited us.
6. The mouse makes a great deal of noise at night.
7. The gentleman would like to have breakfast early.
8. The louse is a nuisance.
9. Your foot is size ten.
10. The fisherman has had a good season.
11. The tooth needs to be filled.
12. The policewoman was directing traffic.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 13

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. The books were heavy. 2. The trains have left. 3. The birds were singing. 4. The doors were closed by the superintendent. 5. The shoes fit well. 6. The parcels are being opened. 7. The newspapers are read by many people. 8. The flames are flickering. 9. The ships have been sighted. 10. The streets were being cleaned.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. The boxes were empty. 2. The rivers flow to the sea. 3. The bushes have grown in the last two months. 4. The hats were on sale. 5. The benches are made of stone. 6. The plants have been watered. 7. The hedges are being trimmed. 8. The processes were invented last year. 9. The sketches are nearly finished. 10. The breezes were warm. 11. The walls are being painted. 12. The churches are two hundred years old. 13. The bridges will soon be completed. 14. The carpets have been cleaned. 15. The branches are covered with ice.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. The berries were red. 2. The keys were difficult to use. 3. The valleys are very beautiful. 4. The eddies can be dangerous for swimmers. 5. The journeys were undertaken by pilgrims. 6. The daisies were picked by the child. 7. The monkeys are considered to be sacred. 8. The gullies are full of water. 9. The boys ran to school. 10. The facilities are open to the public. 11. The secretaries work overtime. 12. The toys were being sold at a discount. 13. The trays are being piled high with dishes. 14. The dairies open at nine o clock. 15. The chimneys have been repaired.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. Two Maurices are volunteering. 2. Two Joneses were ordered to leave. 3. Two Harrisons own land. 4. Two Sandys have telephoned us. 5. Two Susans met us. 6. Two Trishes are studying French. 7. Two Pats do well in school. 8. Two Lizes have arrived early. 9. Two Jackys were making the cake. 10. Two Russes know all the answers. 11. Two Erics are planning the party. 12. Two Terries have difficulty understanding Spanish.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. The leaves have turned red. 2. The fifes had the solo. 3. The calves are hungry. 4. The scarfs kept him warm. or The scarves kept him warm. 5. The knives will be useful. 6. The giraffes were eating the leaves. 7. The cliffs are being explored by geologists. 8. The wolves howl every night. 9. The loaves are rising. 10. The chiefs will decide. 11. The shelves are being used. 12. The proofs are convincing.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The radios are broadcasting news every hour. 2. The tomatoes were being baked. 3. The mosquitoes woke us up. 4. The sopranos performed with the orchestra. 5. The solos were played by the violinist. 6. The archipelagoes lie off the coast of South America. 7. The silos are used for storing corn. 8. The potatoes have been boiled. 9. The volcanoes are not active. 10. The casinos were open until one o'clock in the morning. 11. The innuendoes should be ignored. 12. The ratios have been favorable.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. The synopses are accurate. 2. The phenomena surprised us. 3. The strata contain fossils. 4. The analyses were proved correct. 5. The crises have caused concern. 6. The spectra include many different colors of light. 7. The axes of rotation will be investigated. 8. The stimuli have been found to be effective. 9. The criteria were used to judge which proposals should be accepted. 10. The oases are visited by many travelers. 11. The honoraria are being presented today. 12. The parentheses were omitted.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. The children are happy. 2. The sheep have been sheared. 3. The men were being given directions. 4. The deer are eating the hay. 5. The women have visited us. 6. The mice make a great deal of noise at night. 7. The gentlemen would like to have breakfast early. 8. The lice are a nuisance. 9. Your feet are size ten. 10. The fishermen have had a good season. 11. The teeth need to be filled. 12. The policewomen were directing traffic.

CHAPTER 14.  SINGULAR COUNTABLE NOUNS

1. The use of determiners with singular countable nouns

In English, singular countable nouns usually cannot be used alone; they must be preceded by a word such as a, the, each or every.
e.g. a box
the person
each child
every tree

The words a, the, each and every are examples of a group of words which can be referred to as determiners. Such words, when used together with nouns, help to determine to which particular entities the nouns are referring. Determiners other than a and the are dealt with in detail in a separate chapter.

Singular countable nouns must usually be preceded by determiners even when the nouns are also preceded by various descriptive words.
e.g. a heavy, awkward box
the right person
each young child
every tall tree

The meanings of the words a and the are less specific than the meanings of the other determiners. A and the are sometimes referred to as articles. They are the determiners most frequently used with singular countable nouns.

2. A and An

The word a is often referred to as the indefinite article. The indefinite article has two forms: a and an. The form a is used before words which begin with a consonant sound.
e.g. a broom
a garage
a green apple

As well as being used before words beginning with consonants, a is also used before words which begin with vowels, but which are pronounced with an initial consonant sound. For instance, a is used before words beginning with eu and words beginning with a long u, since these words are pronounced with an initial y sound. A is also used before the word one, since one is pronounced with an initial w sound.
e.g. a euphonium
a utensil
a one-way street

As was mentioned in Chapter 3, a vowel followed by a single consonant, followed by another vowel, is usually pronounced long. A is used before the following words which begin with a long u:

ubiquitous

unanimous

unicorn

unification

unified

uniform

union

unique

unison

unit

united

university

uranium

use

useful

useless

usual

usurper

utensil

utility

Utopia

The word an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound.
e.g. an apple
an old broom
an umbrella
an hour

As well as being used before words beginning with vowels, an is also used before the following words which begin with a silent h:

heir
heirloom
honest
honor
honorable
honorarium
honorary
honorific
hour
hourglass
hourly

See Exercise 1.

3. The use of A and An before singular countable nouns

In many languages, the word for a is the same as the word for one. This was also formerly the case in English. Because of the association of a and an with the idea of one, a and an are usually used only with singular countable nouns.

a. A weakened form of One
A or an frequently has the meaning of a weakened form of one.
e.g. I would like a cup of tea.
A car is parked in front of the house.
The child owns a bicycle.

b. Naming a profession
When a sentence such as the following is used to name someone's profession, a or an must precede the name of the profession.
e.g. She is an artist.
He is a student.

c. Making a general statement
A is referred to as the indefinite article because it can be used to refer to something in general terms. A and an are often used in general statements.
e.g. A bank account can provide a good means of saving money.
An accountant must have a good knowledge of arithmetic.
A good pair of scissors should be used for cutting cloth.

d. Referring to something not mentioned before
In dialogue and descriptions, a and an are used with nouns that name something which has not been referred to previously.
e.g. Where can I find a telephone?
Suddenly we heard an eerie sound.
All at once a moose appeared in front of us.
In these examples, it is assumed that the things referred to by the nouns telephone, sound and moose have not been referred to previously.

e. A or An with the meaning of Per
A or an can also be used with the meaning of per.
e.g. once a week
two dollars a dozen
four times a year
In these examples, a has the meaning of per. For instance, once a week means once per week, and two dollars a dozen means two dollars per dozen.

4. The use of The before singular countable nouns

The word the is often referred to as the definite article. The Old English word from which the is derived was used as a demonstrative pronoun, with a meaning similar to that of the modern English words this and that. In modern English, the word the is usually used with a noun when the speaker or writer feels that there will be no doubt about which particular thing is meant.

a. Referring to something mentioned before
The is used with nouns referring to things previously mentioned.
e.g. Here is the book I mentioned to you last week.
As I was walking to work I passed a garden. The garden was full of roses.
In the first example, the is used with book, because the book has been mentioned previously. In the second example, the first time the garden is referred to, the indefinite article a is used, because the garden has not been mentioned previously. The second time the garden is referred to, the definite article the is used, because the garden has already been mentioned.

See Exercise 2.

b. Referring to something unique
The is used when referring to things which are unique, since in such cases there can be no doubt about which particular thing is meant.
e.g. I have found the answer.
This is the shortest route into town.
In the first example, the would be used if there is only one possible answer. In the second example, the is used because only one route can be the shortest one.

Expressions such as middle of and top of are generally preceded by the, since it is considered that there can, for example, be only one middle or one top of something.
e.g. There is a car stopped in the middle of the road.
She is at the top of her class.
They like to be the center of attention.
The police are determined to get to the bottom of the mystery.

c. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant
The is also used when, because the thing being referred to is the most important one of its kind to the speaker or writer, it is assumed that it will be understood which particular thing is meant.
e.g. The house needs to be painted.
The sun rose at six o'clock this morning.
I'm going to the park.
Don't slam the door.

These sentences give examples of the use of the to refer to things which are not in fact unique, but which are uniquely important to the speaker or writer. The expression the house is often used when referring to one's own house. The expression the sun almost always refers to the sun which is closest to the earth. The expression the park might be used to refer to the only park in the vicinity, or to a park which one visits often. In the sentence Don't slam the door, the expression the door might refer to the door of the room or building which one is presently occupying.

d. Referring to something as a class
When preceded by the, a singular countable noun can be used to represent something as a class.
e.g. The telephone is a modern convenience.
The horse is a domesticated animal.
The eagle is a bird of prey.
In the first example, the telephone refers to telephones considered as a class. Likewise, in the other examples, the horse refers to horses considered as a class, and the eagle refers to eagles considered as a class.

It should be noted that the is not used when the word man represents the human race considered as a class.
e.g. Man has invented many things.
The dolphin may be as intelligent as man.

See Exercise 3.

EXERCISES for Chapter 14

1. Rewrite each of the following sentences, changing the subject of the verb to the singular, inserting a or an before the subject, as appropriate, and changing the verb to agree with the subject. For example:
Violins are difficult to play.
A violin is difficult to play.

Unions have been formed.
A union has been formed.

Answers are always provided.
An answer is always provided.

Heirs have many friends.
An heir has many friends.

1. Avocados are expensive.
2. Windows are an important feature of an artist's studio.
3. Umbrellas should not be used during a thunderstorm.
4. Horses can be useful in the mountains.
5. Cashews are a type of nut.
6. Onions can be used for flavoring soup.
7. Trucks have many uses.
8. Hours passed.
9. Sentences should have proper punctuation.
10. Escalators are very convenient.
11. Uniforms must be worn.
12. Boxes were found on the floor.
13. Marshes lie beyond the city boundary.
14. Ideas can be valuable.
15. Eggs are a good source of protein.
Answers

2. Fill in each blank with either the indefinite article (a or an) or the definite article (the). Use a or an with nouns referring to people or things which have not been mentioned previously, and use the with nouns referring to people or things which have been mentioned previously.

I had never visited Seretnay Park before. Last week I went to ____ park and chose ____ tour to take. There were twenty tourists and one guide. ____ guide asked what we wanted to see. I said I had never seen ____ eagle, and I would like to see one. ____ child on ____ tour said he would like to see ____ beaver, since he had heard there were many in ____ park. ____ guide said he would do his best. First he led us along ____ road, and then we turned off onto ____ path. To our right was ____ marshy pond.

Suddenly ____ child who had spoken before shouted, "Look! I see ____ beaver!" Of course ____ beaver was startled. It slapped its tail and disappeared into pond.

Our guide pointed to ____ pile of sticks and said, "That's where ____ beaver lives. That's his house." I had my camera with me, and took ____ photograph of ____ house.

As we were standing there, ____ guide was looking across ____ pond through ____ small telescope. After a minute, he tapped my shoulder and handed me ____ telescope. He pointed to ____ tall tree and said, "Do you see that white speck? That's ____ bald eagle."

I had difficulty focusing ____ telescope, but finally I saw ____ eagle. As I watched, ____ eagle spread its wings and soared over the water.

It was ____ wonderful experience for me to see some of the wild creatures that live in ____ park.
Answers

3. Fill in each blank with a, an or the. Be prepared to justify your choice. For example:
___ moon is full tonight.
The moon is full tonight.

He is ___ singer.
He is a singer.

Please sit in ___ center of the boat.
Please sit in the center of the boat.

The room costs twenty dollars ___ day.
The room costs twenty dollars a day.

___ wheel is considered one of mankind's most important inventions.
The wheel is considered one of mankind's most important inventions.

1. His aunt is ____ teacher.
2. ____ architect is trained in design, drafting, and economics.
3. ____ ostrich is the world's largest bird.
4. Buses pass this point two or three times ____ hour.
5. Plants gain energy from the light of ____ sun.
6. I woke up in ____ middle of the night.
7. She is ____ doctor.
8. ____ seal is an excellent swimmer.
9. Our eyes usually blink several times ____ minute.
10. At ____ equator, sunrise occurs at the same time each day.
11. He is ____ author.
12. They wanted to hear ____ end of the story.
13. Such a severe storm occurs only once ____ decade.
14. Mount Everest is tallest mountain in ____ world.
15. There is an index at ____ back of the book.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 14

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. An avocado is 2. A window is 3. An umbrella should not be used 4. A horse can be 5. A cashew is 6. An onion can be used 7. A truck has 8. An hour passed 9. A sentence should have 10. An escalator is 11. A uniform must be worn 12. A box was found 13. A marsh lies 14. An idea can be 15. An egg is

Answers to Exercise 2:
the park, a tour. The guide. an eagle. A child, the tour, a beaver, the park. The guide. a road, a path, a marshy pond. the child, a beaver. the beaver. the pond. a pile, the beaver. a photograph, the house. the guide, the pond, a small telescope. the telescope. a tall tree. a bald eagle. the telescope, the eagle. the eagle. a wonderful experience, the park.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. a [profession] 2. An [general statement] 3. The [considered as a class] 4. an [per] 5. the [obvious what is meant] 6. the [unique] 7. a [profession] 8. A [general statement] 9. a [per] 10. the [unique] 11. an [profession] 12. the [unique] 13. a [per] 14. the [unique], the [obvious what is meant] 15. the [unique]

CHAPTER 15.  PLURAL COUNTABLE NOUNS

1. The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns

The absence of a determiner before plural countable nouns generally has the same significance as the presence of a or an before singular countable nouns.

a. Making a general statement
When used in general statements, plural countable nouns are usually not preceded by determiners. The plural countable nouns in the following general statements are underlined.
e.g. Musicians must practise a great deal.
Newspapers can contain valuable information.
Larches are conifers.

A general idea can often be expressed either by means of a singular countable noun preceded by a or an, or by means of a plural countable noun not preceded by a determiner. For instance, in each of the following pairs of sentences, both sentences in the pair have the same meaning.
Musicians must practise a great deal.
A musician must practise a great deal.

Newspapers can contain valuable information.
A newspaper can contain valuable information.

Larches are conifers.
A larch is a conifer.

See Exercises 1, 2, 3 and 4.

b. Referring to something not mentioned before
Plural countable nouns are generally not preceded by a determiner when referring to something not mentioned before.
e.g. Branches blocked our path.
Clouds were gathering overhead.
Suddenly we saw buildings in front of us.
In these examples, the plural nouns branches, clouds and buildings are not preceded by determiners. It is assumed that the branches, clouds and buildings have not been referred to previously.

c. Naming a profession
When a sentence such as the following is used to name a profession practised by two or more people, the name of the profession is in the plural and is not preceded by a determiner.
e.g. They are doctors.
My friends are electricians.
We were chefs.

2. The use of The before plural countable nouns

a. Referring to something mentioned before
In general, the has the same meaning when used with plural countable nouns as when used with singular countable nouns. For instance, the is used with plural countable nouns when referring to something which has been mentioned before.
e.g. Fallen leaves covered the ground. The leaves rustled as we walked.
In the orchard were apples and pears. The apples were nearly ripe.
The doors opened, and students and teachers began leaving the building. The students were talking and laughing.

In these examples, the first time the words leaves, apples and students appear, they are not preceded by determiners, because the things referred to have not been mentioned previously. The second time the words leaves, apples and students appear, they are preceded by the, since the things referred to have already been mentioned.

See Exercise 5.

b. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant
The is used with plural countable nouns when the speaker or writer considers it obvious which particular persons or things are meant.
e.g. The stars are shining brightly.
The roses are blooming.
We have put the children to bed.
I was sitting on the front steps.

These sentences give examples of the use of the to refer to things which are particularly important to the speaker or writer. The expression the stars usually refers to the stars which can be seen from the part of the earth where one lives. The expression the roses might refer to roses in one's own garden, or to roses in which one feels a particular interest. The children might refer to one's own children or to children for whom one is responsible. The front steps might refer to the front steps of one's own house.

c. Names of nationalities
The is sometimes used with the name of a nationality in order to make a general statement about the people of that nationality. A plural verb must be used in such a statement.

When the name of a nationality ends in the sound of ch, s, sh or z, the name of the nationality must usually be preceded by the.

Nationality

Example

French

The French are famous for their fine wines.

Irish

The Irish are known as poets and songwriters.

When the name of a nationality does not end in the sound of ch, s, sh or z, the letter s must be added to the end of the name when it is used in a general statement. Names of nationalities to which s has been added are often used without being preceded by the.

Nationality

Example

Argentinian

Argentinians like to eat beef.

Canadian

Canadians have a tradition of playing hockey.

d. Adjectives referring to classes of people
Adjectives such as rich and poor can be used with the in order to refer to a group of people as a class. A plural verb must be used.
e.g. The blind attend special schools.
The poor do not own their own homes.
The rich often married for money.
In the above examples, the blind has the meaning of blind people, the poor has the meaning of poor people, and the rich has the meaning of rich people.

The following table summarizes the most important uses of the determiners a, an, and the with singular and plural countable nouns.

The absence of a determiner and the use of A, An and The before countable nouns

Use

Singular Countable Nouns

Plural Countable Nouns

A weakened form of One

a/an

Naming a profession

a/an

no determiner

Making a general statement

a/an

no determiner

Something not mentioned before

a/an

no determiner

Something referred to as a class

the

Something mentioned before

the

the

When it is obvious what is meant

the

the

Nationalities ending in ch, se, sh

the

Adjectives referring to classes of people

the

See Exercise 6.

3. The use of The with proper nouns

a. Names of people
In English, names of people in the singular are not usually preceded by a determiner.
e.g. Washington was the first president of the United States.
Jack and Eleanor saw the movie.

Determiners are also usually not used when a title precedes a person's name.
Doctor Defoe has a good reputation.
Mr. Carpenter is a friend of ours.
In these examples, the titles Doctor and Mr. are not preceded by determiners.

However, names of people in the plural are usually preceded by the.
e.g. The Smiths live in that house.
I have known the Harrisons for years.

b. Names of places
In English, the is usually used before the following types of place name:

Type of Place Name
canal
desert
ocean
river
sea
plural place names
place names containing the word of

The following are examples of names of canals, deserts, oceans, rivers, and seas:
e.g. the Panama Canal
the Mojave Desert
the Atlantic Ocean
the St. Lawrence River
the Beaufort Sea

The following are examples of plural place names:
e.g. the United States
the British Isles
the Great Lakes
the Rocky Mountains

The following are examples of place names containing the word of:
e.g. the Gulf of Mexico
the Cape of Good Hope
the Bay of Biscay
the Isle of Wight

Other types of place name are usually not preceded by determiners. For instance, determiners are usually not used before the following types of place name:

Type of Place Name

Example

lake

Lake Superior

island

Manhattan Island

mountain

Mount Rainier

park

Yosemite National Park

city

Boston

street

Main Street

country

Canada

state

Kansas

province

Nova Scotia

county

Halifax County

See Exercise 7.

4. Nouns used only in the plural

Some English nouns are usually used only in the plural. Such nouns take a plural verb, and generally have a plural form. For instance, the following nouns, which all refer to objects with two parts, are usually used only in the plural:
e.g. jeans
pajamas
pliers
scissors

If it is desired to refer to such objects individually, the expression pair of is often used.
e.g. a pair of jeans
a pair of pajamas
a pair of pliers
a pair of scissors

When the expression pair of is used as the subject of the verb, the verb must agree with the word pair.
e.g. Jeans are fashionable.
A pair of jeans is expensive.

Pliers are very useful.
A pair of pliers is often useful.

In the above examples, the nouns jeans and pliers take the plural verb are, and the noun pair takes the singular verb is.

See Exercise 8.

EXERCISES for Chapter 15

1. Rewrite the following general statements using singular nouns. Make sure that the verbs agree with their subjects. For example:
Engineers must be familiar with computers.
An engineer must be familiar with computers.

Trees produce oxygen.
A tree produces oxygen.

1. Automobiles should be kept in good repair.
2. Bats locate insects by means of sonar.
3. Diplomats should, if possible, be multilingual.
4. Hats are useful in cold weather.
5. Physicists must study a great deal.
6. Elephants can be dangerous.
Answers

2. Rewrite the following general statements using plural nouns. Make sure that the verbs agree with their subjects. For example:
A bicycle is a convenient means of transportation.
Bicycles are a convenient means of transportation.

A secretary should be proficient in spelling and grammar.
Secretaries should be proficient in spelling and grammar.

1. A sportsman needs to remain calm under pressure.
2. An eagle has good eyesight.
3. A conference requires careful planning.
4. A rock is composed of minerals.
5. A potato is rich in starch.
6. An omelette is made of eggs and other ingredients.
Answers

3. Rewrite the following general statements using singular nouns. Make sure that the verbs agree with their subjects. For example:
Frogs are amphibians.
A frog is an amphibian.

Wrenches are tools.
A wrench is a tool.

1. Pines are evergreens.
2. Otters are mammals.
3. Computers are machines.
4. Crabs are crustaceans.
5. Crickets are insects.
6. Oaks are hardwoods.
Answers

4. Rewrite the following general statements using plural nouns. Make sure that the verbs agree with their subjects. For example:
A robin is a bird.
Robins are birds.

A refrigerator is an appliance.
Refrigerators are appliances.

1. A schooner is a ship.
2. A mallard is a duck.
3. A rhododendron is a bush.
4. A beech is a tree.
5. A kangaroo is a marsupial.
6. An emerald is a gem.
Answers

5. Paying attention to whether the people and things referred to have been mentioned previously, fill in each blank with a, an or the, or leave the blank empty if no determiner is required.

I once had the chance to see ___ Chinese opera. It was very exciting. As well as ___ singers, there were ___ dancers and ___ acrobats. ___ acrobats staged ___ fights. During ___ fights, some of ___ acrobats wielded ___ swords, and others leaped over ___ swords. Many of ___ dancers carried scarves. ___ dancers ___ flourished ___ scarves to make ____ patterns in the air.

Behind ___ screen was a group of ___ musicians. ___ musicians played various oriental instruments. ___ instruments included ___ drums, ___ cymbals, ___ flutes and ___ gong. ___ flutes usually played the melody, and ___ gong was sounded at particularly exciting moments.

Of course there were ___ hero and ___ heroine. ___ hero had to rescue ___ heroine from ___ magician. ___ hero and ___ heroine had both proved their courage by the end of ___ opera.
Answers

6. Fill in each blank with the or leave it empty, as appropriate. Be prepared to justify your choices. For example:
Those participants are ____ lawyers.
Those participants are lawyers.

____ eagles are birds of prey.
Eagles are birds of prey.

___ deaf have their own language.
The deaf have their own language.

___ Dutch are members of the European Union.
The Dutch are members of the European Union.

____ planets circle the sun.
The planets circle the sun.

1. ____ English have a reputation for being animal lovers.
2. ____ wounded were treated immediately.
3. His friends are ____ scientists.
4. ____ crows are black.
5. ____ stars are covered by clouds.
6. ____ French make excellent pastries.
7. Two of the women are ____ reporters.
8. ____ turtles are reptiles.
9. ____ wealthy generally have a good knowledge of finance.
10. ____ Americans like to watch television.
11. They are ____ businessmen.
Answers

7. Paying attention to the rules for the use of the with proper nouns, fill in the blanks with the or leave them empty, as appropriate. For example:
___ Rick is one of ___ Smiths who live on our street.
Rick is one of the Smiths who live on our street.

___ Channel Islands lie south of ___ England.
The Channel Islands lie south of England.

___ Rhine River flows through ___ Lake Constance.
The Rhine River flows through Lake Constance.

____ Isle of Man lies in ____ Irish Sea.
The Isle of Man lies in the Irish Sea.

Part of ___ New York City is situated on ___ Long Island.
Part of New York City is situated on Long Island.

1. ____ Hawaiian Islands are in the middle of ____ Pacific Ocean.
2. ____ Salt Lake City is the capital of Utah.
3. ____ London lies on ____ Thames River.
4. ____ Suez Canal connects ____ Mediterranean Sea with Red Sea.
5. ____ Lake Huron and ____ Lake Erie are two of ____ Great Lakes.
6. ____ Calcutta lies north of ____ Bay of Bengal.
7. ____ North Sea separates British Isles from ____ Norway and ____ Denmark.
8. ____ Bay of Biscay lies to the west of ____ France.
9. ____ Orkney Islands are in the north of ____ Scotland.
10. ____ Anticosti Island lies in ____ Gulf of St. Lawrence.
11. Part of ____ Sahara Desert lies in ____ Algeria.
12. ____ Gerry, one of ____ Johnsons, lives on ____ Belleview Street.
13. ____ Mount Kilimanjaro is south-east of ____ Lake Victoria.
14. ____ Vancouver Island lies off the west coast of ____ Canada.
15. ____ Serengeti National Park lies in ____ Tanzania.
Answers

8. Paying attention to whether a singular or plural verb should be used, complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank with is or are. For example:
My scissors ___ very sharp.
My scissors are very sharp.

One pair of scissors __ not enough for the whole class.
One pair of scissors is not enough for the whole class.

Five pairs of scissors ___ sufficient for a small class.
Five pairs of scissors are sufficient for a small class.

1. Her jeans ______ white.
2. Only one pair of jeans ______ clean.
3. Three pairs of jeans ______ being washed.
4. A good pair of pliers ______ handy for repairing a bicycle.
5. His pliers ______ equipped with a sharp edge for cutting wire.
6. Several pairs of pliers ______ on sale.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 15

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. An automobile should be kept 2. A bat locates 3. A diplomat should be 4. A hat is 5. A physicist must study 6. An elephant can be

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Sportsmen need 2. Eagles have 3. Conferences require 4. Rocks are composed 5. Potatoes are 6. Omelettes are made

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. A pine is an evergreen. 2. An otter is a mammal. 3. A computer is a machine. 4. A crab is a crustacean. 5. A cricket is an insect. 6. An oak is a hardwood.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. Schooners are ships. 2. Mallards are ducks. 3. Rhododendrons are bushes. 4. Beeches are trees. 5. Kangaroos are marsupials. 6. Emeralds are gems.

Answers to Exercise 5:
a Chinese opera. __ singers, __ dancers, __ acrobats. The acrobats, __ fights. the fights, the acrobats, __ swords, the swords, the dancers, __ scarves. The dancers, the scarves, __ patterns. a screen, __ musicians. The musicians. The instruments, __ drums, cymbals, __ flutes, a gong. The flutes, the gong. a hero, a heroine. The hero, the heroine, a magician. The hero, the heroine the opera.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The [nationality ending in sh] 2. The [considered as a class] 3. __ [a profession] 4. __ [general statement] 5. The [obvious what is meant] 6. The [nationality ending in ch] 7. __ [profession] 8. __ [general statement] 9. The [considered as a class] 10. __ [nationality not ending in ch, se or sh] 11. __ [profession]

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. The Hawaiian Islands, the Pacific Ocean 2. __ Salt Lake City, __ Utah 3. __ London, the Thames River 4. The Suez Canal, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea 5. __ Lake Huron. __ Lake Erie, the Great Lakes 6. __ Calcutta, the Bay of Bengal 7. The North Sea, the British Isles, __ Norway, __ Denmark 8. The Bay of Biscay, __ France 9. The Orkney Islands, __ Scotland 10. __ Anticosti Island the Gulf of St. Lawrence 11. the Sahara Desert, __ Algeria 12. __ Gerry, the Johnsons, __ Belleview Street 13. __ Mount Kilimanjaro, __ Lake Victoria 14. __ Vancouver Island, __ Canada 15. __ Serengeti National Park, __ Tanzania

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. are 2. is 3. are 4. is 5. are 6. are

CHAPTER 16.  UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Some English nouns usually cannot form a plural or be preceded by a, an or a number. Because they usually cannot be preceded by a number, such nouns can be referred to as uncountable. English uncountable nouns include:

a) nouns naming intangible things which normally cannot be counted:
e.g. honesty
courage
impatience

b) nouns naming tangible things which are thought of as substances:
e.g. butter
milk
sand

c) nouns naming groups of things which in English are referred to collectively:
e.g. furniture
luggage
news

d) names of languages:
e.g. English
German
Spanish

An uncountable noun takes a singular verb.
e.g. Honesty is a virtue.
Butter tastes good.
Furniture was provided.

1. The absence of a determiner before uncountable nouns

a. Making a general statement
In general statements, uncountable nouns are usually not preceded by determiners. The uncountable nouns in the following general statements are underlined.
e.g. Information is often valuable.
Butter is fattening.
Courage and honesty are admirable qualities.
Sunlight and water are usually required for plants to grow.

b. Referring to something not mentioned before
In descriptions, uncountable nouns are generally not preceded by a determiner when naming something which has not been referred to previously.
e.g. Rain was forecast for the next day.
However, thunder and lightning were not expected.
Our breakfast consisted of bread, honey and marmalade.

In these examples, the uncountable nouns rain, thunder, lightning, bread, honey and marmalade are not preceded by determiners. It is assumed that the things referred to by these nouns have not been mentioned previously.

See Exercise 1.

2. The use of The before uncountable nouns

a. Referring to something mentioned before
The is used with uncountable nouns referring to things previously mentioned.
e.g. We were served bread and cheese. The bread was somewhat stale, but the cheese was delicious.
Gold was discovered in the Klondike. The gold attracted thousands of prospectors.
Furniture and clothing are being sold at the flea market. The furniture is reasonably priced, and the clothing is cheap.

In these examples, the first time the uncountable nouns bread, cheese, gold, furniture and clothing are used, they are not preceded by determiners, because the things referred to have not been mentioned previously. The second time these nouns are used, they are preceded by the, since the things referred to have already been mentioned.

See Exercise 2.

b. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what is meant
The is used with uncountable nouns when the speaker or writer considers it obvious which particular thing is meant.
e.g. The weather is fine.
The butter is hard.
The music is too loud.
The expression the weather usually refers to the local weather. The expression the butter could refer to butter which one plans to use, and the expression the music could refer to music which is playing nearby.

The is often used before uncountable nouns followed by descriptive phrases, since such phrases tend to make it clear to which particular things the uncountable nouns are referring.
e.g. The warmth of the sun causes water to evaporate.
The coal mined in Germany is used in making steel.
The milk which they produce is marketed locally.

In the first sentence, the is used with the uncountable noun warmth, since the phrase of the sun specifies what warmth is meant. In the second sentence, the is used with the uncountable noun coal, since the phrase mined in Germany specifies which particular coal is meant. In the third sentence, the is used with the uncountable noun milk, since the phrase which they produce makes it clear which particular milk is meant.

As shown in the following table, the absence of a determiner and the use of the before uncountable nouns follows a pattern similar to the absence of a determiner and the use of the before plural countable nouns.

The absence of a determiner and the use of The before uncountable nouns

Use

Uncountable Nouns

Making a general statement

no determiner

Something not mentioned before

no determiner

Something mentioned before

the

When it is obvious what is meant

the

3. The use of uncountable nouns to refer to individual things

Uncountable nouns can be used to refer to individual things by being preceded by a countable noun and the word of. For example:

Uncountable Noun

Referring to an Individual Thing

information

a piece of information

wheat

a grain of wheat

milk

a glass of milk

sunlight

a patch of sunlight

The countable nouns may, of course, be put into the plural. For example:

Singular

Plural

one piece of information

two pieces of information

one grain of wheat

three grains of wheat

one glass of milk

four glasses of milk

one patch of sunlight

five patches of sunlight

In sentences such as the following, it is the countable noun which is the subject of the verb.
e.g. Fifty grains of wheat are required.
Two glasses of milk are enough.
In the above examples, the plural countable nouns grains and glasses each take the plural verb are.

In English, the names of games are usually uncountable nouns.
e.g. He plays hockey.
Chess is a challenging game.

When it is desired to refer to individual games, the word game must usually be used. For example:

Uncountable Noun

Referring to an Individual Thing

chess

a game of chess

hockey

a game of hockey or a hockey game

See Exercise 3.

4. Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable

Many English nouns are used sometimes as countable nouns and sometimes as uncountable nouns. Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable include nouns which may have different shades of meaning; normally uncountable nouns which are used to refer to types of things; and a few nouns which refer to places used for specific activities.

a. Differences in meaning
Many nouns are uncountable when they refer to something as a substance or a concept, but are countable when they refer to an individual thing related to the substance or concept. For instance, cake is used as an uncountable noun when referring to cake as a substance, but is used as a countable noun when referring to individual cakes.
e.g. Cake and ice cream is my favorite dessert.
This afternoon we baked two cakes.
In the first sentence cake is an uncountable noun, and in the second sentence cakes is a countable noun.

Similarly, life is used as an uncountable noun when referring to life as an abstract concept, but is used as a countable noun when referring to individual lives.
e.g. Life is full of surprises.
It was feared that two lives had been lost.
In the first sentence life is an uncountable noun, and in the second sentence lives is a countable noun.

b. Referring to a type of something
An uncountable noun can be used as countable noun when it refers to a type of something.
e.g. He has an honesty which is rare nowadays.
The wheats of Canada differ from those of India.
In the first sentence, the usually uncountable noun honesty is used with an as a countable noun to refer to a type of honesty. In the second sentence, the usually uncountable noun wheat is used as a countable noun in the plural to refer to types of wheat.

c. Referring to places used for specific activities
A few nouns referring to places used for specific activities can be either countable or uncountable. These nouns are used as uncountable nouns when referring to places as locations where specific activities are carried out, but are used as countable nouns when referring to the places as objects. In the following pairs of sentences, the words bed and church are used first as uncountable nouns, and then as countable nouns.
e.g. Because I was tired, I stayed in bed.
Please help me to move the bed.

She goes to church.
She likes to photograph churches.

In the first pair of sentences, stayed in bed refers to the activity of resting in bed; whereas move the bed refers to a bed as an object. In the second pair of sentences, goes to church refers to the activity of taking part in church services; whereas likes to photograph churches refers to churches as objects.

Nouns which are used in this way include:

bed

home

sea

church

hospital

town

college

prison

university

court

school

d. Names of meals
Similarly, the word television and the names of meals such as breakfast, lunch, dinner and supper are used as uncountable nouns when it is desired to emphasize the activity being carried out.
e.g. They are watching television.
We are eating breakfast.

See Exercise 4.

5. Infinitives used in the place of nouns

Infinitives are sometimes used in the place of nouns.
e.g. To ski well is one of my goals.
They plan to call us.

In the first sentence, the infinitive to ski performs the function of a noun, since it is the subject of the verb is. In the second sentence, the infinitive to call performs the function of a noun, since it is the object of the verb to plan. These infinitives also function as verbs, since to ski is described by the adverb well, and to call takes the object us.

Like an uncountable noun, an infinitive which is the subject of a verb takes a singular verb. Unlike an uncountable noun, an infinitive usually cannot be preceded by the word the.

6. Gerunds

Present participles are often used in the place of nouns. A present participle used in the place of a noun is usually referred to as a gerund. In the following sentences, the gerunds are underlined.
e.g. Skating is good exercise.
They like jogging.
In the first sentence, skating is the subject of the verb is. In the second sentence, jogging is the object of the verb like.

A gerund can perform the functions of a noun and a verb at the same time.
e.g. Riding a bicycle is good exercise.
They like playing hockey.

In the first sentence, the gerund riding functions as a noun, since it is the subject of the verb is; and also functions as a verb, since it takes the object bicycle. In the second sentence, the gerund playing functions as a noun, since it is the object of the verb like; and also functions as a verb, since it takes the object hockey.

In their role as nouns, gerunds are sometimes regarded as uncountable nouns. Like an uncountable noun, a gerund which is the subject of a verb takes a singular verb. Also, like an uncountable noun, a gerund can be preceded by the when referring to a particular thing or to something previously mentioned.
e.g. The skiing was excellent.
He went hunting. The hunting was good.

In the first example, the skiing could refer to skiing done at a particular place. In the second example, the hunting refers to the hunting mentioned in the previous sentence.

7. Specific verbs followed by infinitives and gerunds

a. Verbs followed by infinitives
Many English verbs can be followed by an infinitive. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the infinitives are printed in bold type.
e.g. They want to succeed.
He hopes to travel next year.

The following verbs can take an infinitive as an object, but cannot take a gerund as an object:

agree

demand

learn

promise

appear

deserve

manage

refuse

arrange

expect

mean

seem

ask

fail

need

tend

claim

forget

offer

threaten

consent

hesitate

plan

wait

dare

hope

prepare

want

decide

intend

pretend

Other examples of the use of infinitives with these verbs are:
They agreed to come.
He expected to win.
She managed to keep the secret.
We pretended to agree with them.

b. Verbs followed by either infinitives or gerunds
Some English verbs can be followed either by an infinitive or by a gerund. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the infinitives and gerunds are printed in bold type.
e.g. I like to fish.
I like fishing.

She prefers to ride a bicycle.
She prefers riding a bicycle.

The following verbs can take either an infinitive or a gerund as an object:

attempt

like

begin

love

cease

prefer

commence

propose

continue

start

hate

try

c. Verbs followed by gerunds
Other English verbs can be followed by a gerund, but cannot be followed by an infinitive used as an object. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the gerunds are printed in bold type.
e.g. They disliked waiting.
It stopped raining.

The following verbs can take a gerund as an object, but cannot take an infinitive as an object:

1

2

3

4

5

keep

appreciate

admit

avoid

complete

practise

deplore

anticipate

defer

finish

risk

detest

consider

delay

quit

dislike

deny

escape

stop

dread

discuss

miss

enjoy

mention

postpone

loathe

recall

mind

recommend

regret

suggest

resent

resist

tolerate

It should be noted that many of the verbs listed above have similar meanings. The second column contains verbs which express feelings about doing something; many of the feelings are negative. The third column contains verbs which refer to thoughts about doing something. The fourth column contains verbs which refer to negative actions with respect to doing something. The fifth column contains verbs which refer to ceasing to do something.

Other examples of the use of gerunds with these verbs are:
I kept calling the office.
We appreciate hearing from you.
He denies following us.
They avoid discussing the subject.
She finished filling in the blanks.

See Exercise 5.

EXERCISES for Chapter 16

1. For the following sentences, fill in the blanks with a or an or leave the blanks empty, as appropriate. Fill in the blanks with a or an before countable nouns, and leave them empty before uncountable nouns. For example:
__ bird is singing outside the window.
A bird is singing outside the window.

___ copper is used in making electrical wiring.
Copper is used in making electrical wiring.

1. ___ air is made up of elements such as ___ oxygen and ___ nitrogen.
2. ___ book is lying on the floor.
3. ___ Russian is a difficult language.
4. ___ onion is ___ vegetable.
5. ___ butter and ___ cream are made from ___ milk.
6. ___ letter has been delivered to the wrong house.
7. ___ child is playing on the sidewalk.
8. ___ asbestos is a fireproof material.
9. ___ tree is growing outside the house.
10. ___ curiosity is considered a sign of ___ intelligence.
11. They want to buy ___ camera.
12. ___ egg was added to the soup.
13. ___ rain is expected this evening.
14. The farmers wished for ___ peace and ___ prosperity.
15. ___ bicycle is parked in front of the store.
Answers

2. Paying attention to whether the nouns in the following paragraphs are countable or uncountable, and to whether or not the nouns refer to things which have been mentioned before, fill in the blanks with a or the, or leave the blanks empty, as appropriate.

Phil Jones was ____ prospector, who was looking for ____ gold. He had to travel a long way, crossing ___ mountains and ____ streams to reach his destination.

Previously, he had been ____ miner and had mined ___ copper and ___ coal. But ____ copper had given out, and mining ____ coal was dangerous work. When he had heard about ___ gold in ____ mountains, Phil had left his job and traveled west. He knew he would need ___ courage and ___ determination to reach his goal.

One evening he camped beside ___ stream. When he tested ____ stream, he found there was a small amount of glittering gold dust in it. As usual, Phil made ___ fire to prepare his evening meal. He took ____ ___ flour and ___ salt from his knapsack, and got ___ water from ____ stream. Then he mixed ___ salt with ___ flour, and gradually added ___ water, to make ___ pancakes over ___ fire.

As ___ fire died away, Phil looked up and down ___ stream. Expecting to see only ___ darkness, to his surprise, he saw ____ lights from many small fires. He knew they must be ____ fires of other prospectors. "I've reached end of my journey", he thought. Now he was in the goldfields, and with ___ luck, he would find ___ gold he had come to seek.
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, change the word one to two, put the subject of the verb into the plural, and make sure that the verb agrees with its subject. For example:
One bar of soap will be provided.
Two bars of soap will be provided.

One bag of flour is on the counter.
Two bags of flour are on the counter.

1. One piece of luggage is allowed per passenger.
2. One bottle of water is enough.
3. One jar of honey is larger than the others.
4. One piece of furniture will be delivered.
5. One grain of rice has fallen onto the table.
6. One bucket of sand was needed to build the sand castle.
7. One cup of sugar should be mixed with the flour.
8. One game of chess will be played at four o'clock.
Answers

4. Fill in each blank with a or an if the noun following the blank is used as a countable noun, or leave the blank empty if the noun following the blank is used as an uncountable noun. For example:
The bowl is made of ___ glass.
The bowl is made of glass.

Would you like __ glass of water?
Would you like a glass of water?

1. The sun gives off ___ heat and ___ light.
2. There is ___ light suspended from the ceiling.
3. She will buy ___ paper to find out what movies are being shown.
4. ___ paper can be made from ___ wood or ___ cloth.
5. She has a keen sense of ___ honor.
6. It is ___ honor to be invited to speak.
7. There is ___ bed near the window.
8. He has gone to ____ bed early because he is tired.
9. ___ iron used in making ___ steel.
10. If I had ___ iron, I would press my new suit.
11. They always eat ___ lunch at twelve o'clock.
12. We will pack you ____ lunch to take with you.
Answers

5. Paying attention to which verbs can be followed by an infinitive and which can be followed by a gerund, for each sentence, fill in the blank with the infinitive or gerund of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
Please stop _____ that! (to do)
Please stop doing that!

He has decided _______ a holiday. (to take)
He has decided to take a holiday.

1. Has he finished __________ the report? (to read)
2. We plan __________ the concert. (to attend)
3. They will discuss __________ a club. (to organize)
4. She offered _________ the letter. (to write)
5. They asked __________ us. (to accompany)
6. You should practise __________ the speech. (to give)
7. I would suggest __________ the work by next week. (to finish)
8. He has not dared __________ you. (to contradict)
9. They delayed _________ us. (to call)
10. She deserves ___________. (to succeed)
11. We forgot _________ the letter. (to mail)
12. He enjoys __________. (to ski)
13. They would not risk _________ the bus. (to miss)
14. Do you want __________ the book? (to borrow)
15. I don't mind _________. (to wait)
16. Her daughter is learning __________ a bicycle. (to ride)
17. It has stopped __________. (to snow)
18. He is preparing __________ a business. (to open)
19. They hesitated __________ the invitation. (to accept)
20. I miss __________ from them. (to hear)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 16

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. __ Air, __ oxygen, __ nitrogen 2. A book 3. __ Russian 4. An onion, a vegetable 5. __ Butter, __ cream, __ milk 6. A letter 7. A child 8. __ Asbestos 9. A tree 10. __ Curiosity, __ intelligence 11. a camera 12. An egg 13. __ Rain 14. __ peace, __ prosperity 15. A bicycle

Answers to Exercise 2:
a prospector, __ gold. __ mountains, __ streams. a miner, __ copper, __ coal. the copper, the coal. the gold, the mountains, __ courage, __ determination. a stream. the stream. a fire. __ flour, __ salt, __ water, the stream. the salt, the flour the water, __ pancakes, the fire. the fire, the stream. __ darkness, __ lights. the fires. the end. __ luck, the gold.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. Two pieces of luggage are allowed 2. Two bottles of water are 3. Two jars of honey are 4. Two pieces of furniture will be delivered. 5. Two grains of rice have fallen 6. Two buckets of wand were needed 7. Two cups of sugar should be mixed 9. Two games of chess will be played

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. __ heat, __ light 2. a light 3. a paper 4. __ Paper, __ wood, __ cloth 5. __ honor 6. an honor 7. a bed 8. __ bed 9. __ Iron, __ steel 10. an iron 11. __ lunch 12. a lunch

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. reading 2. to attend 3. organizing 4. to write 5. to accompany 6. giving 7. finishing 8. to contradict 9. calling 10. to succeed 11. to mall 12. skiing 13. missing 14. to borrow 15. waiting 16. to ride 17. snowing 18. to open 19. to accept 20. hearing

CHAPTER 17.  NOUNS INDICATING POSSESSION AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS

1. Ways in which possession is indicated

a. The ending 's
One way in which English nouns indicate possession is by means of the ending 's.
e.g. the boy's hat
Sally's bicycle
In the above examples, the ending 's indicates that the hat is possessed by the boy, and that the bicycle is possessed by Sally. The English ending 's is related to the German possessive ending es.

The ending 's is most often used with nouns referring to human beings or animals.
e.g. the child's toy
the bird's song

Nouns formed from two or more words joined by hyphens indicate possession by adding 's to the last word.
e.g. the runner-up's score
the sister-in-law's children

The ending 's may also used with nouns referring to non-living things which are sometimes thought of as if they were living, such as ships, countries, corporations, and the earth.
e.g. the ship's bell
Italy's exports
the city's parks
the earth's surface

The ending 's may also be used with nouns referring to units of time.
e.g. a day's work
a week's delay

In addition, the ending 's is used with nouns referring to non-living things in a few idioms such as the following:
e.g. a stone's throw away
your money's worth

It should be noted that the ending 's is used only with singular and plural nouns which do not end in s.
e.g. the girl's hat
the children's books
the men's jackets

b. The ending s'
For plural nouns which end in s, the ending 's is not used. Instead, an apostrophe: ' is placed after the s which indicates a plural. The following examples illustrate how the plural nouns students and Smiths indicate possession.
e.g. the students' books
the Smiths' house
In these examples, the apostrophes indicate that the books belong to the students, and that the house belongs to the Smiths.

It should be noted that both 's and s' are pronounced like s. Thus, in spoken English, there is no distinction between a singular noun with the ending 's and a plural noun ending in s'. For instance, the phrase the student's books is pronounced in the same way as the phrase the students' books.

In American English, singular nouns ending in s can also indicate possession by means of a final apostrophe.
e.g. James' scarf
Dickens' novels
In these examples, a final apostrophe is used with the singular proper nouns James and Dickens to indicate possession.

See Exercises 1 and 2.

c. Phrases beginning with Of
When the possessor is not a human being or animal, possession is often indicated by the use of a phrase beginning with of following the name of the thing possessed. A phrase beginning with of is most commonly used when the thing possessed is an abstract quality, such as size. This means of indicating possession is related to the method used in French, and may be the result of the influence of French on the English language.
e.g. the size of the portrait
the color of the carpet
the beginning of the story

See Exercise 3.

d. Two consecutive nouns
When the possessor and the thing possessed are both concrete objects, possession can often be indicated by placing the noun naming the possessor before the noun naming the thing possessed.
e.g. the car radio
the tree trunk
the kitchen sink
the onion skin
These examples indicate that the radio belongs to the car, the trunk belongs to the tree, the sink belongs to the kitchen, and the skin belongs to the onion. This type of construction will be discussed further in the section on Defining Adjectives.

2. Agreement of verbs with collective nouns and compound subjects

The following rules apply in formal English, but may or may not be observed in informal English.

a. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are singular nouns which refer to a group. The words audience, class, family, flock, group and team are examples of collective nouns.

A collective noun takes a singular verb when the group referred to acts as a whole or is considered as a whole.
e.g. Our team has won the game.
That family is well-known.
In the first example, the singular verb has won is used, since the collective noun team refers to a group acting as a whole. In the second example, the singular verb is is used, since the collective noun family refers to a group being considered as a whole.

However, a collective noun takes a plural verb when the members of the group are considered to be acting individually.
e.g. The flock were running, playing and searching for fresh grass.
The audience were throwing flowers and jewelry onto the stage.
In the first example, the use of the plural verb were running indicates that the members of the flock are considered to be acting individually. Similarly, in the second example, the use of the plural verb were throwing indicates that the members of the audience are considered to be acting individually.

b. Amounts considered as a whole
A noun subject naming a unit of currency or a unit of measurement takes a singular verb when the amount referred to is being considered as a whole.
e.g. Ten dollars is my best offer.
Five minutes is all that is required.
Two years is a long time.
In each of the above examples, the amount of money or length of time referred to by the subject is being considered as a whole. Thus, in each case a singular verb, is, is used.

See Exercise 4.

c. Compound subjects
When the subject of a verb consists of two or more nouns joined by and, or or nor, the subject can be referred to as a compound subject. In the following examples, the compound subjects are underlined.
e.g. Cars and buses were filling the streets.
One apple or one pear is needed.
Neither ducks nor pigeons were in the yard.

i. Compound subjects with And
A compound subject consisting of two nouns joined by the word and usually takes a plural verb. In the following examples, the compound subjects consist of various combinations of singular and plural nouns joined by the word and. In all of the examples, the compound subject with and takes a plural verb.
e.g. Red and white are my favorite colors.
One egg and one lemon are required to make the cake.
One teacher and twenty students are present.
Roses and tulips are blooming in the garden.

However, a compound subject with and takes a singular verb when the subject as a whole refers to only one thing, or is considered as referring to only one thing.
e.g. Our vice-president and treasurer is a person everyone likes.
Strawberries and cream is my favorite dessert.
In the first example, the use of the singular verb is indicates that the compound subject vice-president and treasurer refers to a single person. In the second example, the use of the singular verb is indicates that the compound subject strawberries and cream is being considered as referring to a single type of dessert.

Likewise, a compound subject with and takes a singular verb when the subject is the title of a book or the name of a company.
e.g. War and Peace is a long book.
Johnson and Sons is a company which sells musical instruments.
In each of the above examples a singular verb, is, is used, since the compound subject is the name of a single thing.

ii. Compound subjects with Or or Nor
When a compound subject consists of two or more nouns joined by the word or or nor, the verb agrees with the noun nearest the verb.

In the following examples the verbs are singular, since the nouns nearest the verbs are singular.
e.g. A bus or a streetcar passes this point every two minutes.
Neither my friend nor his brother knows what to do.
Cookies or cake is available.
Neither sardines nor salmon was served.

In the following examples the verbs are plural, since the nouns nearest the verbs are plural.
e.g. Sandals or slippers are suitable.
Neither pencils nor pens were provided.
Cake or cookies are available.
Neither salmon nor sardines were served.

When a compound subject consists of one singular noun and one plural noun joined by or or nor, it is sometimes considered advisable to place the plural noun directly before the verb, so that the verb will be plural.
e.g. A coat or two sweaters are needed.
Neither the teacher nor the students were there.
In these examples, the plural nouns sweaters and teachers have been placed immediately before the verbs, so that the verbs will be plural.

The following table summarizes the rules for the agreement of verbs with compound subjects:

Agreement of Verbs with Compound Subjects

Nouns of Compound Subject

Conjunction

Verb

Nouns referring to a single thing

and

singular

Nouns referring to two or more things

and

plural

Singular noun nearest the verb

or/nor

singular

Plural noun nearest the verb

or/nor

plural

See Exercise 5.

d. Nouns followed by descriptive phrases
Two or more nouns can form a compound subject when joined by and, or or nor. However, when a noun subject is followed by a descriptive phrase containing another noun, the two nouns do not form a compound subject. In this case, the verb must agree with the noun subject, not with the noun in the descriptive phrase.

In the following examples, the subjects of the verbs are printed in bold type, and the descriptive phrases following the subjects are underlined.
e.g. One book, larger than the others, was lying open on the desk.
The leader of the students was an excellent speaker.
My friend, as well as her sisters, is here.

In the above examples, the verbs was lying, was and is are singular, to agree with the singular subjects book, leader and friend. The descriptive phrases larger than the others, of the students and as well as her sisters have no effect on which form of the verb is used.

See Exercise 6.

EXERCISES for Chapter 17

1. For each of the following phrases, change the noun indicating possession from the singular to the plural. For example:
the man's experiences
the men's experiences

the doctor's office
the doctors' office

1. the musician's instruments
2. the child's adventures
3. the animal's habitat
4. the workman's instructions
5. the ship's passengers
6. the pilot's vacation
7. the officer's friends
Answers

2. For each of the following phrases, change the noun indicating possession from the plural to the singular. For example:
the owners' permission
the owner's permission

the mice's nest
the mouse's nest

1. the surgeons' skill
2. the policemen's warning
3. the directors' decision
4. the secretaries' correspondence
5. the eagles' aerie
6. the women's errand
7. the managers' assistants
Answers

3. Show the relationships between the possessors and the things possessed by using the ending 's or the word of, as appropriate. For example:

Possessor

Thing Possessed

Indicating Possession

visitor

map

the visitor's map

stairs

top

the top of the stairs

1.

woman

scarf

2.

children

answers

3.

door

color

4.

concert

beginning

5.

instructor

advice

6.

deficit

size

7.

girl

tricycle

8.

building

height

9.

hen

cackling

10.

boy

parents

11.

chair

arm

12.

street

length

Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with either the singular or the plural verb form shown in brackets. Be prepared to explain why the form you have chosen is correct. For example:

The committee ____ put forward a new proposal. (has, have)
The committee has put forward a new proposal.
In this example the committee is acting as a whole. Therefore a singular verb is used.

The committee ____ disagreed on what policy to adopt. (has, have)
The committee have disagreed on what policy to adopt.
In this example, the members of the committee are acting as individuals. Therefore a plural verb is used.

Two tons of coal __ required. (is, are)
Two tons of coal is required.
In this example, the amount two tons is considered as a whole. Therefore a singular verb is used.

1. The crew ______ preparing the ship to go to sea. (is, are)
2. The crew ______ different levels of experience. (has, have)
3. Two pounds of butter _____ too much. (is, are)
4. The class _____ not agree on what should be done. (does, do)
5. The class _____ contributed eighty dollars to the cause. (has, have)
6. Three ounces of gold _____ worth more than three ounces of copper. (is, are)
7. The group _____ decided to hold a meeting once a month. (has, have)
8. The group _____ varied backgrounds. (has, have)
9. Fifty cents _____ the regular price. (was, were)
10. Six dollars _____ been collected. (has, have)
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with either the singular or the plural verb form shown in brackets. Be prepared to explain why the form you have chosen is correct. For example:

Both the sky and the water ___ blue. (is, are)
Both the sky and the water are blue.
The two nouns of a compound subject with and refer to two different things. Therefore a plural verb is used.

Wilson and Brothers __ a company dealing in antiques. (is, are)
Wilson and Brothers is a company dealing in antiques.
The two nouns of a compound subject with and refer to one thing. Therefore a singular verb is used.

Either Richard or his uncle __ sure to be there. (is, are)
Either Richard or his uncle is sure to be there.
A singular noun is nearest the verb in a compound subject with or. Therefore a singular verb is used.

Neither the main office nor the branch offices ___ open. (is, are)
Neither the main office nor the branch offices are open.
A plural noun is nearest the verb in a compound subject with nor. Therefore a plural verb is used.

1. Either a large jar or two small jars _____ required. (is, are)
2. Neither the road nor the highway ______ to Pictou. (leads, lead)
3. A duck and a heron _____ in the pond. (is, are)
4. Either spring or summer _____ a good time to visit our region. (is, are)
5. Both the bow and the arrows ______ to the instructor. (belongs, belong)
6. Neither the boats nor the raft _____ in good repair. (was, were)
7. Milk and porridge _____ a nutritious breakfast. (is, are)
8. Either his brother or his sister ______ here. (lives, live)
9. Both boys and girls _____ eligible to apply. (is, are)
10. Neither threats nor persuasion _____ proved effective. (has, have)
11. Bread and potatoes _____ staple foods in many parts of North America. (is, are)
12. Either the twins or their friend _____ in the class. (is, are)
13. The Picts and the Martyrs _____ a book I would like to read again. (is, are)
14. Both feathers and fur ______ to keep animals warm. (helps, help)
15. Rope or string _____ required. (is, are)
16. Either plates or saucers _____ suitable. (is, are)
17. Smith and Smith _____ a family business. (is, are)
18. Neither the apples nor the plums _____ ripe. (was, were)
Answers

6. For each of the following sentences, place brackets around the phrase which describes the noun subject. Then, using the Simple Present tense, fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb shown in brackets. For example:
The tools, including the hammer, ___ made of iron. (to be)
The tools, [including the hammer,] are made of iron.

The ferry, as well as the other boats, ___ at anchor. (to be)
The ferry, [as well as the other boats,] is at anchor.

1. The letter, as well as the postcards, _____ on the table. (to be)
2. The windows at the front of the house _____ to be repaired. (to need)
3. His friends, as well as his sister, _____ about to leave. (to be)
4. The meadow, filled with flowers, _____ a beautiful sight. (to be)
5. The children in the class _____ eager to learn. (to be)
6. The kettle, in contrast to the saucepans, _____ pitch black. (to be)
7. The books, although purchased only last year, already _____ worn. (to look)
8. The leader of the musicians _____ responsible for the arrangements. (to be)
9. The table, together with the chairs, _____ quite old. (to be)
10. The members of the club ________ attending the meetings. (to enjoy)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 17

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. the musicians' instruments 2. the children's adventures 3. the animals' habitat 4. the workmen's instructions 5. the ships' passengers 6. the pilots' vacation 7. the officers' friends

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. the surgeon's skill 2. the policeman's warning 3. the director's decision 4. the secretary's correspondence 5. the eagle's aerie 6. the woman's errand 7. the manager's assistants

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. the woman's scarf 2. the children's answers 3. the color of the door 4. the beginning of the concert 5. the instructor's advice 6. the size of the deficit 7. the girl's tricycle 8. the height of the building 9. the hen's cackling 10. the boy's parents 11. the arm of the chair 12. the length of the street

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. is [acting as a whole] 2. have [considered individually] 3. is [considered as a whole] 4. do [acting individually] 5. has [acting as a whole] 6. is [considered as a whole] 7. has [acting as a whole] 8. have [considered individually] 9. was [considered as a whole] 10. has [considered as a whole]

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. are [or: noun nearest the verb is plural] 2. leads [nor: noun nearest the verb is singular] 3. are [and: subject refers to more than one thing] 4. is [or: noun nearest the verb is singular] 5. belong [and: subject refers to more than one thing] 6. was [nor: noun nearest the verb is singular] 7. is [and: subject refers to a single type of breakfast] 8. lives [or: noun nearest the verb is singular] 9. are [and: subject refers to more than one thing] 10. has [or: noun nearest the verb is singular] 11. are [and: subject refers to more than one thing] 12. is [or: noun nearest the verb is singular] 13. is [and: title of a book] 14. help [and: subject refers to more than one thing] 15. is [or: noun nearest the verb is singular] 16. are [or: noun nearest the verb is plural] 17. is [and: name of a company] 18. were [nor: noun nearest the verb is plural]

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The letter, [as well as the postcards,] is on the table. 2. The windows [at the front of the house] need to be repaired. 3. His friends, [as well as his sister,] are about to leave. 4. The meadow, [filled with flowers,] is a beautiful sight. 5. The children [in the class] are eager to learn. 6. The kettle, [in contrast to the saucepans] is pitch black. 7. The books, [although purchased only last year] already look worn. 8. The leader [of the musicians] is responsible for the arrangements. 9. The table, [together with the chairs,] is quite old. 10. The members [of the club] enjoy attending the meetings.

CHAPTER 18.  PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words which can be used in the place of nouns. The personal pronouns in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g. She will do the work herself.
They gave it to him.
We want to know who was there.

In the following examples, pronouns are used in the place of nouns, instead of repeating the nouns.
e.g. I saw a boy on the steps. He seemed to recognize me.
My friend and her brother like to ski. They ski whenever they can.
In the first example, the pronoun he is used instead of repeating the noun boy. In the second example, the pronoun they is used instead of repeating the nouns friend and brother.

1. The subjective case

The following English personal pronouns were listed in Chapter 1. They are usually referred to as indicated below:

Singular

Plural

First Person

I

we

Second Person

you

you

Third Person

he, she, it

they

Thus, I is referred to as the first person singular; we is referred to as the first person plural; you is referred to as the second person; he, she and it are referred to as the third person singular; and they is referred to as the third person plural.

These pronouns are said to be in the subjective case, because they can each be used as the subject of a verb. In the following examples, the personal pronouns in the subjective case are underlined.
e.g. I am ready.
He is fortunate.
She is a teacher.
It is raining.
We are coming.
You are right.
They are determined.

The agreement of verbs with subjects which are personal pronouns has been discussed in previous chapters.

2. Agreement of personal pronouns with their antecedents

The pronoun I is used to refer to the speaker or writer. The pronoun you is used to refer to one or more persons or things which are being addressed by the speaker or writer. The pronoun we is normally used to refer to the speaker or writer together with one or more other people.

When a pronoun stands for a noun which has already been mentioned, the noun is sometimes referred to as the antecedent of the pronoun.
e.g. The apples are cheap, but they are not ripe yet.
In the preceding example, the noun apples is the antecedent of the pronoun they.

The antecedents of pronouns usually precede the pronouns. However, a pronoun may also stand for a noun which follows the pronoun, provided that it is obvious to what the pronoun is referring.
e.g. Because they are sour, the apples will be used for cooking.
In this example, the pronoun they stands for the noun apples, which occurs later In the sentence.

a. Male and female antecedents
The third person singular pronouns he and she are the only pronouns in the subjective case which are differentiated with respect to gender. The pronoun he is used to refer to male antecedents, and the pronoun she is used to refer to female antecedents.
e.g. A girl was sitting on the steps. She was waiting for her friend.
A boy was delivering papers. He seemed to be in a hurry.
In the above examples, the pronoun she agrees with the female antecedent girl, and the pronoun he agrees with the male antecedent boy.

b. Singular and plural antecedents
English third person pronouns are also differentiated with respect to number. If the antecedent of a pronoun is singular, a singular pronoun must be used. If the antecedent of a pronoun is plural, a plural pronoun must be used.
e.g. I have one watch. It is quite accurate.
I have two watches. They are quite accurate.

This is my sister. She is younger than I am.
These are my sisters. They are younger than I am.

This is my brother. He is older than I am.
These are my brothers. They are older than I am.

In the above examples, the singular pronouns it, he and she agree with the singular antecedents watch, sister and brother. The plural pronoun they agrees with the plural antecedents watches, sisters and brothers.

As illustrated above, the third person plural pronoun they can be used to stand for either male or female antecedents.
e.g. The men liked to play cards. They took turns keeping score.
The women came, but they did not stay long.
The men and women greeted each other. They all knew one another.

c. Human and non-human antecedents
The third person singular pronouns he, she and it usually distinguish between antecedents which refer to human beings, and antecedents which refer to things which are not human. The pronouns he and she usually refer to human beings. However, he or she may also be used to refer to an animal, if the gender of the animal is known to the speaker or writer.
e.g. My aunt is very intelligent. She has a degree in philosophy.
His brother was not there, because he had to work late.
Your dog is well trained. He is a good guard dog.
In the first two examples, he and she are used to refer to human beings. In the third example, he is used to refer to an animal.

If a third person singular antecedent does not refer to a human being, the pronoun it is usually used. However, when the thing named by the antecedent is referred to as if it had human qualities, the pronoun he or she may be used. For instance, ships and countries are sometimes referred to as she.
e.g. There is a robin on the lawn. It has a nest in that tree.
This is a good book. It is interesting and well-written.
The Bonnie Belle is a sailing ship. She is very seaworthy.
In the first two examples, it is used to refer to things which are not human. In the third example, she is used to refer to a thing which is not human.

The third person plural pronoun they can stand for either human or non-human antecedents.
e.g. The children bought ice cream, because they felt hungry.
The umbrellas are popular, because they are inexpensive.
In the first example, they stands for the human antecedent children. In the second example, they stands for the non-human antecedent umbrellas.

The main rules for the agreement of the third person pronouns he, she, it and they with their antecedents can be summarized as follows:

Agreement of Third Person Pronouns with their Antecedents

Pronoun

Antecedent

he

singular, male, usually human

she

singular, female, usually human

it

singular, non-human

they

plural

See Exercises 1 and 2.

A pronoun should not be used to stand for a noun, unless it is obvious to which noun the pronoun is referring. For instance, in the following examples, it is not clear to which nouns the underlined pronouns refer.
e.g. My friend was there with her mother. She was wearing a blue dress.
The children stared at the horses. They were ready to start.
In the first example, the pronoun she could stand either for the noun friend or for the noun mother. Similarly, in the second example, the pronoun they could stand for either children or horses.

In written English, when it is not obvious to which antecedent a pronoun refers, the relevant sentence should be corrected. This can be done either by repeating the noun, instead of using a pronoun; or by rewriting the sentence to make the meaning clear. For instance, the preceding examples could be corrected as follows. It will be assumed that she refers to friend, and that they refers to horses.
e.g. My friend was there with her mother. My friend was wearing a blue dress.
or My friend, wearing a blue dress, was there with her mother.

The children stared at the horses. The horses were ready to start.
or The children stared at the horses, which were ready to start.

See Exercise 3.

3. Special uses of It

The pronoun it can be used without an antecedent in sentences referring to general conditions such as the weather or the time.
e.g. It is raining.
It has been a wet summer.
It is too hot here.
It is the twenty-fourth of April.
It is seven o'clock.
It is Friday.

The pronoun it can also be used in expressions such as the following.
e.g. It would be a good idea to attend the meeting.
It is not necessary to buy tickets in advance.
It will be easy to find the right house.
It was clever of you to think of that.
In these sentences, it can be thought of as standing for the infinitive which follows the verb. The ideas expressed in such sentences may be expressed without the use of it by changing the infinitive to a gerund, which is placed before the verb.

For instance, the preceding sentences can be rewritten as follows:
Attending the meeting would be a good idea.
Buying tickets in advance is not necessary.
Finding the right house will be easy.
Thinking of that was clever of you.

See Exercise 4.

4. The objective case

Objects of verbs have already been discussed in the chapter on transitive and intransitive verbs. When a personal pronoun is the object of a verb, the pronoun must be in the objective case. In the following sentences, the pronouns in the objective case are underlined.
e.g. They need me.
We like you.
They understand him.
I wanted her to help them.
We mended it yesterday.

As shown in the following table, each personal pronoun in the subjective case has a corresponding form in the objective case.

Personal pronouns in the subjective and objective cases

Subjective Case

Objective Case

I

me

you

you

he

him

she

her

it

it

we

us

they

them

It can be seen that only the personal pronouns you and it have the same form in the objective case as in the subjective case.

When a personal pronoun is the subject of a verb, the subjective form of the pronoun must be used.
e.g. I understand what you mean.
He saw the comet.
In these sentences, the underlined pronouns are the subjects of the verbs understand and saw; therefore, the subjective forms I and he must be used.

When a personal pronoun is the object of a verb, the objective form of the pronoun must be used.
e.g. My friends understand me.
We saw him last night.
In these sentences, the underlined pronouns are the objects of the verbs understand and saw; therefore, the objective forms me and him must be used.

The rules for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents are the same for pronouns in the objective case as for the corresponding pronouns in the subjective case.
e.g. When your son won the prize, we congratulated him.
Your daughter thinks we have not noticed her.
When the letter arrived, we answered it immediately.
He and I were right, but no one believed us.
Because the boats were barely moving, we overtook them easily.
In the preceding sentences, the pronouns him, her, it, us and them agree with the antecedents son, daughter, letter, he and I and boats, respectively.

See Exercises 5, 6 and 7.

It should be noted that the verb to be does not take an object. In formal, written English, when the verb to be is immediately followed by a personal pronoun, the pronoun must usually be in the subjective case. In the following examples, the pronouns following the verb to be are in the subjective case.
e.g. It is I.
That was he.
This is she.
Those are they.

However, in informal English, this rule is usually ignored. In informal English, when a pronoun immediately follows any verb, including the verb to be, the objective form of the pronoun is usually used. Thus, in informal English the sentence It is I would usually be expressed It is me, and the sentence That was he would usually be expressed That was him.

See Exercise 8.

As well as being used as the objects of verbs, personal pronouns in the objective case are used as objects of prepositions. Prepositions are words such as at, in, on, to and with. A preposition links the words immediately following it to the rest of the sentence.

A noun or pronoun which forms part of a prepositional phrase is said to be the object of the preposition. For instance, the underlined pronouns in the following examples are objects of prepositions.
e.g. Please give the book to me.
We have heard a great deal about you.
They went with him.
I bought a present for her.
He walked across it.
The cake was made by us.
Here is a letter from them.
In the preceding examples, the underlined pronouns are the objects of the prepositions to, about, with, for, across, by and from.

See Exercises 9 and 10.

5. Possessive personal pronouns

Each of the personal pronouns has forms which indicate possession. For instance, in the following sentences, the underlined words are the possessive forms of personal pronouns.
e.g. This is your book.
This book is yours.
His apartment is large, but mine is small.
Their marks are higher than ours.

The subjective, objective and possessive forms of the English personal pronouns are shown in the following table.

Subjective Case

Objective Case

Possessive Form used before a Noun

Possessive Form used Independently

I

me

my

mine

you

you

your

yours

he

him

his

his

she

her

her

hers

it

it

its

[its]

we

us

our

ours

they

them

their

theirs

a. Possessive adjectives
As shown in the preceding table, the personal pronouns have two possessive forms. One form shows possession by preceding a noun. A personal pronoun in this form may be referred to as a possessive adjective, since, like an adjective, it describes the thing to which the noun refers.

In the following sentences, the possessive adjectives are underlined.
e.g. My bicycle is new.
Does your uncle play hockey?
His answer was correct.
Her father is not here.
The tree has lost two of its branches.
He is our friend.
Their house is one block from the school.

The rules for the agreement of personal pronouns with their antecedents also apply to the corresponding possessive adjectives. In languages such as French and Spanish, possessive adjectives agree with the nouns they precede. However, in English, possessive adjectives agree with their antecedents, as illustrated in the following table.

Agreement of English Possessive Adjectives with their Antecedents

Antecedent

Possessive Adjective

Example

boy

his

The boy obeys his mother.

girl

her

The girl likes her brothers.

bird

its

The bird sat on its nest.

cows

their

The cows have lost their way.

In the preceding examples, the antecedents are underlined, and the possessive adjectives are printed in bold type.

See Exercise 11.

i. Possessive adjectives used with gerunds
In formal English, when a gerund is preceded by a personal pronoun, the pronoun must usually be in the form of a possessive adjective. In the following examples, the gerunds are underlined, and the possessive adjectives are printed in bold type.
e.g. The boy said that his skating had improved.
The girl entertained the guests with her singing.
We think our lobbying for new street lights will be effective.

See Exercise 12.

b. Possessive pronouns
The possessive form of a personal pronoun which can be used independently can be referred to as a possessive pronoun, since it can be used in the place of a noun. In the following sentences, the possessive pronouns are underlined.
e.g. He did not bring his coat, but I brought mine.
Our mail has been delivered, but theirs has not.
In the above examples, mine stands for my coat, and theirs stands for their mail.

The following table compares the possessive pronouns with the possessive adjectives. It can be seen that only his and its have the same form when used as pronouns as when used as adjectives. The possessive pronoun its is seldom used.

Possessive Adjective

Possessive Pronoun

my

mine

your

yours

his

his

her

hers

its

[its]

our

ours

their

theirs

Except for the pronoun mine, all of the possessive pronouns end in s. However, it should be noted that, unlike possessive nouns, the possessive personal pronouns are not spelled with an apostrophe. Care should be taken not to confuse the possessive form its with the contraction it's, which stands for it is or it has.

In the following sentences, the possessive personal pronouns are underlined.
e.g. That book is mine.
Are these gloves yours?
The red bicycle is his.
Because I forgot my umbrella, she lent me hers.
Their teacher is stricter than ours.
Our teacher is relaxed, but theirs is short-tempered.

See Exercises 13 and 14.

6. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are often used when the action described by the verb is directed toward the thing referred to by the subject of the verb. This use of reflexive pronouns is illustrated in the following examples. The reflexive pronouns are underlined.
e.g. I washed myself thoroughly before putting on clean clothes.
Did you hurt yourself?

Reflexive pronouns can also be used when it is desired to emphasize a personal pronoun. The reflexive pronouns in the following examples are underlined.
e.g. I myself saw what happened.
Did he solve the problem himself?
She did the work herself.
In these examples, the reflexive pronouns myself, himself and herself are used to emphasize the personal pronouns I, he and she.

The reflexive personal pronouns are listed below.

Subjective Case

Reflexive Pronoun

I

myself

you

yourself

he

himself

she

herself

it

itself

we

ourselves

you

yourselves

they

themselves

It can be seen that in the second person, a differentiation is made between yourself, which agrees with singular antecedents, and yourselves, which agrees with plural antecedents.

It should be noted that the first and second person reflexive pronouns are formed from the corresponding possessive adjectives, whereas the third person reflexive pronouns are formed from the corresponding pronouns in the objective case. This is illustrated in the following table.

Objective Case

Possessive Adjective

Reflexive Pronoun

me

my

myself

you

your

yourself

him

his

himself

her

hers

herself

it

its

itself

us

our

ourselves

you

your

yourselves

them

their

themselves

See Exercise 15.

EXERCISES for Chapter 18

1. In the sentences below, fill in the blanks with the personal pronouns which agree with the underlined antecedents. For example:
The man walked slowly, because __ was carrying a heavy parcel.
The man walked slowly, because he was carrying a heavy parcel.

Although ___ knew it was dangerous, the girl wanted to ride the horse.
Although she knew it was dangerous, the girl wanted to ride the horse.

The tree is very tall, but __ does not give much shade.
The tree is very tall, but it does not give much shade.

She and I are not coming, because __ are too busy.
She and I are not coming, because we are too busy.

Doughnuts taste best when ____ are fresh.
Doughnuts taste best when they are fresh.

1. The children are happy because _______ have a holiday today.
2. My father and I had planned to visit the park, but since it was raining _______ decided not to go.
3. This chair is valuable because _______ is so old.
4. The woman is pleased because _______ has found work.
5. Until _______ retired, their father managed a business.
6. After the apples have been cut up, _______ should be sprinkled with cinnamon.
7. Because her husband used to study music, _______ knows how to play several musical instruments.
8. My neighbor and I like to go shopping together, so that _______ can help each other choose what to buy.
9. Her daughter likes to study, because _______ finds the work interesting.
10. The car is in good condition, but _______ needs a new muffler.
Answers

2. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences below, fill in each blank with he, she, it, we or they, and underline the antecedent of the pronoun. For example:
My grandfather does not want to retire, because __ likes his work.
My grandfather does not want to retire, because he likes his work.

His wife will be there if __ can find a baby-sitter.
His wife will be there if she can find a baby-sitter.

The bicycle must be repaired before __ can be ridden again.
The bicycle must be repaired before it can be ridden again.

My cousin and I live in different towns, but __ write to each other often.
My cousin and I live in different towns, but we write to each other often.

The bananas are quite soft, but ___ can be used in banana cake.
The bananas are quite soft, but they can be used in banana cake.

1. When the moon is full, ______ rises just as the sun sets.
2. Tracy and I like spending time together, because _______ share many interests.
3. When my uncle was young, _______ enjoyed playing soccer.
4. The students worked hard, because _______ were anxious to complete the assignment.
5. When the lady entered the hotel, ______ asked to speak with the manager.
6. The man was surprised when ______ heard the news.
7. My friend and I had to leave early so that _____ could catch the bus.
8. I liked the picture so much that I had ______ framed.
9. Your grandmother is old, but ______ is still beautiful.
10. The boats look picturesque when _______ are tied up in the harbor.
Answers

3. The underlined pronouns in the following sentences are ambiguous, since it is not obvious to which antecedents they refer. For each sentence, first underline the two possible antecedents of the pronoun. Then make the sentence unambiguous by choosing one of the antecedents and repeating it, instead of using the pronoun. When repeating the antecedent, it is also necessary to repeat any words which modify it. For example:
I invited the woman and her sister, but she could not come.
I invited the woman and her sister, but her sister could not come.
or I invited the woman and her sister, but the woman could not come.

George gave Tom a book. Then he went home.
George gave Tom a book. Then Tom went home.
or George gave Tom a book. Then George went home.

The boys challenged the girls to a game, but they did not play well.
The boys challenged the girls to a game, but the boys did not play well.
or The boys challenged the girls to a game, but the girls did not play well.

1. I used your pen to finish the assignment, but then I lost it.
2. My father told my uncle the story, but he did not believe it.
3. When the students met the teachers for the first time, they were not sure what to expect.
4. The girl was dressed like her mother, except that she was not wearing a hat.
5. The man had arranged to meet his son at four o'clock, but he was late.
6. The box was the same size as the trunk, but it was much heavier.
7. The lady wanted to visit my aunt, but she had to leave town unexpectedly.
8. The riders slowed down their horses because they were growing tired.
9. The butterfly was sitting close to the flower, but it could not be seen in the photograph.
10. The cups were supposed to match the saucers, but they were a lighter shade of blue.
Answers

4. Rewrite each of the following sentences, using the construction with the pronoun it, followed by the verb, followed by an infinitive. For example:
Traveling by ship was quite relaxing.
It was quite relaxing to travel by ship.

Finding the right path could take a long time.
It could take a long time to find the right path.

1. Paying close attention can be crucial.
2. Crossing the mountains would be very difficult.
3. Learning everything was not easy.
4. Skiing down the mountain was exciting.
5. Walking on a glacier can be dangerous.
6. Visiting Rome was a wonderful experience.
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the personal pronoun which agrees with the underlined word. The objective case must be used, since the pronouns in these sentences are the objects of verbs. For example:
I am looking for the post office. Can you help __?
I am looking for the post office. Can you help me?

Since you are new here, I will show ___ the way.
Since you are new here, I will show you the way.

If my father is at home, I will ask ___ what to do.
If my father is at home, I will ask him what to do.

My aunt and uncle invited me to visit ___.
My aunt and uncle invited me to visit them.

1. Because she is your friend, I offered to help ______.
2. I wish someone would tell ______ the answer.
3. They look familiar. I am sure we have met _______ before.
4. If you are ready, we will drive _______ home.
5. We would like you to call ______.
6. He is our neighbor. We have known _______ for years.
7. This is the book I need. May I borrow ______ ?
8. If you like, I will call _______ when we arrive.
9. We were surprised they remembered ______.
10. That man waved to us, but I do not recognize ______.
11. I think they expect ______ to come.
12. The piano is out of tune, but I am having ______ tuned tomorrow.
13. Will she mind if I ask ______ a question?
14. The beans will grow faster if you water ______.
Answers

6. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the personal pronoun which agrees with the underlined word. Use the subjective case if the pronoun is the subject of a verb, and use the objective case if the pronoun is the object of a verb. For example:
They invited me to come, but __ did not have time.
They invited me to come, but I did not have time.

Just after we had mailed you the letter, ___ called us.
Just after we had mailed you the letter, you called us.

That boy is quite friendly. I like ___.
That boy is quite friendly. I like him.

He offered to lend me two books, but I had read ___ already.
He offered to lend me two books, but I had read them already.

1. I saw your brother after school. _____ lent me his bicycle.
2. Would you like me to help ______ ?
3. My friend and I expect the woman to call ______.
4. If I am ready in time, ______ will meet you there.
5. This woman is one of our relatives, ______ is my husband's cousin.
6. Her grandfather is a wise man. Everybody respects ______.
7. The chimney is old. ______ needs to be repaired.
8. My sister likes sports. We should invite ______ to join us.
9. Those people are your new neighbors. Have you met _______ yet?
10. She and I will call you if ______ are late.
11. I waited for you for twenty minutes, but ______ did not come.
12. The camera was heavy, but he carried ______ everywhere he went.
13. Some ducks swim underwater when _______ are searching for food.
14. I waved to you. Did you see _______ ?
Answers

7. Paying attention to the case of the personal pronouns, rewrite each of the following sentences so that the meaning is reversed. For example:
We gave them the pen.
They gave us the pen.

I like you.
You like me.

1. She helped us.
2. He asked them to come.
3. I recognized her.
4. You warned me.
5. We reminded them to call.
6. They told him the truth.
7. She invited us for tea.
8. He offered me a sandwich.
Answers

8. Fill in each blank with either the subjective case or the objective case of the pronoun given in brackets. Use the subjective case if the pronoun follows the verb to be. Otherwise, use the objective case. For example:
That is __. (he)
That is he.

We remember ___. (he)
We remember him.

It was __ who did it. (we)
It was we who did it.

He threw __ the ball. (we)
He threw us the ball.

1. It was ______. (I)
2. Please hand ______ the book. (I)
3. I told _______ the secret. (she)
4. It was _______ who was here. (she)
5. It was _______ who knew the answer. (they)
6. Let _______ go. (they)
7. This is _______. (he)
8. I knew _______ before. (he)
9. Those were _______. (they)
10. It is ______ who will be there. (we)
Answers

9. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the personal pronoun which agrees with the underlined word. The objective case must be used, since the pronouns in these sentences are the objects of prepositions. For example:
I want you to address the letter to __.
I want you to address the letter to me.

This jar is the largest. Rice was stored in __.
This jar is the largest. Rice was stored in it.

The girl was shy, but we had an enjoyable conversation with ___.
The girl was shy, but we had an enjoyable conversation with her.

We went to the post office, but there was no mail for __.
We went to the post office, but there was no mail for us.

1. They want us to go with _____.
2. I would like you to wrap this gift for ______.
3. She thinks we are talking about ______.
4. The wall was so high that I could not see over ______.
5. Your nephew wants us to write to ______.
6. You should ask them to send it to ______.
7. Nancy and I would like you to come with ______.
8. He asked us to wait for ______.
9. I would be grateful if you would explain this to ______.
10. Because you were late, we saved some food for ______.
11. We told you that the costumes were designed by ______.
12. The swans were so beautiful that we wrote a song about _______.
13. The car is worth more than you paid for ______.
14. Your daughter wants me to read to ______.
Answers

10. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the personal pronoun which agrees with the underlined word. Use the subjective case if the pronoun is the subject of a verb, and use the objective case if the pronoun is the object of a verb or the object of a preposition. For example:
They looked at me, but __ did not recognize them.
They looked at me, but I did not recognize them.

We told you what would happen, but ___ did not listen.
We told you what would happen, but you did not listen.

We saw them, but they did not see __.
We saw them, but they did not see us.

They asked us a question, but we could not tell ____ the answer.
They asked us a question, but we could not tell them the answer.

Their son did not know the way, but we pointed it out to ___.
Their son did not know the way, but we pointed it out to him.

The girl is so mischievous, we do not know what to do with ___.
The girl is so mischievous, we do not know what to do with her.

1. His father works hard. ______ is a doctor.
2. Because the woman seemed friendly, we asked ______ for directions.
3. The cupboards are so full, we cannot put anything else into _____.
4. You will be surprised if we beat ______ in the race.
5. Have you been looking for me? ______ had to run an errand.
6. My niece wants us to send the photographs to ______.
7. We have invited them to visit ______.
8. The store was open, but we did not have time to go into ______.
9. She will be angry if we make fun of ______.
10. You and I are good friends, ______ hardly ever argue.
11. Your son-in-law asked us to describe it to ______.
12. The windows are very stiff. We open _______ only in the summer.
13. The basket is heavy. ______ is full of oranges.
14. Your husband does not like anyone to contradict ______.
15. I hope you were not anxious about ______.
16. Would you like me to mail the information to ______
17. The leaves rustled in the breeze, ______ were already starting to change color.
18. The road was long, but we followed ______ to the end.
19. I asked him to tell ______ the time.
20. You will enjoy yourself if ______ come to the concert.
21. We want you to wait for ______.
Answers

11. Fill in each blank with the possessive adjective which agrees with the underlined antecedent. For example:
I am looking for __ keys.
I am looking for my keys.

The lady left ___ gloves on the counter.
The lady left her gloves on the counter.

Personal pronouns must agree with _____ antecedents.
Personal pronouns must agree with their antecedents.

1. I opened _______ book.
2. Did the man finish _______ work?
3. The bear is licking _______ paws.
4. Please show us to _______ seats.
5. She has already purchased _______ ticket.
6. Have you heard from _______ friends recently?
7. The students live near _______ school.
8. The gentleman would like to have _______ watch repaired.
9. We eat _______ breakfast at the same time every morning.
10. That woman always walks _______ dog in the park.
11. I would like to renew _______ subscription.
12. The eagle was holding something in _______ claws.
13. Will you give me _______ address?
14. The gymnasts asked ________ coach for advice.
Answers

12. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the possessive adjective which agrees with the noun or pronoun shown in brackets. For example:
___ barking kept us awake. (the dog)
Its barking kept us awake.

___ arriving on time was fortunate. (we)
Our arriving on time was fortunate.

_____ swooping and darting was a sign that it would rain. (the swallows)
Their swooping and darting was a sign that it would rain.

1. ________ following the guidelines was a good idea. (you)
2. _______ agreeing to forward the mail was helpful. (the students)
3. _________ answering the questions so easily was unexpected. (he)
4. ________ driving the car saved a great deal of time. (I)
5. ________ speaking so forcefully impressed the audience. (the woman)
6. ________ entering the race was intended as a gesture of goodwill. (we)
7. ________ chiming told us the time. (the clock)
Answers

13. Fill in each blank with the possessive pronoun which agrees with the underlined antecedent. For example:
If you cannot find your pen, I will lend you ____.
If you cannot find your pen, I will lend you mine.

I failed my exams, but my brother passed ___.
I failed my exams, but my brother passed his.

Their umbrellas are rather tattered, but we have mended ____.
Their umbrellas are rather tattered, but we have mended ours.

1. Your coat may be warm, but I think _______ is more elegant.
2. Because I had no gloves, my niece offered me _______.
3. I forgot to bring my camera. Did you bring _______.
4. When I lost my map, your son lent me _______.
5. They discarded their old telephone directories, but we kept _______.
6. We have not planted our peas yet, but the farmers have planted ______ already.
7. I never cut my hair, but my sister cuts _______ once a month.
8. The neighbors' children are very independent, but we have to help _______.
9. We store our bicycles in the shed, but they leave ________ outside.
10. I water my plants every day, but you never water ________.
11. Although she likes her school, I prefer _______.
12. My niece studies for all her tests, but my nephew refuses to study for ________.
Answers

14. Fill in each blank with either the possessive adjective or the possessive pronoun which agrees with the underlined antecedent. Remember that the possessive adjective must precede a noun or gerund, whereas the possessive pronoun is used independently. For example:
Last night I wrote to __ sister.
Last night I wrote to my sister.

I thought the book was yours, but in fact, it was ____.
I thought the book was yours, but in fact, it was mine.

She has ordered ___ tickets in advance.
She has ordered her tickets in advance.

Although they do not know it yet, the prize is ______.
Although they do not know it yet, the prize is theirs.

The rain continued ___ pattering on the roof.
The rain continued its pattering on the roof.

1. I always enjoy _______ vacation.
2. I mailed my letter. Did you mail _______?
3. He is eager to try out _______ skis.
4. I am sure _______ handling of the situation was correct.
5. I rarely use a car, but they drive ________ everywhere.
6. My aunt visits _______ cousins once a year.
7. We are proud of _______ record.
8. I have never met your children. Have you met _______?
9. The gate swung noiselessly on _______ hinges.
10. I have received my diploma, but she has not yet received _______.
11. Have you filled out _______ application?
12. The bird continued _______ twittering long after dusk.
13. They are going to sublet _______ apartment.
14. I got my driver's license last month, but he got _______ a year ago.
15. Most businesses try to expand, but we have kept ______ small.
16. They saw _______ friend on television.
17. I finished my assignment yesterday. Have you finished _______?
Answers

15. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the reflexive pronoun which agrees with the underlined word. For example:
I found ______ in a difficult situation.
I found myself in a difficult situation.

The children warmed __________ in front of the fire.
The children warmed themselves in front of the fire.

1. He should take better care of ______________.
2. You may help ____________.
3. I saw it ________.
4. She likes to involve ____________ in community affairs.
5. We could see ______________ reflected in the mirror.
6. The bird perched _____________ on the window sill.
7. The students found the solution ______________.
8. You _____________ must decide what to do.
9. The teenagers amused ______________ by telephoning their friends.
10. We ______________ were surprised at the news.
11. He likes to hear ____________ talk.
12. She prides _____________ on her ability to speak French.
13. I told ____________ not to lose hope.
14. The fox hid _____________ under a bush.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 18

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. they 2. we 3. it 4. she 5. he 6. they 7. he 8. we 9. she 10. it

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. it 2. we 3. he 4. they 5. she 6. he 7. we 8. it 9. she 10. they

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. your pen or the assignment 2. my father or my uncle 3. the students or the teachers 4. the girl or her mother 5. the man or his son 6. the box or the trunk 7. the lady or my aunt 8. the riders or their horses 9. the butterfly or the flower 10. the cups or the saucers

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. It can be crucial to pay close attention. 2. It would be very difficult to cross the mountains. 3. It was not easy to learn everything. 4. It was exciting to ski down the mountain. 5. It can be dangerous to walk on a glacier. 6. It was a wonderful experience to visit Rome.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. her 2. me 3. them 4. you 5. us 6. him 7. it 8. you 9. us 10. him 11. me 12. it 13. her 14. them

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. He 2. you 3. us 4. I 5. She 6. him 7. It 8. her 9. them 10. we 11. you 12. it 13. they 14. me

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. We helped her. 2. They asked him to come. 3. She recognized me. 4. I warned you. 5. They reminded us to call. 6. He told them the truth. 7. We invited her for tea. 8. I offered him a sandwich.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. I 2. me 3. her 4. she 5. they 6. them 7. he 8. him 9. they 10. we

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. them 2. me 3. her 4. it 5. him 6. you 7. us 8. him 9. me 10. you 11. us 12. them 13. it 14. her

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. He 2. her 3. them 4. you 5. I 6. her 7. us 8. it 9. her 10. We 11. him 12. them 13. It 14. him 15. me 16. you 17. They 18. it 19. me 20. you 21. us

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. my 2. his 3. its 4. our 5. her 6. your 7. their 8. his 9. our 10. her 11. my 12. its 13. your 14. their

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. Your 2. Their 3. His 4. My 5. Her 6. Our 7. Its

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. mine 2. hers 3. yours 4. his 5. ours 6. theirs 7. hers 8. ours 9. theirs 10. yours 11. mine 12. his

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. my 2. yours 3. his 4. my 5. theirs 6. her 7. our 8. mine 9. its 10. hers 11. your 12. its 13. their 14. his 15. ours 16. their 17. yours

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. himself 2. yourself or yourselves 3. myself 4. herself 5. ourselves 6. itself 7. themselves 8. yourself or yourselves 9. themselves 10. ourselves 11. himself 12. herself 13. myself 14. itself

CHAPTER 19.  OTHER PRONOUNS

1. Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns may be used without antecedents. The indefinite pronouns in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g. One cannot believe everything one hears.
I will try to think of something.
Nobody will believe it!
Is there anyone here by the name of Smith?

The following are examples of indefinite pronouns:

one

anyone

anybody

anything

everyone

everybody

everything

[no one]

nobody

nothing

someone

somebody

something

All of the pronouns listed above take verbs in the third person singular. The phrase no one is used like the other indefinite pronouns, but is spelled as two separate words.

The pronoun one can refer to persons or things.
e.g. One of the boys will help you.
Please hand me one of the boxes.

However, when used in a general sense, the pronoun one is usually understood as referring to persons.
e.g. One should always look both ways before crossing the street.

In addition, the other indefinite pronouns ending in one, and the indefinite pronouns ending in body, generally refer to persons. The indefinite pronouns ending in thing generally refer to things.

Unlike most of the personal pronouns, the indefinite pronouns have the same form in the objective case as in the subjective case. As shown in the following table, the indefinite pronouns which refer to persons form possessive adjectives by adding 's.

Indefinite Pronoun

Possessive Adjective

one

one's

anyone

anyone's

everyone

everyone's

no one

no one's

someone

someone's

anybody

anybody's

everybody

everybody's

nobody

nobody's

somebody

somebody's

The indefinite pronouns which refer to things usually do not form possessive adjectives.

a. The use of One in general statements
The indefinite pronoun one is used in formal English to make general statements.
e.g. By working systematically, one may achieve the results one desires.
In legal matters, one must always make sure of one's facts.

When used in this way, one refers to persons in general, and has the reflexive form oneself.
e.g. One should prepare oneself to deal with any emergency.

In informal English, the personal pronoun you is usually used in making general statements. Thus, in informal English, the ideas in the above sentences might be expressed:
e.g. By working systematically, you may achieve the results you desire.
In legal matters, you must always make sure of your facts.
You should prepare yourself to deal with any emergency.

Occasionally, the pronoun we is used in general statements. This use of the pronoun we is most likely to occur in formal speeches.
e.g. By working systematically, we may achieve the results we desire.
In legal matters, we must always make sure of our facts.
We should prepare ourselves to deal with any emergency.

It is considered grammatically incorrect to use more than one type of pronoun in a general statement such as those given above. For instance, if a general statement is begun using the pronoun one, the pronoun one must be used throughout the statement. As shown above, the possessive adjectives and reflexive pronouns in a general statement must agree with their antecedents.

The following table summarizes the forms of the personal pronouns and the indefinite pronoun one.

Summary of the Forms of the Personal Pronouns and One

Subjective Case

Objective Case

Possessive Adjective

Possessive Pronoun

Reflexive Pronoun

I

we

my

mine

myself

you

you

your

yours

yourself

he

him

his

his

himself

she

her

her

hers

herself

it

it

its

[its]

itself

we

us

our

ours

ourselves

you

you

your

yours

yourselves

they

them

their

theirs

themselves

one

one

one's

oneself

See Exercise 1.

In formal English, it is considered grammatically correct to use the adjective his to agree with indefinite pronouns such as anyone and everyone.
e.g. Everyone took his seat.

However, it is considered less discriminatory to use a phrase such as his or her to agree with such pronouns.
e.g. Everyone took his or her seat.

In informal English, the problem of gender is often avoided by the use of the plural adjective their.
e.g. Everyone took their seat.
However, this use of their is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

2. Reciprocal pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns refer to persons or things which are acting on each other. In English, the following two phrases are used as reciprocal pronouns:
each other
one another

Both phrases may be used to refer to either persons or things.
e.g. You and I saw each other last week.
The houses faced each other.

The two friends helped one another with their work.
The wires were touching one another.

3. Demonstrative pronouns

The words this, that, these and those are used to indicate specific persons or things. In the following examples, the words this, that, these and those are used independently, and can be referred to as demonstrative pronouns.
e.g. This is an apple pie.
That is a good idea.
These are my friends.
Those are maple trees.

The words this, that, these and those can also be used immediately preceding a noun, in which case they can be referred to as demonstrative adjectives.
e.g. This pie is made with apples.
That idea seems practical.
These people are my friends.
Those trees are maples.
In the preceding examples, this, that, these and those act as adjectives, modifying the nouns pie, idea, people and trees, respectively.

This and these are used to indicate persons or things that are close to the speaker or writer. This takes a singular verb, and is used when referring to a single person or thing.
e.g. This is my brother.
This book belongs to him.

These takes a plural verb, and is used when referring to more than one person or thing.
e.g. These are my brothers.
These books belong to him.

See Exercise 2.

That and those are used to indicate persons or things that are at a distance from the speaker or writer. That takes a singular verb, and is used when referring to a single person or thing.
e.g. That is a computer.
That woman is a professor.

Those takes a plural verb, and is used when referring to more than one person or thing.
e.g. Those are computers.
Those women are professors.

See Exercise 3.

The use of this, these, that and those is summarized in the following table.

Location Indicated

Singular or Plural

This

Close to speaker or writer

Singular

These

Close to speaker or writer

Plural

That

Distant from speaker or writer

Singular

Those

Distant from speaker or writer

Plural

See Exercises 4 and 5.

4. Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions. The pronouns who, what and which are used as interrogative pronouns.
e.g. Who telephoned?
What did you say?
Which is your brother?

a. Direct questions
Interrogative pronouns can be placed at the beginning of a sentence in order to ask a question. Such questions can be referred to as direct questions.

In a direct question, when the interrogative pronoun is the subject of a verb, the verb follows the subject. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the subjects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. What has happened?
Who has been invited?
In these examples, what is the subject of the verb has happened, and who is the subject of the verb has been invited. The presence of the interrogative pronoun transforms the statement into a question, and a question mark must be used.

When the interrogative pronoun is the object of the verb or the object of a preposition, inverted word order must be used, with the first auxiliary preceding the subject of the verb. In the case of verbs in the Simple Present or Simple Past, the auxiliary do or did must be used.
e.g. What do you mean?
Which did she choose?
What is he doing?
To what can one attribute their success?

In the preceding examples, the subjects you, she, he and one are preceded by the auxiliaries do, did, is and can. In the first three examples, what and which are the objects of the verbs. In the fourth example, what is the object of the preposition to.

See Exercise 6.

b. The pronoun Who
The pronoun who usually refers only to persons. Unlike the other interrogative pronouns, who changes its form depending on the case, as shown in the following table.

Subjective Case

Objective Case

Possessive Case

who

whom

whose

i. Who
When who is the subject of a verb, the subjective case must be used.
e.g. Who opened the door?
Who will help me?

It should be noted that when who is used with the verb to be, or with verbs in the Passive Voice, the subjective case must usually be used, since such verbs cannot take an object.
e.g. Who is it?
Who was the fastest runner?
Who will be there?
Who has been elected?
The first three examples above illustrate the use of who with the verb to be. The fourth example illustrates the use of who with a verb in the Passive Voice.

ii. Whom
In formal English, when the pronoun who is the object of a verb or the object of a preposition, the objective form whom must be used.
e.g. Whom did you see downtown?
To whom did you send the invitations?
In the first example, whom is the object of the verb see. In the second example, whom is the object of the preposition to.

In informal English, the form who is often used for the objective as well as for the subjective case. For instance, in informal English, the preceding examples might be expressed Who did you see downtown? and Who did you send the invitations to? However, this use of who is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

See Exercise 7.

iii. Whose
The form whose can be used either as a possessive adjective followed by a noun, or as a possessive pronoun.
e.g. Whose books are these?
Whose are these?
In the first example, whose is used as a possessive adjective, followed by the noun books. In the second example, whose is used as a possessive pronoun.

The possessive form whose expresses the idea of belonging to. For instance, the idea expressed in the sentence: Whose books are these? could also be expressed by the sentence: To whom do these books belong?

See Exercise 8.

c. What and Which
What and which can be used either as interrogative pronouns, or as interrogative adjectives followed by nouns.
e.g. What is that?
Which is his sister?
What time is it?
Which woman is his sister?
In the first two examples, what and which are used as interrogative pronouns. In the last two examples, what and which are used as interrogative adjectives preceding the nouns time and woman.

When used as adjectives or as interrogative pronouns, what and which can refer to either persons or things. In the following examples, what and which are used as interrogative adjectives referring to persons and things.
e.g. What girl would not like to own a horse?
What color are the apples?
Which boy is the best horseback rider?
Which road leads to Chicago?

However, it should be noted that when used as a relative pronoun, which can refer only to things. Relative pronouns will be discussed later in this chapter.

Which as an adjective or interrogative pronoun usually implies a choice of one or more things from a limited number of alternatives.
e.g. Which apple would you like?
Which children were ready on time?
The first example implies a choice of one apple from two or more apples. The second example implies that an answer is expected which will indicate certain children from a limited group of children.

In contrast, what as an adjective or interrogative pronoun is usually used in order to ask for general information.
e.g. What time is it?
What does he want?

What can also be used in exclamations. For instance, the exclamation What! can be used to express surprise or disbelief. The following are other examples of the use of what in exclamations.
e.g. What nonsense!
What a shame!
What a beautiful day!
In written English, an exclamation must be followed by an exclamation mark: !  It should be noted that exclamations often do not contain verbs.

As illustrated above, when an exclamatory what precedes a singular, countable noun, the word what must be followed by a or an.
e.g. What a coincidence!
What an elegant dress!

See Exercise 9.

d. Indirect questions
As well as being used at the beginning of direct questions, interrogative pronouns and adjectives can also be used at the beginning of indirect questions.

Whereas a direct question forms a complete sentence in itself, an indirect question is part of a longer sentence. The following examples show the difference between a direct question and an indirect question.
e.g. Who is there?
He wants to know who is there.
Will you tell me who is there?

In the first example, Who is there? is a direct question. In the second example, who is there is an indirect question which is part of a longer statement. In the third example, who is there is an indirect question which is part of a longer question.

i. Interrogative word as the subject
When the interrogative word is the subject of a verb, or modifies the subject of a verb, the word order of an indirect question is usually the same as that of a direct question. In the following examples, the verbs of the direct and indirect questions are underlined, and their subjects are printed in bold type.
e.g. Direct Question: What has happened?
Indirect Question: We shall ask what has happened.

Direct Question: Which child won the race?
Indirect Question: They will ask which child won the race.

In the first pair of examples, the interrogative pronoun what is the subject of the verb has happened. In the second pair of examples, the interrogative adjective which modifies child, the subject of the verb won. In both pairs of examples, the word order of the indirect questions is the same as that of the direct questions.

ii. Interrogative word as the object of a verb or preposition
When the interrogative word is the object of a verb or preposition, or modifies the object of a verb or preposition, the word order of an indirect question differs from that of a direct question. In a direct question, the first auxiliary precedes the subject, and the auxiliary to do must be used for verbs in the Simple Present and Simple Past. In an indirect question, the subject precedes the verb, and the auxiliary to do is not used. Thus, in an indirect question, the word order used is the same as that used for an affirmative statement.

This difference in word order is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. Direct Question: What is he doing?
Indirect Question: I will ask what he is doing.

Direct Question: What story did they tell you?
Indirect Question: I wonder what story they told you.

Direct Question: Which does she prefer?
Indirect Question: We asked which she prefers.

Direct Question: Whom did he meet?
Indirect Question: Tell me whom he met.

Direct Question: To whom has she sent the invitations?
Indirect Question: They will ask to whom she has sent the invitations.

Direct Question: For which friend did they make the arrangements?
Indirect Question: Do you know for which friend they made the arrangements?

As illustrated in the preceding examples, when the interrogative word is the object of a verb or preposition, or modifies the object of a verb or preposition, the first auxiliary precedes the subject in a direct question, but the subject precedes the verb in an indirect question.

See Exercise 10.

iii. The verb To Be with a noun or pronoun complement
A noun, noun phrase or pronoun which follows the verb to be is said to be the complement of the verb. When what or who is followed by both the verb to be and a noun or pronoun complement of the verb, the word order of an indirect question usually differs from that of a direct question. As illustrated in the following examples, in a direct question, the verb to be is followed by its complement; whereas in an indirect question, the verb to be is usually preceded by its complement.

In each of the following examples, the verb to be is underlined, and its noun or pronoun complement is printed in bold type.
e.g. Direct Question: What is that?
Indirect question: Can you tell me what that is?

Direct Question: What was that noise?
Indirect Question: I wonder what that noise was.

Direct Question: What time is it?
Indirect Question: Ask him what time it is.

Direct Question: Who is she?
Indirect Question: Do you know who she is?

Direct question: Who was that man?
Indirect Question: I will ask who that man was.

Direct Question: Whose shoes are these?
Indirect Question: I wonder whose shoes these are.

Similarly, when which is followed by the verb to be, followed by a pronoun, the pronoun complement generally precedes the verb in an indirect question.
e.g. Direct question: Which was it?
Indirect Question: I want to know which it was.

Direct Question: Which organization is that?
Indirect Question: Please ask which organization that is.

However, when which is followed by the verb to be followed by a noun or noun phrase, the noun complement often follows the verb in an indirect question.
e.g. Direct Question: Which is the right road?
Indirect Question: Please tell me which is the right road.

Direct Question: Which insects are predators?
Indirect Question: He wants to know which insects are predators.

It should be noted that in sentences with the verb to be, the word order of indirect questions differs from that of direct questions only when the verb is accompanied by a noun or pronoun complement.

If the verb to be is accompanied by an adjective, the word order of direct and indirect questions is the same. In each of the following examples, the verb to be is underlined, and the accompanying adjective is printed in bold type.
e.g. Direct Question: Who is here?
Indirect Question: I will ask who is here.

Direct Question: Who was successful?
Indirect Question: Tell me who was successful.

Direct Question: Which answer is correct?
Indirect Question: Please tell us which answer is correct.

See Exercise 11.

The following table summarizes the variations in word order which occur in direct and indirect questions. The examples of direct questions should be compared with the corresponding examples of indirect questions.

Word order of Direct and Indirect Questions beginning with What, Which and Who

Direct Questions

Type of Question

Word Order

The interrogative word is the

Subject precedes verb. Examples:

subject of the verb, or modifies

Who told her?

the subject of the verb

Which boy did it?

The interrogative word is

Subject follows the first auxiliary:

the object of a verb or

What has he done?

preposition, or modifies the

To whom shall we send it?

object of a verb or preposition

Which questions did she answer?

For which child did you buy it?

The verb to be is accompanied

The verb to be precedes its complement:

by a noun or pronoun complement

Who are their friends?

What was that?

What time is it?

Which book was it?

Which is the right answer?

Indirect Questions

Type of Question

Word Order

In all cases

Subject precedes verb. Examples:

I wonder who told her.

You asked which boy did it.

She wants to know what he has done.

He wonders to whom we shall send it.

I wonder which questions she answered.

Please tell me for which child you bought it.

The verb to be is accompanied

The verb to be usually follows

by a noun or pronoun complement

its complement. Examples:

He will ask who their friends are.

I wonder what that was.

Do you know what time it is?

Please tell me which book it was.

However, in the case of which,

the verb to be often precedes a

noun complement. For example:

I wonder which is the right answer.

See Exercise 12.

5. Relative pronouns

A pronoun which is used to begin a subordinate clause can be referred to as a relative pronoun, since it indicates the relationship of the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence.

For instance, the underlined words in the following sentences are relative pronouns.
e.g. The woman who is standing near the window is a doctor.
The door, which was bright red, was very conspicuous.
Have you found the book that was missing?
A subordinate clause which is introduced by a relative pronoun is often referred to as a relative clause.

a. Defining and non-defining relative clauses
Relative clauses can be divided into two types: those which merely give a description of the object to which they refer, and those which define or identify the object to which they refer.

i. Non-defining relative clauses
When a relative clause merely describes an object without having the function of defining or identifying to which object the speaker or writer is referring, the clause must be placed between commas. Such a clause can be called a non-defining or non-limiting relative clause.

For instance, in the example:
The door, which was bright red, was very conspicuous.
the commas indicate that the clause which was bright red is a non-defining relative clause. In other words, this sentence implies that it has already been made clear to which door the speaker or writer is referring, and the clause which was bright red merely provides additional, descriptive information about the door.

Whereas in written English the presence of a non-defining relative clause is indicated by the use of commas, in spoken English the presence of such a clause is indicated by slightly emphasizing the word immediately preceding the clause, and the last word of the clause. In the following example, the emphasized words are underlined.
e.g. The door, which was bright red, was very conspicuous.

It should be noted that when material written in English is read aloud, the presence of a comma is usually indicated by a slight pause.

ii. Defining relative clauses
When a relative clause has the function of defining or identifying the object being referred to, the clause is not placed between commas. Such a clause can be called a defining or limiting relative clause.

For instance, in the example:
The woman who is standing near the window is a doctor.
the absence of commas indicates that the clause who is standing near the window is a defining relative clause. In other words, the clause has the function of identifying to which woman the speaker or writer is referring.

See Exercise 13.

b. That
When used as a relative pronoun, that can refer to either persons or things. The relative pronoun that is generally used only in defining relative clauses. In the following examples, the relative clauses are underlined.
e.g. The people that were here yesterday will return in a month.
The newspaper that was on the steps belongs to our neighbor.
In these examples, that has the antecedents people and newspaper, and introduces the defining relative clauses that were here yesterday and that was on the steps.

In the preceding examples, that acts as the subject of the verbs were and was. When it acts as the object of a verb or preposition, the relative pronoun that can usually be omitted.
e.g. The books that we bought are heavy.
The town that this road leads to is five miles away.

In the first sentence, that acts as the object of the verb bought. In the second sentence, that acts as the object of the preposition to. The following examples show how the above sentences can be rewritten without the use of that.
The books we bought are heavy.
The town this road leads to is five miles away.

c. Which
As was pointed out in an earlier section, when used as an adjective or interrogative pronoun, which can refer to either persons or things. However, it is important to note that when used as a relative pronoun, which can refer only to things.

The relative pronoun which can be used in either defining or non-defining relative clauses.
e.g. The suitcase which we purchased last week is very strong.
The sack, which was full of rocks, was too heavy to lift.
In the first example, which has the antecedent suitcase, and introduces the defining relative clause which we purchased last week. In the second example, which has the antecedent sack, and introduces the non-defining relative clause which was full of rocks.

d. Who, Whom and Whose
The use of who, whom and whose as relative pronouns is similar to their use as interrogative pronouns. Who is used as the subject of a verb, whom is used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition, and whose is used as an adjective indicating possession. The relative pronouns who, whom and whose can generally refer only to persons, and can be used either in defining or non-defining relative clauses.

In the following examples, who introduces the defining relative clause who runs the fastest and the non-defining relative clause who is studying German.
e.g. The child who runs the fastest will receive a prize.
My sister, who is studying German, wants to travel to Switzerland.
In these examples, who has the antecedents child and sister, and acts as the subject of the verbs runs and is studying.

In the following examples, whom introduces the defining relative clause whom we visited and the non-defining relative clause whom we will meet tomorrow.
e.g. The boy whom we visited is her nephew.
Mr. Henry, whom we will meet tomorrow, will be our guide.
In these examples, whom has the antecedents boy and Mr. Henry, and acts as the object of the verbs visited and will meet.

In the following examples, to whom introduces the defining relative clause to whom you sold your skis and the non-defining relative clause to whom we send a birthday card every year.
e.g. The girl to whom you sold your skis lives in the next block.
His uncle, to whom we send a birthday card every year, is ninety-one years old.
In these examples, whom has the antecedents girl and uncle, and is the object of the preposition to.

In the following examples, whose introduces the defining relative clause whose house was sold and the non-defining relative clause whose family lives in Europe.
e.g. The woman whose house was sold will retire to the country.
My cousin, whose family lives in Europe, will visit us for a few weeks.
In these examples, whose has the antecedents woman and cousin, and modifies the nouns house and family. In the case of whose, it should be noted that it is the antecedent which must be a person; the noun being modified may be a person or a thing.

See Exercises 14 and 15.

In informal English, whose at the beginning of a clause is occasionally used to refer not only to persons, but also to things, in order to make a simpler sentence. For example, the following sentence is considered grammatically correct in formal English.
e.g. The tree, the branches of which overhung the street, was covered with blossoms.
In informal English, the phrase the branches of which might be replaced by whose branches, as illustrated in the following example.
e.g. The tree, whose branches overhung the street, was covered with blossoms.
However, this use of whose is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

e. Comparison of the use of That, Which and Who
The use of the relative pronouns that, which and who is summarized in the following table.

Relative Pronoun

Type of Clause

Type of Antecedent

that

defining clause only

persons or things

which

defining or non-defining

things only

who/whom/whose

defining or non-defining

persons only

From the preceding table it can be inferred that in the case of defining relative clauses, that may be used to replace who, whom or which. For instance, the following sentences:
The boy whom we saw is her brother.
The hat which you are wearing is rather large.
could be rewritten:
The boy that we saw is her brother.
The hat that you are wearing is rather large.

Like the relative pronoun that, whom and which can generally be omitted when they act as the object of the verb in a relative clause. Thus, the preceding sentences could also be rewritten:
The boy we saw is her brother.
The hat you are wearing is rather large.

It should be noted that when whom or which is the object of a preposition, the preposition immediately precedes the relative pronoun.
e.g. The boy to whom we sent the message was excited.
The room to which you will be conducted has beautiful furniture.
In these examples, whom and which are immediately preceded by the preposition to.

However, when the relative pronoun that is the object of a preposition, the preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause. For instance, if that is used, the second example must be rewritten as follows:
The room that you will be conducted to has beautiful furniture.

f. Other relative pronouns
Relative pronouns such as what, whatever and whoever are normally used without antecedents. When used as a relative pronoun, what has the meaning the thing or things that.
e.g. What you say is true.
What he did was wrong.
In these examples, the relative pronoun what introduces the clauses what you say and what he did. Such clauses are often referred to as noun clauses, since they can serve some of the functions of a noun. For instance, in the preceding sentences, the clause what you say acts as the subject of the verb is, and the clause what he did acts as the subject of the verb was.

Whatever has the meaning no matter what, or anything which. Whoever has the meaning no matter who, or anyone who.
e.g. You can tell me whatever you like.
Let in whoever comes to the door.
In these examples, the noun clauses whatever you like and whoever comes to the door act as the objects of the verbs in the main clauses.

EXERCISES for Chapter 19

1. For each of the following general statements, change all of the pronouns and possessive adjectives to agree with the pronoun given in brackets. For example:
We must work to keep our environment healthy. (you)
You must work to keep your environment healthy.

You should always pay your income tax before the deadline. (one)
One should always pay one's income tax before the deadline.

One should not think only of oneself. (we)
We should not think only of ourselves.

1. We should work in order to realize our ambitions. (one)
2. When you are overworked, you should try to give yourself time to relax. (we)
3. One can never be sure whether one's intuitions are correct. (you)
4. If one organizes one's time properly, one can accomplish a great deal. (we)
5. If you own property, you should protect yourself with a good insurance policy. (one)
6. We should never be afraid to state our views. (you)
7. One should try to educate oneself as well as possible. (you)
8. We should try to teach our children a sense of responsibility. (one)
9. One can choose one's friends, but one cannot choose one's relatives. (we)
10. We become mature when we learn to trust our own judgement. (you)
11. You learn from your mistakes. (we)
12. You should always treat your friends well. (one)
Answers

2. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with this or these. Use this to refer to a single person or thing, and use these to refer to more than one person or thing. For example:
____ is her bicycle.
This is her bicycle.

Is ____ jacket too large?
Is this jacket too large?

_____ are our books.
These are our books.

_____ boots are warm.
These boots are warm.

1. Does __________ bus go downtown?
2. __________ are their suitcases.
3. __________ is his camera.
4. __________ trees are over one hundred years old.
5. Is __________ flower a daffodil?
6. __________ women will perform the skit.
7. __________ is the main entrance.
8. __________ lakes are very deep.
9. _________ is their school.
10. Are __________ radishes?
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with that or those. Use that to refer to a single person or thing, and use those to refer to more than one person or thing. For example:
____ is a hovercraft.
That is a hovercraft.

____ plane flies to Geneva.
That plane flies to Geneva.

_____ are peacocks.
Those are peacocks.

Are _____ children on vacation?
Are those children on vacation?

1. __________ is his pen.
2. __________ girls are Australian.
3. Has __________ chair been painted?
4. __________ watches are not expensive.
5. Does __________ train usually arrive on time?
6. Was __________ your friend?
7. __________ are my cousins.
8. ___________ is a swan.
9. Do __________ notebooks belong to you?
10. __________ are the places we will visit.
Answers

4. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the subjects and verbs from the singular to the plural. For example:
Is this ready?
Are these ready?

This towel is fluffy.
These towels are fluffy.

That measures the temperature.
Those measure the temperature.

That pail is made of aluminum.
Those pails are made of aluminum.

1. This was finished last week.
2. Is that radiator working?
3. This picture is ours.
4. That has been completed.
5. This was designed by his aunt.
6. That does not need to be altered.
7. This table is made of wood.
8. Has that student seen the play?
9. This umbrella is new.
10. That river flows through the mountains.
Answers

5. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the subjects and verbs from the plural to the singular. For example:
These were on sale.
This was on sale.

Are these books interesting?
Is this book interesting?

Those have been useful.
That has been useful.

Those plays were popular.
That play was popular.

1. These were necessary.
2. Those colors are beautiful.
3. Are these bells too loud?
4. Have those been polished?
5. These shirts are clean.
6. Those windows are on the west side of the house.
7. Are these correct?
8. These boys like to play soccer.
9. Those are sufficient.
10. Those curtains are crimson.
Answers

6. Paying attention to correct word order, arrange each of the following sets of words to form questions beginning with interrogative pronouns which are the objects of the verbs. If necessary, add the auxiliary do, does or did. For example:
you, prefer, which
Which do you prefer?

they, heard, what
What did they hear?

we, have found, what
What have we found?

I, should choose, which
Which should I choose?

1. they, have decided, what
2. you, want, which
3. I, should wear, what
4. she, said, what
5. he, likes, what
6. you, are reading, what
7. one, can do, what
8. they, bought, which
9. he, will be studying, what
10. I, saw, which
11. she, expects, what
12. they, had discovered, what
13. it, costs, what
14. you, would have done, what
15. he, will submit, which
16. she, received, what
Answers

7. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the interrogative pronoun who or whom. Use who if the pronoun is the subject of the verb, and use whom if the pronoun is the object of the verb or the object of a preposition. For example:
___ is there?
Who is there?

___ has been notified?
Who has been notified?

____ are we expecting?
Whom are we expecting?

For ____ did you buy the flowers?
For whom did you buy the flowers?

1. _______ has read the book?
2. To _______ did he give the letter?
3. _______ is at the door?
4. _______ was awarded the prize?
5. _______ did he tell?
6. _______ answered the question correctly?
7. _______ does she like the best?
8. _______ would be the most suitable person for the job?
9. For _______ are they waiting?
10. _______ has been informed of the situation?
11. ________ can we ask?
12. _______ will be ready by eight o'clock?
13. _______ is watering the flowers?
14. _______ did you photograph?
15. _______ attended the meeting?
16. _______ was at the party?
17. _______ could be heard most easily?
18. ______ do you believe?
19. To _______ did you sell your car?
20. ______ will be waiting for us?
Answers

8. Paying attention to grammatically correct usage, for each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with who, whom or whose. In these sentences, use whose only as a possessive adjective, preceding a noun. For example:
___ is raking the leaves?
Who is raking the leaves?

____ did you call?
Whom did you call?

To ____ was he speaking?
To whom was he speaking?

_____ bicycle is leaning against the steps?
Whose bicycle is leaning against the steps?

1. By _______ was this written?
2. _______ gloves are lying on the table?
3. _______ lives here?
4. _______ did they help?
5. _______ child is this?
6. _______ was allowed to enter the competition?
7. _______ handwriting is the most legible?
8. With _______ was she speaking?
9. _______ sang the song?
10. _______ does she know?
11. _______ shoes are these?
12. _______ will make the cake?
13. _______ was present?
14. _______ curiosity would not be aroused by such a tale?
15. _______ will he teach?
Answers

9. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with either what or which. For example:
____ is happening?
What is happening?

_____ of my coats do you like the best?
Which of my coats do you like the best?

____ a surprise!
What a surprise!

1. _________ time does the train leave?
2. _________ of the three schools do you attend?
3. _________ is your name?
4. _________ a wonderful idea!
5. _________ planet is larger, Jupiter or Saturn?
6. _________ of your children is the cleverest?
7. _________ a mess!
8. __________ is your favorite dessert?
9. _________ would you prefer, tea or coffee?
10. _________ of these bicycles is yours?
Answers

10. Using the introductory phrase Please tell me, rewrite the following direct questions as indirect questions. Make sure that the subjects precede the verbs in the indirect questions. For example:
Who will choose the winners?
Please tell me who will choose the winners.

Whom did they choose?
Please tell me whom they chose.

For whom had you bought the present?
Please tell me for whom you had bought the present.

1. Who was selected?
2. Whom have you consulted?
3. To whom will she address the letter?
4. What did you accomplish?
5. Which boy opened the door?
6. To which cities has he traveled?
7. Which music did the orchestra perform?
8. For whose sake has he come?
9. What caused the delay?
10. Whose house did they visit?
11. Whose dog chased the cat?
12. Which books have you read?
Answers

11. Using the introductory phrase We will ask, and paying attention to the correct word order, rewrite the following direct questions as indirect questions. For example:
Who is that?
We will ask who that is.

What was that noise?
We will ask what that noise was.

Who is here?
We will ask who is here.

1. What is this?
2. Who was there?
3. Who was first?
4. Which was it?
5. Which is ready?
6. Who is she?
7. Whose book is this?
8. Whose work is ready?
9. Who was right?
10. Who was that singer?
11. Which students are here?
12. Who were they?
Answers

12. Paying attention to correct word order, use the phrases given in brackets to rewrite the following direct questions as indirect questions. For example:
Who baked the cake? (They will ask)
They will ask who baked the cake.

Whom did you tell? (We want to know)
We want to know whom you told.

To which student had she given the prize? (Did you find out)
Did you find out to which student she had given the prize?

Who was that? (Please tell me)
Please tell me who that was.

1. Who are you? (I want to know)
2. Who swept the floor? (We will ask)
3. For whom did you organize the party? (Tell me)
4. Whom had they met? (I asked)
5. At what time will you reach the station? (I need to know)
6. Which horse won the race? (They will ask)
7. Whose answer is correct? (I wonder)
8. Which hill did they climb? (We will ask)
9. What do you mean? (Please tell us)
10. What made that noise? (I wonder)
11. Which students are ready? (Will you tell me)
12. For what purpose has he called the meeting? (Ask him)
13. Whom can we trust? (I am not sure)
14. Whose work was chosen? (They will ask)
15. Which book has she ordered? (We will find out)
16. Who am I? (Do you know)
Answers

13. For each of the following sentences, underline the relative clause, and indicate whether the clause is defining or non-defining. For example:
The sky, which was perfectly clear, was covered with stars.
The sky, which was perfectly clear, was covered with stars. [Non-defining]

The shoes which are by the bed are mine.
The shoes which are by the bed are mine. [Defining]

1. The new appliances, which are quite expensive, will be on sale next week.
2. The picture which is hanging on the wall was painted by our friend.
3. The people who own the hotel have a great deal of business experience.
4. His uncle, who sings in the choir, is a friend of my father.
5. The building, which is in excellent repair, is over two hundred years old.
6. The door that is open leads to the study.
7. My friend, who is coming for a visit, is anxious to meet you.
8. Did you see the exhibition which was held here last week?
Answers

14. Paying attention to grammatically correct usage, for each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with who, whom or whose. For example:
The person ___ owns the bookstore is my friend.
The person who owns the bookstore is my friend.

The singer to ____ we gave the bouquet will be performing again tonight.
The singer to whom we gave the bouquet will be performing again tonight.

The contestants _____ names were announced should prepare to start.
The contestants whose names were announced should prepare to start.

1. My best friend, ________ I see every day, always has something new to tell me.
2. Most students ________ live in residence find it easy to make friends.
3. Our neighbors, to ________ we lent our lawnmower, are conscientious and considerate.
4. The volunteers, ________ enthusiasm was obvious, finished the work quickly.
5. The musicians ________ we heard yesterday have played together for many years.
6. Parents ________ children do well in school usually consider themselves fortunate.
7. Children ________ like music are often good at mathematics.
8. The student to ________ the prize was awarded had an impressive record.
9. My friend, ________ I visited last week, is taking a holiday soon.
10. The class treasurer, to ________ we gave the money, announced the balance of the account.
11. The engineers ________ designed the building received an award.
12. The townspeople, ________ pride in their community is well-known, raised enough money to build a new town hail.
Answers

15. Paying attention to grammatically correct usage, for each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with who, whom or which. Use who or whom for antecedents which refer to persons, and use which for antecedents which refer to things. For example:
The woman ___ borrowed the books is a librarian.
The woman who borrowed the books is a librarian.

The key _____ opens this door is difficult to turn.
The key which opens this door is difficult to turn.

The children ____ we met are well-behaved.
The children whom we met are well-behaved.

The story _____ you heard is true.
The story which you heard is true.

The man to ____ you told the news is my brother.
The man to whom you told the news is my brother.

I have not yet received the letter to _____ you refer.
I have not yet received the letter to which you refer.

1. The window ________ is open is the kitchen window.
2. The girl _________ recited the poem is my niece.
3. The woman to ________ we were introduced was quite helpful.
4. The opportunity to _________ she owed her success came unexpectedly.
5. The man ________ they trusted was unreliable.
6. The book _________ you read is the best book by that author.
7. The Pacific Ocean, _________ may have been crossed by raft during the Stone Age, is the world's largest ocean.
8. His mother, _________ he visited frequently, ran her own business.
9. The boy, ________ was friendly and intelligent, soon found work.
10. Her husband, to _________ she told the story, was just as surprised as I was.
11. The pictures, _________ were taken in Algeria, were very striking.
12. The newspaper to ________ we subscribe is delivered regularly.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 19

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. One should work in order to realize one's ambitions. 2. When we are overworked we should try to give ourselves time to relax. 3. You can never be sure whether your intuitions are correct. 4. If we organize our time properly, we can accomplish a great deal. 5. If one owns property, one should protect oneself with a good insurance policy. 6. You should never be afraid to state your views. 7. You should try to educate yourself as well as possible. 8. One should try to teach one's children a sense of responsibility. 9. We can choose our friends, but we cannot choose our relatives. 10. You become mature when you learn to trust your own judgement. 11. We learn from our mistakes. 12. One should always treat one's friends well.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. this 2. These 3. This 4. These 5. this 6. These 7. This 8. These 9. This 10. these

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. That 2. Those 3. that 4. Those 5. that 6. that 7. Those 8. That 9. those 10. Those

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. These were finished last week. 2. Are those radiators working? 3. These pictures are ours. 4. Those have been completed. 5. These were designed by his aunt. 6. Those do not need to be altered. 7. These tables are made of wood. 8. Have those students seen the play? 9. These umbrellas are new. 10. Those rivers flow through the mountains.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. This was necessary. 2. That color is beautiful. 3. Is this bell too loud? 4. Has that been polished? 5. This shirt is clean. 6. That window is on the west side of the house. 7. Is this correct? 8. This boy likes to play soccer. 9. That is sufficient. 10. That curtain is crimson.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. What have they decided? 2. Which do you want? 3. What should I wear? 4. What did she say? 5. What does he like? 6. What are you reading? 7. What can one do? 8. Which did they buy? 9. What will he be studying? 10. Which did I see? 11. What does she expect? 12. What had they discovered? 13. What does it cost? 14. What would you have done? 15. Which will he submit? 16. What did she receive?

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Who 2. whom 3. Who 4. Who 5. Whom 6. Who 7. Whom 8. Who 9. whom 10. Who 11. Whom 12. Who 13. Who 14. Whom 15. Who 16. Who 17. Who 18. Whom 19. whom 20. Who

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. whom 2. Whose 3. Who 4. Whom 5. Whose 6. Who 7. Whose 8. whom 9. Who 10. Whom 11. Whose 12. Who 13. Who 14. Whose 15. Whom

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. What 2. Which 3. What 4. What 5. Which 6. Which 7. What 8. What 9. Which 10. Which

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. Please tell me who was selected. 2. Please tell me whom you have consulted. 3. Please tell me to whom she will address the letter. 4. Please tell me what you accomplished. 5. Please tell me which boy opened the door. 6. Please tell me to which cities he has traveled. 7. Please tell me which music the orchestra performed. 8. Please tell me for whose sake he has come. 9. Please tell me what caused the delay. 10. Please tell me whose house they visited. 11. Please tell me whose dog chased the cat. 12. Please tell me which books you have read.

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. We will ask what this is. 2. We will ask who was there. 3. We will ask who was first. 4. We will ask which it was. 5. We will ask which is ready. 6. We will ask who she is. 7. We will ask whose book this is. 8. We will ask whose work is ready. 9. We will ask who was right. 10. We will ask who that singer was. 11. We will ask which students are here. 12. We will ask who they were.

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. I want to know who you are. 2. We will ask who swept the floor. 3. Tell me for whom you organized the party. 4. I asked whom they had met. 5. I need to know at what time you will reach the station. 6. They will ask which horse won the race. 7. I wonder whose answer is correct. 8. We will ask which hill they climbed. 9. Please tell us what you mean. 10. I wonder what made that noise. 11. Will you tell me which students are ready? 12. Ask him for what purpose he has called the meeting. 13. I am not sure whom we can trust. 14. They will ask whose work was chosen. 15. We will find out which book she has ordered. 16. Do you know who I am?

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. The new appliances, which are quite expensive, will be on sale next week. [Non-defining] 2. The picture which is hanging on the wall was painted by our friend. [Defining] 3. The people who own the hotel have a great deal of business experience. [Defining] 4. His uncle, who sings in the choir, is a friend of my father. [Non-defining] 5. The building, which is in excellent repair, is over two hundred years old. [Non-defining] 6. The door that is open leads to the study. [Defining] 7. My friend, who is coming for a visit, is anxious to meet you. [Non-defining] 8. Did you see the exhibition which was held here last week? [Defining]

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. whom 2. who 3. whom 4. whose 5. whom 6. whose 7. who 8. whom 9. whom 10. whom 11. who 12. whose

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. which 2. who 3. whom 4. which 5. whom 6. which 7. which 8. whom 9. who 10. whom 11. which 12. which

CHAPTER 20.  DETERMINERS

As indicated in the tables below, many determiners can be used either as adjectives or as pronouns. As will be pointed out in the next chapter, when a determiner is used as an adjective modifying a noun, the determiner usually precedes any other adjectives modifying the same noun.

The use of the following determiners has already been discussed in previous chapters: a, an, the, this, that, these and those. The possessive adjectives my, your, his, her, our and their can also be classified as determiners.

As indicated below, many determiners may be used only with certain types of noun. In the following tables, the abbreviation CN stands for Countable Noun, and the abbreviation UN stands for Uncountable Noun. In these tables, the noun tree is used as an example of a countable noun, and the noun grass is used as an example of an uncountable noun.

Determiners used as Adjectives

Determiner

Used With

Example

Meaning

all

plural CN

all trees

trees in general

UN

all grass

grass in general

another

singular CN

another tree

one additional or different tree

any

singular CN

any tree

refers to one tree, without

specifying which, of a group

of more than 2 trees

plural CN

any trees

refers to 2 or more trees,

without specifying which

UN

any grass

refers to some grass,

without specifying which

both

plural CN

both trees

refers to 2 trees of a

group of 2

each

singular CN

each tree

refers to every tree,

considered individually,

of a group of 2 or more

either

singular CN

either tree

refers to 1 of 2 trees,

without specifying which

enough

plural CN

enough trees

a sufficient number of trees

UN

enough grass

a sufficient amount of grass

every

singular CN

every tree

all trees, without exception,

of a group of more than 2 trees

few

plural CN

few trees

a small number of trees

fewer

plural CN

fewer trees

a smaller number of trees

less

UN

less grass

a smaller amount of grass

little

UN

little grass

a small amount of grass

many

plural CN

many trees

a large number of trees

more

plural CN

more trees

an additional number of trees

UN

more grass

an additional amount of grass

most

plural CN

most trees

nearly all trees

UN

most grass

nearly all grass

much

UN

much grass

a large amount of grass

neither

singular CN

neither tree

no tree of a group of 2 trees

no

singular CN

no tree

not any tree

plural CN

no trees

not any trees

UN

no grass

not any grass

one

singular CN

one tree

a single tree

only

plural CN

only trees

nothing except trees

UN

only grass

nothing except grass

other

plural CN

other trees

different trees

UN

other grass

different grass

several

plural CN

several trees

more than 2 trees, but not

a large number of trees

some

singular CN

some tree

an unspecified tree

plural CN

some trees

unspecified trees

UN

some grass

unspecified grass

such

singular CN

such a tree

a tree of a certain kind

plural CN

such trees

trees of a certain kind

UN

such grass

grass of a certain kind

that

singular CN

that tree

a particular tree, which

is not nearby

UN

that grass

particular grass, which

is not nearby

these

plural CN

these trees

particular trees, which

are nearby

this

singular CN

this tree

a particular tree, which

is nearby

UN

this grass

particular grass, which

is nearby

those

plural CN

those trees

particular trees, which

are not nearby

what

singular CN

what tree

asks in general for one

tree to be specified

plural CN

what trees

asks in general for particular

trees to be specified

UN

what grass

asks in general for particular

grass to be specified

which

singular CN

which tree

asks for one tree to be specified

from a certain group of trees

plural CN

which trees

asks for trees to be specified

from a certain group of trees

UN

which grass

asks for some of certain

grass to be specified

The following determiners can be used independently, as pronouns:

Determiners used as Pronouns

Determiner

Used With

Example

Meaning

all

plural CN

all (of) the trees

refers to every tree in a

group of more than 2

trees

UN

all (of) the grass

refers to the whole amount

of certain specified grass

another

plural CN

another of the trees

one more of certain

specified trees

any

plural CN

any of the trees

refers to 1 or more

unspecified trees from a

group of more than 2

UN

any of the grass

refers to some of certain

specified grass

both

plural CN

both of the trees

refers to 2 trees of a

group of 2

each

plural CN

each of the trees

refers to every tree,

considered individually,

of a group of 2 or more

either

plural CN

either of the trees

refers to 1 of 2 trees,

without specifying which

enough

singular CN

enough of the tree

a sufficient amount of a

specified tree

plural CN

enough of the trees

a sufficient number of

certain specified trees

UN

enough of the grass

a sufficient amount of

certain specified grass

few

plural CN

few of the trees

a small number from a

specified group of trees

fewer

plural CN

fewer of the trees

a smaller number from a

specified group of trees

less

UN

less of the grass

a smaller amount of certain

specified grass

little

UN

little of the grass

a small amount of certain

specified grass

many

plural CN

many of the trees

a large number of certain

specified trees

more

plural CN

more of the trees

an additional number of

certain specified trees

UN

more of the grass

an additional amount of

certain specified grass

most

plural CN

most of the trees

nearly all of certain

specified trees

UN

most of the grass

nearly all of certain

specified grass

much

UN

much of the grass

a large proportion of

certain specified grass

neither

plural CN

neither of the trees

no tree of a group of 2 trees

none

plural CN

none of the trees

no tree of certain specified

trees

UN

none of the grass

no grass of certain specified

grass

one

plural CN

one of the trees

a single tree of certain

specified trees

others

plural CN

others of the trees

different trees, from a

particular group of trees

several

plural CN

several of the trees

more than 2, but not a large

number, of certain specified

trees

some

singular CN

some of the tree

an unspecified portion of

a particular tree

plural CN

some of the trees

unspecified trees from a

particular group of trees

UN

some of the grass

an unspecified portion

of particular grass

such

plural CN

such of the trees

trees of a certain kind,

from a certain specified

group of trees

UN

such of the grass

grass of a certain kind,

from certain specified

grass

those

plural CN

those of the trees

particular trees, from a

certain specified group

of trees

which

plural CN

which of the trees

asks for one or more trees

to be specified, from a

particular group of trees

1. Determiners used to refer to groups of two persons or things

In Old English, there were singular forms, plural forms and dual forms. Dual forms are used to refer to two persons or things. In modern English, a few words still remain which refer to two persons or things.
For example, the determiners both, either and neither are used when referring to groups of two. Both refers to two things of a group of two, either refers to one thing of a group of two, and neither refers to zero things of a group of two.
e.g. I have two brothers. Both of them are engineers.
I had two maps of the city, but I cannot find either of them.
There are two textbooks for the course. Neither of them is expensive.

In contrast, the determiners all, any and none may be used when referring to groups with more than two members. All may refer to every member of a group of three or more, any may refer to one member of a group of three or more, and none may refer to zero members of a group of three or more.
e.g. I have three brothers. All of them are engineers.
I had four maps of the city, but I cannot find any of them.
There are six textbooks for the course. None of them is expensive.

See Exercise 1.

The following rules for the use of either and neither should be noted.

If it is desired to change a clause beginning with either so as to express a negative meaning, either must be changed to neither.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Either of the alternatives is acceptable.
Negative Meaning: Neither of the alternatives is acceptable.

Affirmative Meaning: Either hotel will offer you its best room.
Negative Meaning: Neither hotel will offer you its best room.

A sentence which contains the word either, in which either does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning either by using the word not, or by changing either to neither.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: You may borrow either of the books.
Negative Meaning: You may not borrow either of the books.
Negative Meaning: You may borrow neither of the books.

Affirmative Meaning: I might give the message to either boy.
Negative Meaning: I might not give the message to either boy.
Negative Meaning: I might give the message to neither boy.

It should be noted that in modern English, the determiner neither is most often used only at the beginning of a clause. Otherwise, the meaning of neither is usually expressed by the combination not ... either.

In addition to being used as determiners, the words both, either and neither can also be used as conjunctions. Conjunctions will be discussed in Chapter 28.

2. Determiners used as singular or plural pronouns

In formal English, the pronouns another, each, either, neither and one always take singular verbs.
e.g. Each of the children wants to win the prize.
Either of the alternatives is acceptable.
Neither of the books has good illustrations.
Every one of the students was ready on time.
In these examples, the singular verbs wants, is, has, and was are used with the pronouns each, either, neither and one.

In informal English, plural verbs are sometimes used with pronouns such as each, either and neither.
e.g. Neither of the books have good illustrations.
However, this use of the plural verb is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

It should also be noted that in formal English, when the words another, each, every, either, neither and one are used in combination with personal pronouns or possessive adjectives, singular forms are always used. As mentioned previously, in formal English, the adjective his or the phrase his or her may be used when referring to a group containing both male and female members.
e.g. Each of the children waited impatiently for his turn.
Every student raised his or her hand.
Neither of the girls has finished her homework.
Either of the hotels will offer you its best room.
In these examples, each, every, neither and either are used in combination with the singular forms his, his or her, her and its.

In informal English, plural possessive adjectives are often used in this type of sentence.
e.g. Neither of the girls finished their homework.
However, this use of the plural possessive adjective is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

It should be noted that in both formal and informal English, none is used sometimes with singular, and sometimes with plural verbs.
e.g. None of them is here. or
None of them are here.

In contrast, the pronouns both, few, many and several are always plural. They take plural verbs, and are used in combination with plural personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. In addition, the pronoun all is always plural when used with countable nouns.
e.g. Both of the boys have completed their essays.
Several of the musicians are giving their first performances tonight.
All of the girls have finished their homework.

In these examples, the pronouns both, several and all take the plural verbs have completed, are giving and have finished, and are used in combination with the plural possessive adjective their.

See Exercise 2.

3. The use of All, Both and Each

In addition to being used as attributive adjectives and as pronouns followed by of, the words all, both and each can also be used in apposition. A word used in apposition immediately follows the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition, and refers to the same thing as the subject or object. In the following examples, the words in apposition are printed in bold type.
e.g. We both wondered what would happen next.
The boys all looked forward to seeing the circus.
I sent them each an invitation.

In the first two examples, both and all are used in apposition to the subjects we and the boys. In the third example, each is used in apposition to the object them.

Words used in apposition can be referred to as appositives. Like relative clauses, appositives can be defining or non-defining. Non-defining appositives must be preceded and followed by commas.
e.g. Our leader, Tom Smith, was prepared for any emergency.
In this example Tom Smith is a non-defining appositive, in apposition to our leader.

Defining appositives such as all, both and each are not preceded and followed by commas.
e.g. We each have our own ideas.
In this example, the defining appositive each is in apposition to we. It should be noted that although each is singular, the verb have must be plural to agree with the subject we.

When used in clauses with auxiliary verbs or with the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, all, both and each generally follow the first auxiliary or the verb to be, rather than being used in apposition to the subject of the verb.
e.g. The boys had all been looking forward to seeing the circus.
We are both very happy to see you.
In the first example, all follows the first auxiliary had. In the second example, both follows the Simple Present of the verb to be.

4. The use of No, None and Not

The words no, none and not have similar meanings, but different grammatical functions.

The determiner no can be used as an adjective, but not as a pronoun; whereas none can be used as a pronoun, but not as an adjective.
e.g. He has no books.
None of the books are his.
In the first example, no is used as an adjective modifying the noun books. In the second example, none functions as a pronoun.

As has already been pointed out, the adverb not may be placed after the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, or after the first auxiliary of other verbs, in order to form a negative sentence or clause.
e.g. You are not late.
I have not forgotten what you said.

See Exercise 3.

Just as neither can be said to be equivalent to the combination not ... either, none can be said to be equivalent to not ... any. For instance, the following sentence:
He will have no difficulty.
could also be written:
He will not have any difficulty.

5. The use of Some and Any

The determiners some and any have slightly different meanings. The use of the word some generally implies a belief in the existence of the object or objects under consideration, whereas the use of the word any may imply a doubt about the existence of the object or objects under consideration.

The words some, somebody, someone, something and somewhere are used in affirmative statements, as well as in polite questions and questions expecting an affirmative reply.
e.g. Affirmative Statement: I saw some birds in the park.
Polite Question: Would you like some tea?
Affirmative Reply Expected: You seem worried. Is something wrong?

In contrast, the words any, anybody, anyone, anything and anywhere are used in questions and negative statements, as well as in affirmative statements referring in an indefinite way to a type of object, without specifying a particular object.
e.g. Question: Did you see any birds in the park?
Negative Statement: I do not know anyone here.
Indefinite Reference: Any drug store can supply you with aspirin.

The words some, somebody, someone, something and somewhere usually cannot be used in a negative statement. If it is desired to change a clause beginning with the word some so that it expresses a negative meaning, some may be changed to no or none, depending on whether an adjective or pronoun is required.

In the following example, some is used as an adjective modifying the noun books. In order to change the sentence to express a negative meaning, some is replaced by the adjective no.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some books were left on the shelf.
Negative Meaning: No books were left on the shelf.

In the following example, some is used as a pronoun. In order to change the sentence to express a negative meaning, some is replaced by the pronoun none.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Some of the visitors arrived late.
Negative Meaning: None of the visitors arrived late.

Similarly, if it is desired to change a clause beginning with somebody, someone, something or somewhere so that it expresses a negative meaning, these words may be replaced by nobody, no one, nothing and nowhere, respectively.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: Someone left a message.
Negative Meaning: No one left a message.

Affirmative Meaning: Something has happened.
Negative Meaning: Nothing has happened.

A sentence containing the word some, in which some does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement using not, and by changing some to any.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I bought some potatoes.
Negative Meaning: I did not buy any potatoes.

Affirmative Meaning: We will copy some of the recipes.
Negative Meaning: We will not copy any of the recipes.

It is possible to use no or none in such sentences instead of the construction with not ... any.
e.g. I bought no potatoes.
We will copy none of the recipes.
However, in modern English, the construction with not ... any is more often used than the construction with no or none.

See Exercise 4.

Similarly, a sentence containing the word somebody, someone, something or somewhere, in which the word beginning with some does not occur at the beginning of a clause, can be changed to express a negative meaning by changing the sentence to a negative statement using not, and by changing the word beginning with some to the corresponding word beginning with any.
e.g. Affirmative Meaning: I met someone I used to know.
Negative Meaning: I did not meet anyone I used to know.

Affirmative Meaning: We will buy something.
Negative Meaning: We will not buy anything.

In such sentences, nobody, no one, nothing or nowhere may be used instead of a negative statement with not and the word anybody, anyone, anything or anywhere.
e.g. I met no one I used to know.
We will buy nothing.
However, the construction with not is more often used.

See Exercise 5.

6. The use of Another, Other, Others and Else

The words another, other, others and else are used to indicate one or more additional or different things.

Another is formed from a combination of the words an and other, and has a meaning similar to one other. When used as an adjective, another can precede only a singular countable noun. When used as a pronoun, another takes a singular verb.
e.g. Please bring me another knife.
Another of her uncles lives in Montreal.
In the first example, another modifies the singular noun knife. In the second example, the pronoun another is the subject of the singular verb lives.

Other can be used with singular countable, plural countable or uncountable nouns.
e.g. The other door is open.
The other streets are paved.
Do you have any other luggage?
In these examples, other modifies the singular countable noun door, the plural countable noun streets, and the uncountable noun luggage.

Another usually cannot be immediately preceded by a determiner. In contrast, when used before a singular countable noun, other usually must be preceded by a determiner.
e.g. Please pass me the other cup.
I do not know any other way to do it.
There must be some other explanation.
In these examples, other is used with the singular countable nouns cup, way and explanation, and is preceded by the determiners the, any and some.

When other modifies a singular countable noun, the noun is sometimes omitted, particularly in the expression one ... the other.
e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other is blue.
One of my parents is a teacher; the other is a doctor.

In these examples, the nouns following the word other are understood, rather than expressed. In the following sentences, the nouns which are understood are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. I have two pens. One is green and the other [pen] is blue.
One of my parents is a teacher; the other [parent] is a doctor.

Others is a pronoun. Others can be used to take the place of the word other, followed by a plural countable noun.
e.g. Those trees are hemlocks; the others are pines.
Ten people belong to the group, and five others are planning to join.
In the first example, others takes the place of the words other trees. In the second example, others takes the place of the words other people.

Others is often used in the expression some ... others.
e.g. Some books are easy to read, but others are quite difficult.
Some people like classical music, while others prefer jazz.

The word else has a meaning similar to other. However, rather than being used as an adjective preceding a noun, else usually follows interrogative pronouns such as who and what, and indefinite pronouns such as anyone and someone.
e.g. Who else was at the meeting?
What else is on the agenda?
Has anyone else solved the problem?
Someone else may be able to help you.

See Exercise 6.

7. The use of Only

In addition to being used as a determiner, the word only can be used to modify almost any part of a sentence. In general, the word only immediately precedes the part of the sentence which it modifies.

The following examples illustrate how changing the position of the word only can change the meaning of a sentence.
e.g. Only the trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
Meaning: Nothing except the trees was somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

The only trees were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
Meaning: The few trees which existed were somewhat damaged by last year's storm.

The trees were only somewhat damaged by last year's storm.
Meaning: The trees were not completely damaged by last year's storm.

The trees were somewhat damaged only by last year's storm.
Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by nothing except last year's storm.

The trees were somewhat damaged by last year's only storm.
Meaning: The trees were somewhat damaged by the one storm which occurred last year.

See Exercise 7.

8. The use of Few, Little and Several

The use of the word a with the determiners few and little somewhat changes the meaning which is expressed.

The expressions a few and a little merely refer to a small quantity of something.
e.g. A few of his friends came to the party.
Meaning: Some of his friends came to the party.

I had a little time to consider the situation.
Meaning: I had a small amount of time to consider the situation.

In contrast, few and little not only refer to a small quantity of something, but also imply that the quantity is remarkably, or undesirably small.
e.g. Few of his friends came to the party.
Meaning: Only a very small number of his friends came to the party.

I had little time to consider the situation.
Meaning: I had almost no time to consider the situation.

See Exercise 8.

The expressions a few and several can both be used to refer to three or more things. However, there is a slight difference in meaning. The expression a few generally emphasizes that the quantity referred to is relatively small, while the expression several generally emphasizes that the quantity referred to is relatively large.

For instance, the following sentences could both refer to an event which occurred four or five times.
e.g. I saw him a few times.
Meaning: I saw him, but I did not see him often.

I saw him several times.
Meaning: I saw him more than once or twice.

9. The expressions Such ... That, So ... That, and Too

a. Such ... That
The determiner such is often used in combination with a clause beginning with that, in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.
e.g. There was such a strong wind that we decided to stay indoors.
He has such high marks that he has applied for a scholarship.

In the first example, a strong wind refers to the cause, and we decided to stay indoors refers to the effect. In the second example, high marks refers to the cause, and he has applied for a scholarship refers to the effect.

It should be noted that when such is used as an adjective modifying a singular countable noun, the word a or an usually follows the word such.
e.g. such a strong wind
such an unusual event

The construction usually used with the expression such ... that is summarized below, followed by examples.

such a

that clause stating the

such an   +

adjective   +

noun   +

effect of the situation

or such

described in the main clause

She is such a

hard

worker

that she is sure to succeed.

That is such an

interesting

book

that I read it three times.

He has such

good

ideas

that he may be promoted.

b. So ... That
The word so combined with a clause beginning with that can also be used in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship.

Whereas such usually modifies a noun, in this construction so is used as an intensifier modifying an adjective or adverb. Intensifiers will be discussed in a later chapter.
e.g. The wind was so strong that we decided to stay indoors.
His marks are so high that he has applied for a scholarship.
The wind blew so fiercely that we decided to stay indoors.
In the first two examples, so modifies the adjectives strong and high. In the last example, so modifies the adverb fiercely.

This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

adverb or

that clause stating the

subject   +

verb   +

so   +

adjective   +

effect of the situation

described in the main clause

She

sang

so

well

that she had to sing an encore.

The moon

was

so

bright

that we could see for miles.

In informal English, the word that in the expressions such ... that and so ... that is often omitted.
e.g. There was such a strong wind, we decided to stay indoors.
The moon was so bright, we could see for miles.

So can also be followed by many, much, few or little, followed by a noun, followed by a clause beginning with that. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

many

that clause stating the

so   +

much,   +

noun   +

effect of the situation

few or

described in the main clause

little

There were

so

many

spectators

that there was standing room only.

I did

so

much

swimming

that I became very strong.

He knew

so

few

people

that he often felt lonely.

There was

so

little

snow

that we could not go skiing.

c. Too
The intensifier too used in combination with an infinitive can also be used to indicate a cause and effect relationship. In the following examples, the word too is printed in bold type, and the infinitives are underlined.
e.g. It is too windy for us to go outside.
He is too poor to continue studying without a scholarship.
It was raining too hard for us to leave the house.
In the first two examples, too modifies the adjectives windy and poor. In the last example, too modifies the adverb hard.

The construction usually used with too in combination with an infinitive is summarized below, followed by examples.

adverb or

phrase containing an infinitive,

subject   +

verb   +

too   +

adjective   +

indicating the effect of the

situation described using too

They

walked

too

quickly

for me to overtake them.

The writing

was

too

difficult

to read.

See Exercise 9.

EXERCISES for Chapter 20

1. Paying attention to whether reference is being made to a group of two objects, or a group of more than two objects, for each of the following sentences fill in the blank with the correct word chosen from the pair given in brackets. For example:
There are two trees on the lawn. ____ of them are spruce trees. (All, Both)
There are two trees on the lawn. Both of them are spruce trees.

I had three pencils. Have you seen ___ of them? (any, either)
I had three pencils. Have you seen any of them? (any, either)

There are four bushes in the garden, but ____ of them are rhododendrons. (neither, none)
There are four bushes in the garden, but none of them are rhododendrons.

1. I have three winter coats, but ________ of them are new. (neither, none)
2. There are two umbrellas here, but _________ of them is mine. (neither, none)
3. He owns twelve cows. _______ of them are Jerseys. (All, Both)
4. She has painted dozens of pictures. Have you seen ________ of them? (any, either)
5. Amy and Beth are twins. They _______ play the guitar. (all, both)
6. Two people said "Hello" to me, but I did not recognize ________ of them. (any, either)
7. My wife and I _______ enjoy classical music. (all, both)
8. I found all of the questions difficult. Did you answer ________ of them correctly? (any, either)
9. I asked six different people, but ________ of them knew where Walnut Street was. (neither, none)
10. My friends and I would like to thank you for your hospitality. We _______ enjoyed ourselves very much. (all, both)
11. There are two public libraries in the city, but ________ of them is located close to where I live. (neither, none)
12. Two wrist watches were left here. Is _________ of them yours? (any, either)
13. He has three nephews. ________ of them have graduated from university. (All, Both)
14. I have two violins. You are welcome to use ________ of them. (any, either)
15. My aunt and uncle are _______ coming for a visit. (all, both)
16. George and Tom like playing chess together, but _________ of them likes to lose a game. (neither, none)
17. The bush is covered with blueberries. Are ________ of them ripe yet? (any, either)
18. I have read five books on the subject, but ________ of them were very helpful. (neither, none)
Answers

2. Paying attention to whether the singular or the plural form is correct, fill in the blanks with the correct words chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
Several of my friends ____ present. (was, were)
Several of my friends were present.

One of his friends ___ absent. (was, were)
One of his friends was absent.

Each of the dogs pricked up ___ ears. (its, their)
Each of the dogs pricked up its ears.

All of the dogs pricked up _____ ears. (its, their)
All of the dogs pricked up their ears.

1. Each of her friends ________ a university degree. (has, have)
2. Many of the birds in this park _________ here throughout the year. (live, lives)
3. Both of the children wanted to finish _________ work early. (his, their)
4. Every writer should learn from _________ own experiences. (his or her, their)
5. Either of my daughters can lend you _________ skis. (her, their)
6. Few of her ideas ________ as intriguing as this one. (are, is)
7. All of the visitors expressed _________ thanks. (his or her, their)
8. Each of our customers ________ important. (are, is)
9. One of the canaries ate only half _________ food. (its, their)
10. Either of the routes ________ a good choice. (are, is)
11. Neither of the boys forgot _________ books. (his, their)
12. Both of the drawings _______ beautiful. (are, is)
13. Neither of my uncles _________ to us often. (write, writes)
14. Every girl clapped _________ hands. (her, their)
Answers

3. Paying attention to whether an adjective, pronoun or adverb is required, complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with no, none or not, as appropriate. For example:
There is __ danger.
There is no danger.

____ of the trees are evergreens.
None of the trees are evergreens.

It was ___ raining when I left home.
It was not raining when I left home.

1. There is ________ wind this morning.
2. I have ________ finished reading the book.
3. _______ of the children were late for school.
4. We did ________ tell anyone the secret.
5. I have ________ idea what time it is.
6. ________ of the streets have been plowed.
7. ________ bicycles are allowed on the grass.
8. He is ________ ready.
9. ________ harm was done.
10. There is ________ time to lose.
11. She is ________ expected to arrive until tomorrow.
12. ________ of the stores are open.
Answers

4. Rewrite the following sentences as negative statements, in which the word some is replaced by the word any. For example:
He has sold some apples.
He has not sold any apples.

I need to buy some shoes.
I do not need to buy any shoes.

1. I will make some salad.
2. We need some onions.
3. I have met some of your friends.
4. He has photographed some of the most beautiful parts of the city.
5. She wants to take some courses in Archaeology.
6. I recognized some of the students.
7. We have visited some of the offshore islands.
8. I have read some books by that author.
9. There is some danger involved.
10. I have some reservations about your plan.
11. They have interviewed some of the contestants.
12. She bought some of the books second-hand.
Answers

5. Rewrite each of the following sentences to express a negative meaning. Each sentence contains a word beginning with some. If the word beginning with some occurs at the beginning of the sentence, change the word beginning with some to the appropriate word or phrase beginning with no. For example:
Some of the coats are expensive.
None of the coats are expensive.

Someone is at home.
No one is at home.

If the word beginning with some occurs later in the sentence, change the sentence to a negative statement, and change the word beginning with some to the appropriate word beginning with any. For example:
I have some paper.
I do not have any paper.

I saw your glasses somewhere.
I did not see your glasses anywhere.

1. He has some relatives in the city.
2. I know someone here.
3. Some of us were surprised by the announcement.
4. I plan to go somewhere on my vacation.
5. Some tickets were sold this morning.
6. I heard someone playing the bagpipes.
7. I gave her some advice.
8. Something is wrong.
9. We bought something at the flea market.
10. They had some exciting adventures.
11. Someone offered to help me.
12. She knows someone working at the Library.
13. He lives somewhere near here.
14. Somebody left early.
15. I saw someone arriving by taxi.
16. Some books are missing.
17. I have something to do this afternoon.
18. Some of the magazines are worth reading.
Answers

6. Paying attention to the grammatical structure, complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank with another, other, others or else, as appropriate. For example:
Would you like _______ cup of tea?
Would you like another cup of tea?

The _____ guests have already arrived.
The other guests have already arrived.

Five of the books were returned on time , but three ______ were overdue.
Five of the books were returned on time, but three others were overdue.

Who ____ was at the party?
Who else was at the party?

1. I want to borrow ___________ book from the library.
2. Three people moved out, and two ____________ moved in.
3. Who ___________ knows the secret?
4. There are several ____________ possibilities.
5. Where ____________ should I look?
6. Some students enjoyed the film, but ____________ did not.
7. He lives on the ____________ side of the lake.
8. I have _____________ idea.
9. ____________ people soon followed her example.
10. Do you know anyone ____________ here?
11. We are going to move to ___________ city.
12. Some birds feed on insects, while ____________ eat berries.
13. Somebody ____________ should have a turn now.
14. Few ____________ people attended the ceremony.
15. You may borrow this eraser. I have several ____________
16. What ____________ have you decided?
Answers

7. The following five sentences, labelled A to E, are identical except for the position of the word only:

A. My only friend drew the picture of the child yesterday.
B. My friend drew only the picture of the child yesterday.
C. My friend drew the only picture of the child yesterday.
D. My friend drew the picture of the only child yesterday.
E. My friend drew the picture of the child only yesterday.

The meanings of the preceding five sentences are given in the five sentences below. For each sentence, fill in the blank with the letter (A to E) which corresponds to the sentence above which has the same meaning.

1. ___ My friend drew the one existing picture of the child yesterday.
2. ___ My friend drew nothing except the picture of the child yesterday.
3. ___ My friend drew the picture of the child as short a time ago as yesterday.
4. ___ The one friend that I have drew the picture of the child yesterday.
5. ___ My friend drew the picture of the one child in the family yesterday.
Answers

8. Explain the differences in meaning of the sentences in the following pairs.

1. There is a little butter left.
2. There is little butter left.

3. We encountered a few difficulties.
4. We encountered few difficulties.
Answers

9. Paying attention to the grammatical structure, for each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with such, so or too, as appropriate. In some of the sentences, the word that has been omitted. For example:
I saw ____ beautiful flowers, I wished I had brought my camera with me.
I saw such beautiful flowers, I wished I had brought my camera with me.

The sun was __ bright that we had to wear sunglasses.
The sun was so bright that we had to wear sunglasses.

I saw __ many flowers that I could not identify them all.
I saw so many flowers that I could not identify them all.

By the time I received your message, it was ___ late to call you.
By the time I received your message, it was too late to call you.

1. She sang ________ soothing lullabies that the baby was soon asleep.
2. He owned ________ many books that his walls were lined with bookcases.
3. The boys were _______ excited to sit still.
4. He has ________ varied interests, one never knows what he will do next.
5. They have ________ few enemies, they are accepted wherever they go.
6. The snow was ________ deep for us to walk across the field.
7. Yesterday I walked ________ far that I fell asleep immediately after supper.
8. I had ________ a good time at the party, I did not want to leave.
9. I see her ________ often that I feel I know her quite well.
10. The visibility was ________ poor for the mountains to be seen.
11. This is ________ an interesting book, I stayed up all night to read it.
12. This puzzle is ________ easy that a child could do it.
13. There was ________ much traffic, I could not cross the street.
14. She was ________ tired to watch the video.
15. They have _______ little furniture, it will be easy for them to move.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 20

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. none 2. neither 3. All 4. any 5. both 6. either 7. both 8. any 9. none 10. all 11. neither 12. either 13. All 14. either 15. both 16. neither 17. any 18. none

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. has 2. live 3. their 4. his or her 5. her 6. are 7. their 8. is 9. its 10. is 11. his 12. are 13. writes 14. her

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. no 2. not 3. None 4. not 5. no 6. None 7. No 8. not 9. No 10. no 11. not 12. None

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. I will not make any salad. 2. We do not need any onions. 3. I have not met any of your friends. 4. He has not photographed any of the most beautiful parts of the city. 5. She does not want to take any courses in Archaeology. 6. I did not recognize any of the students. 7. We have not visited any of the offshore islands. 8. I have not read any books by that author. 9. There is not any danger involved. 10. I do not have any reservations about your plan. 11. They have not interviewed any of the contestants. 12. She did not buy any of the books second-hand.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. He does not have any relatives in the city. 2. I do not know anyone here. 3. None of us were surprised by the announcement. 4. I do not plan to go anywhere on my vacation. 5. No tickets were sold this morning. 6. I did not hear anyone playing the bagpipes. 7. I did not give her any advice. 8. Nothing is wrong. 9. We did not buy anything at the flea market. 10. They did not have any exciting adventures. 11. No one offered to help me. 12. She does not know anyone working at the Library. 13. He does not live anywhere near here. 14. Nobody left early. 15. I did not see anyone arriving by taxi.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. another 2. others 3. else 4. other 5. else 6. others 7. other 8. another 9. Other 10. else 11. another 12. others 13. else 14. other 15. others 16. else

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. C 2. B 3. E 4. A 5. D

Answers to Exercise 8:
Meanings:
1. There is some butter left. 2. There is a very small amount of butter left. 3. We encountered some difficulties. 4. We encountered a very small number of difficulties. [The phrase "few difficulties" implies that the difficulties were unimportant.]

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. such 2. so 3. too 4. such 5. so 6. too 7. so 8. such 9. so 10. too 11. such 12. so 13. so 14. too 15. so

CHAPTER 21.  ADJECTIVES: POSITION IN A SENTENCE

Words which are used to modify nouns or pronouns are usually referred to as adjectives. For instance, the adjectives in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g. Large trees could be seen.
They are happy.
In the preceding examples, the adjective large modifies the noun trees, and the adjective happy modifies the pronoun they.

It should be noted that adjectives can be formed from two or more words combined by the use of hyphens.
e.g. the three-month-old baby
a ninety-dollar jacket
a two-hour trip
As illustrated in these examples, the nouns in such hyphenated expressions are generally in the singular. Thus, the singular forms of the nouns month, dollar and hour are used.

Most English adjectives have the same form for the singular as for the plural. The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, discussed Chapter 19.

1. Proper adjectives

Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. In English, proper adjectives must begin with a capital letter. The proper adjectives in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g. The French town has an interesting history.
Many of my friends are American.
This house is a fine example of Victorian architecture.

The derivation of proper adjectives from proper nouns is somewhat irregular. For instance, the spelling of the following proper nouns and proper adjectives can be compared.

Proper Noun

Proper Adjective

America

American

Canada

Canadian

Germany

German

Mexico

Mexican

George

Georgian

Victoria

Victorian

Many proper adjectives end with an or ian. However, other endings are also used, as indicated below.

Proper Noun

Proper Adjective

England

English

France

French

China

Chinese

2. Attributive adjectives

Adjectives which precede the noun they modify are usually referred to as attributive adjectives. For instance, in the following examples, the attributive adjectives are underlined.
e.g. Heavy rain is expected.
We saw white swans on the river.

In these examples, heavy is an attributive adjective modifying the noun rain, and white is an attributive adjective modifying the noun swans.

a. Order of attributive adjectives
It is possible for a noun to be preceded by many different types of attributive adjective. In the following example, the attributive adjectives are underlined.
e.g. Two large red cardboard milk cartons stood on the steps.

In this example, two is a cardinal number, large is an adjective indicating size, red is an adjective indicating color, cardboard is an adjective indicating a type of material, and milk is a defining adjective indicating purpose.

When a noun is preceded by more than one type of attributive adjective, the different types of adjective are usually arranged in a particular order. For instance, the following example contains eleven different types of attributive adjective.
e.g. a small, heavy, snug, warm, 100-year-old, round-bellied black iron Norwegian wood stove

In this example, a is an article, small is an adjective indicating size, heavy is an adjective indicating weight, snug is a general descriptive adjective, warm is an adjective indicating temperature, 100-year-old is an adjective indicating age, round-bellied is an adjective indicating shape, black is an adjective indicating color, iron is an adjective indicating a type of material, Norwegian is a proper adjective, and wood is a defining adjective indicating a method of operation.

The different types of attributive adjective are usually arranged In the order shown in the following table.

Usual Order of Attributive Adjectives

1) certain determiners such as all, both and half
2) determiners including the articles a, and and the;
possessive adjectives e.g. my, his, her, our and their;
demonstrative adjectives e.g. that, these, this, and those; and
certain other determiners such as another, any, each, either,
enough, every, neither, no, some, what and which
3) cardinal numbers e.g. one, two, three; and
certain other determiners such as few, many and several
4) determiners such as fewer, fewest, least, less, more and most
5) general descriptive adjectives, often in the following order:
a) adjectives indicating size e.g. large, long, narrow
b) adjectives indicating weight e.g. heavy, light
c) participles and other adjectives e.g. clever, excited, interesting
d) adjectives indicating temperature e.g. cold, hot, warm
e) adjectives indicating humidity e.g. dry, damp, wet
f) adjectives indicating age e.g. new, six-month-old, young
g) adjectives indicating shape e.g. barrel-shaped, round, square
6) adjectives indicating color e.g. blue, grey, white
7) adjectives indicating materials e.g. cloth, leather, metal
8) proper adjectives e.g. American, Victorian
9) defining adjectives, usually indicating purpose, method of operation, location,
time or categories of people

i. Determiners
The usual order of different types of determiner is indicated in the first four categories of the table above.

1) The determiners in the first category, all, both and half, usually precede other attributive adjectives.
e.g. all three tables
both the students
half the red roses

Alternatively, before the article the, the words all, both and half may be used as pronouns, followed by the word of.
e.g. all of the tables
both of the students
half of the red roses

2) The determiners in the second category of the table above include articles, possessive adjectives, demonstrative adjectives, and the determiners another, any, each, either, enough, every, neither, no, some, what and which. A noun can usually be modified by only one of the attributive adjectives in this category.

If it is desired to convey the idea expressed by a possessive adjective combined with another adjective in this category, the possessive adjective must be changed to the corresponding possessive pronoun preceded by of, and must follow the noun.

For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase this black horse, combined with the possessive adjective my; and the phrase a book combined with the possessive adjective your may be conveyed as follows:
e.g. this black horse of mine
a book of yours

In a somewhat similar way, the determiners another, any, each, either, enough, neither, some and which may be combined with other members of the second category of adjective by being used as pronouns followed by of.

For instance, the ideas expressed by the phrase my dresses, combined with the determiner any; and the phrase these white flowers, combined with the determiner either may be conveyed as follows:
e.g. any of my dresses
either of these white flowers

Since the determiners every and no cannot be used as pronouns, the expressions every one and none must be used. For instance, the ideas expressed in the phrase these children, combined with the determiner every; and the phrase their opinions, combined with the determiner no may be conveyed as follows:
e.g. every one of these children
none of their opinions

See Exercise 1.

3) The determiners in the third category of the table above include the cardinal numbers, and the determiners few, many and several. As illustrated in the following examples, the determiners in this category usually follow determiners in the previous two categories, and precede other attributive adjectives.
e.g. all twelve red roses
their many exciting adventures

It should be noted that other usually precedes a cardinal number when an article or possessive adjective is present, but usually follows a cardinal number when no article or possessive adjective is present.
e.g. the other three chairs
my other two cousins

three other chairs
two other cousins

In the first two examples, the article the and the possessive article my are present, and other precedes the cardinal numbers three and two. In the second two examples, no article or possessive adjective is present, and other follows the cardinal numbers three and two.

4) The determiners fewer, fewest, least, less, more and most usually follow other determiners.
e.g. the fewest mistakes
two more children
In the first example, fewest follows the determiner the. In the second example, more follows the determiner two.

See Exercise 2.

ii. General descriptive adjectives
As indicated in the preceding table, general descriptive adjectives usually follow determiners and precede other types of attributive adjective. As shown in the table, there are several types of general descriptive adjective, which often occur in a certain order. However, the order of different types of general descriptive adjective is more flexible than the order of other types of attributive adjective.

a) Attributive adjectives indicating size usually follow any determiners, but precede other types of attributive adjective. In the following phrases, the adjectives indicating size are underlined.
e.g. three large, level platforms
her two tiny brown lap dogs
that enormous English dictionary

Below are pairs of adjectives with opposite meanings, indicating size:

deep

shallow

enormous

tiny

large

small

long

short

wide

narrow

thick

thin

b) Adjectives indicating weight usually follow adjectives indicating size, but precede other types of attributive adjective. In the following phrases, the adjectives indicating weight are underlined.
e.g. a small, heavy parcel
two light nylon knapsacks

The following are examples of adjectives indicating weight:

heavy
light
5-kilogram
2-ton

See Exercise 3.

c) Participles and other general descriptive adjectives which do not fall into any of the other categories usually follow adjectives indicating size and weight, and precede other types of attributive adjective. In the following examples, the adjective alert, and the participles twittering and excited are underlined.
e.g. two large, alert black cats
eleven tiny, twittering birds
many excited children

d) to g) The order of adjectives indicating temperature, humidity, age and shape is not as predictable as the order of other attributive adjectives. For instance, adjectives indicating temperature occur sometimes before and sometimes after general descriptive adjectives such as clear and hard.
e.g. clear, cold water
cold, hard ice

It should be noted that the position of attributive adjectives indicating age may be altered to change the emphasis.
e.g. a new, efficient method
an efficient, new method
In the first example, the adjective new is emphasized. In the second example, the adjective efficient is emphasized.

However, the most usual order of adjectives indicating temperature, humidity, age and shape is that indicated in the table. For instance, adjectives indicating temperature usually precede adjectives indicating humidity.
e.g. a hot, dry wind
a cold, wet dog
In these examples, the adjectives hot and cold, indicating temperature, precede the adjectives dry and wet, indicating humidity.

As can be seen in the preceding examples, general descriptive adjectives are usually separated from one another by commas. This is illustrated In the following examples, in which the general descriptive adjectives are underlined.
e.g. a small, triangular wooden boat
those five thick, strong, two-hundred-year-old oak trees

Below are examples of adjectives which indicate temperature, humidity, age and shape.

Temperature

Humidity

Age

Shape

hot

wet

new

square

cold

dry

old

round

warm

damp

young

triangular

cool

humid

six-week-old

octagonal

moist

two-year-old

spherical

See Exercise 4.

iii. Adjectives indicating color
Adjectives indicating color usually precede adjectives indicating materials, proper adjectives, and defining adjectives, but follow other types of attributive adjective.

In the following examples, the adjectives indicating color are underlined.
e.g. threatening black clouds
her new red leather jacket
a square brown mahogany table

Below are examples of adjectives which indicate color:

red

black

pink

orange

white

magenta

yellow

brown

scarlet

green

beige

crimson

blue

silver

fox-red

violet

golden

olive-green

purple

turquoise

sky-blue, etc.

iv. Adjectives indicating materials
Attributive adjectives indicating the materials from which objects are made usually follow any adjectives indicating color and precede any proper or defining adjectives. In the following examples, adjectives indicating materials are underlined.
e.g. a beautiful grey silk scarf
ten black plastic coat hangers
the clean wooden floor

In modern English, most adjectives indicating the materials from which objects are made have the same form as the corresponding nouns. For Instance, the words silk and plastic can be used either as nouns or as adjectives. One of the few exceptions is the adjective wooden, which corresponds to the noun wood.

Below are examples of adjectives which indicate materials:

wooden

cotton

metal

paper

wool

iron

cardboard

silk

steel

plastic

satin

brass

rock

corduroy

gold

stone

velvet

silver

brick

flannel

copper

concrete

denim

lead

glass

nylon

tin

leather

polyester

aluminum

v. The position of proper adjectives
Proper adjectives usually follow all other types of attributive adjective except defining adjectives.

Proper adjectives are usually derived from proper nouns referring to places or persons. In the following examples, the proper adjectives are underlined.
e.g. sparkling French wine
three red brick Georgian manor houses

In the first example, the proper adjective French is derived from the place name France, and indicates the place of origin of the wine. In the second example, the proper adjective Georgian is derived from George, the name of an English king, and indicates that the houses are built in a style developed during the reign of that king.

It should be noted that proper adjectives may sometimes precede adjectives indicating materials, as in the following examples. This occurs when the adjective indicating a material is used as a type of defining adjective, to help identify what type of object is being described.
e.g. Mexican straw hats
an American pearl necklace

See Exercises 5 and 6.

vi. Defining adjectives
When a word preceding a noun does not merely describe the object being referred to, but helps to define or identify the type of object meant, the word preceding the noun can be called a defining adjective. The defining adjectives in the following examples are underlined.
e.g. an enjoyable birthday party
a fine young man
the new telephone directory

Defining adjectives are combined with nouns to form fixed expressions, in order to refer to certain types of things. In the above examples, birthday party, young man and telephone directory are fixed expressions which are commonly used to refer to certain types of things.

In many such expressions, the defining adjectives are words which are usually used as nouns. For instance, in the above examples, birthday, and telephone are words which are usually used as nouns. In such cases, the fixed expressions are sometimes thought of as compound nouns.

Many words which are used as gerunds can also be used as defining adjectives, as illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. black hiking boots
our drinking water

In this type of fixed expression, it is also possible for two words to be used together as defining adjectives. In the following examples, the words used as defining adjectives are underlined.
e.g. a roller skating rink
a hot water bottle

Defining adjectives usually immediately precede the nouns they modify. Many defining adjectives indicate the purpose for which the object being referred to is used. In the following examples, the defining adjectives are underlined.
e.g. an egg carton
a coat hanger
a dish cloth
An egg carton is a carton used for storing eggs, a coat hanger is an object used for hanging up coats, and a dish cloth is a cloth used for washing dishes.

As can be seen in these examples, when a word usually used as a countable noun is used as a defining adjective, it is normally the singular form of the word which is used. Thus, in the preceding examples, the singular forms egg, coat and dish are used.

See Exercise 7.

Defining adjectives can also indicate the method of operation of an object. This is the case in the following examples.
e.g. a steam iron
a ten-speed bicycle
an electric light

Defining adjectives sometimes help to define the object being referred to by indicating time or location.
e.g. the morning star
the winter term
the front door
the kitchen window
In these examples the adjectives morning and winter indicate time, and the adjectives front and kitchen indicate location.

Defining adjectives are also used in fixed expressions which refer to certain categories of people.
e.g. a little girl
a baby boy
an old woman

See Exercise 8.

vii. Ordinal adjectives
Attributive adjectives such as next, last, first, second, third and so on, are sometimes referred to as ordinal adjectives, since they indicate the order in which things occur.

When they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the property of modifying any following attributive adjectives together with the accompanying noun. For this reason, the position of an ordinal adjective relative to other attributive adjectives can affect the meaning of a phrase.
e.g. the first reluctant witness
the reluctant first witness

The two preceding examples have different meanings. In the phrase the first reluctant witness, the adjective first modifies the following adjective reluctant together with the noun witness. This means that although there may have been previous witnesses, the phrase refers to the first witness who was reluctant.

However, in the phrase the reluctant first witness, the adjective first modifies only the noun witness. This means that there were no previous witnesses. The phrase refers to the first witness, indicating that this witness was reluctant.

Below is a similar example, giving two phrases with different meanings.
e.g. the second unpredictable year
the unpredictable second year

In the phrase the second unpredictable year, the adjective second modifies the following adjective unpredictable together with the noun year. This means that although there may have been more than one previous year, the phrase refers to the second year which was unpredictable.

However, in the phrase the unpredictable second year, the adjective second modifies only the noun year. This means that there was only one previous year. The phrase refers to the second year, indicating that this year was unpredictable.

As illustrated in the preceding examples, the position of ordinal attributive adjectives varies depending upon what meaning is to be conveyed.

See Exercise 9.

b. Punctuation used with attributive adjectives
As already indicated, general descriptive adjectives, including adjectives indicating size, weight, temperature, humidity, age and shape are usually separated from one another by commas.
e.g. the long, winding road
a heavy, awkward box
a cold, wet mist
a small, square room

In contrast, determiners, possessive adjectives, adjectives representing cardinal numbers, and ordinal adjectives are usually not followed by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.
e.g. those large chairs
my new shirts
two narrow paths
the first tall building

In addition, defining adjectives, proper adjectives, and adjectives indicating color and materials are usually not preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.
e.g. a large egg carton
a beautiful Chinese vase
elegant black boots
a dilapidated stone building

However, it should be noted that in some cases, proper adjectives and adjectives indicating shape, color and materials may or may not be preceded by commas. In the following examples, adjectives of these types are underlined.
e.g. a beautiful Japanese necklace or a beautiful, Japanese necklace
a small square tower or a small, square tower
a thin grey cat or a thin, grey cat
a black leather briefcase or a black, leather briefcase

When such adjectives are not preceded by commas, there is an implication that the adjectives are used to help identify the object being described. However, when such adjectives are preceded by commas, there is an implication that the adjectives are provided only for purposes of description, and are not being used to help identify the object being described.

For example, in the phrase a small square tower, there is the implication that the shape of the tower helps to identify which tower is meant. However, in the phrase a small, square tower there is the implication that the adjective square is provided only for purposes of description, and is not being used to help identify which tower is meant.

See Exercise 10.

There is also a distinction in meaning associated with the presence or absence of commas following ordinal adjectives. When followed by commas, ordinal adjectives function similarly to general descriptive adjectives, and modify only the accompanying noun.
e.g. the last, lonely outpost
the first, faint morning light
In the first example, the adjective last modifies the noun outpost. In the second example, the adjective first modifies the noun light.

However, as explained in the section on ordinal adjectives, when they are not followed by commas, ordinal adjectives have the property of modifying any following attributive adjectives together with the accompanying noun.

c. Stress used with attributive adjectives
In speaking, nouns are usually pronounced with more stress than the preceding attributive adjectives. In the following examples, the words which are pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined.
e.g. a small, green cucumber
an old, rectangular courtyard
In these examples, the nouns cucumber and courtyard are pronounced with slightly more emphasis than the preceding adjectives.

i. Adjectives indicating materials
However, there are several exceptions to the rule that the noun has the most emphasis. For instance, when a noun is immediately preceded by an adjective naming a material, the adjective is usually pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the noun.
e.g. a leather belt
a silver spoon
In these examples, the adjectives leather and silver are pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the nouns belt and spoon.

ii. Defining adjectives indicating location or time
Also, when a noun is preceded by a defining adjective indicating location or time, the adjective is usually pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the noun.
e.g. the front door
the fall term
In these examples, the defining adjectives front, indicating location, and fall, indicating time, are pronounced with the same degree of emphasis as the nouns door and term.

iii. Defining adjectives indicating purpose
However, when a defining adjective indicates the purpose of the object being described, the defining adjective usually has a strong emphasis, while the noun which follows it has a weak emphasis.
e.g. brown hiking boots
a red milk carton
In these examples, the defining adjectives hiking and milk receive a stronger emphasis than either the succeeding nouns boots and carton, or the preceding attributive adjectives.

See Exercise 11.

3. Predicate adjectives

a. Attributive adjectives which can be used as predicate adjectives
An adjective which is separated from the noun or pronoun it modifies by a verb is often referred to as a predicate adjective. The predicate adjectives in the following examples are underlined.
e.g. The horse is black.
The streets are long and narrow.
It is large, heavy and awkward.

In these examples, the adjective black modifies the noun horse. the adjectives long and narrow modify the noun streets, and the adjectives large, heavy and awkward modify the pronoun it.

Most general descriptive adjectives, as well as adjectives indicating color, can be used as predicate adjectives. In the following examples, the predicate adjectives are underlined.
e.g. The answer is puzzling.
These envelopes are small.
The bucket was heavy.
The weather will be cool and dry.
That child is young.
The cake is round.
The leaves are red, yellow and orange.

However, there are a few general descriptive adjectives which cannot be used as predicate adjectives. For example, the adjectives listed below are normally used only as attributive adjectives.

Adjectives used only Attributively
chief
main
principal
sheer
utter

It should be noted that although they cannot be used with attributive adjectives, pronouns can be used with predicate adjectives.
e.g. He is happy.
She is proud.
We are careful.
They are successful.

Proper adjectives are sometimes used as predicate adjectives.
e.g. That car is American.
This one is Japanese.

It should be noted that hyphenated adjectives containing nouns often cannot be used as predicate adjectives. When such an expression follows the verb, the hyphens are omitted and the noun assumes a plural form, if required. In the following examples, the nouns contained in the hyphenated adjectives are underlined.
e.g. the two-year-old child
the one-hour program
forty-dollar shoes

When placed after the verb, the hyphenated adjectives must be changed as follows:
e.g. The child is two years old.
The length of the program is one hour.
The price of the shoes is forty dollars.

However, hyphenated adjectives which do not contain nouns can often be used as predicate adjectives. For instance, in the following examples, the hyphenated adjectives are underlined.
e.g. the long-winded orator
the wide-spread belief

These adjectives contain past participles. Hyphenated adjectives containing past participles are frequently used as predicate adjectives.
e.g. The orator was long-winded.
The belief is wide-spread.

i. Order
The order of predicate adjectives relative to one another is generally the same as the order of attributive adjectives relative to one another. The following examples illustrate the order of predicate adjectives.
e.g. The package is small and light.
The weather is clear, cold and dry.
The footstool is round and black.

In the first example, the adjective small, indicating size, precedes the adjective light, indicating weight. In the second example, the general descriptive adjective clear precedes the adjective cold, indicating temperature, which precedes the adjective dry, indicating humidity. In the third example, the adjective round, indicating shape, precedes the adjective black, indicating color.

ii. Punctuation
As can be seen in these examples, the last two adjectives in a list of predicate adjectives are usually separated from each another by the word and, and any preceding adjectives are usually separated from one another by commas.
e.g. The clothes were clean and dry.
The dancers were tall, slender and graceful.

In a list of three or more predicate adjectives, an additional comma is sometimes placed before the word and.
e.g. The dancers were tall, slender, and graceful.
However, this additional comma is usually considered unnecessary.

See Exercise 12.

b. Adjectives which can be used only as predicate adjectives
The following are examples of adjectives with the prefix a which can be used only as predicate adjectives, not as attributive adjectives. The prefix a was formerly a preposition meaning on.

Adjectives used only Predicatively
afloat
afraid
aglow
alive
alone
asleep

In some cases, related words can be used as attributive adjectives. In the following examples, words used only as predicate adjectives and related words used as attributive adjectives are underlined.

Predicate Adjectives

Attributive Adjectives

The boat is afloat.

the floating boat

The child is afraid.

the frightened child

The sky is aglow.

the glowing sky

The animal is alive.

the live animal

The boy is asleep.

the sleeping boy

As illustrated below, the words here, there and ready can be used as predicate adjectives.
e.g. The children are here.
The records were there.
I am ready.

The words here and there are often used as adverbs, and cannot be used as attributive adjectives. The word ready is used as an attributive adjective only in certain expressions such as ready money and a ready answer.

As illustrated in the following examples, a few adjectives differ in meaning, depending upon whether they are used as predicate adjectives or attributive adjectives.
e.g. The treasurer was present.
the present treasurer

Robin Harris was late.
the late Robin Harris

My friend is poor.
my poor friend

In the sentence the treasurer was present, the predicate adjective present indicates that the treasurer was not absent. However, in the phrase the present treasurer, the attributive adjective present indicates that the person referred to holds the position of treasurer at the present time.

In the sentence Robin Harris was late, the predicate adjective late indicates that Robin Harris did not arrive on time. However, in the phrase the late Robin Harris, the attributive adjective late indicates that Robin Harris is no longer alive.

In the sentence my friend is poor, the predicate adjective poor indicates that my friend has little money. However, in the phrase my poor friend, the attributive adjective poor indicates that my friend is in an unfortunate situation.

See Exercise 13.

c. Linking verbs
In addition to the verb to be, certain other verbs can be followed by predicate adjectives. Such verbs are sometimes referred to as linking verbs, since they can link nouns or pronouns to modifying adjectives. For instance, the following verbs can be used as linking verbs.

Linking Verb

Linking Verb used with Predicate Adjective

to become

The wind became stronger.

to feel

The blanket feels soft, warm and comfortable.

to grow

The weather is growing cold.

to look

The sky looked grey and overcast.

to seem

His reasoning seems logical.

to smell

The soup smelled good.

to sound

The story sounds interesting.

to taste

The carrots tasted sweet.

to turn

The leaves turned scarlet.

In the above examples, the linking verbs link noun subjects with predicate adjectives.

When a verb is used as a linking verb, it is intransitive, since it does not take an object. It should be noted that many of the verbs listed above can also be used transitively.
e.g. The child felt the blankets.
We smelled the soup.
In these examples, the verbs to feel and to smell are used transitively, taking the objects blankets and soup respectively.

See Exercise 14.

4. Interpolated adjectives

As well as being used as attributive or predicate adjectives, general descriptive adjectives and adjectives indicating color can also be placed elsewhere in a sentence. When used in this way, adjectives can be said to be interpolated into a sentence. In the following sentences, the interpolated adjectives are underlined.
e.g. The child, happy and excited, ran along the beach.
Startled, the small yellow bird stopped singing.
Tense, expectant and alert, we waited to see what would happen.

Since the use of interpolated adjectives is somewhat uncommon, the use of interpolation can serve to emphasize the adjectives. Interpolated adjectives are most often placed immediately after a noun, as shown in the first example; or before a noun or pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, as shown in the second and third examples.

As illustrated above, a noun can be modified simultaneously by both interpolated and attributive adjectives. For instance, in the second example, the noun bird is modified by both the interpolated adjective startled and the attributive adjectives the small yellow.

Care must be taken in the positioning of interpolated adjectives, since the reader or listener will usually assume that the adjectives modify the nearest noun or pronoun.

As can be seen from the examples, the punctuation of interpolated adjectives is similar to that of predicate adjectives. When more than one adjective is used, the last two adjectives are separated from one another by the word and, and previous adjectives are separated from one another by commas.

However, unlike predicate adjectives, interpolated adjectives must also be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. For instance, in the first example above, the interpolated adjectives happy and excited are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma before the word happy, and a comma following the word excited. Likewise, in the second example, the interpolated adjective startled is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; and in the third example, the interpolated adjectives tense, expectant and alert are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma following the word alert.

Interpolated adjectives are used more often in written English than in spoken English.

See Exercise 15.

5. Adjectival phrases and clauses

Nouns and pronouns can be modified not only by adjectives, but also by adjectival phrases and clauses. In the following examples, the adjectival phrases and clauses are underlined.
e.g. The table near the door is made of oak.
The one on the desk is mine.
The chair, which was placed in front of the window, was an heirloom.
Those who decide to come will not be disappointed.

In the first example, the noun table is modified by the adjectival phrase near the door. In the second example, the pronoun one is modified by the adjectival phrase on the desk. In the third example, the noun chair is modified by the adjectival clause which was placed in front of the window. In the fourth example, the pronoun those is modified by the adjectival clause who decide to come.

It should be noted that phrases do not contain verbs, whereas clauses do contain verbs. Phrases and clauses will be discussed further in the chapters dealing with prepositions and conjunctions. As illustrated in the preceding examples, an adjectival phrase or clause usually immediately follows the noun or pronoun being modified.

6. Participles used as adjectives

As has already been mentioned, present and past participles of verbs can be used as adjectives.

a. Present participles
Present participles used as adjectives refer to actions being performed by the things being described. In the following examples the present participles used as adjectives are underlined.
e.g. the falling star
the barking dog
The first example indicates that the star is performing the action of falling. The second example indicates that the dog is performing the action of barking.

b. Past participles
Past participles used as adjectives refer to actions which have been performed on the things being described. In the following examples, the past participles used as adjectives are underlined.
e.g. the scattered leaves
the broken drum
The first example indicates that something has scattered the leaves. The second example indicates that something has broken the drum.

See Exercise 16.

c. Dangling participles
As well as being used as attributive and predicate adjectives, past and present participles can also be used at the beginning of adjectival phrases interpolated into a sentence. In the following sentences, the interpolated adjectival phrases are underlined. As illustrated by the examples, an interpolated phrase must be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
e.g. Feeling hungry, the child ate an apple.
Disconcerted by the news, we headed for the nearest farmhouse.

In the first example, the present participle feeling begins the adjectival phrase feeling hungry, which modifies the noun child. In the second example, the past participle disconcerted begins the adjectival phrase disconcerted by the news, which modifies the pronoun we.

Since the listener or reader tends to assume that an interpolated adjectival phrase is meant to modify the nearest noun or pronoun, care must be taken to make sure that such a phrase is positioned close to the noun or pronoun to be modified. A participle that begins an interpolated phrase that is not sufficiently close to the noun or pronoun to be modified is usually referred to as a dangling participle. Dangling participles can result in ambiguity, or in sentences which do not make sense.

In the following sentences, the phrases beginning with dangling participles are underlined.
e.g. The photographer focused the camera, holding his breath.
Running across the road, his hat blew off.

In the first example, the noun to be modified is photographer. However, the phrase holding his breath is separated from the noun to be modified by the noun camera. Thus, the phrase holding his breath seems to modify the noun camera. In the second example, the noun or pronoun to be modified is missing from the sentence, and the phrase running across the road seems to modify the noun hat.

These example illustrate two basic types of dangling participle. In one type, the participle begins an adjectival phrase which is separated from the noun or pronoun to be modified by another noun or pronoun. In the other type, the participle begins an adjectival phrase that is meant to modify a noun or pronoun which in fact is not present in the sentence.

When an adjectival phrase is separated from the noun or pronoun to be modified by another noun or pronoun, the sentence can be corrected by positioning the adjectival phrase next to the noun or pronoun to be modified. This can often be accomplished by moving the phrase from one end of the sentence to the other.

For instance, in the sentences below, the nouns to be modified and the phrases containing dangling participles are underlined.
e.g. The photographer focused the camera, holding his breath.
Working as quickly as possible, our car was repaired by a mechanic.
Lost for over thirty years, she was overjoyed to find the diaries.
In these examples, holding his breath seems to modify the noun camera, working as quickly as possible seems to modify the noun car, and lost for over thirty years seems to modify the pronoun she.

These sentences can be corrected as follows.
e.g. Holding his breath, the photographer focused the camera.
Our car was repaired by a mechanic, working as quickly as possible.
She was overjoyed to find the diaries, lost for over thirty years.
In the corrected sentences, the adjectival phrases are correctly positioned near the nouns to be modified.

See Exercise 17.

When an adjectival phrase is meant to modify a noun or pronoun which in fact is not present in the sentence, the sentence can be corrected by rewriting either the adjectival phrase or the rest of the sentence, so that the missing noun or pronoun is supplied. For instance, in the sentences below, the phrases containing dangling participles are underlined.
e.g. Running across the road, his hat blew off.
Sitting lost in thought, the book slipped from her hand.
Determined not to be late, our watches were set ten minutes fast.

These sentences can be corrected as follows. In the corrected sentences, the noun or pronoun which was missing from the original sentence is underlined. Two corrected versions are given for each of the preceding sentences.
e.g. As he ran across the road, his hat blew off.
Running across the road, he lost his hat.

As she sat lost in thought, the book slipped from her hand.
Sitting lost in thought, she let the book slip from her hand.

Because we were determined not to be late, our watches were set ten minutes fast.
Determined not to be late, we set our watches ten minutes fast.

In the first corrected version of each of the preceding sentences, the adjectival phrase has been changed to an adjectival clause containing the pronoun which was missing from the original sentence. Thus, the interpolated phrase running across the road has been changed to the subordinate clause as he ran across the road, the interpolated phrase sitting lost in thought has been changed to the subordinate clause as she sat lost in thought, and the interpolated phrase determined not to be late has been changed to the subordinate clause because we were determined not to be late.

In the second corrected version of each of the sentences, the main clause of the sentence has been rewritten so that the pronoun which was missing from the original sentence is positioned next to the adjectival phrase which is meant to modify the pronoun. Thus, whereas in the incorrect sentences, the underlined adjectival phrases seem to modify the adjacent nouns hat, book and watches; in the corrected sentences, the adjectival phrases correctly modify the pronouns he, she and we.

See Exercise 18.

d. Past participles which follow the verb To Be
In English, the verb to be followed by a past participle used as a predicate adjective has the same form as a verb in the Passive Voice. This feature of the language can result in ambiguity. For instance, the following examples each have more than one possible meaning.
e.g. The doors will be closed at nine o'clock.
The train was stopped at midnight.

In the first example, will be closed could be the Simple Future of the verb to be, followed by the predicate adjective closed. In this case, the sentence would have the meaning that at nine o'clock, the doors will not be open. On the other hand, will be closed could be the Simple Future Passive of the verb to close. In this case, the sentence would imply that at nine o'clock, someone will close the doors.

Similarly, in the second example, was stopped could be the Simple Past of the verb to be, followed by the predicate adjective stopped. In this case, the sentence would indicate that at midnight, the train was not moving. On the other hand, was stopped could be the Simple Past Passive of the verb to stop. In this case, the sentence would imply that at midnight, someone stopped the train.

See Exercise 19.

EXERCISES for Chapter 21

1. Combine each of the following phrases with the adjective given in brackets by changing the adjective to a pronoun, and using the word of. For example:
an original recipe (our)
an original recipe of ours

these red scarves (either)
either of these red scarves

the old movies (no)
none of the old movies

1. that new bicycle (my)
2. the students (each)
3. those leather briefcases (neither)
4. these two books (your)
5. her latest inventions (some)
6. that second-hand typewriter (his)
7. their unusual experiences (another)
8. these rubber boots (no)
9. that velvet dress (her)
10. those black shoes (any)
Answers

2. Place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying nouns, arranging the adjectives in the correct order. For example:
cats (two, my)
my two cats

apples (these, three)
these three apples

people (other, four)
four other people

chairs (more, seven)
seven more chairs

1. maps (our, ten)
2. cows (twenty-five, all)
3. book (one, that)
4. socks (other, six)
5. lamps (those, twenty)
6. icicles (two, the)
7. manuscripts (her, three)
8. folders (twelve, these)
9. mistakes (other, seven)
10. pencils (more, two)
11. questions (another, five)
12. children (three, which)
Answers

3. Place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying nouns, arranging the adjectives in the correct order. For example:
bags (heavy, three)
three heavy bags

windows (two, large, the)
the two large windows

1. envelopes (large, four, her)
2. tables (small, both, the)
3. birds (tiny, those, three)
4. brothers (tall, two, her)
5. quilts (six, thick, all)
6. coats (heavy, his, two)
7. rooms (these, four, huge)
8. pumpkins (ten, his, medium-sized)
Answers

4. Place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying nouns, arranging the adjectives in the correct order. Make sure that the general descriptive adjectives are separated from one another by commas. For example:
mirror (small, octagonal, the, highly-polished)
the small, highly-polished, octagonal mirror

horses (frisky, their, young, three)
their three frisky, young horses

1. jacket (light, your, short-sleeved)
2. lenses (curved, small, three)
3. puppy (four-week-old, our, damp, warm)
4. discoveries (two, unexpected)
5. carpet (heavy, a, round, thick)
6. climate (humid, hot, the)
7. blankets (dry, warm)
8. table (low, oval, their)
Answers

5. Place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying nouns, arranging the adjectives in the correct order. For example:
cloth (cotton, purple)
purple cotton cloth

vases (Chinese, blue)
blue Chinese vases

1. tents (canvas, green)
2. houses (Victorian, crimson)
3. curtains (white, lace)
4. cheese (Swiss, yellow)
5. ladders (wooden, brown)
6. blinds (pink, Venetian)
7. hats (felt, black)
8. cabinets (Renaissance, red)
Answers

6. Place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying nouns, arranging the adjectives in the correct order. Make sure that the general descriptive adjectives are separated from one another by commas. For example:
skirt (beautiful, black, new, velvet, a)
a beautiful, new black velvet skirt

fossils (Devonian, three, white, small)
three small white Devonian fossils

box (brass, her, square, heavy)
her heavy, square brass box

1. belt (green, beautiful, leather, a)
2. hood (dry, his, warm)
3. actors (old, two, Shakespearian, famous)
4. beads (glass, round, blue, tiny)
5. baby (lively, her, six-month-old)
6. dress (satin, a, white, long)
7. steps (narrow, cement, ten)
8. basement (cool, damp, the)
9. wolfhounds (Russian, two, grey, huge)
10. carvings (delicate, sandalwood, three)
Answers

7. Rewrite the following phrases, changing the underlined words to defining adjectives. For example:
black boots used for hiking
black hiking boots

a plastic cup used for holding eggs
a plastic egg cup

a green carton used for storing milk
a green milk carton

1. a new beater used for beating eggs
2. a wooden ladle used for serving soup
3. a large tin used for storing cookies
4. an old brush used for scrubbing
5. a glass plate used for baking pies
6. a light shovel used for shoveling snow
7. a metal rack used for storing hats
8. leather shoes used for jogging
9. a small house used for storing boats
10. a wicker basket used for holding bread
Answers

8. Paying attention to the usual order of attributive adjectives, place the adjectives given in brackets before the accompanying fixed expressions. Insert commas between the adjectives where appropriate. For example:
cuckoo clock (brown, a, Swiss, small)
a small brown Swiss cuckoo clock

life jackets (foam, thick, orange, three, new)
three thick, new orange foam life jackets

1. watering can (round, a, heavy, metal)
2. salt shaker (white, beautiful, porcelain, her)
3. computer games (Nintendo, new, two, exciting)
4. rose bush (prickly, small, two-year-old, this)
5. table cloths (cotton, these, pink)
6. willow branches (green, trailing, long)
7. fire engines (medium-sized, red, two)
8. coffee cup (his, yellow, heavy)
9. flower beds (heart-shaped, five, beautifully-designed)
10. front door (imposing, the, blue)
11. flower pot (green, big, plastic, that)
12. bath towel (damp, a, white, warm, flannel)
13. city buses (beige, ten, efficient, large)
14. watch dog (one-year-old, fierce, small, their)
Answers

9. Explain how the following expressions differ in meaning:

the last interesting chapter
the interesting last chapter
Answers

10. Underline the attributive adjectives in the following paragraph, and insert commas where necessary.

At one end of the large old rectangular room was a long low sofa covered with an orange cotton cloth. Against the two wooden arms of the sofa rested red velvet cushions with beautiful long dangling silk tassels. Near the sofa was a small intricately-woven Persian carpet with a fascinating design. Two proud elegant peacocks with shimmering turquoise feathers were depicted against a background of short lush grass, clear reflecting pools, and white marble statues in a delightful palace garden.
Answers

11. Paying attention to the types of adjectives which immediately precede the nouns, for each of the following phrases, underline the word or words which receive the most stress in spoken English. For example:
a big black box
a big black box

a yellow straw hat
a yellow straw hat

convenient downtown shopping
convenient downtown shopping

an ordinary Monday morning
an ordinary Monday morning

a towel rack
a towel rack

1. soup bowls
2. a convenient cupboard
3. underwater photography
4. the telephone directory
5. rubber gloves
6. a bread board
7. a sunny day
8. a new kitchen sink
9. long green grass
10. a fine Sunday afternoon
11. a red pencil sharpener
12. the back door
13. a prancing horse
14. an egg beater
15. a gold watch
16. a glass jar
17. a library card
18. the evening star
19. a thick carpet
20. a butter dish
Answers

12. Using the Simple Present of the verb to be, rewrite the following phrases as sentences, changing the attributive adjectives to predicate adjectives, and making any other changes that are required. For example:
the strong wind
The wind is strong.

the thick, warm shirts
The shirts are thick and warm.

the lively, interesting, entertaining festivals
The festivals are lively, interesting and entertaining.

the long, broad, well-managed, intensively-cultivated estate
The estate is long, broad, well-managed and intensively-cultivated.

the three-day-old colts
The colts are three days old.

1. the hot water
2. the large, threatening grey clouds
3. the thin blue book
4. the Spanish recipe
5. the one-year-old park
6. the collapsible umbrellas
7. the large white basins
8. the detailed, colorful, captivating painting
9. the two-year-old child
10. the purple cloth
11. the fast, efficient service
12. the ten-month-old houses
13. the intelligent, hard-working, responsible, reliable student
14. the long, well-written, informative letters
Answers

13. Paying attention to which adjectives are normally used only attributively and which are normally used only predicatively, write phrases or sentences in which the adjectives shown in brackets modify the accompanying nouns. Write a phrase if the adjective can be used only attributively, and write a sentence if the adjective can be used only predicatively. For example:
nonsense (utter)
utter nonsense

the bird (alive)
The bird is alive.

1. the children (asleep)
2. the street (main)
3. our friends (here)
4. their assistant (afraid)
5. the consideration (principal)
6. her brother (alone)
7. the performers (ready)
8. the cliffs (sheer)
9. the house (there)
10. the reason (chief)
Answers

14. Using the Simple Past tense of the verbs shown in brackets, change the following phrases into sentences in which the adjectives are used as predicate adjectives. For example:
the beautiful music (to sound)
The music sounded beautiful.

the delicious stew (to smell)
The stew smelled delicious.

1. the sour lemon (to taste)
2. the rough surface (to feel)
3. the excited child (to grow)
4. the relieved students (to seem)
5. the awkward silence (to become)
6. the sweet roses (to smell)
7. the golden wheat (to turn)
8. the confident singer (to look)
Answers

15. For each of the following sentences, insert commas where appropriate, in order to separate the interpolated adjectives from the rest of the sentence. For example:
The marshes broad and windy stretched as far as the eye could see.
The marshes, broad and windy, stretched as far as the eye could see.

Delighted and encouraged the researchers continued their efforts.
Delighted and encouraged, the researchers continued their efforts.

1. Leaping and dancing the flames lit up the lakeshore.
2. The bells deep and resonant could be heard a mile away.
3. The flowers sweet-smelling and colorful attracted many bees.
4. Sunny and warm the climate was ideal for tourists.
5. The shears heavy and awkward were difficult to use.
6. Beautiful and delicate the flowers could be found only in the high mountains.
7. Twittering and chirping the birds circled overhead.
8. The children silent and attentive watched the magician closely.
Answers

16. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with either the present participle or the past participle of the verb shown in brackets. Use a present participle to refer to something being done by the thing being described; and use a past participle to refer to something which has been done to the thing being described. For example:
The evidence is __________. (to convince)
The evidence is convincing.

The ______ treasure was discovered accidentally. (to hide)
The hidden treasure was discovered accidentally.

1. Yesterday she heard ________________ news. (to surprise)
2. The ______________ tools must be returned by five o'clock. (to rent)
3. The ______________ rabbit stayed perfectly still. (to frighten)
4. We had a ________________ experience. (to frighten)
5. The play is ________________. (to entertain)
6. The ______________ picture hung on the wall. (to complete)
7. That is an ________________ story. (to interest)
8. The king sat on a _______________ chair. (to raise)
9. The situation is _______________. (to alarm)
10. An ______________ bowl covered the cake. (to invert)
11. The _____________ lullaby sent the infant to sleep. (to soothe)
12. A ______________ walkway joined the two buildings. (to cover)
13. They laid the ______________ clothes on the bed. (to fold)
14. _______________ smells floated out of the kitchen. (to entice)
15. He stacked the ______________ wood near the fireplace. (to chop)
Answers

17. Each of the following sentences contains an interpolated adjectival phrase which is separated from the noun or pronoun to be modified by another noun or pronoun. For each sentence, underline the word to be modified, and correct the sentence by moving the adjectival phrase so that it is positioned close to the word to be modified. For example:
The bird perched in the tree, folding its wings.
Folding its wings, the bird perched in the tree.

Lighting a cigarette, the door was opened by a young woman.
The door was opened by a young woman, lighting a cigarette.

He searched for his keys, tired from the journey.
Tired from the journey, he searched for his keys.

1. Wanting to entertain us, the story was told to us by a nurse.
2. She decided to apply for the position, attracted by the advertisement.
3. Driving a brightly colored van, the parcel was delivered by a courier.
4. He looked through the book, glancing from time to time at his watch.
5. Wilted from the sun, we replaced the flowers.
6. The fire delighted the children, crackling and throwing off sparks.
7. Our friend made us a cake, wishing to do us a favor.
8. Anticipating an entertaining evening, the arena was soon filled with eager spectators.
Answers

18. This exercise contains sentences in which the noun or pronoun to be modified by the interpolated adjectival phrase is missing. Below each sentence is a rewritten, partially corrected version of the sentence. Study the corrections which have already been made, and complete the sentences with personal pronouns which make sense in the sentences. For example:
Incorrect: Following in his footsteps, our destination was soon reached.
Corrected: Following in his footsteps, __ soon reached our destination.
Following in his footsteps, we soon reached our destination.

Incorrect: Finding no one at home, his plans had to be changed.
Corrected: Finding no one at home, __ had to change his plans.
Finding no one at home, he had to change his plans.

1. Incorrect: Anxiously waiting for her guests to appear, the hands of the clock seemed to stand still.
Corrected: As _________ anxiously waited for her guests to appear, the hands of the clock seemed to stand still.

2. Incorrect: Wanting to make a good impression, his hair was carefully combed.
Corrected: Wanting to make a good impression, _____ carefully combed his hair.

3. Incorrect: Knowing what we did, the message was easy to interpret.
Corrected: Knowing what we did, _______ easily interpreted the message.

4. Incorrect: Quickly opening her presents, wrapping paper was scattered all over the floor.
Corrected: Quickly opening her presents, _______ scattered wrapping paper all over the floor.

5. Incorrect: Attempting to dry the dishes, one of the plates slipped out of his hand.
Corrected: As ______ attempted to dry the dishes, one of the plates slipped out of his hand.

6. Incorrect: Having been elected president, her plans could now be carried out.
Corrected: Having been elected president, _____ could now carry out her plans.

7. Incorrect: Wondering what had happened, our questions remained unanswered.
Corrected: Although _____ wondered what had happened, our questions remained unanswered.

8. Incorrect: Entering the room, all eyes were turned in her direction.
Corrected: As _____ entered the room, all eyes were turned in her direction.

9. Incorrect: Rearranging her papers, her notes fell onto the floor.
Corrected: As _____ rearranged her papers, her notes fell onto the floor.

10. Incorrect: Pretending not to mind, their disappointment was obvious.
Corrected: Although _____ pretended not to mind, their disappointment was obvious.
Answers

19. Explain the two possible meanings of each of the following sentences.

The flag was lowered at noon.
The work was finished yesterday evening.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 21

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. that new bicycle of mine 2. each of the students 3. neither of those leather briefcases 4. these two books of yours 5. some of her latest inventions 6. that second-hand typewriter of his 7. another of their unusual experiences 8. none of these rubber boots 9. that velvet dress of hers 10. any of those black shoes

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. our ten maps 2. all twenty-five cows 3. that one book 4. six other socks 5. those twenty lamps 6. the two icicles 7. her three manuscripts 8. these twelve folders 9. seven other mistakes 10. two more pencils 11. another five questions 12. which three children

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. her four large envelopes 2. both the small tables 3. those three tiny birds 4. her two tall brothers 5. all six thick quilts 6. his two heavy coats 7. these four huge rooms 8. his ten medium-sized pumpkins

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. your light, short-sleeved jacket 2. three small, curved lenses 3. our warm, damp, four-week-old puppy 4. two unexpected discoveries 5. a thick, heavy, round carpet 6. the hot, humid climate 7. warm, dry blankets 8. their low, oval table

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. green canvas tents 2. crimson Victorian houses 3. white lace curtains 4. yellow Swiss cheese 5. brown wooden ladders 6. pink Venetian blinds 7. black felt hats 8. red Renaissance cabinets

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. a beautiful green leather belt 2. his warm, dry hood 3. two famous, old Shakespearian actors 4. tin, round blue glass beads 5. her lively, six-month-old baby 6. a long white satin dress 7. ten narrow cement steps 8. the cool, damp basement 9. two huge grey Russian wolfhounds 10. three delicate sandalwood carvings

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. a new egg beater 2. a wooden soup ladle 3. a large cookie tin 4. an old scrubbing brush 5. a glass pie plate 6. a light snow shovel 7. a metal hat rack 8. leather jogging shoes 9. a small boat house 10. a wicker bread basket

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. a heavy, round metal watering can 2. her beautiful white porcelain salt shaker 3. two exciting, new Nintendo computer games 4. this small, prickly, two-year-old rose bush 5. these pink cotton table cloths 6. long, trailing green willow branches 7. two medium-sized red fire engines 8. his heavy yellow coffee cup 9. five beautifully-designed, heart-shaped flower beds 10. the broad, imposing blue front door 11. that big green plastic flower pot 12. a warm, damp white flannel bath towel 13. ten large, efficient beige city buses 14. their small, fierce, one-year-old watch dog

Answers to Exercise 9:
"The last interesting chapter" means that this chapter is interesting, but none of the following chapters are interesting.
"The interesting last chapter" means that this is the last chapter, and it is interesting.

Answers to Exercise 10:
At one end of the large, old, rectangular room was a long, low sofa covered with an orange cotton cloth. Against the two wooden arms of the sofa rested red velvet cushions with beautiful, long, dangling silk tassels. Near the sofa was a small, intricately-woven Persian carpet with a fascinating design. Two proud, elegant peacocks with shimmering turquoise feathers were depicted against a background of short, lush grass; clear, reflecting pools and white marble statues in a delightful palace garden.

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. soup bowls 2. a convenient cupboard 3. underwater photography 4. the telephone directory 5. rubber gloves 6. a bread board 7. a sunny day 8. a new kitchen sink 9. long green grass 10. a fine Sunday afternoon 11. a red pencil sharpener 12. the back door 13. a prancing horse 14. an egg beater 15. a gold watch 16. a glass jar 17. a library card 18. the evening star 19. a thick carpet 20. a butter dish

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. The water Is hot. 2. The clouds are large, threatening and grey. 3. The book is thin and blue. 4. The recipe is Spanish. 5. The park is one year old. 6. The umbrellas are collapsible. 7. The basins are large and white. 8. The painting is detailed, colorful and captivating. 9. The child is two years old. 10. The cloth is purple. 11. The service is fast and efficient. 12. The houses are ten months old. 13. The student is intelligent, hard-working, responsible and reliable. 14. The letters are long, well-written and informative.

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. The children are asleep. 2. the main street 3. Our friends are here. 4. Their assistant is afraid. 5. the principal consideration 6. Her brother is alone. 7. The performers are ready. 8. the sheer cliffs 9. The house is there. 10. the chief reason

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. The lemon tasted sour. 2. The surface felt rough. 3. The child grew excited. 4. The students seemed relieved. 5. The silence became awkward. 6. The roses smelled sweet. 7. The wheat turned golden. 8. The singer looked confident.

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. Leaping and dancing, the flames lit up the lakeshore. 2. The bells, deep and resonant, could be heard a mile away. 3. The flowers, sweet-smelling and colorful, attracted many bees. 4. Sunny and warm, the climate was ideal for tourists. 5. The shears, heavy and awkward, were difficult to use. 6. Beautiful and delicate, the flowers could be found only in the high mountains. 7. Twittering and chirping, the birds circled overhead. 8. The children, silent and attentive, watched the magician closely.

Answers to Exercise 16:
1. surprising 2. rented 3. frightened 4. frightening 5. entertaining 6. completed 7. interesting 8. raised 9. alarming 10. inverted 11. soothing 12. covered 13. folded 14. Enticing 15. chopped

Answers to Exercise 17:
1. The story was told to us by a nurse, wanting to entertain us. 2. Attracted by the advertisement, she decided to apply for the position. 3. The parcel was delivered by a courier driving a brightly colored van. 4. Glancing from time to time at his watch, he looked through the book. 5. We replaced the flowers, wilted from the sun. 6. Crackling and throwing off sparks, the fire delighted the children. 7. Wishing to do us a favor, our friend made us a cake. 8. The arena was soon filled with eager spectators, anticipating an entertaining evening.

Answers to Exercise 18:
1. she 2. he 3. we 4. she 5. he 6. she 7. we 8. she 9. she 10. they

Answers to Exercise 19:
"The flag was lowered at noon" can mean: 1) At noon, the flag was already down, or 2) At noon, someone lowered the flag.
"The work was finished yesterday evening" can mean: 1) Yesterday evening, the work was already complete, or 2) Yesterday evening, someone finished the work.

CHAPTER 22.  ADJECTIVES USED IN COMPARISONS: PART 1

As well as being used to describe persons and things, adjectives which refer to qualities can also be used to compare two or more different persons or things. For instance, in the following sentences, the adjectives used in comparisons are underlined.
e.g. He is as tall as his brother.
She is older than her sister.
They are the youngest students in the class.

1. Positive forms of adjectives preceded and followed by As

The unaltered form of an adjective is often referred to as the positive form of the adjective. In the preceding chapter, only the positive form of adjectives was used.

The positive forms of adjectives referring to qualities can be used in making certain types of comparisons. For example, in the following sentences, the positive forms of the adjectives proud and intelligent are combined with the word as in order to make comparisons.
e.g. She is as proud as a peacock.
They are as intelligent as I am.

When used in making comparisons, the positive form of an adjective is usually employed as a predicate adjective, preceded and followed by the word as. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

noun, pronoun or

to be

positive

noun, pronoun or

other expression   +

or other   +

as   +

form of   +

as   +

other expression

representing 1st

linking

adjective

representing 2nd

thing being compared

verb

thing being compared

Swans

are

as

white

as

snow.

Tom

is

as

tall

as

his father.

This type of construction can be used to indicate that the things being compared are equal in some respect. For instance, the first example indicates that swans and snow are equally white. The second example indicates that Tom and his father are equally tall.

The sentence She is as proud as a peacock gives an example of a traditional English saying which compares a person having a certain quality to an animal which is noted for possessing that quality. In the following sentences, the traditional expressions are underlined.
e.g. He is as clever as a monkey.
She is as wise as an owl.
My sister looks as pretty as a princess.

The use of this construction with as to compare two different types of thing, such as a person and an animal, results in a type of comparison referred to as a simile.

See Exercise 1.

The meaning of an expression using as, followed by an adjective, followed by as can be qualified by adverbs such as not, almost, twice, three times, half, one-third and so on. The adverbs in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g. He is not as hard-working as his brother.
She is almost as tall as he is.
Her sister is twice as old as I am.
A millimeter is one-tenth as long as a centimeter.

As shown below, in such a construction, the adverb is placed before the first occurrence of the word as.

noun, pronoun or

noun, pronoun or

other expression

to be

positive

other expression

representing       +

or other   +

adverb   +

as   +

form of   +

as   +

representing

1st thing

linking

adjective

2nd thing

being compared

verb

being compared

He

is

nearly

as

clever

as

his uncle.

The trees

are

not

as

tall

as

the house.

See Exercise 2.

a. The positive form combined with a noun
The construction as, followed by an adjective, followed by as can also be combined with a noun, as shown in the following examples.
e.g. Gail is as strong a swimmer as Beth.
Mabel is as clever an administrator as Robin.
The girls are as good students as the boys.

In the first example, Gail is being compared as a swimmer to Beth. In the second example, Mabel is being compared as an administrator to Robin. In the third example, the girls are being compared as students to the boys.

As illustrated in these examples, if the noun following the adjective is a singular countable noun, it must be separated from the adjective by the indefinite article a or an. The position of a or an is indicated in the summary below.

positive

a or

as   +

form of    +

an     +

noun    +

as

adjective

He is

as

fine

a

man

as

his father.

She is

as

good

an

instructor

as

her colleague.

In the case of plural nouns, no article is required.
e.g. The boys are as reliable workers as one can find.
They are as powerful athletes as their competitors.

See Exercise 3.

b. The use of ellipsis
The construction as followed by an adjective, followed by as, can also be combined with longer phrases and clauses, as illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. New York is as distant from San Francisco as Boston is from London.
Music is as important to Cora as literature is to her brother.

In the first example, the distance of New York from San Francisco is being compared to the distance of Boston from London. In the second example, the importance of music to Cora is being compared to the importance of literature to her brother.

The preceding examples illustrate the use of ellipsis. The sentences could also be written as follows. The words which would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. New York is as distant from San Francisco as Boston is [distant] from London.
Music is as important to Cora as literature is [important] to her brother.
In such sentences, the adjective in the second part of the sentence is usually omitted, in order to make the sentence less awkward.

Ellipsis is also commonly used following a noun representing the second thing being compared. For instance, in the following sentences, the final verbs are omitted.
e.g. He is as tall as his brother.
I am as good a swimmer as her sisters.

These sentences could also be written:
e.g. He is as tall as his brother is.
I am as good a swimmer as her sisters are.

In informal English, the final verb is usually not omitted following a personal pronoun representing the second thing being compared.
e.g. I am as tall as he is.
She is as good a swimmer as I am.

However, in formal English, the final verb following a personal pronoun representing the second thing being compared is sometimes omitted.
e.g. I am as tall as he.
She is as good a swimmer as I.

c. The use of the subjective case
As shown above, when a personal pronoun is used in a comparison to represent the second thing being compared, the subjective case of the pronoun should be used. The reason for this is that the pronoun is the subject of a verb, even when the verb is omitted by means of ellipsis.

In informal English, the objective case of such personal pronouns is sometimes used.
e.g. I am as tall as him.
She is as good as swimmer as me.
However, this use of the objective case is considered to be grammatically incorrect.

See Exercise 4.

2. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives which use endings

As pointed out in the discussion on the possessive forms of nouns, some elements of English grammar are derived from Teutonic languages, such as German, while other elements are derived from Romance languages, particularly French.

Many English adjectives follow the model of French adjectives. These adjectives are combined with adverbs in order to express different types of comparison. In the following examples, the adjectives careful and excitable are combined with the adverbs more and most.
e.g. She is more careful than I am.
He is the most excitable boy in the class.

However, in general, the shortest and most commonly used English adjectives follow the model of languages such as German. These adjectives use endings in order to express different types of comparison.
e.g. She is taller than I am.
He is the oldest boy in the class.

The adjectives which use endings in order to express different types of comparison include most one-syllable adjectives, and two-syllable adjectives ending in y. For example:
brave
tall
easy
happy

In the above examples, brave and tall are one-syllable adjectives, while easy and happy are two-syllable adjectives ending in y.

A few other two-syllable adjectives are also sometimes used with endings. For example:
able
simple
clever
quiet
narrow
shallow

It should be noted that one-syllable past participles used as adjectives are usually not used with endings.

a. Comparative forms of adjectives which use endings
The comparative form of an adjective is most often used to compare things which differ in some respect. In the following examples, the comparative forms of adjectives are underlined.
e.g. Louis is younger than Mark.
You are a better actor than he is.

The comparative form of adjectives which use endings is formed with the ending er. As illustrated below, the spelling rules which apply when adding the ending er to an adjective are the same as those which apply when adding the ending ed to a verb.

i. Spelling Rules
In most cases, the ending er is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

fast

faster

strong

stronger

tall

taller

young

younger

However, when an adjective ends in a silent e, the silent e is dropped before the ending er is added. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

brave

braver

close

closer

late

later

When an adjective ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i before the ending er is added. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

dry

drier

early

earlier

easy

easier

When an adjective ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y, following a single stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled before the ending er is added. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

big

bigger

hot

hotter

sad

sadder

When an adjective ends in w, x or y, following a single stressed vowel, the final consonant is not doubled before the ending er is added. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

slow

slower

lax

laxer

grey

greyer

It should be kept in mind that when an adjective ends in a single consonant following two vowels, the final consonant is not doubled before the ending er is added. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

loud

louder

neat

neater

soon

sooner

See Exercise 5.

ii. Irregular adjectives
A few of the adjectives which are used with endings have irregular comparative forms. The comparative forms of the irregular English adjectives are as follows.

Positive Form

Comparative Form

bad

worse

far

farther or further

good

better

little

less

many

more

much

more

As shown above, the adjective far has two comparative forms. The distinction is sometimes made that farther is used to refer to physical distances, while further is used to refer to figurative distances. For example:
The farther side of the river is more picturesque than this side.
Nothing could have been further from my mind.

It should be noted that the adjectives many and much both have the same comparative form, more.

See Exercise 6.

iii. The comparative form followed by Than
When used in comparisons, the comparative forms of adjectives are usually followed by the word than. For instance, the way in which two things differ in some respect can be expressed by using the comparative form of an adjective as a predicate adjective followed by than.
e.g. Paul is wiser than Greg.
The tree is taller than the house.
The first sentence indicates that Paul possesses greater wisdom than Greg. The second sentence indicates that the tree possesses greater height than the house.

This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

noun, pronoun or

to be

comparative

noun, pronoun or

other expression    +

or other    +

form of         +

than    +

other expression

representing 1st

linking

adjective

representing 2nd

thing being compared

verb

thing being compared

Jill

is

shorter

than

Maureen.

Ice

feels

colder

than

snow.

Driving a car

is

easier

than

riding a horse.

See Exercise 7.

iv. The comparative form followed by a noun, followed by Than
The comparative form of an adjective followed by than can also be combined with a noun.
e.g. She is a better cook than her sister.
He has wiser ideas than they do.

It should be noted that in this type of construction, when a singular countable noun is used after the adjective, the comparative form of the adjective follows the indefinite article a or an. This position of a or an is indicated in the summary below.

a or

comparative

verb    +

an    +

form of      +

noun    +

than

adjective

Kate

is

a

braver

person

than

you are.

Steel

is

a

stronger

material

than

iron.

He

has

a

busier

schedule

than

I do.

It should be noted that this position of a or an is in contrast to the word order found in the construction with as. For instance, in the following examples, the adjectives are underlined and the indefinite article a is printed in bold type.
e.g. Kate is as brave a person as Robin.
Kate is a braver person than I am.

In the case of nouns which are uncountable or plural, no article is required. In the following examples, the uncountable or plural nouns preceding the word than are underlined.
e.g. We produce sweeter honey than they do.
They are better actors than we are.
She has warmer gloves than her friend does.

See Exercise 8.

The comparative form of an adjective followed by than can also be combined with longer phrases and clauses, as illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. The air is fresher in the mountains than in the valleys.
The work seems easier once one becomes familiar with it than it does at first.

v. The use of ellipsis
In comparisons using the comparative form of an adjective, the second half of the comparison is often omitted completely, when it is considered obvious what is meant. In each of the following examples, the part of the comparison which might normally be omitted is enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. Things could get worse [than they are now].
I do not want to walk much further [than this].
Would you like more milk [than you already have]?

vi. The use of the subjective case
In comparisons using than, personal pronouns following than should be in the subjective case.
e.g. I am taller than he is.
She is a better student than I am.

In formal English, the final verb of such sentences is sometimes omitted.
e.g. I am taller than he.
She is a better student than I.

In informal English, the objective case of a personal pronoun is often used after than.
e.g. I am taller than him.
She is a better student than me.
However, this use of the objective case is considered to be grammatically incorrect.

See Exercise 9.

vii. Progressive comparisons
As well as being used in combination with than to compare objects which differ in some respect, the comparative form of an adjective can also be used to describe a characteristic which is becoming progressively more pronounced.
e.g. The waves are growing rougher and rougher.
The sounds became fainter and fainter.

The first example indicates that the waves are growing progressively rougher than they were before. The second example indicates that the sounds became progressively fainter than they were before. The meaning expressed in these two examples can also be expressed as follows.
e.g. The waves are growing increasingly rough.
The sounds became increasingly faint.

In this type of construction, the comparative form of an adjective is used as a predicate adjective, and is repeated. The two occurrences of the adjective are connected by the word and. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

noun, pronoun or

linking verb,

comparative

comparative

other expression    +

such as       +

form of       +

and    +

form of

representing thing

to grow or

adjective

adjective

being described

to become

The noise

is becoming

louder

and

louder.

The lights

grew

brighter

and

brighter.

In informal English, the verb to get is often used in this type of construction.
e.g. The noise is getting louder and louder.
The lights got brighter and brighter.

See Exercise 10.

b. Superlative forms of adjectives which use endings
The superlative form of an adjective is used to describe something which possesses a characteristic in the greatest degree. In the following examples, the superlative forms of the adjectives are underlined.
e.g. Louis is the youngest boy in our class.
She is the best actress I have ever seen.

i. Spelling rules
The superlative form of adjectives which use endings is formed with the ending est. As illustrated in the following table, the spelling rules for adding the ending est to the positive form of an adjective are the same as those which apply when adding the ending er.

Illustration of Spelling Rules for Adjectives which use Endings

Final Letter(s) of Positive Form of Adjective

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

two consonants (other than y)

fast

faster

fastest

y preceded by a consonant

dry

drier

driest

silent e

brave

braver

bravest

one consonant preceded by 2 vowels

loud

louder

loudest

w, x or y preceded by a vowel

new

newer

newest

one consonant (other than w, x or y),

fat

fatter

fattest

preceded by a single stressed vowel

See Exercise 11.

ii. Irregular adjectives
As can be seen from the following table, the superlative forms of the English irregular adjectives are closely related to the comparative forms of these adjectives.

English Irregular Adjectives

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

bad

worse

worst

far

farther or further

farthest or furthest

good

better

best

little

less

least

many

more

most

much

more

most

It should be noted that the adjective far has two superlative forms, farthest and furthest, corresponding to the two comparative forms farther and further; and also that the adjectives many and much share the same superlative form, most, corresponding to the comparative form more.

See Exercise 12.

iii. The superlative form preceded by The
The superlative forms of adjectives are usually preceded by the, and followed by the nouns they modify. For example, in the following sentences, the superlative forms tallest and fastest are preceded by the and followed by the nouns boy and runner.
e.g. Frank is the tallest boy in the class.
Nancy is the fastest runner on the team.
The first example indicates that no other boy in the class is as tall as Frank. The second example indicates that no one else on the team is as fast a runner as Nancy.

This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

superlative

the    +

form of       +

noun

adjective

This is

the

newest

building

in the city.

They are

the

best

students

I have met.

It should be noted that this use of the is consistent with the previously discussed use of the to refer to things which are considered unique in some way.

See Exercises 13 and 14.

It should also be noted that the superlative forms of adjectives can be preceded by possessive adjectives, instead of by the definite article the. In the following examples, the possessive adjectives are underlined.
e.g. My worst suspicions were aroused.
He promised to give it his closest attention.
Jack's best friend is a member of the hockey team.

iv. The use of ellipsis
When the superlative forms of adjectives are employed to make comparisons, ellipsis is commonly used in the second part of the comparisons. The following are examples of the use of ellipsis in this type of comparison.
e.g. She is the best doctor I know.
This is the worst thing that could have happened.

These two sentences could also be written as follows. The words which would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. She is the best doctor [of all the doctors that] I know.
This is the worst thing [of all the things] that could have happened.

It should be noted that the noun following the superlative form of an adjective is often omitted, when it is obvious what is meant. This is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. That star is the brightest.
These cookies are the best.

These sentences could also be written as follows. The nouns which would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. That star is the brightest [star].
These cookies are the best [cookies].

v. The comparison of one or more things with a group
When one or more things are compared with a group to which they do not belong, the comparative form of an adjective is normally used.
e.g. Alan is younger than all the other boys in the class.
In this example, Alan is being compared with all the other boys in the class. Thus, he is being compared with a group to which he does not belong, and the comparative form younger is used.

In general, the presence of the word other in the second half of a comparison usually indicates that one or more things are being compared with a group to which they do not belong.

In contrast, when one or more things are compared with members of a group to which they belong, the superlative form of an adjective is normally used.
e.g. Alan is the youngest of all the boys in the class.
In this example, Alan is being compared with members of the group identified as all the boys in the class. This is a group to which he belongs. Therefore, the superlative form youngest is used.

The following examples provide a further illustration of the difference between the two types of comparison.
e.g. The girls are neater than the boys.
The girls are the best students in the school.

In the first example, the girls are being compared with the boys, a group to which they do not belong. Therefore, the comparative form neater is used.

In the second example, the girls are being compared with members of a group consisting of all the students in the school, a group to which the girls belong. Therefore, the superlative form best is used.

EXERCISES for Chapter 22

1. Make up your own comparisons, using the pronouns he, she and I with the adjectives given below. For example:
brave
She is as brave as a lion.

stubborn
He was as stubborn as a mule.

1. strong
2. beautiful
3. slow
4. frightened
5. busy
6. happy
Answers

2. The following table gives the ages of five children:

Child's Name

Age (years)

Ruth

18

Angela

12

Tom

6

May

3

Joe

1

Write sentences comparing the ages of the children in each of the pairs indicated below. Use expressions such as twice, three times, four times, five times, one-half, one-third and one-quarter. For example:
Ruth and Tom
Ruth is three times as old as Tom.

Angela and Tom
Angela is twice as old as Tom

May and Angela
May is one-quarter as old as Angela.

1. Angela and May
2. Tom and May
3. Tom and Angela
4. Ruth and May
5. Tom and Ruth
6. Tom and Joe
7. May and Tom
8. Angela and Joe
9. Joe and May
10. May and Joe
Answers

3. Rewrite each of the following sentences as a comparison, using the word or words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
He has a heavy workload. (Tom)
He has as heavy a workload as Tom.

She was a good actress. (her cousin)
She was as good an actress as her cousin.

They are talented musicians. (their parents)
They are as talented musicians as their parents.

1. She is a skilled carpenter. (her father)
2. Terry is an efficient manager. (Kay)
3. They are wonderful performers. (their predecessors)
4. He won a prestigious prize. (his competitor)
5. The white hens are good layers. (the brown ones)
6. Rupert is an able administrator. (his boss)
7. She is carrying a heavy parcel. (you)
8. He is a brilliant engineer. (we had been told)
9. She found an important clue. (anyone)
10. They are experienced directors. (one could wish)
Answers

4. Complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank with the subjective case of the personal pronoun indicated in brackets, followed by the form of the Simple Present of the verb to be which agrees with the pronoun. For example:
I am as clever as _____. (he, him)
I am as clever as he is.

They are as curious as ______. (us, we)
They are as curious as we are.

1. We are as proud as _____________. (they, them)
2. Henrietta is as silly as _____________. (your, you)
3. They are as confident as _____________. (her, she)
4. Amanda is as surprised as _____________. (I, me)
5. I am not as patient as ___________. (he, him)
6. Ray is as old as _____________. (them, they)
7. Dan is as eager to attend the concert as _____________. (we, us)
8. You are as quick-witted as _____________. (she, her)
9. She is almost as shy as _____________. (him, he)
10. Leonora is just as beautiful as _____________. (me, I)
Answers

5. Paying attention to the correct spelling, complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the comparative forms of the adjectives shown in brackets. For example:
This room is ______ than that one. (warm)
This room is warmer than that one.

This sand is _____ than that sand. (fine)
This sand is finer than that sand.

My towel is _____ than yours. (dry)
My towel is drier than yours.

The grass is ______ than it was yesterday. (wet)
The grass is wetter than it was yesterday.

There are _____ people here than I expected. (few)
There are fewer people here than I expected.

Her room is ______ than mine. (neat)
Her room is neater than mine.

1. The village is ____________ than the city. (pretty)
2. This building is ____________ than the one next to it. (big)
3. Your watch is ____________ than mine. (slow)
4. Her roses smell ____________ than ours. (sweet)
5. The corner store is ____________ than the supermarket. (close)
6. The temperature is ____________ today than it was yesterday. (high)
7. His cat is ____________ than yours. (fat)
8. We arrived ____________ than she had expected. (soon)
9. It is ____________ on this side of the valley. (sunny)
10. She is _____________ than her sister. (young)
11. The afternoon is usually ____________ than the morning. (hot)
12. He is ____________ than you are. (weak)
13. The table is ____________ at this end. (low)
14. This book is _____________ than that one. (thin)
15. The bag is _____________ than the suitcase. (heavy)
Answers

6. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the comparative forms of the irregular adjectives given in brackets. For example:
Pam is a ______ student than Roger. (good)
Pam is a better student than Roger.

His cough is _____ than yours. (bad)
His cough is worse than yours.

1. I have ___________ eggs than I need. (many)
2. The bread tastes even ___________ than the rolls. (good)
3. She does not want to travel ____________ than necessary. (far)
4. Alice drinks ___________ coffee than Jerry does. (little)
5. We have ___________ honey than we need. (much)
6. Things may be ___________ than you think. (bad)
7. Business is ____________ this year than it was last year. (good)
8. Alan has ___________ money than Ben. (little)
9. She has ___________ self-confidence than I do. (much)
10. The weather was ___________ yesterday than it is today. (bad)
Answers

7. The following table gives the ages and heights of five children:

Child's Name

Age (years)

Height (centimeters)

Nancy

16

150

Dick

15

160

Lorne

12

140

Sara

8

110

Barbara

7

115

Following the model of the examples, write sentences comparing the age or height of the children in each of the following pairs. For example:
Dick and Lorne (age)
Dick is older than Lorne.

Lorne and Dick. (height)
Lorne is shorter than Dick.

Sara and Dick (age)
Sara is younger than Dick.

Dick and Sara (height)
Dick is taller than Sara.

1. Nancy and Dick (age)
2. Dick and Nancy (height)
3. Nancy and Lorne (age)
4. Lorne and Nancy (height)
5. Sara and Lorne (age)
6. Lorne and Sara (height)
7. Sara and Barbara (age)
8. Sara and Barbara (height)
9. Barbara and Sara (age)
10. Barbara and Sara (height)
Answers

8. Rewrite the following sentences as comparisons, using the comparative form of the adjective, and the word than. For each sentence, use the word or words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
Tracy is a fast worker. (I am)
Tracy is a faster worker than I am.

He is a kind person. (his brother is)
He is a kinder person than his brother is.

Bob is a good student. (Tom)
Bob is a better student than Tom.

1. She is a fine musician. (her cousin is)
2. He has a strong voice. (he used to have)
3. This chair has short legs. (that one does)
4. We are having a hot summer. (you are)
5. She is a good doctor. (her friend is)
6. He has a big book. (you do)
7. They have new boots. (we do)
8. He took an early train. (I did)
9. She is a bad typist. (her colleague is)
10. We order a sweet dessert. (Susan did)
Answers

9. Complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank with the subjective case of the personal pronoun indicated in brackets, followed by the form of the Simple Present of the verb to be which agrees with the pronoun. For example:
She is luckier than ____. (I, me)
She is luckier than I am.

We are faster than ________. (them, they)
We are faster than they are.

1. She is older than _____________. (we, us)
2. They are slower than _____________. (him, he)
3. He is fatter than _____________. (me, I)
4. You are stronger than _____________. (they, them)
5. We are younger than _____________. (her, she)
6. I am taller than ____________. (he, him)
7. She is shorter than ____________. (I, me)
8. He is happier than _____________. (them, they)
9. They are no better than . (us, we)
10. I am thinner than _____________.(she, her)
Answers

10. Rewrite each of the following sentences, using the construction in which the comparative form of the adjective is repeated. For example:
The wind is becoming increasingly strong.
The wind is becoming stronger and stronger.

The bag seemed to grow increasingly heavy.
The bag seemed to grow heavier and heavier.

1. The sky is growing increasingly dark.
2. The grass is becoming increasingly green.
3. Our hands became increasingly dirty.
4. The situation is growing increasingly bad.
5. Their opponents are growing increasingly weak.
6. The mist became increasingly thick.
7. His singing is becoming increasingly good.
8. The trees are growing increasingly tall.
9. The soil is becoming increasingly dry.
10. The time remaining grew increasingly short.
Answers

11. Paying attention to the correct spelling, complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the superlative forms of the adjectives shown in brackets. For example:
He is the _______ runner on the team. (fast)
He is the fastest runner on the team.

Have you heard the ______ news? (late)
Have you heard the latest news?

They are the _______ people I know. (lazy)
They are the laziest people I know.

This is the _______ part of the day. (hot)
This is the hottest part of the day.

The black horse was the _______ horse in the race. (slow)
The black horse was the slowest horse in the race.

She is the _______ student in the class. (poor)
She is the poorest student in the class.

1. This is the _____________ highway in the country. (wide)
2. That was the _____________ sunset I have ever seen. (red)
3. Yesterday was the _____________ day of the year. (cold)
4. This is the _____________ way to do it. (easy)
5. The kitchen is the _____________ room in the house. (clean)
6. This is the _____________ model currently available. (new)
7. This is the _____________ cake I have ever eaten. (sweet)
8. The third act is the _____________ part of the play. (sad)
9. The ____________ temperature on record was minus forty degrees. (low)
10. That is probably the _____________ thing to do. (wise)
11. This is the ____________ route into town. (short)
12. She is the _____________ girl I know. (lucky)
Answers

12. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the superlative forms of the irregular adjectives shown in brackets. For example:
Pam is the ____ student in the class. (good)
Pam is the best student in the class.

That is the _____ essay I have ever read. (bad)
That is the worst essay I have ever read.

1. This is the ____________ we have ever traveled in one day. (far)
2. Their farm has produced the _____________ tomatoes. (many)
3. Our strawberries have the _____________ flavor. (good)
4. He ate the _____________ jam. (little)
5. That is the _____________ news I have heard yet. (bad)
6. She has the ______________ cheese. (much)
7. They have eaten the _____________ pancakes. (many)
8. That is the ____________ thing that could happen. (bad)
9. We have used the _____________ honey. (much)
10. That is the _____________ suggestion we have heard yet. (good)
11. This is the _____________ stretch of road. (bad)
12. They produced the _____________ butter this year. (little)
Answers

13. The following table gives the age, height, and weight of each child in a group of eight children, together with the amount of money possessed by each child. The highest and lowest numbers in each column have been underlined.

Child's Name

Age (years)

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

Money (dollars)

Denise

12

140

40

90

Ted

11

154

43

70

Ray

10

135

45

25

Bev

9

130

42

100

Carl

8

125

35

10

Amber

7

115

28

30

Victor

6

110

32

20

Sally

5

112

29

15

Following the model of the examples, complete the rest of the sentences, indicating which is the youngest, shortest, heaviest, lightest, richest, and poorest child in the group. For example:
Denise is
Denise is the oldest child in the group.

Ted is
Ted is the tallest child in the group.

1. Ray is
2. Bev is
3. Sally is
4. Victor is
5. Amber is
6. Carl is
Answers

14. Rewrite each of the following sentences, changing the positive form of the adjective to the superlative form, and using the definite article the. Use the words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
This is a cold room. (in the house)
This is the coldest room in the house.

That is a good example. (he could find)
That is the best example he could find.

1. This is an old house. (on the street)
2. That is a large store. (in the city)
3. This is a cool evening. (we have had this week)
4. He is a kind man. (I know)
5. This is a fine view. (in the area)
6. That is a new building. (in town)
7. This is a dusty road. (I have ever walked along)
8. That was a bad storm. (we have had for ten years)
9. This is a long river. (in the country)
10. That is a funny story. (you have ever told)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 22

Answers to Exercise 1:
Examples:
1. He is as strong as an ox. 2. She is as beautiful as a butterfly. 3. He is as slow as a tortoise. 4. She is as frightened as a rabbit. 5. I am as busy as a bee. 6. He is as happy as a lark.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. Angela is four times as old as May. 2. Tom is twice as old as May. 3. Tom is half as old as Angela. 4. Ruth is six times as old as May. 5. Tom is one-third as old as Ruth. 6. Tom is six times as old as Joe. 7. May is half as old as Tom. 8. Angela is twelve times as old as Joe. 9. Joe is one-third as old as May. 10. May is three times as old as Joe.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. She is as skilled a carpenter as her father. 2. Terry is as efficient a manager as Kay. 3. They are as wonderful performers as their predecessors. 4. He won as prestigious a prize as his competitor. 5. The white hens are as good layers as the brown ones. 6. Rupert is as able an administrator as his boss. 7. She is carrying as heavy a parcel as you. 8. He is as brilliant an engineer as we had been told. 9. She found as important a clue as anyone. 10. They are as experienced directors as one could wish.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. they are 2. you are 3. she is 4. I am 5. he is 6. they are 7. we are 8. she is 9. he is 10. I am

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. prettier 2. bigger 3. slower 4. sweeter 5. closer 6. higher 7. fatter 8. sooner 9. sunnier 10. younger 11. hotter 12. weaker 13. lower 14. thinner 15. heavier

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. more 2. better 3. farther 4. less 5. more 6. worse 7. better 8. less 9. more 10. worse

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Nancy is older than Dick. 2. Dick is taller than Nancy. 3. Nancy is older than Lorne. 4. Lorne is shorter than Nancy. 5. Sara is younger than Lorne. 6. Lorne is taller than Sara. 7. Sara is older than Barbara. 8. Sara is shorter than Barbara. 9. Barbara is younger than Sara. 10. Barbara is taller than Sara.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. She is a finer musician than her cousin is. 2. He has a stronger voice than he used to have. 3. This chair has shorter legs than that one does. 4. We are having a hotter summer than you are. 5. She is a better doctor than her friend is. 6. He has a bigger book than you do. 7. They have newer boots than we do. 8. He took an earlier train than I did. 9. She is a worse typist than her colleague is.. 10. We ordered a sweeter dessert than Susan did.

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. we are 2. he is 3. I am 4. they are 5. she is 6. he is 7. I am 8. they are 9. we are 10. she is

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. The sky is growing darker and darker. 2. The grass is becoming greener and greener. 3. Our hands became dirtier and dirtier. 4. The situation is growing worse and worse. 5. Their opponents are growing weaker and weaker. 6. The mist became thicker and thicker. 7. His singing is becoming better and better. 8. The trees are growing taller and taller. 9. The soil is becoming drier and drier. 10. The time remaining grew shorter and shorter.

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. widest 2. reddest 3. coldest 4. easiest 5. cleanest 6. newest 7. sweetest 8. saddest 9. lowest 10. wisest 11. shortest 12. luckiest

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. farthest 2. most 3. best 4. least 5. worst 6. most 7. most 8. worst 9. most 10. best 11. worst 12. least

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. Ray is the heaviest child in the group. 2. Bev is the richest child in the group. 3. Sally is the youngest child in the group. 4. Victor is the shortest child in the group. 5. Amber is the lightest child in the group. 6. Carl is the poorest child in the group.

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. This is the oldest house on the street. 2. That is the largest store in the city. 3. This is the coolest evening we have had this week. 4. He is the kindest man I know. 5. This is the finest view in the area. 6. That is the newest building in town. 7. This is the dustiest road I have ever walked along. 8. That was the worst storm we have had for ten years. 9. This is the longest river in the country. 10. That is the funniest story you have ever told.

CHAPTER 23.  ADJECTIVES USED IN COMPARISONS: PART 2

1. Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives which do not use endings

Adjectives which follow the model of the French language do not use the endings er and est. Instead, the adjectives are preceded by the adverbs more and most.

a. Comparative forms: The use of More
The comparative form of an adjective which does not take endings is formed by placing the word more before the positive form of the adjective.
e.g. She is more intelligent than her sister.
He is more determined than his brother.
In these examples, the comparative forms of the adjectives intelligent and determined have been formed by placing the word more before the positive forms of the adjectives.

See Exercise 1.

With the exception of two-syllable adjectives ending in y, most adjectives of more than one syllable form the comparative with the adverb more.

In addition, a few one-syllable adjectives, including one-syllable past participles used as adjectives, form the comparative with the adverb more.
e.g. This nail is more bent than that one.
He is more skilled than his brother.
She is more spoiled than her cousin.

The following table summarizes the formation of the comparative forms of English adjectives.

The Comparative forms of English Adjectives

Adjectives which take Endings

Adjectives used with More

Most one-syllable adjectives,

A few one-syllable adjectives,

e.g. strong, stronger

e.g. bent, more bent

Two-syllable adjectives ending

Most adjectives of more than one

in y, e.g. easy, easier,

syllable, e.g. graceful, more graceful

and a few other two-syllable

adjectives, e.g. quiet, quieter

i. The comparative form followed by Than
Adjectives which form the comparative with the adverb more are used in the same constructions as adjectives which form the comparative with the ending er.

The following examples illustrate the use of the two types of comparative form followed by than.
e.g. Tom is wiser than Ned.
Tom is more intelligent than Ned.

Parchment is stronger than paper.
Parchment is more durable than paper.

See Exercise 2.

The following examples illustrate the use of the two types of comparative form followed by a noun, followed by than.
e.g. Kirby is a finer musician than Tim.
Kirby is a more confident musician than Tim.

Rubber is a tougher material than leather.
Rubber is a more waterproof material than leather.

She has better tools than we do.
She has more expensive tools than we do.

See Exercise 3.

ii. Progressive comparisons
Like adjectives which take endings, adjectives which form the comparative with the adverb more can be used in progressive comparisons.

In the case of an adjective which takes endings, the comparative form of the adjective is repeated in a progressive comparison. However, in the case of an adjective which forms the comparative with more, only the word more is repeated. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

noun, pronoun or

linking verb,

positive

other expression    +

such as         +

more   +

and   +

more   +

form of

representing thing

to grow or

adjective

being described

to become

The park

is becoming

more

and

more

beautiful.

The horses

grew

more

and

more

restless.

The following examples illustrate the use of the two types of comparative form in progressive comparisons.
e.g. Tom became angrier and angrier.
Tom became more and more anxious.

The stars grew brighter and brighter.
The stars grew more and more brilliant.

See Exercise 4.

b. The use of Less
Adjectives which form the comparative with the adverb more may also be used in a similar way with the adverb less. Less and more have opposite meanings.

i. The construction Less ... Than
The following examples illustrate the use of adjectives preceded by less and followed by than.
e.g. Arnold is less confident than Charles is.
The red bicycle is less expensive than the blue one.
The first example indicates that Arnold possesses a smaller degree of confidence than Charles does. The second example indicates that the red bicycle has a lower cost than the blue one.

See Exercise 5.

The following examples illustrate the use of adjectives preceded by less, and followed by a noun, followed by than.
e.g. He is a less well-known performer than his brother is.
They found themselves in a less fortunate situation than they had expected.
In these examples, the adjectives well-known and fortunate are followed by the nouns performer and situation.

ii. The construction Not As ... As
In informal English, the following construction is often used:

positive

not as   +

form of     +

as

adjective

e.g. He is

not as

reliable

as

his brother.

For adjectives which form the comparative with more, either the construction less ... than or the construction not as ... as may be used. The construction not as ... as is somewhat less formal than the construction less ... than.

For instance, the two sentences in each of the following pairs have the same meaning.
e.g. Formal: The red bicycle is less expensive than the blue one.
Informal: The red bicycle is not as expensive as the blue one.

Formal: Arnold is less confident than Charles is.
Informal: Arnold is not as confident as Charles is.

For adjectives which form the comparative with the ending er, either the construction not as ... as, or the comparative form of an adjective of opposite meaning may be used.

For instance, the two sentences in each of the following pairs have similar meanings.
e.g. This chair is not as soft as that one.
This chair is harder than that one.

He is not as old as his sister.
He is younger than his sister.

iii. The construction Less and Less
Both adjectives which take endings and adjectives which form the comparative with the adverb more can be used with the idiom less and less. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

noun, pronoun or

linking verb,

positive

other expression   +

such as       +

less   +

and   +

less   +

form of

representing thing

to grow or

adjective

being described

to become

The water

is becoming

less

and

less

rough.

The situation

grew

less

and

less

predictable.

The meaning of these two examples can also be expressed as follows:
e.g. The water is becoming decreasingly rough.
The situation grew decreasingly predictable.

See Exercise 6.

It should be noted that an adjective in a progressive comparison does not express exactly the same meaning as an adjective of opposite meaning used with the idiom less and less.

For instance, the following two sentences have somewhat different meanings.
e.g. The water is becoming less and less rough.
The water is becoming calmer and calmer.

The adjectives rough and calm have opposite meanings. The first example implies that the water is still quite rough, but that it is becoming decreasingly rough. The second example implies that the water is already quite calm, but that it is becoming increasingly calm.

c. Superlative Forms
As illustrated in the following table, the superlative form of adjectives which do not use endings is formed by placing the word most before the positive form of the adjective.

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

dangerous

more dangerous

most dangerous

intelligent

more intelligent

most intelligent

interesting

more interesting

most interesting

For example:
She is the most intelligent child in the family.
This is the most interesting book I have ever read.

Adjectives which form the superlative with the adverb most are used in the same constructions as adjectives which form the superlative with the ending est.

The following examples illustrate the use of the two types of superlative form preceded by the word the and followed by a noun.
e.g. Quebec is one of the oldest cities in Canada.
Quebec is one of the most attractive cities in Canada.

This is the hardest question on the test.
This is the most difficult question on the test.

The following examples illustrate the use of the two types of superlative form preceded by a possessive adjective and followed by a noun.
e.g. This is his newest invention.
This is his most recent invention.

She is my closest friend.
She is my most trusted friend.

See Exercise 7.

Adjectives which form the superlative with the adverb most may also be used in a similar way with the adverb least. Least and most have opposite meanings.
e.g. This is the least interesting book I have ever read.
This is the least difficult question on the test.

2. The adjectives Many, Much, Few and Little used to compare quantities

a. The use of Many, Much, Few and Little with countable and uncountable nouns
The adjectives many and much have the same meaning, except that many is used with plural countable nouns, and much is used with uncountable nouns.
e.g. He has written many books.
How much snow has fallen?
In these examples, books is a plural countable noun modified by many, and snow is an uncountable noun modified by much.

As pointed out in the previous chapter, the two adjectives many and much have the same comparative form, more, and the same superlative form, most. More and most can be used to modify both countable and uncountable nouns.

Similarly, the adjectives few and little have the same meaning, except that few is used with plural countable nouns, and little is used with uncountable nouns.
e.g. I made few mistakes.
They have little hope of success.
In these examples, mistakes is a plural countable noun modified by few, and hope is an uncountable noun modified by little.

The comparative and superlative forms of few and little follow the same rules as the positive forms. Thus, the adjectives fewer and fewest are used to modify plural countable nouns, and the adjectives less and least are used to modify uncountable nouns.
e.g. This recipe requires fewer eggs than that recipe.
This street has less traffic than that street.

This recipe requires the fewest eggs.
This street has the least traffic.

In these examples eggs is a plural countable noun modified by fewer and fewest, and traffic is an uncountable noun modified by less and least.

The use of these adjectives with countable and uncountable nouns is summarized below. The adjectives in the left-hand column are used to compare quantities of things which can be counted, while those in the right-hand column are used to compare amounts of things which are considered as substances.

Used with

Used with

Countable Nouns

Uncountable Nouns

many

much

more

more

most

most

few

little

fewer

less

fewest

least

See Exercise 8.

b. Synonyms for Many and Much
In questions and negative statements, the adjectives many and much are commonly used in both formal and informal English.
e.g. Question: How many museums have you visited?
Negative Statement: He does not have much confidence.

In affirmative statements, the adjectives many and much are commonly used in combination with words such as as, so and too.
e.g. I have read twice as many books as you have.
He has so much money he can buy whatever he likes.
There are too many possibilities to consider.

However, in affirmative statements not containing words such as as, so and too, the adjective much is rarely used in either formal or informal English, and the adjective many is rarely used in informal English. Instead, synonyms are used.

The phrases a great deal of, a lot of, and lots of are used as synonyms for much. The phrase a great deal of may be used in formal English, and the phrases a lot of and lots of may be used in informal English. The phrase lots of is more informal than the phrase a lot of.
e.g. Formal: He has a great deal of confidence.
Informal: He has a lot of confidence.
More Informal: He has lots of confidence.

In informal English, the phrases a lot of and lots of are used as synonyms for many. The phrase lots of is more informal than the phrase a lot of.
e.g. Formal: There are many possibilities.
Informal: There are a lot of possibilities.
More Informal: There are lots of possibilities.

c. Positive forms used in comparisons
In order to indicate that the things being compared are equal in some respect, the positive forms many, much, few and little can be used as follows:

as   +

positive   +

noun     +

as

form

e.g. She has

as

many

brothers

as

sisters.

He has

as

much

courage

as

you do.

They take

as

few

risks

as

possible.

He knows

as

little

English

as

they do.

It is possible to modify such expressions by placing an adverb before the first occurrence of as, as illustrated below.

adverb   +

as   +

positive   +

noun   +

as

form

e.g. She has

twice

as

many

brothers

as

sisters.

He has

nearly

as

much

courage

as

you do.

He knows

almost

as

little

English

as

they do.

See Exercise 9.

The positive forms many, much, few and little can also be combined with expressions referring to a quantity of something. This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

as   +

positive   +

as   +

expression indicating

form

a quantity of something

The course includes

as

many

as

ten tests.

Yesterday he drank

as

much

as

three liters of milk.

The game requires

as

few

as

two players.

The magazines cost

as

little

as

fifteen cents.

It should be noted that when a noun names a unit of currency or a unit of measurement, the amount referred to is usually considered as a whole. When this is the case, the noun acts as an uncountable noun, in that it may be modified by the adjectives much, little and less.

For instance, in the examples:
Yesterday he drank as much as three liters of milk.
The magazines cost as little as fifteen cents.
the noun liters names a unit of measurement, and the noun cents names a unit of currency. Since the amounts referred to are each considered as a whole, the adjectives much and little are used.

Likewise, in the following examples, the noun dollars names a unit of currency, and the nouns ounces and degrees name units of measurement.
e.g. We saved as much as fifteen dollars.
The kittens weighed as little as three ounces each.
The temperature this morning was less than five degrees.
In these examples, the nouns printed in bold type refer to amounts considered as a whole, and the adjectives much, little and less are used.

d. Comparative forms used in comparisons
The comparative forms more, fewer and less are often employed in comparisons using the following construction:

comparative   +

noun    +

than

form

e.g. I bought

more

apples

than

I needed.

We eat

more

rice

than

they do.

The class has

fewer

boys

than

girls.

They ate

less

cake

than

we did.

This type of construction can also be combined with phrases or clauses. When two phrases or clauses are used to distinguish the things being compared, the word than may be placed before the second phrase or clause.
e.g. There is more wood in the park than on the island.
We have more fun when we go out than when we stay at home.

In the first example two locations are distinguished by the phrases in the park and on the island, and the second phrase, on the island, is preceded by the word than. In the second example two situations are distinguished by the clauses when we go out and when we stay at home, and the second clause, when we stay at home, is preceded by the word than.

See Exercise 10.

The comparative forms more, fewer and less can also be used in comparisons referring to a quantity of something. The type of construction used is summarized below, followed by examples.

comparative   +

than   +

expression indicating

form

a quantity of something

The bicycle costs

more

than

twenty dollars.

The class has

fewer

than

ten students.

The book costs

less

than

five dollars.

In addition, the comparative forms more, fewer and less can be combined with nouns to form comparisons similar to progressive comparisons. The type of construction used is summarized below, followed by examples.

comparative   +

and   +

comparative   +

noun

form

form

The baby is drinking

more

and

more

milk.

The student made

fewer

and

fewer

mistakes.

The boy is spending

less

and

less

money.

The first example indicates that the baby is drinking an increasing quantity of milk. The second example indicates that the student made a decreasing number of mistakes. The third example indicates that the boy is spending a decreasing amount of money.

See Exercise 11.

e. Superlative forms used in comparisons
The superlative forms most, fewest and least can be used in the following construction:

the   +

superlative   +

noun

form

e.g. She scored

the

most

points.

He made

the

fewest

mistakes.

This room has

the

least

furniture.

3. The adjectives Similar, Different and Same used in comparisons

The idioms similar to, different from and the same as can each be used in the following construction:

noun, pronoun or

to be

different from,

noun, pronoun or

other expression         +

or other   +

similar to, or   +

other expression

representing 1st

linking

the same as

representing 2nd

thing being compared

verb

thing being compared

e.g. Her bicycle

looks

similar to

mine.

The result

was

different from

what I had expected.

His timetable

is

the same as

yours.

See Exercise 12.

The adjective similar followed by the preposition to can be used in comparing things which have characteristics in common.
e.g. The landscape of Maine is similar to that of Scandinavia.
His background is similar to yours.

The adjective different followed by the preposition from can be used in comparing things which have differing characteristics.
e.g. His ideas are different from mine.
Fish that live in the ocean are different from fish that live in rivers and lakes.

The verb differ followed by the preposition from can also be used in comparing things which have differing characteristics.
e.g. His ideas differ from mine.
Fish that live in the ocean differ from fish that live in rivers and lakes.

The phrase the same followed by as can be used in comparing things which are identical in some respect.
e.g. Your shoes look the same as mine.
The temperature of the water is the same as the temperature of the air.

It should be noted that the phrase the same can also be followed by a noun or other expression, as indicated below:

noun, pronoun or

expression

noun, pronoun or

other expression

stating

other expression

representing 1st   +

verb   +

the same   +

what aspect   +

as   +

representing 2nd

thing being

is being

thing being

compared

compared

compared

e.g. My coat

is

the same

color

as

hers.

She

has

the same

postal code

as

you do.

If desired, adverbs may be used before the expressions similar to, different from and the same, in order to modify these types of comparisons. The adverbs in the following examples are underlined.
e.g. Her bicycle looks quite similar to mine.
The result was somewhat different from what I had expected.
His timetable is almost the same as yours.
My coat is nearly the same color as hers.

It is also possible for the expressions similar, different and the same to be used at the end of a sentence. This type of construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

different,

expression representing           +

linking verb   +

similar or

the objects being compared

the same

The flavors of strawberries and kiwi fruit

are

similar.

My conclusion and your conclusion

are

different.

The two sweaters

look

the same.

See Exercise 13.

4. Making logical comparisons

If complex sentences containing phrases or clauses are used to make comparisons, care must be taken, particularly in formal English, to ensure that the comparisons are logical and that the appropriate objects are in fact being compared.

For example, the following sentence is logically incorrect, because it compares life in the country to the city.
e.g. Life in the country is different from the city.

In order to be logically correct, the sentence must be changed so that similar types of things are being compared.
e.g. Life in the country is different from life in the city.
This sentence is logically correct, since it compares life in the country to life in the city.

Similarly, the following sentence is logically incorrect, because it compares the vowel sounds of English to Spanish.
e.g. The vowel sounds of English are more numerous than Spanish.

In order to be logically correct, the sentence must be changed so that similar types of things are being compared. Thus, the sentence may be corrected as follows:
e.g. The vowel sounds of English are more numerous than the vowel sounds of Spanish.

See Exercise 14.

In such sentences, the noun or phrase which is repeated in the second part of the comparison may be replaced by that or those. That is used if the noun being replaced is singular, and those is used if the noun being replaced is plural.
e.g. Life in the country is different from that in the city.
The vowel sounds of English are more numerous than those of Spanish.

In the first example, that is used to replace the singular noun life. In the second example, those is used to replace the phrase the vowel sounds. The form those must be used, since the noun sounds is plural.

See Exercise 15.

EXERCISES for Chapter 23

1. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the comparative form of the adjective indicated in brackets. For example:
They are ___________ than they used to be. (careful)
They are more careful than they used to be.

1. Wool is _______________ than cotton. (resilient)
2. He is _______________ than I had expected. (excited)
3. She is a _______________ scholar than her sister is. (diligent)
4. Bev is a __________________ engineer than Pat. (experienced)
5. Russian is a _______________ language to learn than English is. (difficult)
6. This book is _______________ than that one. (interesting)
Answers

2. Paying attention to which adjectives form the comparative with the adverb more and which form the comparative with the ending er, fill in the blanks with the comparative forms of the adjectives indicated in brackets. For example:
The clothes are _____ than I had expected. (dry)
The clothes are drier than I had expected.

Walter Scott is __________ than Walter Brooks. (famous)
Walter Scott is more famous than Walter Brooks.

1. The pears are _______________ than the plums. (hard)
2. The roses are ______________ than the nasturtiums. (beautiful)
3. The tomatoes are _______________ than the apples. (expensive)
4. My bicycle is _______________ than yours. (new)
5. Cold lemonade is _______________ than water. (refreshing)
6. The front yard is _______________ than the back yard. (big)
7. This map is _______________ than that one. (good)
8. Spinach is ______________ than Swiss chard. (delicate)
9. His room is _______________ than yours. (tidy)
10. Her report is _______________ than ours. (accurate)
Answers

3. Paying attention to which adjectives form the comparative with the adverb more and which form the comparative with the ending er, rewrite the following sentences as comparisons, in the manner indicated by the examples. Use the words given in brackets as the second parts of the comparisons. For example:
Collies have long hair. (dalmations do)
Collies have longer hair than dalmations do.

He is an experienced architect. (we thought)
He is a more experienced architect than we thought.

1. Terry is a good cook. (I am)
2. That is a complex question. (you realize)
3. My puppy has big feet. (yours does)
4. It was a difficult decision. (you might think)
5. That is a sandy part of the beach. (this is)
6. He runs a successful business. (his father did)
7. Cliff has a bad temper. (his brother does)
8. This rose bush has small flowers. (that one does)
9. They own expensive bicycles. (we do)
10. Robin proved to be a courageous leader. (anyone had expected)
11. The school has a large auditorium. (the city library does)
12. That car has an efficient engine. (this one does)
Answers

4. Paying attention to which adjectives form the comparative with the ending er and which form the comparative with the adverb more, rewrite each of the following sentences, using the construction in which the word more or the comparative form of the adjective is repeated. For example:
The water grew increasingly warm.
The water grew warmer and warmer.

I became increasingly impatient.
I became more and more impatient.

1. The rain became increasingly heavy.
2. The crowd grew increasingly enthusiastic.
3. We became increasingly uneasy.
4. Manufacturing companies were becoming increasingly large.
5. The weather grew increasingly bad.
6. The compilation of accurate statistics is becoming increasingly necessary.
7. Methods of diagnosis are becoming increasingly accurate.
8. Their contribution to the project became increasingly important.
9. Standards are becoming increasingly high.
10. They became increasingly optimistic.
Answers

5. Rewrite each of the following sentences as comparisons, using the form of the adjective with less and the word than. For each sentence, use the words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
The plot of the movie was predictable. (we expected)
The plot of the movie was less predictable than we expected.

The second explanation was confusing. (the first)
The second explanation was less confusing than the first.

1. The issue is important. (I thought)
2. The train is punctual. (it used to be)
3. The spoons are valuable. (the candlesticks)
4. Nora is excited. (Karen is)
5. The bus is crowded. (the subway)
6. This movie is entertaining. (the one we saw last night)
Answers

6. Rewrite each of the following sentences, using the construction in which the word less is repeated. For example:
The idea became decreasingly attractive.
The idea became less and less attractive.

1. The wind grew decreasingly fierce.
2. The tune became decreasingly recognizable.
3. Word processors are becoming decreasingly expensive.
4. The rainbow grew decreasingly bright.
5. The children became decreasingly alert.
6. The service became decreasingly convenient.
Answers

7. Paying attention to which adjectives form the superlative with the adverb most and which form the superlative with the ending est, fill in the blanks with the superlative forms of the adjectives indicated in brackets. For example:
The first question is the ______________. (difficult)
The first question is the most difficult.

The last question is the _______. (easy)
The last question is the easiest.

1. Sarah is the ________________ girl in the class. (intelligent)
2. He is the _______________ boy in the school. (lucky)
3. This is the _________________ book I have ever read. (good)
4. That is the _________________ painting in the museum. (valuable)
5. Yesterday was the ________________ day of the year. (hot)
6. She is the _______________ student in the school. (new)
7. This movie is the _________________. (entertaining)
8. He is the _______________ man in the village. (brave)
9. Summer is usually the _________________ time of the year. (dry)
10. He is the _________________ player on the team. (talented)
11. This is the ________________ route into town. (direct)
12. The library is the _________________ building on the street. (old)
Answers

8. Paying attention to whether the noun to be modified is countable or uncountable, complete each of the following sentences by filling in the blank with the correct adjective chosen from the pair given in brackets. For example:
____ schools were closed because of the snowstorm. (many, much)
Many schools were closed because of the snowstorm.

____ time could have been saved. (many, much)
Much time could have been saved.

There are ___ buildings as beautiful as the Taj Mahal. (few, little)
There are few buildings as beautiful as the Taj Mahal.

There was ______ furniture in the room. (few, little)
There was little furniture in the room.

The storm caused ____ damage than had been expected. (fewer, less)
The storm caused less damage than had been expected.

1. There are __________ ducks in the park. (many, much)
2. __________ water is left in the pond. (few, little)
3. __________ authors are as famous as Shakespeare. (few, little)
4. How __________ rice do you have? (many, much)
5. There are __________ books on the subject which she has not read. (few, little)
6. __________ attention has been paid to the importance of the mass media. (many, much)
7. _________ people prefer soccer to football. (many, much)
8. There are ___________ stores downtown than there are in the suburbs. (fewer, less)
9. __________ information was available. (few, little)
10. _________ sports are as fast-paced as hockey. (few, little)
11. She made the ____________ mistakes of all the children in the class. (fewest, least)
12. __________ work remains to be done. (few, little)
13. There is often __________ wind in the evening than there is at midday. (fewer, less)
14. He does not have _________ money. (many, much)
15. He did the __________ work of all the boys in the class. (fewest, least)
16. She told __________ stories to amuse the children. (many, much)
Answers

9. The following table shows the number of books and amount of money possessed by each of eight children.

Child's Name

Number of Books

Amount of Money ($)

Debbie

12

20

Penny

6

30

Alex

4

10

Tim

24

5

Chris

8

2

Lisa

3

15

Terry

16

6

Helen

2

3

Following the model of the examples, use the adjectives much and many to write sentences comparing the number of books or the amount of money possessed by the children in each of the following pairs. For example:
Debbie and Penny (books)
Debbie has twice as many books as Penny.

Alex and Debbie (money)
Alex has half as much money as Debbie.

Lisa and Helen (money)
Lisa has five times as much money as Helen.

1. Penny and Alex (money)
2. Chris and Terry (books)
3. Penny and Lisa (books)
4. Debbie and Tim (money)
5. Tim and Alex (money)
6. Penny and Tim (books)
7. Terry and Helen (money)
8. Terry and Helen (books)
9. Tim and Chris (books)
10. Penny and Tim (money)
Answers

10. Rewrite each of the following sentences as a comparison, using the comparative form of the underlined adjective, and the word than. Note that the phrase a great deal of is used instead of the adjective much. For each sentence, use the word or words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
We took many photographs. (he did)
We took more photographs than he did.

He drinks a great deal of coffee. (tea)
He drinks more coffee than tea.

She has few responsibilities. (I do)
She has fewer responsibilities than I do.

There is little danger. (you think)
There is less danger than you think.

1. She reads many books. (I do)
2. They have had little success. (you have)
3. We bought a great deal of rice. (flour)
4. We had few accidents, we had expected)
5. The proposal has many advantages. (disadvantages)
6. She uses a great deal of honey. (sugar)
7. We eat little cheese. (meat)
8. They entertain few visitors. (we do)
9. He can speak many languages. (anyone else I know)
10. They have few customers. (they would like)
11. The project will take a great deal of time. (you think)
12. This stove requires little fuel. (one would expect)
Answers

11. Rewrite each of the following sentences as a progressive comparison using the comparative form of the underlined adjective. For example:
Many ducks flew overhead.
More and more ducks flew overhead.

Few leaves were falling.
Fewer and fewer leaves were falling.

1. We had many adventures.
2. Few visitors remained.
3. There was little danger that we would lose our way.
4. Few trees were planted.
5. Many tourists visit our city each year.
6. I saw few cars on the road.
7. The weather caused little difficulty.
8. They met many people.
Answers

12. Write three sentences of your own, using the phrases similar to, different from and the same as.

13. Rewrite each of the following sentences, keeping the meaning of the sentence, but using one of the phrases similar to, different from or the same as, as appropriate. Make sure that the verb of the rewritten sentence agrees with the subject of the sentence. For example:
My essay and your essay are similar.
My essay is similar to your essay.

Their results and our results are different.
Their results are different from our results.

The price of the scarf and the price of the gloves are the same.
The price of the scarf is the same as the price of the gloves.

1. My skates and his skates look similar.
2. This book and that book are different.
3. The child's height and the height of the table are the same.
4. This story and that story seem similar.
5. The date of the concert and the date of the play are the same.
6. The view from the window and the view from the door are different.
7. My sister and my cousin look similar.
8. This cake and that cake taste the same.
9. My experiences and your experiences are different.
10. His schedule and your schedule are the same.
Answers

14. Each of the following sentences contains a comparison which is logically incorrect. Rewrite the sentences, adding whatever nouns or phrases are necessary in order to make the comparisons logically correct. For example:
The price of honey was higher than sugar.
The price of honey was higher than the price of sugar.

The average rainfall for September is the same as February.
The average rainfall for September is the same as the average rainfall for February.

1. The vegetation of Europe differs from North America.
2. The taxes in Singapore are lower than Canada.
3. The invention of the clarinet occurred more recently than the flute.
4. The speed limit in residential areas is lower than uninhabited areas.
5. The grammar of English is simpler than Arabic.
6. The climate of California is somewhat similar to Greece.
7. The boiling point of oil is higher than water.
8. The geometry of a pentagon is more complex than a square.
9. The density of water is greater than ice.
10. The location of the library is more convenient than the post office.
Answers

15. Simplify each of the following sentences by using that or those to replace the noun or phrase which is repeated in the second part of the comparison. For example:
The song of the chickadee is more melodious than the song of the nuthatch.
The song of the chickadee is more melodious than that of the nuthatch.

The landforms of eastern Canada are similar to the landforms of Finland.
The landforms of eastern Canada are similar to those of Finland.

1. The cuisine of France is more famous than the cuisine of England.
2. The fruits of the tropics are more varied than the fruits of temperate regions.
3. The growth form of the strawberry differs from the growth form of the raspberry.
4. The freezing point of salt water is lower than the freezing point of fresh water.
5. The traditions of Austria are as fascinating as the traditions of Greece.
6. The nutritional value of whole grain flour is greater than the nutritional value of refined flour.
7. The mountains of Nepal are higher than the mountains of Europe.
8. The teaching methods of today differ from the teaching methods of one hundred years ago.
9. The tone of an old violin is often more beautiful than the tone of a new violin.
10. The flowers of alpine pastures are more colorful than the flowers of the lowlands.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 23

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. more resilient 2. more excited 3. more diligent 4. more experienced 5. more difficult 6. more interesting

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. harder 2. more beautiful 3. more expensive 4. newer 5. more refreshing 6. bigger 7. better 8. more delicate 9. tidier 10. more accurate

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. Terry is a better cook than I am. 2. That is a more complex question than you realize. 3. My puppy has bigger feet than yours does. 4. It was a more difficult decision than you might think. 5. That is a sandier part of the beach than this is. 6. He runs a more successful business than his father did. 7. Cliff has a worse temper than his brother does. 8. This rose bush has smaller flowers than that one does. 9. They own more expensive bicycles than we do. 10. Robin proved to be a more courageous leader than anyone had expected. 11. The school has a larger auditorium than the city library does. 12. That car has a more efficient engine than this one does.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. The rain became heavier and heavier. 2. The crowd grew more and more enthusiastic. 3. We became more and more uneasy. 4. Manufacturing companies were becoming larger and larger. 5. The weather grew worse and worse. 6. The compilation of accurate statistics is becoming more and more necessary. 7. Methods of diagnosis are becoming more and more accurate. 8. Their contribution to the project became more and more important. 9. Standards are becoming higher and higher. 10. They became more and more optimistic.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. The issue is less important than I thought. 2. The train is less punctual than it used to be. 3. The spoons are less valuable than the candlesticks. 4. Nora is less excited than Karen is. 5. The bus is less crowded than the subway. 6. This movie is less entertaining than the one we saw last night.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The wind grew less and less fierce. 2. The tune became less and less recognizable. 3. Word processors are becoming less and less expensive. 4. The rainbow grew less and less bright. 5. The children became less and less alert. 6. The service became less and less convenient.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. most intelligent 2. luckiest 3. best 4. most valuable 5. hottest 6. newest 7. most entertaining 8. bravest 9. driest 10. most talented 11. most direct 12. oldest

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. many 2. Little 3. Few 4. much 5. few 6. Much 7. Many 8. fewer 9. Little 10. Few 11. fewest 12. Little 13. less 14. much 15. least 16. many

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. Penny has three times as much money as Alex. 2. Chris has half as many books as Terry. 3. Penny has twice as many books as Lisa. 4. Debbie has four times as much money as Tim. 5. Tim has half as much money as Alex. 6. Penny has one-quarter as many books as Tim. 7. Terry has twice as much money as Helen. 8. Terry has eight times as many books as Helen. 9. Tim has three times as many books as Chris. 10. Penny has six times as much money as Tim.

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. She reads more books than I do. 2. They have had less success than you have. 3. We bought more rice than flour. 4. We had fewer accidents than we had expected. 5. The proposal has more advantages than disadvantages. 6. She uses more honey than sugar. 7. We eat less cheese than meat. 8. They entertain fewer visitors than we do. 9. He can speak more languages than anyone else I know. 10. They have fewer customers than they would like. 11. The project will take more time than you think. 12. This stove requires less fuel than one would expect.

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. We had more and more adventures. 2. Fewer and fewer visitors remained. 3. There was less and less danger that we would lose our way. 4. Fewer and fewer trees were planted. 5. More and more tourists visit our city each year. 6. I saw fewer and fewer cars on the road. 7. The weather caused us less and less difficulty. 8. They met more and more people.

Answers to Exercise 13:
1. My skates look similar to his skates. 2. This book is different from that book. 3. The child's height is the same as the height of the table. 4. This story seems similar to that story. 5. The date of the concert is the same as the date of the play. 6. The view from the window is different from the view from the door. 7. My sister looks similar to my cousin. 8. This cake tastes the same as that cake. 9. My experiences are different from your experiences. 10. His schedule is the same as your schedule.

Answers to Exercise 14:
1. The vegetation of Europe differs from the vegetation of North America. 2. The taxes in Singapore are lower than the taxes in Canada. 3. The invention of the clarinet occurred more recently than the invention of the flute. 4. The speed limit in residential areas is lower than the speed limit in uninhabited areas. 5. The grammar of English is simpler than the grammar of Arabic. 6. The climate of California is somewhat similar to the climate of Greece. 7. The boiling point of oil is higher than the boiling point of water. 8. The geometry of a pentagon is more complex than the geometry of a square. 9. The density of water is greater than the density of ice. 10. The location of the library is more convenient than the location of the post office.

Answers to Exercise 15:
1. The cuisine of France is more famous than that of England. 2. The fruits of the tropics are more varied than those of temperate regions. 3. The growth form of the strawberry differs from than of the raspberry. 4. The freezing point of salt water is lower than that of fresh water. 5. The traditions of Austria are as fascinating as those of Greece. 6. The nutritional value of whole grain flour is greater than that of refined flour. 7. The mountains of Nepal are higher than those of Europe. 8. The teaching methods of today differ from those of one hundred years ago. 9. The tone of an old violin is often more beautiful than that of a new violin. 10. The flowers of alpine pastures are more colorful than those of the lowlands.

CHAPTER 24.  ADVERBS: POSITION IN A SENTENCE

Words which are used to modify verbs or adjectives are usually referred to as adverbs. For instance, the adverbs in the following sentences are printed in bold type, and the words they modify are underlined.
e.g. I often visit the library.
It is surprisingly hot today.
In the first example, the adverb often modifies the verb visit. In the second example, the adverb surprisingly modifies the adjective hot.

Words which are used to modify adverbs can also be referred to as adverbs.
e.g. The train travels very quickly.
In this example, the adverb very modifies the adverb quickly.

1. Adverbs which modify adjectives and other adverbs

Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs usually immediately precede the words they modify.
e.g. The package is extremely large.
We experienced relatively few difficulties.
Buses depart quite regularly.
In these examples, the underlined adverbs immediately precede the words they modify. Extremely modifies the adjective large, relatively modifies the adjective few, and quite modifies the adverb regularly.

The adverbs ago and enough are exceptional, since they usually follow the adjectives or adverbs they modify.
e.g. That happened long ago.
He is old enough to make his own decisions.
We ran fast enough to catch the bus.
In these examples, the adverbs ago and enough follow the words they modify. Ago modifies the adverb long, and enough modifies the adjective old and the adverb fast.

It should be noted that in modern English, when enough is used as an adjective modifying a noun, it precedes the noun. For instance, in the following example, the adjective enough precedes the noun apples.
e.g. Do we have enough apples to make a pie?

However, when ago is used with a noun, it follows the noun. For instance, in the following example, ago follows the noun months.
e.g. That happened six months ago.
The reason for this may be found in the history of the word. Ago, formerly spelled agone, was originally a past participle.

a. Intensifiers
An adverb which is used to modify adjectives and adverbs, but which is not usually used to modify verbs, can be referred to as an intensifier. In the following examples, the intensifiers are printed in bold type.
e.g. I am very happy.
The film was quite good.
You did that rather well.
Must you leave so soon?
In these examples, very modifies the adjective happy, quite modifies the adjective good, rather modifies the adverb well, and so modifies the adverb soon.

The following words are commonly used as intensifiers:

fairly
quite
rather
so
too
very

In addition, the word really is often used as an intensifier in informal English.
e.g. The film was really good.
You did that really well.

2. Adverbs which modify verbs

The following table gives examples of six different types of adverb which can be used to modify verbs.

Adverbs of

Adverbs of

Adverbs of

Adverbs of

Connecting

Negative

Frequency

Manner

Location

Time

Adverbs

Adverbs

always

carefully

ahead

again

also

barely

ever

correctly

back

early

consequently

hardly

frequently

eagerly

forward

late

furthermore

little

generally

easily

here

now

hence

never

never

fast

high

sometime

however

not

often

loudly

low

then

moreover

nowhere

rarely

patiently

near

today

nevertheless

rarely

seldom

quickly

outside

tomorrow

otherwise

scarcely

sometimes

quietly

somewhere

tonight

therefore

seldom

usually

well

there

yesterday

thus

a. Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of frequency answer the question How often?

An adverb which modifies a verb may occupy one of three main positions in a clause. These positions may be referred to as the beginning position, the middle position, and the end position. Adverbs of frequency may occupy any of these positions. In the following examples, the adverbs of frequency are printed in bold type.

An adverb in the beginning position is located at the beginning of a clause. For example:
Often the wind blows less strongly at night.
In this example, the adverb of frequency often is located at the beginning of the clause.

Most adverbs can occupy the beginning position in a clause. The use of this position tends to emphasize the adverb.

An adverb in the end position occurs after an intransitive verb, or after the direct object of a transitive verb.
e.g. He speaks seldom.
I visit her frequently.
In the first example, seldom follows the intransitive verb speaks. In the second example, frequently follows the direct object her of the transitive verb visit.

Usually only one adverb at a time can occupy the beginning position or the middle position in a clause. However, more than one adverb at a time can occupy the end position in a clause.

When more than one adverb occurs in the end position, the different types of adverb are usually placed in a certain order. For instance, in the end position, adverbs of frequency usually follow adverbs of manner and adverbs of location, and precede adverbs of time and adverbs of purpose.

Adverbs of frequency which consist of single words most often occupy the middle position of a clause. The location of adverbs in the middle position varies depending on the type of verb used. Adverbs in the middle position occupy the locations indicated below:

1) They follow the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be.
2) They precede the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be.
3) They follow the first auxiliary, in tenses which have auxiliaries.
4) They precede the first auxiliary, or the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, in short answers.

The following examples illustrate the use of adverbs of frequency in the middle position of a clause. The relevant verbs are underlined.
1) We are always on time.
2) He rarely makes a mistake.
3) I have often wondered about that.
4) Have you seen this movie before? No, I never have.
In the preceding examples, always follows are, the Simple Present of the verb to be; rarely precedes makes, the Simple Present of a verb other than the verb to be; often follows the first auxiliary have of the verb have wondered; and never precedes the auxiliary have in the short answer I never have.

See Exercise 1.

In negative statements, and negative questions with not, adverbs in the middle position of a clause usually follow the word not.
e.g. Negative Statement: They do not often miss the bus.
Question with Not: Does he not usually know the answers?
In these examples, the adverbs often and usually follow the word not.

In affirmative questions, and negative questions with n't, adverbs in the middle position of a clause usually follow the subject of the clause. In the following examples, the subjects are underlined.
e.g. Affirmative Question: Is it always this cold in February?
Question with n't: Doesn't he usually know the answers?
In the first example, the adverb always follows the subject it. In the second example, the adverb usually follows the subject he.

It should be noted that the adverbs daily, weekly, monthly, yearly and annually usually do not occupy the middle position of a clause.

See Exercise 2.

Verbs may be modified not only by single-word adverbs, but also by adverb phrases and clauses. Like adverbs of frequency, adverb phrases and clauses of frequency answer the question How often?

Adverb phrases and clauses of frequency usually occupy either the beginning or end position of a clause.
e.g. Once in a while, I like to try something new.
We visited the museum as often as we could.
In the first example, the adverb phrase of frequency once in a while occupies the beginning position of the clause I like to try something new. In the second example, the adverb clause of frequency as often as we could occupies the end position of the clause We visited the museum.

It should be noted that except in the case of commonly used adverbs such as now, then , today, tomorrow, sometimes, usually, maybe and perhaps, adverbs and adverb phrases at the beginning of a clause must usually be followed by commas. In the following examples, the commas are underlined.
e.g. Unfortunately, it began to rain.
As often as possible, we went outside for a walk.

b. Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time answer the question When?

Adverbs of time usually occupy either the beginning position or the end position of a clause. In the following examples, the adverbs of time are printed in bold type.
e.g. Today I will go to the library.
I will go to the post office tomorrow.
In the first example, today occupies the beginning position of a clause. In the second example, tomorrow occupies the end position of a clause.

In the end position, adverbs of time usually follow adverbs of manner and adverbs of location.

With a few exceptions, such as now, then and once, most adverbs of time may not occupy the middle position of a clause.

The adverbs now, then and once may occupy any of the three positions in a clause. For instance, in the following examples, now occupies the first position, the middle position, and the end position of a clause.
e.g. Now it is time to leave.
It is now time to leave.
It is time to leave now.

It should be noted that sometimes is an adverb of frequency, whereas sometime is an adverb of time.
e.g. I sometimes see him in the park.
I would like to read that book sometime.
In the first example, the adverb of frequency sometimes occupies the middle position of a clause. In the second example, the adverb of time sometime occupies the end position of a clause.

Adverb phrases and clauses of time usually occupy either the beginning or end position of a clause.
e.g. At nine o'clock, the train will leave.
I will call you when I am ready.
In the first example, the adverb phrase at nine o'clock occupies the beginning position of the clause the train will leave. In the second example, the adverb clause when I am ready occupies the end position of the clause I will call you.

c. Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner answer the question How? Many adverbs of manner have the ending ly. The formation and use of adverbs of manner will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

Adverbs of manner most often occupy the end position of a clause, where they follow an intransitive verb, or the direct object of a transitive verb.
e.g. We waited patiently for the play to begin.
I sold the strawberries quickly.
In the first example, the adverb of manner patiently follows the intransitive verb waited. In the second example, the adverb of manner quickly follows the direct object strawberries of the transitive verb sold.

An adverb of manner may be placed at the beginning of a clause, in order to emphasize the idea expressed by the adverb.
e.g. Patiently, we waited for the show to begin.
Quickly, I sold the strawberries.
In these examples, the ideas expressed by patiently and quickly are emphasized.

Adverbs of manner are often placed in the middle position of a clause, particularly when the clause contains no adverb of frequency.
e.g. I slowly opened the door.
I have carefully considered all of the possibilities.
In the first example, the adverb of manner slowly precedes opened, a verb in the Simple Past. In the second example, the adverb of manner carefully follows the auxiliary have of the verb have considered.

In informal English, adverbs of manner are often placed immediately after the word to of an infinitive. When this is done, the infinitive is referred to as a split infinitive.
e.g. I wanted to carefully consider the situation.
In this example, the infinitive to consider is split by the adverb carefully.

However, in formal English, it is considered preferable not to use split infinitives. In formal English, the above example could be written:
I wanted to consider the situation carefully.

Adverb phrases and clauses of manner usually occupy the end position of a clause.
e.g. We arrived on foot.
We finished the work as quickly as we could.
In the first example, the adverb phrase of manner on foot follows the intransitive verb arrived. In the second example, the adverb clause of manner as quickly as we could follows the direct object work of the transitive verb finished.

Adverb phrases and clauses of manner are sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for emphasis. For example:
As quickly as we could, we finished the work.
In this example, the adverb clause as quickly as we could is emphasized.

d. Connecting adverbs
Adverbs such as however, nevertheless and therefore are often used to connect the ideas expressed by the clauses in which they occur to ideas expressed in previous clauses. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.

Connecting adverbs are often placed at the beginning of a clause.
e.g. I would like to go skiing. However, I have too much work to do.
She was very busy; nevertheless, she found time to go swimming.

In the first example, the adverb however, which occurs at the beginning of the clause I have too much work to do, connects the idea expressed in this clause with the idea expressed in the previous clause, I would like to go skiing. In the second example, the adverb nevertheless, which occurs at the beginning of the clause she found time to go swimming, connects the idea expressed in this clause with the idea expressed in the previous clause, she was very busy.

Many connecting adverbs may be placed in the middle position of a clause. This is often done when the clause contains no adverb of frequency.
e.g. I am, nevertheless, anxious to continue.
We thus had no difficulty finding the motel.
We have, therefore, decided to do it.

In the first example, nevertheless follows am, the Simple Present of the verb to be. In the second example, thus precedes had, the Simple Past of a verb other than the verb to be. In the third example, therefore follows the auxiliary have of the verb have decided.

The adverb however may occupy any of the three positions in a clause. As illustrated in the following examples, a connecting adverb is usually separated by commas from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. However, it has stopped snowing.
It has, however, stopped snowing.
It has stopped snowing, however.

It should be noted that the adverb instead is often placed at the end of a clause.
e.g. Because there was no meat, I bought fish instead.

Connecting adverb phrases are most often placed at the beginning of a clause. For example:
As a result, I decided to study hard.
In this example, the phrase as a result is placed at the beginning of the clause I decided to study hard.

The following table summarizes the most commonly used positions for the four different types of adverb discussed above.

Type of Adverb

Most commonly used Position in Clause

Adverb of frequency

Middle position

Adverb of time

End position, following adverbs of manner and location

Adverb of manner

End position, preceding other adverbs

Connecting adverb

Beginning position

See Exercise 3.

e. Adverb phrases and clauses of purpose
Adverb phrases and clauses of purpose answer the question Why? This question is usually answered by a phrase or clause, rather than by a single-word adverb. In the following examples, the adverb phrases and clauses of purpose are underlined.

Adverb phrases and clauses of purpose usually occupy the end position of a clause, and follow any other adverbs, or adverb phrases or clauses.
e.g. I went to the store yesterday to buy a coat.
I need to buy a new coat soon because my old one is worn out.
In the first example, the adverb phrase of purpose to buy a coat occupies the end position of a clause, following the adverb of time yesterday. In the second example, the adverb clause of purpose because my old one is worn out occupies the end position of a clause, following the adverb of time soon.

Adverb phrases or clauses of purpose are sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for emphasis.
e.g. To reach the airport on time, we had to complete the trip in two hours.
Because it was such a beautiful day, I decided to go for a walk.

In the first example, the adverb phrase of purpose to reach the airport on time is placed at the beginning of the clause we had to complete the trip in two hours. In the second example, the adverb clause because it was such a beautiful day is placed at the beginning of the clause I decided to go for a walk.

f. Adverbs of location
Adverbs of location answer the question Where?

Adverbs of location, and adverb phrases and clauses of location, most often occupy the end position of a clause, where they precede adverbs of time and adverbs of purpose. In the following examples, the adverbs and adverb phrases and clauses of location are underlined.
e.g. I am going there tomorrow.
He left his bicycle in the driveway last night.
I know the office where she works.

In the first example, the adverb of location there follows the verb am going, and precedes the adverb of time tomorrow. In the second example, the adverb phrase of location in the driveway follows the object bicycle of the verb left, and precedes the adverb phrase of time last night. In the third example, the adverb clause of location where she works follows the object office of the verb know.

It should be noted that the position of adverbs and adverb phrases and clauses of location relative to other types of adverb is affected by whether or not the verb being modified is a verb of motion.

A verb of motion is a verb which describes some type of movement. The verbs come, go, arrive, leave, walk, run and fly are examples of verbs of motion.

If the verb of a clause is not a verb of motion, the most usual order of the different types of adverb in the end position of a clause is as follows:

Adverb of Manner
Adverb of Location
Adverb of Time
Adverb of Purpose

The following example illustrates this order:

We waited

patiently

outside the theater

all afternoon

to buy tickets.

Type of Phrase:

Manner

Location

Time

Purpose

See Exercise 4.

The order may be varied if it is desired to emphasize one of the adverb phrases. For instance, the adverb phrase of time all afternoon could be given more emphasis by placing it immediately after the adverb patiently, as follows:
We waited patiently all afternoon outside the theater to buy tickets.

When the verb of a clause is a verb of motion, any adverb of location, or adverb phrase or clause of location, is usually placed immediately after the verb. The following table compares the position of adverbs following verbs of motion with the position of adverbs following other verbs.

The most usual Position of Adverbs following a Verb

Order of Adverbs following

Order of Adverbs following a Verb

a Verb of Motion

which is not a Verb of Motion

Adverb of Location

Adverb of Manner

Adverb of Manner

Adverb of Location

Adverb of Time

Adverb of Time

Adverb of Purpose

Adverb of Purpose

It can be seen that the order of the adverbs following the two types of verb is the same except for the relative order of the adverb of location and the adverb of manner.

The following example illustrates the most usual order of the four different types of adverb phrase following a verb of motion:

I will go

to the library

by bus

tomorrow

to return the book.

Type of Phrase:

Location

Manner

Time

Purpose

See Exercise 5.
Adverbs and adverb phrases and clauses of location are sometimes placed at the beginning of a clause, for emphasis.
e.g. Here, the glacier deposited soil and rocks.
On the way to school, she saw a robin building its nest.
Wherever I look, I see signs of spring.
In these examples, the adverb here, the adverb phrase on the way to school and the adverb clause wherever I look are each placed at the beginning of a clause.

Adverbs of location usually cannot be placed in the middle position of a clause.

i. Here and There
The words here and there, indicating location, are often used at the beginning of a clause, followed by the verb to be.

In this construction, if the subject of the verb is a noun, the subject follows the verb.
e.g. Here are the tickets.
There was our bus.
In these examples, the noun subjects tickets and bus follow the verbs are and was.

However, if the subject of the verb is a personal pronoun, the subject precedes the verb.
e.g. Here they are.
There it was.
In these examples, the personal pronoun subjects they and it precede the verbs are and was.

When the subject follows the verb, care must be taken to make sure that the verb agrees with its subject.
e.g. Here is one of the examples.
There are his aunt and uncle.
In the first example, the verb is is singular to agree with the singular subject one. In the second example, the verb are is plural to agree with the plural subject his aunt and uncle.

See Exercise 6.

ii. There used as an introductory word
In addition to being used to indicate location, there can also be used as an introductory word, in clauses indicating the existence of something. There as an introductory word is often used with verbs such as to be, to appear and to seem. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. There is a public holiday on Monday.
There are three universities in the city.
There seem to be two possible answers to this question.

In affirmative statements using this construction, the subject follows the verb. In the following examples, the subjects are underlined.
e.g. There are only twenty-four hours in a day.
There seems to be a message for you.
In the first example, the verb are is plural, to agree with the plural subject hours. In the second example, the verb seems is singular, to agree with the singular subject message.

In questions using this construction, there follows the verb in the case of the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be; otherwise, there follows the first auxiliary. In the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do must be used. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined.
e.g. Is there a post office near here?
Were there many people on the train?
Can there be any doubt about it?
Do there seem to be any maple trees in this forest?
In the first two examples, there follows is and were, the Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be. In the last two examples, there follows the first auxiliaries can and do.

iii. Inverted word order
When used with a verb of motion, an adverb or adverb phrase of location may be placed at the beginning of a clause, followed immediately by the verb, followed by the noun subject of the verb. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

adverb phrase

verb of

noun

of location     +

motion     +

subject

Up the hill

trundled

the train.

Here

come

our friends.

If the subject of the verb is a personal pronoun, the subject must precede the verb, as illustrated below:

adverb phrase

pronoun

verb of

of location     +

subject     +

motion

Up the hill

it

trundled.

Here

they

come.

See Exercise 7.

g. Negative adverbs
Negative adverbs include adverbs with an explicit negative meaning, such as never, not and nowhere, as well as adverbs with an implied negative meaning, such as hardly, scarcely and seldom.

i. Double negatives
In modern English, there is a rule that a clause containing one negative word expresses a negative meaning, but a clause containing two negative words expressed an affirmative meaning. In the case of a clause with two negative words, it is considered that one of these words negates the other, so that an affirmative meaning results. The presence of two negative words in a clause is referred to as a double negative.

In some dialects of English, clauses containing two negative words may be used to express a negative meaning.
e.g. I'm not saying nothing about it.
He never told nobody the secret.
However, this use of the double negative is considered to be grammatically incorrect in standard English.

For each of the above examples, the double negative can be eliminated by omitting or altering one of the negative words. Thus, the meaning of the first example could be correctly expressed by either of the following sentences:
I'm saying nothing about it. or
I'm not saying anything about it.

Similarly, the meaning of the second example could be correctly expressed by either of the following sentences:
He told nobody the secret. or
He never told anybody the secret.

See Exercise 8.

ii. Inverted word order
If a clause begins with a negative adverb, inverted word order must usually be used, with the subject following the Simple Present or Simple Past of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary. In the case of the Simple Present or Simple Past of any verb other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do must be used. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

Simple form of

negative adverb    +

verb to be or    +

subject

or adverb phrase

first auxiliary

Never before

was

I

so eager to reach home.

Little

did

we

think we would meet again.

Seldom

had

they

tasted such a delicacy.

Following are other examples of this type of construction. The negative adverbs and adverb phrases are printed in bold type, and the subjects of the verbs are underlined.
e.g. Seldom was he at a loss for words.
Scarcely had we left the house, when it began to rain.
Not for many years was the true story known.
No sooner did the bell ring than the children ran out of the school.
In the first example, the subject he follows was, the Simple Past of the verb to be. In the succeeding examples, the subjects we, story and bell follow the auxiliaries had, was and did, respectively.

See Exercise 9.

In this type of inverted construction, if there is used as an introductory word, there follows the Simple Past or Simple Present of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary.
e.g. Seldom were there more than five ducks on the pond.
Rarely had there been more swans on the lake than there were that day.
In the first example, there follows were, the Simple Past of the verb to be. In the second example, there follows the auxiliary had, of the verb had been.

It should be noted that the expression so ... that can also be used with inverted word order.
e.g. So exhausted were we that we fell asleep at the table.
In this example, the subject we follows the verb were.

3. Interrogative adverbs

The adverbs how, when, where and why can be used as interrogative adverbs at the beginning of direct questions. The interrogative adverbs in the following direct questions are printed in bold type.
e.g. How are you?
When is he coming?
Where were you?
Why did you say that?

As shown in these examples, inverted word order must be used, with the subject following the Simple Past or Simple Present of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary. In the case of the Simple Present and Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, the auxiliary to do must be used. In the following examples, the subjects are underlined.
e.g. How is your sister?
When did you see him?
Where is she going?
Why has he changed his mind?

In these examples, the subject sister follows the verb is, and the subjects you, she and he follow the auxiliaries did, is and has, respectively.

See Exercise 10.

As well as being used as interrogative adjectives at the beginning of direct questions, how, when, where and why can also be used at the beginning of subordinate clauses. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. Be ready to start when you hear the signal.
He camped close to where the brook flows into the lake.
In the first example, when you hear the signal is an adverb clause of time. In the second example, where the brook flows into the lake is an adverb clause of location.

In addition to being used at the beginning of adverb clauses, how, when, where and why can also be used at the beginning of indirect questions. In the following examples, the indirect questions are underlined.
e.g. I want to know how he did that.
I wonder when they will arrive.
Please tell me where the school is.
I will ask why she left early.

As pointed out previously, inverted word order is not used in indirect questions. Thus, the subject of an indirect question precedes the verb. In the following examples, the subjects are underlined.
e.g. We should find out how the information was transmitted.
Ask her when she will be here.
I wonder where they are.
Please find out why he could not come with us.
In these examples, the subjects information, she, they and he precede the verbs was transmitted, will be, are and could come.

See Exercise 11.

EXERCISES for Chapter 24

1. Rewrite each of the following sentences, placing the adverb of frequency given in brackets in the middle position of the main clause. For example:
She is late for work. (rarely)
She is rarely late for work.

We visit him on Sundays. (sometimes)
We sometimes visit him on Sundays.

I have read that book before. (never)
I have never read that book before.

Yes, I do. (usually)
Yes, I usually do.

1. I had wanted to see the ocean. (always)
2. They do. (frequently)
3. She is very friendly. (usually)
4. They have the opportunity to travel. (seldom)
5. I am at home in the mornings. (generally)
6. He has. (always)
7. We were given free transportation to the school. (frequently)
8. Birds return to the place where they were born to build their nests. (often)
9. Albatrosses are seen close to shore. (seldom)
10. We would. (never)
11. They follow the news. (rarely)
12. Maple wood is used to make violins. (sometimes)
Answers

2. Rewrite each of the following sentences, placing the adverb of frequency given in brackets in the middle position of the main clause. For example:
Have you visited New York? (ever)
Have you ever visited New York?

I do not go to the library on the weekend. (always)
I do not always go to the library on the weekend.

1. He did not arrive on time. (ever)
2. Do you visit Boston? (often)
3. Are they surprised at the results? (frequently)
4. The children do not follow our instructions. (always)
5. Do you wonder what will happen next? (sometimes)
6. Did they find the missing information? (ever)
7. We do not stay out after dark. (usually)
8. The facts are not known. (generally)
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, place the adverbs given in brackets in their most usual positions in the sentence. Place connecting adverbs in the beginning position, place adverbs of frequency in the middle position, and place adverbs of manner and adverbs of time in the end position. Adverbs of manner should precede adverbs of time. For example:
They left. (early, usually)
They usually left early.

We proceeded. (cautiously, therefore)
Therefore, we proceeded cautiously.

We will review our options. (tomorrow, carefully)
We will review our options carefully tomorrow.

1. We pick the flowers. (carefully, usually)
2. She answers. (correctly, rarely)
3. He is wrong. (however, seldom)
4. We will attend the concert. (therefore, tonight)
5. We found the hotel. (easily, nevertheless)
6. They left. (quietly, this morning)
7. She wins first prize. (always, furthermore)
8. He finished. (late, often)
9. We reached the station. (quickly, consequently)
10. You speak. (loudly, never)
11. We would have gone to the beach. (otherwise, yesterday)
12. They worked. (quickly, today)
13. I want to analyze the book. (carefully, sometime)
14. We arrive. (early, sometimes)
Answers

4. The following sentences do not contain verbs of motion. Complete each sentence by placing the adverbs and adverb phrases given in brackets in the end position, in the following order:
Adverb of Manner
Adverb of Location
Adverb of Time
Adverb of Purpose

For example:
The tickets sold. (at the box office, quickly, this afternoon)
The tickets sold quickly at the box office this afternoon.

I bought some film. (to photograph the parade, at the store, yesterday)
I bought some film at the store yesterday to photograph the parade.

1. We ate. (at the restaurant, well, yesterday evening)
2. They will be. (next month, on business, in France)
3. The children whispered. (on Christmas Eve, excitedly, in front of the tree)
4. We hung the picture. (on the wall, carefully)
5. The birds twittered. (this morning, outside the window, loudly)
6. The boys and girls waited. (for the parade to pass by, impatiently)
7. We slept. (all afternoon, on the grass, soundly)
8. The choir sang. (last week, beautifully, at the competition)
9. We watched the skaters. (to determine who might win the competition, avidly, this morning)
10. The moon shone. (over the water, long after the sun had set, brilliantly)
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to whether or not the sentence contains a verb of motion, place the adverbs and adverb phrases given in brackets in the correct order in the end position of the sentence. For example:
He lived. (for six years, happily, in Copenhagen)
He lived happily in Copenhagen for six years.

They returned. (from Holland, last week, unexpectedly)
They returned from Holland unexpectedly last week.

1. They stood. (at the bus stop, for twenty minutes, patiently)
2. We arrived. (here, last night, on foot)
3. The young child walked. (by herself, this morning, to school)
4. They were waiting. (at seven o'clock, eagerly, outside the fairgrounds)
5. She arrived. (in a black limousine, at the hotel)
6. Chickadees build their nests. (in dense evergreens, in the early spring, secretively)
7. The waves crashed. (against the shore, loudly)
8. I walked. (in the rain, to work, yesterday)
9. He sat. (until the announcements were finished, on the edge of his chair, expectantly)
10. We left. (this morning, home, in a hurry)
11. She went. (by bus, downtown, today)
12. They talked. (for an hour, animatedly, on the front lawn)
Answers

6. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with is or are, as appropriate. For example:
Here __ one of the computations.
Here is one of the computations.

There ___ all of the results.
There are all of the results.

1. There _______ his brother and sister.
2. Here _______ the news.
3. There _______ several of her classmates.
4. Here _______ both of the disks.
5. There _______ a pair of pliers.
6. Here _______ a few chocolates.
7. Here _______ a box of eggs.
8. There _______ two of the books.
9. Here _______ another of the magazines.
10. Here _______ some of the answers.
ii. There _______ one of his brothers.
12. Here _______ the essays.
Answers

7. Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the underlined phrases with personal pronouns, and changing the word order as necessary. For example:
Over the treetops sailed the kite.
Over the treetops it sailed.

Here comes our teacher.
Here he comes.

1. Up the stairs dashed the reporter.
2. Onto the stage glided the ballerina.
3. Here is the butter.
4. There go the geese.
5. To and fro rode the girl on the horse.
6. Here come the children.
7. High in the heavens shone the lights of a million stars.
8. There goes the train.
9. Into the hotel darted the boy.
10. Here are your keys.
11. Over the grass rolled the ball.
12. There is my aunt.
Answers

8. The following sentences are incorrect, because each contains a double negative. Each sentence can be corrected by omitting or altering one of the negative expressions. Write two corrected versions for each sentence. For example:
We have not got no sugar.
We have got no sugar.
or We have not got any sugar.

I have never seen nothing like it before.
I have seen nothing like it before.
or I have never seen anything like it before.

1. He does not need no advice.
2. We never go nowhere interesting.
3. I did not get none of the answers right.
4. She does not know nothing.
5. We had not met neither of the boys before.
6. They did not do no harm.
7. He never speaks to nobody.
8. You do not have no reason to behave like that.
9. I do not know nothing about it.
10. I do not have no time for such things.
Answers

9. For each of the following sentences, add the negative expression shown in brackets at the beginning of the sentence, and make any other changes that are necessary. For example:
I had reached home when I remembered the message. (hardly)
Hardly had I reached home when I remembered the message.

We had the opportunity to do whatever we wanted. (seldom)
Seldom did we have the opportunity to do whatever we wanted.

1. We had entered the room when the telephone rang. (scarcely)
2. I have seen a more beautiful ballet than that one. (never)
3. We realized that a dangerous stretch of road lay ahead of us. (little)
4. I have worked as hard as I could. (never before)
5. A writer can express his exact feelings in words. (rarely)
6. We perceive everything that is around us. (hardly ever)
7. One can find a more striking example of erosion than the Grand Canyon. (nowhere)
8. They guessed what was about to happen. (little)
9. I am entirely satisfied with my situation. (seldom)
10. One comprehends a complex situation immediately. (rarely)
Answers

10. Paying attention to the correct word order, rewrite the underlined indirect questions as direct questions. For example:
I would like to know why you are here.
Why are you here?

I wonder how often he comes here.
How often does he come here?

Tell me where you have been.
Where have you been?

1. I want to know how much money you collected.
2. I wonder where they were.
3. Tell me why I should attend the meeting.
4. I would like to know when he finds time for his hobbies.
5. Do you know why she left school?
6. I am curious to know how many times you have seen this movie.
7. Will you tell me when you completed the assignment?
8. He will ask how long it will take.
9. Tell me where you are.
10. I wonder why she did not reply.
11. Find out when the bank opens.
12. Can you tell me where she is staying?
Answers

11. Paying attention to the correct word order, use the phrases given in brackets to rewrite the following direct questions as indirect questions. For example:
Where is the nearest store? (Please find out)
Please find out where the nearest store is.

How many boxes of paper did he order? (We need to know)
We need to know how many boxes of paper he ordered.

Why has she not finished the assignment? (I will ask her)
I will ask her why she has not finished the assignment.

1. Why is the information not here? (Please tell me)
2. When will they finish work? (Did you ask)
3. Where has she studied? (I wonder)
4. How many pounds of cherries did you sell? (Tell us)
5. Why was the meeting cancelled? (Will you tell me)
6. How long will the trip take? (I wonder)
7. How is he? (Did you hear)
8. Why do they have difficulty with the work? (I wonder)
9. When does she plan to leave? (Ask her)
10. How much time do you have? (Please let me know)
11. Where is the post office? (I am not sure)
12. Where did you buy that book? (Tell me)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 24

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. I had always wanted to see the ocean. 2. They frequently do. 3. She is usually very friendly. 4. They seldom have the opportunity to travel. 5. I am generally at home in the mornings. 6. He always has. 7. We were frequently given free transportation to the school. 8. Birds often return to the place where they were born to build their nests. 9. Albatrosses are seldom seen close to shore. 10. We never would. 11. They rarely follow the news. 12. Maple wood is sometimes used to make violins.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. He did not ever arrive on time. 2. Do you often visit Boston? 3. Are they frequently surprised at the results? 4. The children do not always follow our instructions. 5. Do you sometimes wonder what will happen next? 6. Did they ever find the missing information? 7. We do not usually stay out after dark. 8. The facts are not generally known.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. We usually pick the flowers carefully. 2. She rarely answers correctly. 3. However, he is seldom wrong. 4. Therefore, we will attend the concert tonight. 5. Nevertheless, we found the hotel easily. 6. They left quietly this morning. 7. Furthermore, she always wins first prize. 8. He often finished late. 9. Consequently, we reached the station quickly. 10. You never speak loudly. 11. Otherwise, we would have gone to the beach yesterday. 12. They worked quickly today. 13. I want to analyze the book carefully sometime. 14. We sometimes arrive early.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. We ate well at the restaurant yesterday evening. 2. They will be in France next month on business. 3. The children whispered excitedly in front of the tree on Christmas Eve. 4. We hung the picture carefully on the wall. 5. The birds twittered loudly outside the window this morning. 6. The boys and girls waited impatiently for the parade to pass by. 7. We slept soundly on the grass all afternoon. 8. The choir sang beautifully at the competition last week. 9. We watched the skaters avidly this morning, to determine who might win the competition. 10. The moon shone brilliantly over the water long after the sun had set.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. They stood patiently at the bus stop for twenty minutes. 2. We arrived here on foot last night. 3. The young child walked to school by herself this morning. 4. They were waiting eagerly outside the fairgrounds at seven o'clock. 5. She arrived at the hotel in a black limousine. 6. Chickadees build their nests secretively in dense evergreens in the early spring. 7. The waves crashed loudly against the shore. 8. I walked to work in the rain yesterday. 9. He sat expectantly on the edge of his chair until the announcements were finished. 10. We left home in a hurry this morning. 11. She went downtown by bus today. 12. They talked animatedly on the front lawn for an hour.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. are 2. is 3. are 4. are 5. is 6. are 7. is 8. are 9. is 10. are 11. is 12. are

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. Up the stairs he (or she) dashed. 2. Onto the stage she glided. 3. Here it is. 4. There they go. 5. To and fro she rode. 6. Here they come. 7. High in the heavens they shone. 8. There it goes. 9. Into the hotel he darted. 10. Here they are. 11. Over the grass it rolled. 12. There she is.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. He needs no advice. or He does not need any advice. 2. We go nowhere interesting. or We never go anywhere interesting. 3. I got none of the answers right. or I did not get any of the answers right. 4. She knows nothing. or She does not know anything. 5. We had met neither of the boys before. or We had not met either of the boys before. 6. They did no harm. or They did not do any harm. 7. He speaks to nobody. or He never speaks to anybody. 8. You have no reason to behave like that. or You do not have any reason to behave like that. 9. I know nothing about it. or I do not know anything about it. 10. I have no time for such things. or I do not have any time for such things.

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. Scarcely had we entered the room when the telephone rang. 2. Never have I seen a more beautiful ballet than that one. 3. Little did we realize that a dangerous stretch of road lay ahead of us. 4. Never before have I worked as hard as I could. 5. Rarely can a writer express his exact feelings in words. 6. Hardly ever do we perceive everything that is around us. 7. Nowhere can one find a more striking example of erosion than the Grand Canyon. 8. Little did they guess what was about to happen. 9. Seldom am I entirely satisfied with my situation. 10. Rarely does one comprehend a complex situation immediately.

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. How much money did you collect? 2. Where were they? 3. Why should I attend the meeting? 4. When does he find time for his hobbies? 5. Why did she leave school? 6. How many times have you seen this movie? 7. When did you complete the assignment? 8. How long will it take? 9. Where are you? 10. Why did she not reply? 11. When does the bank open? 12. Where is she staying?

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. Please tell me why the information is not here. 2. Did you ask when they will finish work? 3. I wonder where she has studied. 4. Tell us how many pounds of cherries you sold. 5. Will you tell me why the meeting was cancelled? 6. I wonder how long the trip will take. 7. Did you hear how he is? 8. I wonder why they have difficulty with the work. 9. Ask her when she plans to leave. 10. Please let me know how much time you have. 11. I am not sure where the post office is. 12. Tell me where you bought that book.

CHAPTER 25.  ADVERBS OF MANNER AND ADVERBS USED IN COMPARISONS

1. Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner are the largest group of adverbs. Most adverbs of manner are closely related to corresponding adjectives. Although some words can be used as either adjectives or adverbs, in most cases, adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives.

a. Spelling rules for adding ly
In most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

bad

badly

complete

completely

normal

normally

surprising

surprisingly

i. Adjectives ending in ic
However, when the adjective ends in ic, the syllable al is usually added before the ly ending. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

dramatic

dramatically

scientific

scientifically

specific

specifically

ii. Adjectives ending in le
When the adjective ends in le preceded by a consonant, the final e is usually changed to y, to form the ly ending. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

favorable

favorably

humble

humbly

simple

simply

When the adjective ends in le preceded by a vowel, in most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

agile

agilely

sole

solely

However, in the case of the adjective whole, the final e is removed before the ending ly is added:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

whole

wholly

iii. Adjectives ending in ll
When the adjective ends in ll, only y is added. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

dull

dully

full

fully

shrill

shrilly

iv. Adjectives ending in ue
When the adjective ends in ue, the final e is usually omitted before the ending ly is added. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

due

duly

true

truly

v. Adjectives ending in y
When the adjective ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is usually changed to i before the ending ly is added. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

busy

busily

easy

easily

happy

happily

However, in the case of the adjectives shy and sly, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

shy

shyly

sly

slyly

When the adjective ends in y preceded by a vowel, in most cases, ly is simply added to the positive form of the adjective. For example:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

coy

coyly

grey

greyly

However, in the case of the adjective gay, y is changed to i before the ending ly is added:

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

gay

gaily

See Exercise 1.

It should be noted that while most adverbs which end in ly are adverbs of manner, other types of adverb may also end in ly. For instance, consequently and subsequently are connecting adverbs. The following are adverbs of frequency which are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives.

Adjective

Adverb of Frequency

frequent

frequently

rare

rarely

usual

usually

b. Adverbs which do not use the ending ly
The adverb of manner well appears unrelated to the corresponding adjective, good. Good and well both have the comparative form better and the superlative form best.

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

good

well

It should be noted that in addition to being used as an adverb, the word well can also be used as an adjective with the meaning healthy. The adjective well is most often used as a predicate adjective.
e.g. Well used as an Adjective: I hope you are well.
Well used as an Adverb: He did well on the examination.
In the first example, well is a predicate adjective, modifying the pronoun you. In the second example, well is an adverb of manner, modifying the verb did.

The following table gives examples of adverbs of manner, location, time and frequency which have the same forms as the corresponding adjectives.

Adjective

Adverb of Manner

fast

fast

hard

hard

little

little

loud

loud or loudly

much

much

straight

straight

Adjective

Adverb of Location

far

far

high

high

low

low

near

near

wide

wide

Adjective

Adverb of Time

early

early

first

first

late

late

long

long

Adjective

Adverb of Frequency

daily

daily

monthly

monthly

weekly

weekly

yearly

yearly

See Exercise 2.

It should also be noted that there are several adjectives ending in ly which have no corresponding adverbs:

friendly
likely
lively
lonely
silly
ugly

When it is desired to use one of these words to modify a verb, an adverb phrase of manner may be used. In the following examples, the adverb phrases are underlined.
e.g. He behaved in a friendly manner.
They acted in a silly way.

The following table gives examples of pairs of adverbs which are closely related, but which have different meanings.

Adverbs With and Without ly Endings

Adverb

Meaning

Adverb

Meaning

hard

with effort

hardly

scarcely

high

opposite of low

highly

very; very well

late

opposite of early

lately

recently

near

opposite of far

nearly

almost

wide

opposite of narrow

widely

commonly

The meanings of these adverbs are illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. I worked hard.
I have hardly enough time to finish.

He threw the ball high into the air.
He is highly successful in what he does.

The class began late.
The weather has been cold lately.

I held my breath as the squirrel crept near to get the nuts.
I have nearly finished reading the book.

I opened the door wide.
That theory is widely believed.

c. The differing functions of adjectives and adverbs
When an adverb differs in form from a corresponding adjective, it is necessary to distinguish between the functions of adjectives and adverbs in order to determine which form should be used in a given situation.

Whereas adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and expressions which serve the same grammatical functions as nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

i. Adjectives which modify nouns compared with adverbs which modify verbs
The following examples illustrate the distinction which must be made between adjectives which modify nouns and adverbs which modify verbs. The adjectives and adverbs are printed in bold type, and the words which are modified are underlined.
e.g. Adjective: It has been a quiet afternoon.
Adverb: The afternoon passed quietly.

Adjective: She is a good musician.
Adverb: She plays the flute very well.

In the first pair of sentences, the adjective quiet modifies the noun afternoon, whereas the adverb quietly modifies the verb passed. In the second pair of sentences, the adjective good modifies the noun musician, whereas the adverb well modifies the verb plays.

In informal English, adjectives are sometimes used to modify verbs.
e.g. She plays good.
In this example, the adjective good is used to modify the verb plays. However, this use of adjectives is considered to be grammatically incorrect.

See Exercise 3.

ii. Adjectives which modify nouns compared with adverbs which modify adjectives
The following examples illustrate the distinction which must be made between adjectives which modify nouns and adverbs which modify adjectives.
e.g. Adjective: a large wooden building
Adverb: a largely wooden building

Adjective: conspicuous dark clouds
Adverb: conspicuously dark clouds

In the first pair of phrases, the adjective large modifies the noun building, and the adverb largely modifies the adjective wooden. Thus, the phrase a large wooden building has the meaning a big wooden building, whereas the phrase a largely wooden building has the meaning a building mostly made of wood.

In the second pair of phrases, the adjective conspicuous modifies the noun clouds, and the adverb conspicuously modifies the adjective dark. Thus, the phrase conspicuous dark clouds means that the clouds themselves are noticeable; whereas the phrase conspicuously dark clouds means that the darkness of the clouds is noticeable.

See Exercise 4.

iii. Predicate adjectives which modify the subjects of verbs compared with adverbs which modify verbs
As pointed out previously, certain verbs, called linking verbs, can be followed by predicate adjectives. A distinction must be made between predicate adjectives which modify the subjects of linking verbs, and adverbs which modify verbs.

A few linking verbs, such as the verb to be, can be followed by predicate adjectives, but cannot be modified by adverbs of manner. In the following examples using the verb to be, the nouns which are modified are underlined.
e.g. He is happy.
The wind was strong.
In these examples, the predicate adjectives happy and strong modify the subjects he and wind.

However, there are several verbs which can be used either as linking verbs followed by predicate adjectives, or as non-linking verbs modified by adverbs of manner. The following examples illustrate the use of the verb to appear as a linking verb and as a non-linking verb.
e.g. Linking Verb: His uncle appeared kind.
Non-linking Verb: His uncle appeared punctually at ten o'clock.

In the first example, kind is a predicate adjective which modifies the noun uncle. In the second example, punctually is an adverb of manner which modifies the verb appeared.

The verbs below can be used either as linking or non-linking verbs:

to appear

to become

to feel

to grow

to look

to remain

to smell

to sound

to taste

to turn

If the subject of the verb is to be modified, a predicate adjective is required after such verbs; whereas if the verb is to be modified, an adverb is required. In the pairs of examples below, the verbs to grow, to look and to turn are used first as linking verbs followed by adjectives, and then as non-linking verbs modified by adverbs. The adjectives and adverbs are printed in bold type, and the words which are modified are underlined.

e.g. Adjective: As he became old, he grew slow at remembering dates.
Adverb: The tree grew slowly.

Adjective: They looked anxious.
Adverb: We looked anxiously up the street.

Adjective: The weather turned cold.
Adverb: She turned coldly away from the salesman.

In these examples, the predicate adjectives slow, anxious and cold modify the subjects he, they and weather; whereas the adverbs of manner slowly, anxiously and coldly modify the verbs grew, looked and turned.

See Exercise 5.

2. Adverbs used in comparisons

a. The formation of comparative and superlative forms of adverbs
It should be noted that many adverbs, such as sometimes, never, here, there, now, then, first, again, yesterday and daily have no comparative or superlative forms.

i. Adverbs used with More and Most
Most adverbs used in comparisons, including those formed from corresponding adjectives by adding the ending ly, form the comparative with the word more, and the superlative with the word most. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

carefully

more carefully

most carefully

easily

more easily

most easily

frequently

more frequently

most frequently

slowly

more slowly

most slowly

softly

more softly

most softly

ii. Adverbs used with the endings er and est
Adverbs which have the same positive forms as corresponding adjectives generally also have the same comparative and superlative forms as the corresponding adjectives. For example:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

early

earlier

earliest

fast

faster

fastest

hard

harder

hardest

high

higher

highest

late

later

latest

long

longer

longest

low

lower

lowest

near

nearer

nearest

straight

straighter

straightest

The adverb of time soon also uses the endings er and est:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

soon

sooner

soonest

It should be noted that adverbs formed by adding ly to one-syllable adjectives are sometimes used with the endings er and est.
e.g. We walked slower and slower.
They sang the softest.

However, in modern English, it is generally considered to be more correct to write:
We walked more and more slowly.
They sang the most softly.

iii. Irregular adverbs
The irregular adverbs have the same comparative and superlative forms as the corresponding irregular adjectives:

Positive Form

Comparative Form

Superlative Form

badly

worse

worst

far

farther or further

farthest or furthest

little

less

least

much

more

most

well

better

best

b. Positive forms of adverbs used in comparisons
The constructions employed when adverbs are used in comparisons are very similar to those employed when adjectives are used in comparisons.

i. The construction with As ... As
When used in making comparisons, the positive form of an adverb is usually preceded and followed by as. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

as   +

positive form   +

as

of adverb

I can run

as

fast

as

you can.

He moves

as

slowly

as

a snail.

Her eyes shone

as

brightly

as

stars.

If desired, an adverb may be placed before the first occurrence of as:

adverb   +

as   +

positive form   +

as

of adverb

I can run

twice

as

fast

as

you can.

Her eyes shone

almost

as

brightly

as

stars.

ii. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is often employed in comparisons using adverbs. For instance, in the second half of such comparisons, instead of repeating the verb, the first auxiliary may be used, or the verb may be omitted entirely. In the following examples, the words which would usually be omitted are enclosed in square brackets.
e.g. I can run as fast as you can [run].
He moves as slowly as a snail [moves].
Her eyes shone as brightly as stars [shine].

c. Comparative forms of adverbs used in comparisons

i. The construction with Than
When used in making comparisons, the comparative form of an adverb is usually followed by than. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

comparative form   +

than

of adverb

He can swim

farther

than

I can.

She sings

more beautifully

than

her sister does.

As is the case with comparisons using adjectives, comparisons using adverbs can be combined with phrases or clauses.
e.g. She performs better in front of an audience than she does in rehearsal.
They walked faster when they were on their way to school than they did
when they were on their way home.

In the first example, the two situations being compared are distinguished by the phrases in front of an audience and in rehearsal. In the second example, the two situations being compared are distinguished by the clauses when they were on their way to school and when they were on their way home. The use of ellipsis should be noted. In the first example, the auxiliary does is used instead of repeating the verb performs. In the second example, the auxiliary did is used instead of repeating the verb walked.

See Exercise 6.

ii. Progressive comparisons
The comparative forms of adverbs can be used in progressive comparisons. For adverbs with the ending er, the following construction is used:

comparative form   +

and   +

comparative form

of adverb

of adverb

e.g.   The plane flew

higher

and

higher.

The team performed

better

and

better.

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows:
e.g. The plane flew increasingly high.
The team performed increasingly well.

For adverbs which form the comparative with more, the following construction is used:

more   +

and   +

more   +

positive form

of adverb

He solved the problems

more

and

more

easily.

We visited them

more

and

more

frequently.

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows:
e.g. He solved the problems increasingly easily.
We visited them increasingly frequently.

iii. The construction with Less and Less
A similar construction, employing the expression less and less, can also be used. The expressions less and less and more and more have opposite meanings.

less   +

and   +

less   +

positive form

of adverb

He solved the problems

less

and

less

easily.

We visited them

less

and

less

frequently.

The meanings expressed in these examples can also be expressed as follows:
e.g. He solved the problems decreasingly easily.
We visited them decreasingly frequently.

See Exercise 7.

iv. The construction with The ..., the ...
Two clauses, each beginning with the, and each containing a comparative form of an adjective or adverb, can be used together in order to indicate a cause and effect relationship between two different things or events. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

comparative

1st part of

comparative

2nd part of

The   +

form of adverb   +

comparison,   +

the   +

form of adverb   +

comparison

or adjective

or adjective

The

more

they eat,

the

fatter

they get.

The

faster

we skated,

the

warmer

we felt.

The following are further examples of the use of this type of construction. In these examples, the comparative forms are underlined.
e.g. The more cleverly we hid the Easter eggs, the more enthusiastically the children searched for them.
The more I scold her, the worse she behaves.
As shown in the examples, in this type of construction the two clauses beginning with the must be separated by a comma.

d. Superlative forms of adverbs used in comparisons

i. The construction with The
When used in making comparisons, the superlative form of an adverb is usually preceded by the. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples.

the   +

superlative form

of adverb

He jumped

the

highest

of all the boys in the class.

Our team plays

the

best

of all the teams in the league.

They sing

the

most sweetly

of all the choirs I have heard.

See Exercises 8 and 9.

In the case of adverbs which form the superlative with the ending est, the superlative is sometimes preceded by a possessive adjective, instead of by the definite article, the. In the following examples, the possessive adjectives are printed in bold type.
e.g. He ran his fastest.
I did my best.

ii. The construction with The Least
Adverbs may also be preceded by the expression the least. This construction is summarized below, followed by examples. The words least and most have opposite meanings.

the   +

least   +

positive form

of adverb

She speaks

the

least

loudly

of all the children.

This bus runs

the

least

often.

EXERCISES for Chapter 25

1. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the adverb which corresponds to the adjective given in brackets. For example:
The letter was ________ legible. (scarce)
The letter was scarcely legible.

He did the work as _________ as possible. (careful)
He did the work as carefully as possible.

They won the game ______. (easy)
They won the game easily.

She handled the situation very _______. (capable)
She handled the situation very capably.

I _____ expected that to happen. (full)
I fully expected that to happen.

The view was _____ magnificent. (true)
The view was truly magnificent.

The theory has never been ______________ proved. (scientific)
The theory has never been scientifically proved.

1. I was __________ impressed by their courage. (due)
2. The children chattered _____________. (noisy)
3 The sun shone _____________ behind the clouds. (pale)
4. They have settled in ______________. (comfortable)
5. He _______________ maintained his point of view. (dogmatic)
6. Everything is proceeding ___________. (normal)
7. Please drive ____________. (slow)
8. She worked _____________ until nine o'clock. (steady)
9. The cost of fuel has risen ______________. (dramatic)
10. He _____________ scrambled up the slope. (agile)
ii. Everything was explained clearly and ____________. (simple)
12. The train whistle blew ____________ at the crossing. (shrill)
13. ____________ , it stopped raining before we had to leave. (lucky)
14. She was signaling ______________. (frantic)
15. That was ____________ unexpected. (whole)
16. We arrived _____________. (punctual)
17. England is a ____________ populated country. (dense)
18. They are ___________ dependent on coal for fuel. (sole)
19. The material was produced _______________. (synthetic)
20. They ___________ agreed to the proposal. (ready)
Answers

2. For each of the following sentences, fill in the blank with the adverb which corresponds to the adjective given in brackets. For example:
He hit the ball ____. (hard)
He hit the ball hard.

The newspaper is delivered _____. (daily)
The newspaper is delivered daily.

She did ____ in the competition. (good)
She did well in the competition.

Please close the door _______. (quiet)
Please close the door quietly.

1. I drove ____________ home. (straight)
2. We came to work ____________. (early)
3. She ____________ filled in the answers. (quick)
4. He likes to drive ____________. (fast)
5. We proceeded ______________. (cautious)
6. He threw the ball ____________ into the air. (high)
7. How __________ do you know her? (good)
8. We arrived _________. (late)
9. They did the work ___________. (bad)
10. He spoke ___________. (little)
ii. The gathering is held . (annual)
12. They replied _____________. (immediate)
13. The workers met ____________. (weekly)
14. I will deal with that problem ____________. (first)
15. They were ______________ dressed for the occasion. (suitable)
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, pay attention to whether the word to be placed in the blank modifies a noun or a verb, and complete the sentence with either the adjective given in brackets or the corresponding adverb, as appropriate. For example:
It is necessary to wear _____ clothes in the winter. (thick)
It is necessary to wear thick clothes in the winter.

Snow fell _______ on the ground. (thick)
Snow fell thickly on the ground.

1. We ______________ concluded the deal. (successful)
2. He is a ______________ businessman. (successful)
3. There was a ___________ rain in the morning. (light)
4. She ran ____________ up the steps. (light)
5. The path was ____________ marked. (clear)
6. We gave him a ____________ signal to continue. (clear)
7. I ___________ disagree with you. (strong)
8. There is a ____________ wind from the north. (strong)
9. She waved _____________. (cheerful)
10. I gazed at the __________ water of the lake. (tranquil)
11. The engine operates as ______________ as possible. (efficient)
12. Is that a ____________ decision? (recent)
13. He has behaved very ______________. (responsible)
14. ____________ snow is forecast for tomorrow. (heavy)
15. I opened the door ____________ and stepped outside. (quiet)
16. Icicles hung from the ____________ needles of the pine trees. (dark)
Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, pay attention to whether the word to be placed in the blank modifies a noun or an adjective, and complete the sentence with either the adjective given in brackets or the corresponding adverb, as appropriate. For example:
A ____ wooden fence surrounded the playground. (high)
A high wooden fence surrounded the playground.

A ______ skilled worker will be required for this job. (high)
A highly skilled worker will be required for this job.

1. They have a _________ front lawn. (wide)
2. He has challenged a __________ held theory. (wide)
3. Every author likes to receive ___________ book reviews. (favorable)
4. ____________ situated farms often produce higher yields than other farms. (favorable)
5. Many ______________ incomprehensible phenomena have been explained with the help of modern science. (previous)
6. Many _____________ city councils have succeeded in balancing the budget. (previous)
7. ____________ weather conditions have prevailed for the past ten days. (unusual)
8. An ______________ large number of variables must be taken into account. (extreme)
9. ______________ few people understand the situation. (relative)
10. She wrote a ______________ short story. (humorous)
11. That was a ____________ occurring event. (frequent)
12. Our city boasts a _____________ bus service. (frequent)
13. It was a __________ Easter Sunday. (hot)
14. It was a __________ debated issue. (hot)
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, pay attention to whether the word to be placed in the blank modifies the verb or the subject of the verb, and complete the sentence with either the adjective given in brackets or the corresponding adverb, as appropriate. For example:
We tasted the soup ____________. (suspicious)
We tasted the soup suspiciously.

The meal tasted _________. (delicious)
The meal tasted delicious.

1. The moon appeared ____________ between the clouds. (brief)
2. He looked ______________. (happy)
3. He looked ______________ at the timetable. (attentive)
4. We felt ____________ after supper. (sleepy)
5. After the lights went out, we felt our way ____________ to our rooms. (sleepy)
6. The maple tree grew ____________. (quick)
7. The sky grew ____________. (dark)
8. He became ______________ at the thought of giving a speech. (excited)
9. She became a teacher ______________ after graduating. (immediate)
10. The pastries smelled ____________. (sweet)
11. We ____________ smelled the aroma of fresh bread. (eager)
Answers

6. Rewrite the following sentences as comparisons, using the comparative form of the adverb, and the word than. For each sentence, use the word or words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
The living room was furnished elegantly. (the study)
The living room was furnished more elegantly than the study.

Because they were nervous, they performed badly. (they should have)
Because they were nervous, they performed worse than they should have.

1. The train travels fast. (the bus)
2. In the morning, the sun shone brightly. (in the afternoon)
3. The footpath runs straight. (the road)
4. Joe sings badly. (Rick)
5. I got up early. (you did)
6. The wild deer came near. (I had expected)
7. Her son plays the violin well. (her daughter does)
8. Captain Cook sailed far. (Columbus did)
9. You are late. (the others)
10. The stream flows swiftly. (the river)
11. She studies hard. (her classmates)
12. The project was completed successfully. (we had anticipated)
Answers

7. Rewrite the following sentences, using progressive comparisons instead of the adverb increasingly, and using the expression less and less instead of the adverb decreasingly. For example:
The rain fell increasingly heavily.
The rain fell more and more heavily.

The wind blew increasingly hard.
The wind blew harder and harder.

Finally, the rain drummed decreasingly loudly on the roof.
Finally, the rain drummed less and less loudly on the roof.

1. As the evening wore on, we spoke decreasingly animatedly.
2. The spectators cheered increasingly loudly.
3. The chirping of the crickets disturbed us increasingly little.
4. As he grew older, he walked increasingly far.
5. The new shuttle service functioned increasingly reliably.
6. The sun shone decreasingly intensely.
7. As I became tired, I wrote increasingly slowly.
8. The boy learned to read increasingly well.
Answers

8. Rewrite each of the following sentences, changing the positive form of the adverb to the superlative form, and using the definite article the. Use the words given in brackets as the second part of the comparison. For example:
This window opens easily. (of all the windows in the room)
This window opens the most easily of all the windows in the room.

He plays this piece well. (of anyone in the band)
He plays this piece the best of anyone in the band.

1. She understood the lesson readily. (of all the pupils in the class)
2. This kite flies badly. (of all the kites I have ever made)
3. That train leaves early. (of all the trains departing from this station)
4. Last night it snowed hard. (of any night in the year)
5. The potato field produces little. (of all the fields on the farm)
6. This highway runs straight. (of all the highways in the country)
7. She speaks quietly. (of all the people I know)
8. The bass sings low. (of all the singers)
9. Eagles fly high. (of all the birds which live in the mountains)
10. She prepares meals well. (of all the students in the class)
11. They regard his proposal favorably. (of all the proposals they have received)
12. Bill ran far. (of all the boys)
13. His arrow came near. (to the center of the target)
14. This bus travels slowly. (of all the buses)
Answers

9. Paying attention to the sentence structure, complete each of the following sentences correctly by filling in the blank with the positive, comparative, or superlative form of the adverb given in brackets. For example:
We clapped as ______ as we could. (loudly)
We clapped as loudly as we could.

They arrived _____________ than they had expected. (promptly)
They arrived more promptly than we had expected.

She swam the ________ of all the girls in the school. (far)
She swam the farthest of all the girls in the school.

The more you study, the ______ you will do on the test. (well)
The more you study, the better you will do on the test.

1. Cheetahs run the _______________ of all mammals. (fast)
2. We described our experiences as ______________ as we could. (vividly)
3. The more encores she sings, the _____________________ the audience applauds. (enthusiastically)
4. He practises the ___________________ of all the members of the team. (diligently)
5. The ___________ you study, the poorer your marks will be. (little)
6. He explains his ideas ____________________ than you do. (convincingly)
7. They wrote as _________________ as possible. (intelligibly)
8. Seagulls fly ______________ than ducks do. (well)
9. Birds of prey soar the _________________ of all birds. (impressively)
10. The ______________ you exercise, the stronger you will become. (much)
11. They have traveled as __________________ as possible. (widely)
12. She examined the material __________________ than I did. (thoroughly)
13. He explains the subject the __________________ of all the teachers in the school. (well)
14. Advanced skiers complete the course twice as ________________ as beginners. (rapidly)
15. I have written out the assignment __________________ than you have. (neatly)
16. The ______________ I walk, the more refreshed I feel. (far)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 25

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. duly 2. noisily 3. palely 4. comfortably 5. dogmatically 6. normally 7. slowly 8. steadily 9. dramatically 10. agilely 11. simply 12. shrilly 13. luckily 14. frantically 15. wholly 16. punctually 17. densely 18. solely 19. synthetically 20. readily

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. straight 2. early 3. quickly 4. fast 5. cautiously 6. high 7. well 8. late 9. badly 10. little 11. annually 12. immediately 13. weekly 14. first 15. suitably

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. successfully 2. successful 3. light 4. lightly 5. clearly 6. clear 7. strongly 8. strong 9. cheerfully 10. tranquil 11. efficiently 12. recent 13. responsibly 14. Heavy 15. quietly 16. dark

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. wide 2. widely 3. favorable 4. Favorably 5. previously 6. previous 7. Unusual 8. extremely 9. Relatively 10. humorous 11. frequently 12. frequent 13. hot 14. hotly

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. briefly 2. happy 3. attentively 4. sleepy 5. sleepily 6. quickly 7. dark 8. excited 9. immediately 10. sweet 11. eagerly

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. The train travels faster than the bus. 2. In the morning, the sun shone more brightly than in the afternoon. 3. The footpath runs straighter than the road. 4. Joe sings worse than Rick. 5. I got up earlier than you did. 6. The wild deer came nearer than I had expected. 7. Her son plays the violin better than her daughter does. 8. Captain Cook sailed farther than Columbus did. 9. You are later than the others. 10. The stream flows more swiftly than the river. 11. She studies harder than her classmates. 12. The project was completed more successfully than we had anticipated.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. As the evening wore on, we spoke less and less animatedly. 2. The spectators cheered more and more loudly. 3. The chirping of the crickets disturbed us less and less. 4. As he grew older, he walked farther and farther. 5. The new shuttle service functioned more and more reliably. 6. The sun shone less and less intensely. 7. As I became tired, I wrote more and more slowly. 8. The boy learned to read better and better.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. She understood the lesson the most readily of all the pupils in the class. 2. This kite flies the worst of all the kites I have ever made. 3. That train leaves the earliest of all the trains departing from this station. 4. Last night it snowed the hardest of any night in the year. 5. The potato field produces the least of all the fields on the farm. 6. This highway runs the straightest of all the highways in the country. 7. She speaks the most quietly of all the people I know. 8. The bass sings the lowest of all the singers. 9. Eagles fly the highest of all the birds which live in the mountains. 10. She prepares meals the best of all the students in the class. 11. They regard his proposal the most favorably of all the proposals they have received. 12. Bill ran the farthest of all the boys. 13. His arrow came the nearest to the center of the target. 14. This bus travels the most slowly of all the buses.

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. fastest 2. vividly 3. more enthusiastically 4. most diligently 5. less 6. more convincingly 7. intelligibly 8. better 9. most impressively 10. more 11. widely 12. more thoroughly 13. best 14. rapidly 15. more neatly 16. farther

CHAPTER 26.  PREPOSITIONS

The words at, in, of, on and to are examples of prepositions. A word such as a noun, pronoun or gerund following a preposition is said to be the object of the preposition. As pointed out previously, a personal pronoun following a preposition must be in the objective case.

A phrase beginning with a preposition can be referred to as a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrases in the following examples are underlined.
e.g. He owns the house on the corner.
We are waiting for her.
She has read many books about flying.

In the first example, the noun corner is the object of the preposition on. In the second example, the personal pronoun her is the object of the preposition for. It can be seen that the personal pronoun her is in the objective case. In the third example, the gerund flying is the object of the preposition about.

A preposition serves to connect its object with the rest of a sentence. In doing so, a preposition indicates the relationship of the idea expressed in the prepositional phrase to the ideas expressed In the rest of the sentence.

For instance in the sentence He owns the house on the corner, the preposition on indicates that the words the corner express the location of the house referred to in the rest of the sentence. Similarly, in the sentence We are waiting for her, the preposition for indicates that the word her expresses the reason for the action of waiting referred to in the rest of the sentence.

Although there are fewer than one hundred English prepositions, although prepositions do not take endings, and although the structure of most prepositional phrases is simple, the use of English prepositions is very complex. The reasons for this are that most prepositions have more than one meaning, many prepositions can also be used as adverbs, prepositions are used in hundreds of idioms, many adjectives, nouns, and verbs must usually be followed by certain prepositions, and there are hundreds of phrasal verbs formed from combinations of verbs with adverbs and prepositions.

It should also be noted that the use of prepositions varies somewhat among the different dialects of English. For instance, as illustrated in the following example, there are some differences between British and North American English in the use of prepositions.
e.g. British Usage: There is a fence about the garden.
American Usage: There is a fence around the garden.

The discussion below emphasizes the North American usage of English prepositions.

1. The meanings of prepositions

The table below gives the most usual meanings of English prepositions. Each meaning is illustrated by an example.

About
1. On the subject of:  This is a story about elephants.
2. Approximately:  He is about ten years old.

Above
1. Higher than; over:  The plane flew above the clouds.
2. Earlier on a page:  There is a heading above each diagram.

Across
1. From one side to the other:  We walked across the field.
2. On the other side of:  There is a store across the street.

After
1. Later in time:  after ten o'clock; after lunch
2. Later in a series:  Q comes after P in the alphabet.
3. In pursuit of:  The dog ran after the cat.

Against
1. In opposition to:  Theft is against the law.
2. Touching; supported by:  I leaned my bicycle against the wall.

Along
1. Following the length of:  We walked along the road.

Among
1. Within a group:  The money was shared among three people.

Note: In formal English, among is usually used only when referring to more than two persons or things. In contrast, between is used when referring to two persons or things.

Around
1. Circling something:  We walked around the block.
2. Surrounding:  There is a fence around the garden.
3. In different parts of:  I looked around the house for the keys.
4. In the other direction:  We turned around and went back home.
5. Approximately:  He is around six feet tall.

At
1. A specific location:  at 23 Chestnut Street; at the park
2. A point in time:  at 5 o'clock; at Christmas
3. A condition:  at peace; at war; at rest
4. An activity:  at work; at school; at play
5. Towards:  Look at someone; wave at someone

Note: When referring to a specific location or to a point in time, at is usually used. When referring to a certain street or a certain day, on is usually used. When referring to a location as an area, or when referring to a unit of time longer than a day, in is usually used.
e.g. at Christmas; on Christmas day; in the Christmas holidays

Before
1. Earlier in time:  before two o'clock; before Christmas
2. Earlier in a series:  S comes before T in the alphabet.

Behind
1. At the back of:  The little girl hid behind her mother.
2. Late:  I am behind in my work.
3. Cause; origin:  Who was behind that idea?

Below
1. Lower than; under:  below freezing; below sea level
2. Later on a page:  Footnotes are provided below the text.

Beneath
1. Lower than; below:  beneath the earth

Beside
1. Next to; at the side of:  I sit beside her in class.

Besides
1. Also; as well as:  We study other languages besides English.

Note the differing meanings of beside and besides. Beside is usually used with reference to a physical location.

Between
1. An intermediate location:  Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver.
2. An intermediate time:  between Christmas and New Year's Day
3. Intermediate in a series:  B comes between A and C in the alphabet.
4. An intermediate amount:  between five and ten people
5. Within a group of two:  The money was shared between two people.

Beyond
1. Farther than:  The mountains lie beyond the horizon.
2. Further than; exceeding:  That was beyond my expectations.

But
1. Except:  I have read all but the last chapter.

Note: But is used more often as a conjunction than as a preposition.

By
1. Near:  a house by the sea
2. Past:  He waved as he drove by the house.
3. Not later than:  Try to finish the work by next week.
4. In units of:  cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight
5. Through the means of:  travel by plane; written by him

Note: By is often used in combination with verbs in the Passive Voice.

Concerning
1. Connected with; about:  He studies everything concerning trees.

Despite
1. In spite of:  We walked downtown despite the rain.

Down
1. To a lower position:  The ball rolled down the hill.
2. Further along:  He lives down the street.

During
1. Throughout a period:  She works during the day.
2. Sometime within a period:  An accident occurred during the night.

Except
1. Not including:  I have visited everyone except him.

For
1. Duration of time:  We walked for two hours.
2. Distance:  I walked for five kilometers.
3. Purpose:  I bought this jacket for you.
4. In the direction of:  She left for New York.
5. In favor of:  We are for the proposal.
6. Considering:  The boy is clever for his age.

From
1. Place of origin:  We left from Boston; he comes from Mexico
2. Start of a period of time:  from now on; from yesterday until today
3. Start of a range:  From 20 to 30 people were present.
4. Cause:  He suffers from nervousness.
5. Source:  I first heard the story from you.

In
1. Place thought of as an area:  in London; in Europe
2. Within a location:  in the room; in the building
3. Large units of time:  That happened in March, in 1992.
4. Within a certain time:  I will return in an hour.
5. By means of:  write in pencil; speak in English
6. Condition:  in doubt; in a hurry; in secret
7. A member of:  He is in the orchestra; in the navy
8. Wearing:  the boy in the blue shirt
9. With reference to:  lacking in ideas; rich in oil

Inside
1. Within:  They are inside the house.

Into
1. To the inside of:  We stepped into the room.
2. Change of condition:  The boy changed into a man.

Like
1. Resembling:  That looks like him.
2. Appearing possible:  It looks like rain.
3. Be in a suitable mood for:  I feel like going swimming.

Minus
1. Less:  Three minus two equals one.

Near
1. Close to:  near the school; near the ocean

Of
1. Location:  east of here; the middle of the road
2. Possession:  a friend of mine; the sound of music
3. Part of a group:  one of us; a member of the team
4. Measurement:  a cup of milk; two meters of snow

Off
1. Not on; away from:  Please keep off the grass.
2. At some distance from:  There are islands off the coast.

On
1. Touching the surface of:  on the table; on the wall
2. A certain day:  That happened on Sunday, on the 6th of June.
3. A certain street:  on South Street
4. About:  a book on engineering
5. A state or condition:  on strike; on fire; on holiday
6. By means of:  live on a pension; shown on television

Onto
1. To a position on:  The child climbed onto the table.

Opposite
1. Facing:  The library is opposite the fire station.

Out of
1. To the outside of:  She went out of the room.
2. From among:  We won two games out of three.
3. Motive:  We spoke to them out of politeness.
4. Material:  The bridge is made out of steel.
5. Beyond:  out of control; out of danger

Outside
1. On the outer side of:  outside the house
2. Beyond the limits of:  outside my experience

Over
1. Above; higher than:  There are cupboards over the sink.
2. Covering:  We spread an extra blanket over the bed.
3. Across:  I jumped over a puddle.
4. More than:  It cost over ten dollars; it took over an hour
5. During:  I saw him several times over the past week.
6. By means of:  We made plans over the telephone.

Past
1. Up to and beyond:  I walked past the house.
2. After (in time):  It was past 2 o'clock; half past two
3. Beyond:  past belief

Per
1. For each:  60 kilometers per hour; price per liter

Plus
1. With the addition of:  Six plus four equals ten.

Since
1. From a specific time in the past:  I had been waiting since two o'clock.
2. From a past time until now:  I have been waiting here since noon.

Note: Because of its meaning, the preposition since is usually used in combination with a perfect tense. It should be noted that the preposition for can also be used with a perfect tense. However, when used with reference to time, for is usually followed by a phrase referring to a period of time; whereas since is usually followed by a phrase referring to a specific time.
e.g. I have known him for six months.
I have known him since January.
In the first example, for is followed by six months, which refers to a period of time. In the second example, since is followed by January, which refers to a specific time.

Through
1. Across; from end to end of:  the main road through town
2. For the whole of a period:  I slept through the night.
3. By means of:  Skill improves through practice.

Throughout
1. In every part of:  throughout the world
2. For the whole of a period:  throughout the winter

Till
Note: Till can be used instead of until. However, at the beginning of a sentence, until is usually used.

To
1. In the direction of:  Turn to the right.
2. Destination:  I am going to Rome.
3. Until:  from Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten
4. Compared with:  They prefer hockey to soccer.
5. With indirect object:  Please give it to me.
6. As part of infinitive:  I like to ski; he wants to help.
7. In order to:  We went to the store to buy soap.

Toward (or Towards)
1. In the direction of:  We walked toward the center of town.
2. Near; just before (time):  It rained towards evening.

Under
1. Beneath:  under the desk; under the trees
2. Less than:  Under 100 people were present.
3. In circumstances of:  under repair; under way; under discussion

Underneath
1. Below, under:  underneath the carpet

Until
1. Up to a certain time:  She will stay until Friday; until 5 p.m.

Upon
Note: On and upon have similar meanings. Upon may be used in certain expressions, as in once upon a time, and following certain verbs, as in to rely upon someone.

Up
1. To a higher place:  We went up the stairs.
2. In a higher place:  She lives up the hill.

Up to
1. As far as:  up to now; I have read up to page 100.
2. Depending on:  The decision is up to you.
3. As good as; ready for:  His work is up to standard.

Versus
1. Against (sports, legal):  The next game is England versus Australia.

Via
1. By way of:  He went to Los Angeles via San Francisco.

With
1. Accompanying:  He came with her; I have my keys with me.
2. Having; containing:  Here is a book with a map of the island.
3. By means of; using:  I repaired the shoes with glue.
4. Manner:  with pleasure; with ease; with difficulty
5. Because of:  We were paralyzed with fear.

Within
1. Inside of:  within twenty minutes; within one kilometer

Without
1. Not having:  Do not leave without your coat; without money

See Exercises 1 and 2.

2. Prepositions used in idioms

Below are examples of idioms consisting of prepositional phrases. The following selection of idioms emphasizes those used in North American English. The meaning of each idiom is indicated after the colon.

At
not at all:  not in any way
at all times:  always
at any rate:  whatever happens
keep someone at arm's length:  avoid becoming closely involved with someone
at close quarters:  very near
at one's disposal:  to be used as one wishes
at a distance:  not near
at fault:  causing something wrong
at first:  at the beginning
see at a glance:  see immediately
at hand:  near; readily available
at last:  finally, after some delay
at a loss:  uncertain what to do or say
at the mercy of:  without defense against
at the moment:  now
at once:  immediately
at present:  now
at rest:  not moving
at risk:  threatened by danger or loss
at short notice:  with little warning
at stake:  to be won or lost
at a stretch:  continuously
at that rate:  under those circumstances
at this point:  at this place; at this moment
at the wheel:  in control

Behind
behind the scenes:  (of persons) influencing events secretly; (in a theater) behind the stage
behind schedule:  not on time

Beside
be beside oneself:  lose one's self-control
beside the point:  irrelevant

Between
read between the lines:  deduce a meaning that is not actually expressed

Beyond
beyond help:  unable to be helped
beyond a joke:  too annoying to be amusing
beyond reproach:  perfect; blameless

By
by accident:  not deliberately
by all means:  by any possible method
bit by bit:  gradually
by chance:  by accident; without planning
by courtesy of:  with the help or permission of
win by default:  win because of lack of competition
by degrees:  gradually
perform by ear:  perform (music) by listening to the sound, without referring to written music
by hand:  without the use of machinery
by heart:  from memory
little by little:  gradually
by means of:  by using
by mistake:  accidentally
by no means:  not at all
one by one:  one at a time
by oneself:  alone
side by side:  beside one another
by the way:  incidentally (used to introduce an unrelated topic of conversation)
by word of mouth:  orally

For
once and for all:  for the last time (e.g. used when giving someone a final warning)
for certain:  definitely; without doubt
for a change:  for the sake of variety
for example:  as an illustration
for fun:  for the sake of enjoyment
for good:  permanently
for good measure:  in addition to the necessary amount
for instance:  for example; as an illustration
for keeps:  (colloquial) permanently
for a living:  as a profession
for now:  temporarily
run for office:  compete for an elected position
for one thing:  because of one reason (out of several)
for the sake of:  for the benefit of; for the purpose of
for sale:  intended to be sold
for sure:  definitely (more colloquial than for certain)
food for thought:  something which makes one think
play for time:  delay doing something in the hope that the situation will improve
for the time being:  until some other arrangement is made
ask for trouble:  act in a dangerous or foolish way
for a while:  for a period of time
word for word:  exactly as said or written

From
from afar:  from a distance
from all sides:  from all directions
from head to foot:  (of a person) completely; all over
from scratch:  from the beginning
from time to time:  occasionally

In
in addition to:  as well as
in advance:  before
be in agreement with:  have the same opinion as
in any case:  whatever happens
in brief:  in a few words
in bulk:  (of goods) in large amounts; not in packages
be in charge of:  have responsibility for
in common:  shared by all members of a group
in control:  having the power to direct something
in the course of:  during
in danger:  likely to be harmed
in a daze:  unable to think clearly; confused
in debt:  owing money
in demand:  (of goods or persons) desired by many people
in depth:  (investigate something) thoroughly
in detail:  (explain something) thoroughly
in disgrace:  regarded with disapproval because of having done something wrong
in the distance:  far away
in doubt:  uncertain
in duplicate:  so that there are two identical copies (of a document)
in earnest:  seriously; in a determined way
in effect:  (of rules) operating
in the end:  finally
in fact:  in reality; really
in fashion:  fashionable; accepted as being the most desirable and up to date
in favor of:  supporting (an idea)
in flames:  burning, with visible flames
in a flash:  very quickly; suddenly
in full:  without omitting anything
in general:  usually; as a whole
hand in hand:  (of persons) holding hands; (of related situations) occurring together
in a hurry:  trying to accomplish something quickly
in jest:  as a joke
in kind:  (payment) in goods rather than in money
in itself:  without reference to anything else
in league with:  (of persons) joined together with (usually for a dishonest purpose)
be in the limelight:  be the focus of attention; receive great publicity
in the long run:  in the end; eventually
in the long term:  looking ahead to the distant future
leave someone in the lurch:  abandon someone who is in a difficult situation
be in the minority:  be in the smaller of two groups
in mint condition:  (of manufactured goods) perfect; brand-new
in a minute:  soon
in a moment:  soon; quickly
set something in motion:  start something going
nip something in the bud:  put an end to something before it gets properly started
in no time:  very soon; very quickly
in order of:  arranged according to
in order to:  for the purpose of
in part:  to some degree
in particular:  especially
in power:  (of a political party) holding office
in practice:  able to do something well because of recent practice; in reality (opposite of in theory)
in print:  (of a book) printed and available from the publisher
in private:  not in front of other people
in public:  openly; not in private
in reality:  really
in reserve:  saved for later use
in retrospect:  looking back over past events
in return for:  as repayment for
be in the right:  be correct
in season:  (of fruit or vegetables) readily available at that time of year
in a second:  soon; quickly
in short supply:  scarce; not easily obtainable
in sight:  able to be seen
in stock:  (of goods at a store) present and available
in that case:  if that is true
in theory:  ideally; according to theoretical considerations
be in time:  not be late
in touch with in:  communication with; informed about
in triplicate:  so that there are three identical copies (of a document)
be in trouble:  be in a difficult situation; be blamed or punished for doing something wrong
in tune:  at the correct pitch
act in unison:  act together
in vain:  without success
in the vicinity of:  near
once in a while:  occasionally
in words of one syllable:  (explain something) clearly and simply
in working order:  able to function properly
in the wrong:  responsible for an error; guilty

Inside
inside out:  with the inner side out; thoroughly

Into
paint oneself into a corner:  take a course of action which greatly narrows one's future choices of action
go into hiding:  hide oneself
get into a rut:  get into a fixed and uninteresting way of life
get into trouble:  get into a difficult situation; do something deserving blame or punishment

Of
of course:  certainly; as one would expect; as everyone knows
hard of hearing:  somewhat deaf
next of kin:  nearest relative or relatives
of one's own accord:  voluntarily; on one's own initiative
of one's own free will:  voluntarily; by choice
one's point of view:  one's opinion about something
right of way:  public right to use a path or road; (of road traffic) right to proceed before others
rule of thumb:  a simple way to calculate what procedure to follow, based on extensive experience, rather than on theoretical considerations

Off
go off the air:  (of radio or television) stop broadcasting
off duty:  not engaged in one's regular work
off one's hands:  no longer one's responsibility
off and on:  from time to time
off the record:  say something privately, that is not to be officially recorded
off the track:  following a wrong line of thought or action

On
on account of:  because of
be on the air:  (of radio or television) be in the process of broadcasting
on the alert:  ready to act
be on all fours:  (of a person) be on hands and knees
on the average:  usually; normally
on behalf of:  for; in the interests of
on board:  on a ship or airplane
on business:  as part of one's work
on condition that:  only if; provided that
on demand:  when asked for
on display:  being exhibited
on duty:  engaged in one's regular work
on fire:  burning
to go on foot:  to walk
be on one's guard:  be alert and ready to meet an attack
on hand:  available
on loan:  lent and not yet returned
shoot on location:  (of a movie) film in natural surroundings, not in a studio
on the lookout:  watchful
put something on the map:  cause something to become well-known
get on one's nerves:  annoy; irritate
on no account:  absolutely not
on the one hand:  (used to introduce one side of an argument)
on one's own:  alone; without help
act on one's own initiative:  act independently, without orders from anyone else
on order:  requested but not yet delivered
on the other hand:  (used to introduce a contrasting side of an argument)
act on principle:  do something to support a policy
on purpose:  deliberately
go on record:  say something which is to be officially recorded
on sale:  being sold at a lower price than usual
on schedule:  at the correct time; as planned or predicted
on second thoughts:  after thinking further about something
on a shoestring:  with a very small amount of money
be on the spot:  be where important events are taking place; be placed in an awkward situation
on the spur of the moment:  on a sudden impulse
go off on a tangent:  change suddenly to a new line of thought or action
on time:  at the correct time
walk on tiptoe:  walk on the toes and balls of the feet
accept something on trust:  accept something without proof
on the verge of:  very close to; about to
on the whole:  taking everything into consideration

Out of
out of the blue:  unexpectedly
out of breath:  (after running) panting from a shortage of oxygen
out of character:  unlike a person's known character
out of control:  not able to be regulated or guided
out of danger:  safe
out of date:  no longer used; old-fashioned; (of news) no longer true
out of debt:  having paid one's debts
be out of one's depth:  be unable to handle a situation because of lack of experience
out of doors:  in the open air; not in a building
out of fashion:  not fashionable; not presently in common use
out of hand:  not under control
out of harm's way:  safe
out of line with:  in disagreement with
be out of one's mind:  be insane
out of order:  not functioning properly; (at a formal meeting) not behaving according to the rules
out of the ordinary:  unusual
out of place:  unsuitable
out of practice:  unable to do something as well as one has in past, because of lack of recent practice
out of print:  (of a book) no longer available from the publisher
out of proportion:  too big or too small; not having the appropriate relationship to something
out of the question:  impossible; not to be considered
out of season:  (of fruit or vegetables) not readily available at that time of year
out of shape:  (of persons) not in top condition because of lack of exercise
out of sight:  hidden, not able to be seen
out of stock:  (of goods at a store) temporarily unavailable
out of style:  not fashionable
out of touch:  with not in communication with; not informed about
out of town:  having temporarily left town
out of trouble:  not in trouble
out of tune:  not at the correct pitch
out of work:  no longer having employment

To
to all intents and purposes:  in all important ways
to a certain extent:  partly
to date:  so far; until now
up to date:  current; modern
see eye to eye with:  agree entirely with
take something to heart:  be much affected by something
made to measure:  exactly suitable; (of clothes) made for a certain person
keep something to oneself:  not tell anyone
to the point:  relevant

Under
under age:  below the age of being legally permitted to do something
be under arrest:  be held prisoner and charged with wrongdoing
under the auspices of:  with the patronage of; supported by
under one's breath:  in a whisper
under the circumstances:  because this is true
under consideration:  being thought about
under control:  able to be regulated or guided
under cover of:  protected by; undetected because of
under fire:  being shot at; being criticized
under the impression that:  having the idea that
be under the influence of:  be affected by
be under oath:  have sworn to tell the truth
under observation:  being watched carefully
under restraint:  prevented from doing something

Up
have something up one's sleeve:  have a secret idea or plan in reserve

With
with impunity:  without risk of injury or punishment
with the naked eye:  without using a magnifying lens
with no strings attached:  (of help given) with no conditions; to be used freely
take with a pinch of salt:  not believe completely
with regard to:  concerning; about
with respect to:  concerning; about
tarred with the same brush:  having the same faults
with a vengeance:  very much; more than usual

Within
within limits:  to a certain extent; not too much
within living memory:  within the memory of people now alive

Without
go without saying:  be obvious

See Exercises 3 and 4.

3. Nouns followed by prepositions

The following are examples of nouns which are usually followed by certain prepositions. In the case of phrases which are idioms, the meanings of the phrases are indicated in brackets.

Against

take precautions against

For

have affection for

make allowances for

have compassion for

an excuse for

a reason for

have a reputation for

have respect for

have sympathy for

have a talent for

lie in wait for (ambush)

pave the way for (prepare for)

From

absence from

In

have confidence in

have faith in

have an interest in

take part in

make progress in

Into

have insight into

Of

have an abhorrence of

an acknowledgement of

take advantage of

take care of

take command of

evidence of

an example of

an excess of

make a fool of

make fun of (ridicule)

have an impression of

a lack of

neglect of

a number of

a pair of

be part of

a possibility of

make a practice of (do often)

a proof of

a quantity of

recognition of

a recollection of

a result of

run the risk of (risk)

catch sight of (see suddenly)

a sign of

a survey of

a symbol of

a symptom of

a token of

make use of

a way of

wash one's hands of (stop caring

about and dealing with)

On

an attack on

dependence on

make an impression on

play a joke on

shed light on (explain)

have pity on

To

have access to

pay attention to

an objection to

a reply to

a response to

lay siege to (besiege)

shut one's eyes to (deliberately

ignore a problem)

Toward or Towards

animosity toward(s)

an attitude toward(s)

With

have a connection with

find fault with (criticize)

fall in love with

change places with

See Exercise 5.

4. Adjectives and verbs in the passive voice followed by prepositions

In some cases different prepositions can be used without causing a change in meaning. For instance, the following examples both have the same meaning.
e.g. I was angry at them.
I was angry with them.

However, in many cases, the use of different prepositions causes a change in meaning. For instance, the past participle protected is typically followed by the preposition from. However, like many other past participles, protected may also be followed by the preposition by, where by serves to introduce the performer of the action expressed by the past participle.
e.g. The city is protected from the soldiers.
The city is protected by the soldiers.
The first example indicates that the soldiers are a threat to the city; whereas the second example indicates that the soldiers are protecting the city.

The following are examples of predicate adjectives and past participles of verbs in the Passive Voice which are usually followed by certain prepositions. In addition, it should be kept in mind that most verbs in the Passive Voice can be followed by a phrase beginning with the preposition by.

About

anxious about

concerned about

curious about

depressed about

doubtful about

enthusiastic about

excited about

happy about

pleased about

wrong about

worried about

At

adept at

alarmed at

amazed at

overjoyed at

shocked at

surprised at

Between

torn between

By

accompanied by

caused by

guided by

manufactured by

obsessed by

written by

For

blamed for

eligible for

famous for

fit for

known for

late for

noted for

praised for

punished for

qualified for

ready for

responsible for

ripe for

sorry for

suitable for

From

absent from

apart from

derived from

descended from

detached from

different from

distinct from

exempt from

far from

isolated from

omitted from

protected from

removed from

safe from

separated from

In

absorbed in

disappointed in

engaged in

immersed in

interested in

involved in

Of

accused of

afraid of

ashamed of

aware of

capable of

certain of

composed of

conscious of

convinced of

deprived of

devoid of

fond of

ignorant of

independent of

jealous of

proud of

regardless of

reminded of

sure of

suspicious of

suspected of

terrified of

tired of

worthy of

On

based on

dependent on

intent on

To

acceptable to

accessible to

accustomed to

adapted to

addicted to

adjacent to

attached to

attributable to

close to

committed to

comparable to

dedicated to

detrimental to

devoted to

due to

equal to

equivalent to

essential to

exposed to

faithful to

favorable to

foreign to

impervious to

indifferent to

indispensable to

inferior to

kind to

loyal to

next to

obedient to

obliged to

oblivious to

opposed to

parallel to

partial to

peculiar to

preferable to

prior to

proportional to

reconciled to

reduced to

related to

relative to

relevant to

resigned to

resistant to

restricted to

senior to

sensitive to

similar to

subject to

subordinate to

suited to

superior to

susceptible to

tied to

Toward or Towards

protective toward(s)

With

acquainted with

affiliated with

associated with

besieged with

compared with

compatible with

confronted with

consistent with

covered with

cursed with

exasperated with

familiar with

finished with

identified with

infatuated with

patient with

pleased with

satisfied with

synonymous with

threatened with

See Exercise 6.

5. Verbs followed by prepositions

The following are examples of verbs which are often followed by certain prepositions.

About

care about

complain about

forget about

lie about (tell a lie)

reminisce about

talk about

think about

wonder about

worry about

Against

discriminate against

protest against

react against

rebel against

turn against

At

aim at

bark at

connive at

frown at

gaze at

glare at

growl at

hint at

look at

point at

shoot at

smile at

snap at

sneer at

stare at

wave at

wink at

For

apply for

apologize for

beg for

blame for

budget for

hope for

long for

look for

mourn for

pay for

plead for

pose for

pray for

prepare for

press for

register for

search for

shop for

substitute for

vouch for

wait for

wish for

From

abstain from

benefit from

deduct from

derive from

desist from

deter from

detract from

deviate from

differ from

divert from

escape from

extricate from

flee from

infer from

profit from

protect from

quote from

radiate from

recoil from

recover from

refrain from

shrink from

stem from

suffer from

In

believe in

engage in

indulge in

intervene in

invest in

participate in

persist in

succeed in

Into

change into

convert into

delve into

dip into

develop into

divide into

fall into

merge into

plunge into

pry into

sink into

transform into

Of

approve of

beware of

conceive of

consist of

deprive of

die of

disapprove of

smell of

On

blame on

concentrate on

depend on

impinge on

impose on

insist on

intrude on

pounce on

reflect on

rely on

report on

spy on

subsist on

thrive on

Over

preside over

trip over

To

adapt to

adhere to

adjust to

amount to

belong to

conform to

contribute to

correspond to

listen to

object to

pertain to

prefer to

refer to

relate to

respond to

resort to

revert to

submit to

subscribe to

succumb to

surrender to

yield to

With

agree with

associate with

collaborate with

combine with

communicate with

comply with

concur with

consort with

contend with

cooperate with

cope with

correspond with

flirt with

mingle with

share with

sympathize with

See Exercise 7.

EXERCISES for Chapter 26

1. Paying attention to the meanings of the prepositions, fill in the blanks with the most appropriate prepositions chosen from those given in brackets. For example:
She made a speech _____ the future of the school. (about, around)
She made a speech about the future of the school.

D comes _______ C and E in the alphabet. (between, beyond)
D comes between C and E in the alphabet.

1. This train travels from London ______ Paris. (at, to)
2. We stood at the back ______ the theater. (of, on)
3. She went to Rome __________ France. (versus, via)
4. The store is open daily ________ Monday to Friday. (for, from)
5. I took my hat ________ the table. (of, off)
6. He looks ________ his brother. (despite, like)
7. The children ran ________ the school. (of, out of)
8. He opened the box ________ a screwdriver. (at, with)
9. I will work _________ five o'clock. (until, up)
10. We walked __________ the restaurant. (despite, past)
11. At three o'clock we reached the top _______ the hill. (of, off)
12. You have delivered all of the papers __________ this one. (between, but)
13. The bank is _________ the school. (opposite, out of)
14. __________ the danger, he decided to climb the mountain. (despite, except)
15. The treasure was hidden __________ the earth. (under, up to)
16. A comes __________ B in the alphabet. (before, behind)
17. I went to work ____________ my umbrella. (out of, without)
18. When it is heated, water changes _________ steam. (in, into)
19. Nocturnal animals usually sleep __________ the day. (during, underneath)
20. The squirrel ran _________ the wall. (along, among)
Answers

2. Paying attention to the uses of the prepositions among, at, beside, besides, between, for, in, on and since, fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from those given in brackets. For example:
They live __ 359 Southdale Avenue. (at, on)
They live at 359 Southdale Avenue.

The meeting will take place __ Tuesday. (at, on)
The meeting will take place on Tuesday.

We have been traveling ___ several days. (for, since)
We have been traveling for several days.

She has been working _____ six o'clock this morning. (for, since)
She has been working since six o'clock this morning.

1. He lives ______ 19 Tower Road. (at, on)
2. We will be gone ________ two days. (for, since)
3. Tom and his friend will divide the money ___________ themselves. (among, between)
4. They will be returning ______ November. (in, on)
5. I have known him ________ three years. (for, since)
6. Many foods ____________ milk contain calcium. (beside, besides)
7. I will arrive ______ six o'clock. (at, in)
8. He has been gone __________ Friday. (for, since)
9. The store is located ______ North Street. (at, on)
10. She is leaving ______ five minutes. (at, in)
11. Bridget, Leslie and Sarah will discuss the matter _________ themselves. (among, between)
12. I have known her __________ last year. (for, since)
13. We expect them ______ Wednesday. (in, on)
14. The cat was sitting ___________ the stove. (beside, besides)
15. The play begins ______ seven thirty. (at, on)
16. We waited __________ fifteen minutes. (for, since)
17. Columbus crossed the Atlantic ______ 1492. (at, in)
18. There are many possibilities __________ the ones I have mentioned. (beside, besides)
19. She will call us ______ half an hour. (at, in)
20. His birthday is ______ the 8th of January. (in, on)
Answers

3. Fill in the blanks with the missing prepositions. For example:
She wants to leave __ once.
She wants to leave at once.

I brought the wrong book __ mistake.
I brought the wrong book by mistake.

1. Since the restaurant is usually crowded, it is advisable to make reservations _________ advance.
2. Because we have no car, we go everywhere ________ foot.
3. I was __________ breath after running up the long flight of stairs.
4. We walked out of the room ________ tiptoe, so as not to disturb the sleeping baby.
5. Inside your passport, you should write the name of your next ______ kin.
6. We made out the report ________ triplicate.
7. Citrus fruits, _________ example oranges and lemons, require a long growing season.
8. The movie seemed to go on forever, but _______ last it was over.
9. She is so busy, she always seems to be _______ a hurry.
10. Many people believe birds are incapable of reasoning, but ______ fact, some birds are quite intelligent.
11. Since he is not very trustworthy, I advise you to take what he says ________ a pinch of salt.
12. I went to the library, but the book I wanted was out _______ loan.
13. To save money, we usually buy flour and rice _______ bulk.
14. Since he could offer us no proof, we had to take his story ______ trust.
15. She knows hundreds of poems _______ heart.
16. Since we cannot find a place to live, ________ the time being, we are staying at a cheap hotel.
17. Little _______ little, the clouds dispersed and the sun became brighter.
18. Because of its importance, we studied the report ______ detail.
19. All of the clothes sold in this store were made _______ hand.
20. At an intersection, pedestrians usually have the right _______ way.
Answers

4. For each underlined word or phrase, substitute an idiom containing the preposition indicated in brackets. For example:
She came punctually. (on)
She came on time.

His remarks were brief and relevant. (to)
His remarks were brief and to the point.

1. Incidentally, I heard that there is a sale at the bookstore. (by)
2. What do you do as a profession? (for)
3. The boy left his books at school deliberately. (on)
4. There is a great deal to be won or lost. (at)
5. Before long, the ship had cast off and was moving. (under)
6. The violin strings are not at the correct pitch. (out of)
7. Her paintings are being exhibited at the library. (on)
8. The university operates with a very small amount of money. (on)
9. Occasionally we have a picnic by the river. (in)
10. There are no job openings in the company now. (at)
11. We have a large variety of produce available. (on)
12. I want to speak to you not in front of other people. (in)
13. Under those circumstances, we should proceed cautiously. (at)
14. Gradually, we began to unravel the mystery. (by)
15. At the beginning, it was not obvious what to do. (at)
16. When looking back over past events, we can see that important changes have taken place. (in)
17. The two friends sat beside one another. (by)
18. I could see immediately that something was wrong. (at)
19. I see her occasionally. (from)
20. Does the store have any paint brushes available? (in)
Answers

5. Paying attention to the nouns which are usually followed by certain prepositions, fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
Do you have any objection ___ my plan? (on, to)
Do you have any objection to my plan?

She has a good attitude ______ her job. (of, toward)
She has a good attitude toward her job.

1. We played a joke ______ him. (of, on)
2. Who else has access ______ the computer files? (of, to)
3. I have no recollection ______ the event. (of, on)
4. Missing the bus is no excuse _______ being late. (for, of)
5. I have confidence _______ his ability. (for, in)
6. That is only one example ______ what I mean. (in, of)
7. Pay close attention _______ the traffic signals. (for, to)
8. She takes an active interest ______ community events. (in, of)
9. Do you have any proof ______ that? (of, to)
10. You should make allowances _______ their lack of experience. (for, on)
11. There is a lack _______ information on this subject. (for, of)
12. The report should shed some light _______ the situation. (for, on)
13. He has a talent _______ putting people at ease. (for, with)
14. I received no reply _____ my letter. (on, to)
15. We soon took command _______ the situation. (of, with)
16. They are constantly finding fault _______ other people. (of, with)
17. I have faith ______ their good intentions. (in, to)
18. She has a reputation _______ having the ability to deal with any situation. (for, of)
19. People often make fun ______ what they do not understand. (of, to)
20. We will take a survey ______ the participants. (of, on)
Answers

6. Paying attention to the adjectives which are usually followed by certain prepositions, fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
We were curious _____ what they were doing. (about, for)
We were curious about what they were doing. (about, for)

The design of most computers is based __ binary arithmetic. (for, on)
The design of most computers is based on binary arithmetic.

1. We are ready _______ anything. (for, to)
2. I was anxious ________ her. (about, to)
3. Photographic film is sensitive ______ light. (of, to)
4. Seals are adapted ______ life in the water. (at, to)
5. He is descended ________ Mary, Queen of Scots. (from, of)
6. Cotton is more resistant _______ fire than nylon is. (for, to)
7. After the show, the radio station was besieged ________ telephone calls. (from, with)
8. She was praised _______ her achievements. (for, to)
9. The public library is accessible ________ everyone. (to, with)
10. Are you familiar ________ the procedures? (for, with)
11. They were overjoyed ______ the news. (at, to)
12. We are proud _______ our accomplishments. (for, of)
13. I was pleased ________ the results. (of, with)
14. Are you aware ________ the risks involved? (of, with)
15. Lack of exercise can be detrimental ______ one's health. (of, to)
16. We are satisfied ________ the arrangement. (for, with)
17. She is interested _______ animals. (for, in)
18. He is well qualified _______ the job. (for, to)
19. Young children are often suspicious ______ strangers. (of, to)
20. A knowledge of mathematics is essential ________ an engineer. (to, with)
Answers

7. Paying attention to the verbs which are usually followed by certain prepositions, fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
He likes listening __ music. (on, to)
He likes listening to music.

They cooperated ____ one another. (of, with)
They cooperated with one another.

1. Heat and light radiate ________ the sun. (from, of)
2. Where the event will be held depends ______ the weather. (of, on)
3. She loves to quote ________ Shakespeare's plays. (from, to)
4. You need to concentrate ________ what you are doing. (into, on)
5. The students protested __________ the high student fees. (against, from)
6. A balanced meal consists _______ vitamins, minerals, proteins and carbohydrates. (of, with)
7. Twenty people applied ________ the job. (for, with)
8. She likes to participate ________ extracurricular activities. (in, with)
9. He paid ________ the meal. (for, on)
10. We do not approve ________ that type of behavior. (of, in)
11. He subscribes ______ four magazines. (of, to)
12. The dog barked ______ the mailman. (at, to)
13. Please refrain ________ smoking. (from, to)
14. Do you concur ________ my conclusions? (for, with)
15. The problem stems ________ a lack of proper training. (for, from)
16. We apologized ________ our absence. (for, to)
17. He is engaged _______ starting a business. (in, on)
18. The two children stared ______ each other. (at, to)
19. They registered _______ the course. (for, of)
20. We rely ________ the city bus service. (on, with)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 26

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. to 2. of 3. via 4. from 5. off 6. like 7. out of 8. with 9. until 10. past 11. of 12. but 13. opposite 14. Despite 15. under 16. before 17. without 18. into 19. during 20. along

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. at 2. for 3. between 4. in 5. for 6. besides 7. at 8. since 9. on 10. in 11. among 12. since 13. on 14. beside 15. at 16. for 17. in 18. besides 19. in 20. on

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. in 2. on 3. out of 4. on 5. of 6. in 7. for 8. at 9. in 10. in 11. with 12. on 13. in 14. on 15. by 16. for 17. by 18. in 19. by 20. of

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. By the way, 2. for a living. 3. on purpose. 4. at stake. 5. under way. 6. out of tune. 7. on display 8. on a shoestring. 9. Once in a while 10. at the moment. or at present. 11. on hand. 12. in private. 13. At that rate, 14. Bit by bit or By degrees or Little by little, 15. At first 16. In retrospect, 17. side by side. 18. see at a glance. 19. from time to time. 20. in stock?

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. on 2. to 3. of 4. for 5. in 6. of 7. to 8. in 9. of 10. for 11. of 12. on 13. for 14. to 15. of 16. with 17. in 18. for 19. of 20. of

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. for 2. about 3. to 4. to 5. from 6. to 7. with 8. for 9. to 10. with 11. at 12. of 13. with 14. of 15. to 16. with 17. in 18. for 19. of 20. to

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. from 2. on 3. from 4. on 5. against 6. of 7. for 8. in 9. for 10. of 11. to 12. at 13. from 14. with 15. from 16. for 17. in 18. at 19. for 20. on

CHAPTER 27.  PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is an idiom which consists of a verb followed by a preposition, a verb followed by an adverb, or a verb followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. The phrasal verbs in the following examples are printed in bold type.
e.g. I ran into an old friend.
We put off washing the dishes.
They all look up to him.

In these examples, the phrasal verb to run into consists of the verb to run followed by the preposition into, the phrasal verb to put off consists of the verb to put followed by the adverb off, and the phrasal verb to look up to consists of the verb to look followed by the adverb up, followed by the preposition to.

Many phrasal verbs are used more often in informal English than in formal English. In most cases, the ideas expressed by such phrasal verbs may also be expressed by other phrases which are more likely to be used in formal English.

For instance in the table below, the phrasal verbs used in the preceding examples are listed in the left-hand column and other phrases with the same meanings are listed in the right-hand column.

Informal

Formal

to run into

to meet unexpectedly

to put off

to postpone

to look up to

to admire

It should be noted that the use of many phrasal verbs varies among the different dialects of English. For instance, in order to express the idea of contacting someone by means of the telephone, the expression to ring someone up is frequently used in British English; whereas the expression to call someone is frequently used in American English.

Because of differences in dialect, the forms of the verbs and the meanings given may vary from one dictionary to another. In addition, some phrasal verbs have more than one meaning. The meanings provided in this chapter are samples of meanings which are used in North American English.

1. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition

Some phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by a preposition. As has been seen in previous chapters, it is very common for English verbs to be followed by prepositions. However, in the case of a phrasal verb, the verb followed by the preposition forms an expression with an idiomatic meaning.

For instance, the phrasal verb to come across is an idiomatic expression with the meaning to find. Similarly, the phrasal verb to frown on is an idiomatic expression with the meaning to disapprove of.
e.g. We came across an old diary while we were cleaning out the attic.
The workers frowned on the practice of smoking in the office.

It should be noted that some phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition can be used in the Passive Voice.
e.g. The practice of smoking in the office was frowned on by the workers.
The children were looked after by their aunt.
In these examples, the phrasal verbs to frown on and to look after are used in the Passive Voice.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by a preposition. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Verbs Followed by Prepositions

abide by:  adhere to

We abided by the rules.

account for:  explain

He accounted for the discrepancy.

ask for:  request

They asked for an extension.

bank on:  depend on

We are banking on good weather tomorrow.

bear with:  be patient with

Please bear with the delay.

border on:  be near, be next to

Their excitement bordered on hysteria.

break into:  enter by force

Thieves broke into the store.

build on:  develop from

We want to build on our success.

burst into:  suddenly enter

He burst into the room.

call for:  demand

This calls for an investigation.

call on:  ask, order

We will call on you to give a speech.

come across:  find accidentally

She came across some old papers.

come upon:  discover

We came upon a small lake.

confide in:  share a secret

The two friends confided in each other.

count on:  depend on

We are counting on you.

cut across:  use a short route

I cut across the parking lot.

dawn on:  realize

Finally the truth dawned on him.

deal in:  stock, sell

He deals in gold and jewels.

deal with:  handle successfully

She can deal with any situation.

decide on:  settle on

They decided on a course of action.

dispense with:  proceed without

The chairman dispensed with formalities.

dispose of:  get rid of

If he moves, he will have to dispose of his furniture.

dwell on:  emphasize

He dwelt on the risks involved.

enlarge on:  say more about

Please enlarge on your proposal.

enter into:  begin, commence

The brothers entered into an agreement.

expand on:  say more about

Please expand on what you said before.

frown on:  disapprove of

Absenteeism is frowned on.

get at:  reach

The store was so crowded, it was hard to get at the food.

get into:  become involved with

I don't want to get into an argument.

get over:  recover from

Have you got over the flu yet?

get through:  survive, finish

I don't know how I can get through all this work.

go against:  oppose

Don't go against the rules.

go over:  review

I would like to go over the report again.

go through:  examine in detail

Have you gone through the evidence?

go with:  look good with

Those shoes don't go with that outfit.

grow on:  become more attractive to

I'm sure the idea will grow on you.

guard against:  take precautions

We must guard against possible attack.

hinge on:  depend on

Everything hinges on her decision.

inquire into:  investigate

Please inquire into the alternatives.

keep to:  adhere to

The train will keep to the schedule.

laugh at:  mock, make fun of

Don't laugh at me!

launch into:  start

He launched into an explanation.

leaf through:  turn the pages

She leafed idly through the book.

live on:  survive using

What did you live on?

look after:  take care of

I will look after the children.

look into:  investigate

He will look into the situation.

look through:  examine quickly

We looked through the magazines while we were waiting.

part with:  give up reluctantly

She refused to part with her necklace.

pick on:  be unkind to

Because he was the youngest, the other boys picked on him.

prey on:  hunt and eat; disturb

Ospreys prey on fish; the idea preys on my mind.

provide for:  prepare for

We have provided for any emergency.

reason with:  try to persuade

It is hard to reason with an angry person.

reckon on:  calculate on

I hadn't reckoned on being the center of attention.

rise above:  be superior to

He rose above his circumstances and managed to succeed.

run across:  find accidentally

They ran across some interesting information.

run into:  meet accidentally

I ran into my cousin downtown.

run over:  injured by a vehicle

Children must be careful not to be run over by cars.

see through:  not be deceived by

I instantly saw through the disguise.

send for:  ask to be sent

You will have to send for your transcripts.

settle for:  reluctantly accept

Since there was no kale, we had to settle for cabbage.

side with:  support in a dispute

Why did you side with him?

sit through:  sit and endure

It was all I could do to sit through the lecture without falling asleep.

stand by:  support

I hope you will stand by me.

stand for:  represent

What does the abbreviation etc. stand for?

stick to:  adhere to

We shall stick to the original plan.

stumble across:  find accidentally

He stumbled across an interesting fossil.

survive on:  survive using

During the winter, we had to survive on turnips and parsnips.

take after:  resemble an ancestor

He takes after his grandfather.

tamper with:  interfere with

Someone has tampered with the lock.

touch on:  mention

She touched on many important subjects.

verge on:  approach

His behavior verges on rudeness.

wade through:  slowly peruse

We had to wade through a pile of documents.

watch over:  guard

The shepherd watched over the sheep.

See Exercise 1.

a. The position of the object of the preposition
The object of a preposition usually follows the preposition, whether the object is a noun or a pronoun. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. We have launched into a new project.
We have launched into it.

In these examples, the noun project and the pronoun it are the objects of the preposition into of the phrasal verb to launch into. Both the noun object and the pronoun object follow the preposition.

See Exercise 2.

b. The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
If a verb is followed by a preposition, an adverb of manner may be placed between the verb and the preposition. In the following examples, the adverbs of manner are underlined.
e.g. We reasoned patiently with the little girl.
I leafed quickly through the book.

In the first example, the adverb of manner patiently is placed between the verb reasoned and the preposition with of the phrasal verb to reason with. In the second example, the adverb of manner quickly is placed between the verb leafed and the preposition through of the phrasal verb to leaf through.

See Exercise 3.

c. Stress in spoken English
When a verb followed by a preposition occurs at the end of a clause, it is usually the verb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following examples, the words which are stressed are printed in bold type.
e.g. No one likes to be laughed at.
I need someone to confide in.

In the first example, the verb laughed followed by the preposition at occurs at the end of a clause, and the verb laughed is stressed. In the second example, the verb confide followed by the preposition in occurs at the end of a clause, and the verb confide is stressed.

It should be noted that, when used in a phrasal verb at the end of a clause, the prepositions after, into and over are often pronounced with somewhat greater emphasis than the verb. In this case, both the verb and the preposition are stressed. For example:
The twins are easy to look after.
The building would be difficult to break into.
You'll never guess whom I ran into.
I heard that someone was run over.

The prepositions above, across and through are also occasionally emphasized in this way. For example:
The research papers were difficult to wade through.

d. Expressions in which the verb has an object
In the case of some phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, the verb and the preposition may each have an object. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. I can make nothing of the situation.
We talked my sister into agreeing.

In the first example, the verb make of the phrasal verb to make of has the object nothing, and the preposition of has the object situation. In the second example, the verb talked of the phrasal verb to talk into has the object sister, and the preposition into has the object agreeing.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. The objects of the verbs are underlined. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. The last example illustrates the use of the Passive Voice.

Verbs followed by Objects followed by Prepositions

drag into:  involve unwillingly

Don't drag me into this discussion!

draw into:  involve gradually

We managed to draw her into the conversation.

drum into:  teach by repetition

We drummed the safety rules into the children.

frighten into:  control by fear

The little girl frightened her brother into obeying her.

hold against:  blame for

Please don't hold my mistakes against me.

lay before:  present to

We will lay the evidence before the court.

let into:  allow to share

Shall we let her into the secret?

make of:  understand

Can you make anything of this message?

read into:  find other meanings

You are reading too much into her remarks.

set against:  make antagonistic

She likes to set people against one another.

set on:  order to attack

We will set our dogs on any intruders.

talk into:  persuade

Can you talk him into changing his mind?

thrust upon:  force upon

We thrust the responsibility upon the treasurer.

write into:  add to in writing

The terms were written into the lease.

2. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb

Many phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Some of these phrasal verbs are intransitive and some are transitive.

For instance, the intransitive phrasal verb to show up is formed from the verb to show followed by the adverb up. In the following example, the phrasal verb does not have an object.
At ten o'clock, her brother showed up.

The following are examples of intransitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Intransitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

blow over:  pass

I wonder when the trouble will blow over.

boil away:  disappear by boiling

If the water boils away, the stew will burn.

boil over:  overflow by boiling

The soup boiled over.

bounce back:  recover

He bounced back from his previous defeat.

buckle down:  work seriously

You may fail your courses if you don't buckle down to work.

catch on:  be widely accepted

Do you think the idea will catch on?

cloud over:  become overcast

Although it clouded over in the afternoon, the rain held off.

die down:  become less

After a few days, the excitement died down.

double up:  bend over

We were doubled up with laughter.

drop in:  visit

Please drop in any time.

fade away:  become less

The sound gradually faded away.

fall off:  become less

Attendance at the concerts has fallen off.

get away:  escape

I hooked a fish, but it got away.

get by:  barely succeed

She studied just hard enough to get by.

give in:  admit defeat

I will never give in!

go on:  continue

Please go on. Don't let me interrupt you.

grow up:  become an adult

What do you want to do when you grow up?

keep on:  persist in

He kept on changing the subject.

level off:  stop rising

Prices finally leveled off.

log on:  contact a computer

Do you know how to log on?

log off:  break contact with a computer system

The system was overloaded, so I had to log off.

move in:  take possession of living quarters

When are you moving in?

move out:  give up possession of living quarters

He moved out yesterday.

nod off:  go to sleep

Half the bus passengers nodded off.

pass out:  faint

It was so hot, I almost passed out.

pitch in:  help

If everyone pitches in, the work will be done in a few minutes.

play along:  pretend to agree

Let's play along until we find out what his plans are.

pull in:  arrive (of vehicles)

The bus pulled in next to the curb.

pull out:  leave (of vehicles)

The train pulled out at ten o'clock.

set off:  leave

They set off at six o'clock in the morning.

settle down:  become peaceful

After the excitement, the students found it difficult to settle down.

settle in:  become used to

How are you settling in to your new job?

show up:  arrive

She showed up at noon.

stay up:  not go to bed

We stayed up until midnight.

step down:  resign

He stepped down for health reasons.

step in:  intervene

The government had to step in to save the business.

take off:  leave the ground

The plane took off on time.

touch down:  land (of planes)

The plane touched down.

tune in:  find a station on the radio

We tuned in to listen to the hockey game.

watch out:  beware

Watch out! The roads are icy.

wear off:  gradually disappear

The feeling of excitement gradually wore off.

See Exercise 4.

The transitive phrasal verb to sort out is formed from the verb to sort followed by the adverb out. For example:
We sorted out the papers.
In this example, the phrasal verb sorted out has the object papers.

The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Transitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

back up:  support

I will back up your story.

bail out:  rescue

If you run into difficulties, who will bail you out?

break in:  make something new fit for use

I broke in my new hiking boots.

breathe in:  inhale

We breathed in the fresh air.

breathe out:  exhale

I breathed out a sigh of relief.

bring back:  return

She brought back her library books.

bring around:  persuade

We gradually brought her around to our point of view.

bring up:  raise

Bringing up children is never easy.

butter up:  flatter

We buttered him up, hoping that he would agree to our proposal.

call in:  ask to assist

I think it is time we called in an expert.

call off:  cancel

We called off the meeting.

call up:  telephone

Why don't you call him up?

cheer on:  cheer, encourage

I will be there to cheer you on.

chop down:  fell

They chopped down the dead tree.

clean up:  tidy

The mayor asked everyone to help clean up the city streets.

fend off:  repel

The goalie fended off every attack.

ferret out:  find with difficulty

We managed to ferret out the information.

figure out:  solve, understand

I can't figure out what happened.

fill in:  complete

Please fill in this form.

fill out:  complete

I filled out the form.

fill up:  make full

We filled up the glasses with water.

give back:  return

I gave back the bicycle I had borrowed.

give off:  send out

Skunk cabbage gives off an unpleasant odor.

hand down:  give to someone younger

The tradition was handed down from father to son.

hand in:  give to person in authority

The students handed their assignments in to the teacher.

hand on:  give to another person

I am not sorry to hand the responsibility on to you.

hand over:  transfer

We had to hand the evidence over to the police.

hang up:  break a telephone connection

After receiving a busy signal, I hung up the phone.

hold back:  restrain, delay

He is so enthusiastic, it is hard to hold him back.

iron out:  remove

I am sure we can iron out every difficulty.

knock out:  make unconscious

Boxers are often knocked out.

lap up:  accept eagerly

The public lapped up the story.

lay off:  put out of work

The company laid off seventy workers.

leave behind:  leave, not bring

I accidentally left my umbrella behind.

leave out:  omit

Tell me what happened. Don't leave anything out!

let down:  disappoint

We will let him down if we don't arrive on time.

live down:  live so that past faults are forgotten

This will be hard to live down!

look up:  find (information)

We looked up the word in a dictionary.

make up:  invent

She likes to make up stories.

pass up:  not take advantage

I couldn't pass up such an opportunity.

pension off:  dismiss with a pension

He was pensioned off at the age of sixty.

phase in:  introduce gradually

The new program will be phased in over the next six months.

phase out:  cease gradually

The practice will gradually be phased out.

pick up:  collect

You may pick up the papers at the office.

pin down:  get a commitment

When the guest speaker is pinned down, we can set a date for the conference.

play down:  de-emphasize

He played down the importance of the news.

point out:  draw attention to

She pointed out the advantages of the proposal.

polish off:  finish

We polished off the rest of the apple pie.

pull down:  demolish

Many old buildings are pulled down to make way for new ones.

pull off:  succeed

Do you think she can pull off her plan?

put away:  put in proper place

It is time to put the toys away.

put back:  return to original location

Please put the book back on the shelf.

put off:  postpone

We cannot put off the meeting again.

reel off:  recite a long list

She reeled off a long list of names.

rope in:  persuade to help

We roped in everyone we could to help with the work.

rub out:  erase

Be sure to rub out all the pencil marks.

rule out:  remove from consideration

None of the possibilities can be ruled out yet.

scale down:  reduce

Because of lack of funds, we had to scale down our plans.

sell off:  dispose of by selling

We sold off all the books and furniture.

set back:  delay

This could set back the project by several years.

shout down:  stop from speaking by shouting

The crowd shouted down the speaker.

shrug off:  dismiss as unimportant

He attempted to shrug off the mistake.

single out:  select from others

You have been singled out for special attention.

size up:  assess

I quickly sized up the situation.

sort out:  organize

It will take some time to sort out this mess.

sound out:  talk with to learn the opinion of

We attempted to sound him out.

stammer out:  stammer

They stammered out their apologies.

sum up:  summarize

He summed up the discussion in a few well-chosen words.

summon up:  gather

I attempted to summon up my courage.

take in:  absorb

We tried to take in the new information.

take out:  invite to a restaurant

May I take you out for supper?

take over:  assume control

They will take over at the beginning of June.

talk over:  discuss

Let us talk it over before we decide.

tear up:  destroy by tearing

She tore up the letter.

think over:  consider

I need some time to think it over.

think up:  invent

What will they think up next?

track down:  search for and find

We finally tracked him down at the bookstore.

trade in:  give as part payment

Why don't you trade in your old vacuum cleaner for a new one?

try on:  test clothes by putting them on

I tried on the new suit, but it didn't fit me.

try out:  test by using

Would you like to try out my fountain pen?

turn away:  refuse admission

The event was so popular that many people had to be turned away.

turn back:  reverse direction

Every fall the clocks must be turned back by one hour.

turn off:  deactivate by using a switch

I turned off the radio.

turn on:  activate by using a switch

Please turn on the light.

water down:  dilute

The soup has been watered down.

wear out:  gradually destroy by wearing or using

My jacket is wearing out, although it is only a year old.

write down:  make a note

I wrote down the instructions.

write off:  cancel, regard as

They were forced to write off several irretrievable debts.

write up:  compose in writing

I used my notes to write up the report.

See Exercise 5.

a. The position of the object of the verb
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if the object of the verb is a noun, the object can usually either follow or precede the adverb. In the following examples, the objects are underlined.
e.g. I called off the meeting.
I called the meeting off.
In the first example the object meeting follows the adverb off, while in the second example the object meeting precedes the adverb off.

However, in the case of a few phrasal verbs, a noun object must usually follow the adverb.
e.g. We attempted to smooth over the disagreement.
In this example, the phrasal verb to smooth over is followed by the noun object disagreement. In this case, the object disagreement cannot be placed before the adverb over.

The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an example of its use. The objects of the verbs are underlined.

Verbs followed by Adverbs followed by Noun Objects

drum up:  raise

She has drummed up support for the plan.

paper over:  repair superficially

They attempted to paper over their differences.

smooth over:  improve

We tried to smooth over the situation.

In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if the object of the verb is a pronoun, the object must usually precede the adverb. In the following examples, the pronoun objects are underlined.
e.g. I called it off.
We attempted to smooth it over.
In these examples, the pronoun object it precedes the adverbs off and over.

See Exercise 6.

Most transitive phrasal verbs may be used in the Passive Voice.
e.g. The meeting was called off by me.
The disagreement was smoothed over.
In these examples, the phrasal verbs to call off and to smooth over are used in the Passive Voice.

b. The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
In the case of a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, the verb and the adverb usually may not be separated by an adverb of manner. In the following example, the adverb of manner is underlined.
e.g. I hurriedly called off the meeting.
In this example, the adverb of manner hurriedly precedes the phrasal verb called off. The adverb hurriedly may also be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence, but may not be placed between the verb called and the adverb off.

c. Stress in spoken English
When a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb occurs at the end of a clause, it is usually the adverb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following examples, the words which are stressed are printed ion bold type.
e.g. How did that come about?
Please drop in whenever you have time.
In the first example, the verb come followed by the adverb about occurs at the end of a clause, and the adverb about is stressed. In the second example, the verb drop followed by the adverb in occurs at the end of a clause, and the adverb in is stressed.

d. Ergative verbs
It should be noted that there are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, which have the same meaning whether they are used transitively or intransitively. For example:
The engineer slowed down the train.
The train slowed down.

In the first example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used transitively, with the object train. In the second example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used intransitively, without naming the originator of the action. In these two examples, it can be seen that the object of the transitive verb is the subject of the intransitive verb. However, the general meaning of the two sentences is the same. Verbs which can be used in this way may be referred to as ergative verbs.

The following are examples of expressions which can function as ergative phrasal verbs. Each ergative phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use.

Ergative Phrasal Verbs

blare out:  make a loud sound

The loudspeakers blared out the music.

The music blared out.

blow up:  destroy by an explosion

Troops blew up the bridge.

The bridge blew up.

break up:  break into pieces

The icebreaker broke up the ice.

The ice broke up.

burn down:  destroy by fire

We burned down the old barn.

The old barn burned down.

calm down:  become calm

I calmed down the child.

The child calmed down.

dry out:  become dry

The sun dried out the earth.

The earth dried out.

get across:  transmit

We got our point across to the audience.

Our point got across to the audience.

liven up:  become lively

He livened up the party.

The party livened up.

pull through:  recover from, survive

The doctor pulled her through the illness.

She pulled through the illness.

roll up:  wrap into a cylinder

I rolled up the window blind.

The window blind rolled up.

shut down:  close, stop working

They shut down the factory.

The factory shut down.

wake up:  stop sleeping

I woke her up.

She woke up.

wash out:  remove by washing

We washed out the dye.

The dye washed out.

wear away:  gradually remove

Water wore away the rock.

The rock wore away.

wear out:  gradually destroy by using

I wore out the sweater.

The sweater wore out.

3. Distinguishing between verbs followed by prepositions and verbs followed by adverbs

It has been seen that the position of pronoun objects, adverbs of manner and stress in spoken English varies according to whether a verb is followed by a preposition or by an adverb.

These differences are summarized in the following table. The verbs to sit and to turn are used as examples. The verb to sit is followed by on used as a preposition, whereas the verb to turn is followed by on used as an adverb.

Verb followed by Preposition

Verb followed by Adverb

Pronoun object is placed

Pronoun object is placed

after the preposition:

before the adverb:

I sat on it.

I turned it on.

Adverb of manner may be placed

Adverb of manner may not be

between verb and preposition:

placed between verb and adverb:

I sat quietly on it.

I quietly turned it on.

Verb is stressed:

Adverb is stressed:

This is what I sat on.

This is what I turned on.

Because of the differences summarized above, it is important to be able to distinguish between a verb followed by a preposition, and a verb followed by an adverb.

a. Adverb phrases of location compared with phrasal verbs followed by objects
In many cases, it is necessary to distinguish between an ordinary verb followed by an adverb phrase of location, and a phrasal verb followed by an object.
e.g. I turned up the street.
I turned up the volume.

In the first example, the verb turned is followed by the adverb phrase of location up the street. In the second example, the phrasal verb turned up is followed by the object volume. In this example, the phrasal verb turned up has the meaning increased.

In the first example, street is the object of the preposition up. If the object is changed to a pronoun, the pronoun must follow the preposition:
I turned up the street.
I turned up it.

In the second example, volume is the object of the phrasal verb turned up. If the object is changed to a pronoun, the pronoun must precede the adverb up.
I turned up the volume.
I turned it up.

In the first example, if the verb is modified by an adverb of manner, the adverb of manner may precede the adverb phrase of location:
I turned up the street.
I turned quickly up the street.

In the second example, if the verb is modified by an adverb of manner, the adverb of manner may not be placed between the two parts of the phrasal verb:
I turned up the volume.
I quickly turned up the volume.

See Exercises 7 and 8.

b. Words used as prepositions or adverbs
It is also necessary to be able to distinguish between a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, and a phrasal verb consisting of a transitive verb followed by an adverb. In many cases it is possible to make the distinction by means of the preposition or adverb following the verb.

For example, the following words are used in phrasal verbs as prepositions, but are not usually used in phrasal verbs as adverbs following transitive verbs:

after

against

at

before

by

for

from

into

of

to

toward

with

without

In contrast, the following words are used in phrasal verbs as adverbs following transitive verbs, but are not usually used in phrasal verbs as prepositions:

along

aside

away

back

behind

down

forward

out

together

up

It should be noted that of these words, aside, away, back, forward, out and together are usually never used as prepositions. In contrast, the words along, behind, down and up are often used as prepositions, but are not usually used as prepositions in phrasal verbs.

See Exercises 9 and 10.

The following words present more difficulty, since they can be used in phrasal verbs both as prepositions and as adverbs following transitive verbs:

across

around or round

in

off

on or upon

over

through

Thus, it is advisable to study which phrasal verbs use these words as prepositions, and which phrasal verbs use these words as adverbs. The following table gives examples of phrasal verbs containing each of these words. The left-hand column gives phrasal verbs consisting of verbs followed by prepositions, while the right-hand column gives phrasal verbs consisting of transitive verbs followed by adverbs.

Words used as Prepositions or Adverbs

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

come across

get across (an idea)

cut across

put across (an idea)

run across

stumble across

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

hang around

bring round

lounge around

mill around

pass around

rally round

show around

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

confide in

break in

deal in

breathe in

join in

call in

fill in

hand in

phase in

rope in

take in

trade in

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

glance off

call off

keep off

fend off

warn off

give off

lay off

pair off

pension off

polish off

pull off

put off

reel off

sell off

shrug off

turn off

write off

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

bank on

cheer on

border on

hand on

build on

try on

call on

turn on

come upon

count on

dawn on

decide on

dwell on

enlarge on

expand on

frown on

grow on

hinge on

live on

pick on

prey on

reckon on

survive on

thrust upon

touch on

verge on

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

get over

take over

go over

talk over

run over

think over

watch over

paper over

smooth over

Verb + Preposition

Transitive Verb + Adverb

break through

pull through

get through

go through

leaf through

look through

sail through

scrape through

see through

sit through

wade through

See Exercise 11.

4. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition

Some phrasal verbs consist of an intransitive verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition. For example:
We passed by.
We passed by the library.
In the first example, the word by of the phrasal verb passed by functions as an adverb. In the second example, the word by of the phrasal verb passed by functions as a preposition which has the object library.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs which contain words which may function either as adverbs or as prepositions. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use. The objects of the prepositions are underlined.

Intransitive Verbs followed by words which may function either as Adverbs or Prepositions

break through:  appear

The sun broke through.

The sun broke through the clouds.

do without:  survive without

We had to do without.

We had to do without electricity.

glance off:  hit and bounce off

The ball glanced off.

The ball glanced off the wall.

go without:  not have

They went without.

They went without food.

hang around:  stay near

We hung around.

We hung around the movie theater.

join in:  become involved in

I joined in.

I joined in the game.

lounge around:  relax in

We lounged around.

We lounged around the living room.

mill around:  (of a crowd) move randomly

The students milled around.

The students milled around the lobby.

pass by:  pass

I passed by.

I passed by the house.

rally round:  gather to give support

We rallied round.

We rallied round our class president.

sail through:  succeed easily

She sailed through.

She sailed through the exam.

scrape through:  barely succeed

They scraped through.

They scraped through the course.

turn off:  leave a road

We turned off.

We turned off the main highway.

a. Expressions in which the verb has an object
There are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition, where the verb may have an object. In the following examples the objects are underlined.
e.g. We passed the candies around.
We passed the candies around the class.
In each of these examples, the verb passed of the phrasal verb to pass around has the object candies. In the first example, the word around functions as an adverb, while in the second example, the word around functions as a preposition with the object class.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by a word which may function either as an adverb or as a preposition, where the verb may have an object. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and examples of its use. The objects of the verbs and prepositions are underlined. The last example illustrates the use of the Passive Voice.

Verbs followed by objects followed by words which may function either as Adverbs or Prepositions

cross off:  put a line through

I crossed his name off.

I crossed his name off the list.

pass around:  distribute

I passed the papers around.

I passed the papers around the class.

show around:  conduct on a tour

We showed the visitors around.

We showed the visitors around the city.

tide over:  provide for temporarily

This money will tide me over.

This money will tide me over the weekend.

warn off:  warn to leave

We were warned off.

We were warned off the premises.

5. Phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb followed by a preposition

There are several commonly used phrasal verbs which consist of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. For example:
I went along with the idea.
In this example, the phrasal verb went along with consists of the verb to go, followed by the adverb along, followed by the preposition with which has the object idea.

The following table gives examples of phrasal verbs which consist of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Verbs followed by Adverbs followed by Prepositions

add up to:  amount to

It is hard to see what that adds up to.

back down from:  withdraw, avoid

She never backs down from a challenge.

back out of:  not fulfill

I wish I could back out of the agreement.

boil down to:  can be reduced to

All his arguments boil down to a belief in the supernatural.

bow out of:  withdraw

He bowed out of the race.

brush up on:  refresh knowledge of

I must brush up on my English.

carry on with:  continue with

We carried on with our conversation.

catch up to:  overtake

The boy ran quickly to catch up with his friends.

clean up after:  tidy for

She spent half her time cleaning up after the children.

come down to:  can be reduced to

Your choices come down to these.

come down with:  become ill with

She came down with a cold.

come out in:  develop

He came out in a rash.

come up against:  meet an obstacle

They came up against many difficulties.

come up with:  produce

She came up with a solution to the problem.

creep up on:  approach undetected

Old age tends to creep up on one.

cry out for:  urgently require

The education system is crying out for improvement.

cut back on:  reduce

The government has cut back on spending.

do away with:  abolish

We want to do away with delays.

face up to:  accept and deal with

It is best to face up to one's problems.

fall back on:  turn to for help

Because of unexpected expenses, we had to fall back on our savings.

fit in with:  be suited to

You don't fit in with this group.

fool around with:  not be serious, have as a hobby

He likes to fool around with computers.

get away with:  not be punished

He got away with being late for school.

get down to:  begin dealing seriously with

It is time to get down to business.

get in on:  manage to participate in

I want to get in on the planning for the new school.

give up on:  stop trying

I've given up on the situation.

go along with:  agree, not resist

I'm willing to go along with your idea.

go back on:  break a promise

He never goes back on his word.

go through with:  fulfill, carry out

Are you going to go through with your plan to conduct a survey?

grow out of:  become too big for

My son has grown out of most of his clothes.

hold out for:  not compromise

We want to hold out for better conditions.

keep up with:  be on the same level as

She has a hard time keeping up with her brother.

lead up to:  be a preparation for

The first thirty chapters of the book lead up to the dramatic conclusion.

live up to:  maintain a standard

She has lived up to her reputation as a great singer.

log on to:  contact a computer

She logged on to the new system.

look down on:  regard as inferior

He looks down on his classmates.

look forward to:  anticipate

I'm looking forward to the holidays.

look out for:  watch for

Look out for fallen branches.

look up to:  admire

We looked up to her.

make up for:  compensate for

She tried to make up for her past mistakes.

pull out of:  leave (of vehicles)

The train pulled out of the station.

push on with:  go ahead, continue

I must push on with my work.

put up with:  endure, tolerate

Bus passengers must often put up with crowded conditions.

read up on:  read about

Whenever I travel, I like to read up on the place I am going to visit.

rub off on:  acquire from someone

Some of his enthusiasm has rubbed off on me.

run up against:  meet

One runs up against many different kinds of people.

send away for:  order by mail

We sent away for warm winter boots.

stick up for:  defend, support

Will you stick up for me?

stock up on:  lay in supplies

We should stock up on bananas.

talk down to:  speak patronizingly

He always talks down to people younger than he is.

walk away with:  win easily

They walked away with all the prizes.

watch out for:  beware of

Watch out for snakes.

wriggle out of:  avoid

She always tries to wriggle out of her responsibilities.

zero in on:  focus on

Let us zero in on the heart of the problem.

See Exercise 12.

a. Expressions in which the verb has an object
There are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. In the following example, the objects are underlined.
e.g. We played them off against each other.
In this example, the verb played of the phrasal verb to play off against has the object them, while the preposition against has the object each other.

The following are examples of phrasal verbs consisting of a verb, followed by an adverb, followed by a preposition, where the verb may have an object. Each phrasal verb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. The objects of the phrasal verbs are underlined.

Verbs followed by Objects followed by Adverbs followed by Prepositions

get over with:  undergo, finish

If I must visit the dentist, I prefer to get it over with as soon as possible.

let in on:  allow to share

We let them in on the secret.

play off against:  encourage to fight

In the last century, the British weakened their enemies by playing them off against one another.

put down to:  attribute to

We put his bad temper down to fatigue.

put up to:  urge to do wrong

She put me up to playing a trick on the teacher.

take out on:  vent bad feelings on

She took her dissatisfaction with her job out on her neighbors.

take up on:  accept an offer

I would like to take you up on your offer.

talk out of:  dissuade from

We tried to talk him out of retiring.

EXERCISES for Chapter 27

1. For each of the following sentences, substitute the appropriate phrasal verb given in brackets for the underlined word or phrase. For example:
I will request a bus schedule. (ask for, stand for)
I will ask for a bus schedule.

Don't worry. They won't make fun of you. (call on, laugh at)
Don't worry. They won't laugh at you.

1. She resembles her mother. (looks after, takes after)
2. We perused the report. (sided with, waded through)
3. I will adhere to what I said before. (burst into, stick to)
4. We will demand a review of the situation. (call for, guard against)
5. His parents disapprove of his participating in so many extracurricular activities. (bank on, frown on)
6. Without hesitating, she started her speech. (launched into, hinged on)
7. I am depending on your support. (counting on, picking on)
8. He will take care of everything. (look after, settle for)
9. What do these initials represent? (provide for, stand for)
10. All of our plans depend on the availability of transportation. (hinge on, touch on)
Answers

2. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the object of the preposition to a pronoun. For example:
He lived on a small allowance.
He lived on it.

I sided with my brother.
I sided with him.

1. We are counting on our friends.
2. Will you stick to the agreement?
3. She takes after her grandmother.
4. No one has tampered with the letters.
5. Yesterday I ran into your uncle.
6. They saw through the plot.
7. He cut across the vacant lot.
8. I confided in my niece.
Answers

3. For each of the following sentences, place the adverb of manner given in brackets between the verb and the preposition. For example:
He deals in rare stamps. (exclusively)
He deals exclusively in rare stamps.

The introduction touches on the main points. (briefly)
The introduction touches briefly on the main points.

1. He dealt with every objection to his plan. (confidently)
2. She sided with her friend. (unhesitatingly)
3. We cut across the lawn. (quickly)
4. Since we were very hungry, we settled for bread and potatoes. (uncomplainingly)
5. I leafed through the material. (rapidly)
6. They watched over the children. (patiently)
7. You cannot survive on tea and biscuits. (solely)
8. We entered into the discussion. (eagerly)
Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, substitute the appropriate phrasal verb given in brackets for the underlined word or phrase. For example:
He will leave tomorrow morning. (level off, set off)
He will set off tomorrow morning.

The storm will soon pass. (blow over, boil over)
The storm will soon blow over.

1. I hope she arrives soon. (stays up, shows up)
2. He usually sleeps after lunch. (buckles down, nods off)
3. We saw the plane land. (settle down, touch down)
4. I told her to beware. (pass out, watch out)
5. Someone should intervene before the situation gets worse. (pull in, step in)
6. They waited until the train left. (logged off, pulled out)
7. Don't let them escape. (get away, wear off)
8. We were worried when she fainted. (moved out, passed out)
9. The barometric pressure has stopped rising. (leveled off, settled in)
10. I hope you will all help. (give in, pitch in)
Answers

5. For each of the following sentences, substitute the appropriate phrasal verb given in brackets for the underlined word or phrase. For example:
He refused to support what I had said. (back up, hold back)
He refused to back up what I had said.

The game was canceled because of the rain. (called off, phased out)
The game was called off because of the rain.

1. He raised a difficult question. (brought up, filled up)
2. She is good at assessing people. (buttering up, sizing up)
3. We should de-emphasize the dangers of the situation. (hand down, play down)
4. I am returning the raincoat I borrowed. (backing up, giving back)
5. The wine had been diluted. (played down, watered down)
6. I want to organize my photographs. (sort out, try out)
7. We discussed the situation. (shouted down, talked over)
8. May I test your bicycle? (point out, try out)
9. You can collect the tickets at the box office. (fill up, pick up)
10. I erased the notes in the margins of the book. (bailed out, rubbed out)
ii. Do you think they invented the whole story? (hung up, made up)
12. She summarized what we had learned so far. (sounded out, summed up)
Answers

6. The following sentences contain transitive phrasal verbs which consist of verbs followed by adverbs. Rewrite each sentence, changing the object of the verb to a pronoun, and placing the pronoun object in the correct position in the sentence. For example:
I picked up the clothes.
I picked them up.

1. We ironed out the difficulties.
2. She called up her sister.
3. We sent back the material.
4. He sent out the invitations.
5. I gave away the bicycle.
6. She brought along her younger brother.
7. We wrote down the answer.
8. She let in the cats.
9. He turned over the stone.
10. We emptied out the baskets.
Answers

7. For each of the following sentences, determine whether the underlined object indicates where the action took place, or what was acted upon, and fill in the blank with where or what, as appropriate. Then rewrite the sentence, changing the object to a pronoun, and placing the pronoun object in the correct position in the sentence.
If the object indicates where, place the pronoun object after the preposition; however, if the object indicates what, place the pronoun object before the adverb. For example:
I looked up the staircase. _____
I looked up the staircase. where
I looked up it.

I looked up the word. ____
I looked up the word. what
I looked it up.

1. I turned off the light. ________
2. She walked into the room. _________
3. He climbed up the ladder. _________
4. They sent in the report. _________
5. Children should not play on the road. _________
6. We set off the fireworks. _________
7. Please put on some music. _________
8. We turned off the main road. _________
9. I cut up the cake. _________
10. The plane flew over the lake. _________
11. She lives down the street. _________
12. Please pass on the information. _________
13. He put down the box. _________
14. They work in this building. _________
15. The ball rolled down the hill. ________
16. We handed over the document. _________
17. He walked off the stage. _________
18. She turned down the offer. _________
19. They sat on the floor. ________
20. I wound up the clock. _________
Answers

8. Following the instructions for the previous exercise, fill in each blank with where or what. Then rewrite each sentence to include the adverb of manner given in brackets. If the object indicates where, place the adverb of manner between the verb and the preposition; however, if the object indicates what, place the adverb of manner before the verb. For example:
I walked across the bridge. _____ (quickly)
I walked across the bridge. where
I walked quickly across the bridge.

We tidied up the papers. ____ (hurriedly)
We tidied up the papers. what
We hurriedly tidied up the papers.

1. The car slipped off the road. _________ (suddenly)
2. We lifted up the buckets. ________ (wearily)
3. The cable cars moved up the hill. ________ (slowly)
4. She let down the dress. _________ (carefully)
5. The book had been placed on the table. _________ (neatly)
6. He was leaning against the wall. ________ (idly)
7. She filed away the new material. ________ (methodically)
8. We shut off the power. _________ (hastily)
9. They closed up the cottage. _________ (sadly)
10. The swallows flew over our house. _________ (swiftly)
Answers

9. Paying attention to whether the last word in the clause is a preposition or an adverb, for each of the following sentences, underline the word which would usually be stressed in spoken English. For example:
Why did you go out?
Why did you go out?

This is what you asked for.
This is what you asked for.

1. What time did you get up?
2. What are you looking at?
3. The following idea has been put forward.
4. Which group did you come with?
5. What are they searching for?
6. Is he moving away?
7. What kind of music do you like to listen to?
8. When did you get back?
9. How did he find out?
10. When you look at this picture, what are you reminded of?
11. Which diving board did she jump from?
12. Why did you jump back?
Answers

10. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to whether the word following the verb is usually used as a preposition or as an adverb in a phrasal verb, change the object to a pronoun object and place it in the correct position in the sentence. For example:
How did you deal with the situation?
How did you deal with it?

We put away the books.
We put them away.

1. Let us look into the possibility.
2. Who brought up the question?
3. Remember to rub out the mistakes.
4. Perhaps we can reason with your uncle.
5. They had to turn away twenty people.
6. We have scaled down our operation.
7. She looked after the baby girl.
8. Remember to stick to the plan.
9. Did you give back the dictionary?
10. How did you dispose of their objections?
11. We confided in her sister.
12. Have you figured out the answer?
Answers

11. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to whether the phrasal verb consists of a verb followed by a preposition or a verb followed by an adverb, change the object to a pronoun, and place it in the correct position in the sentence. For example:
Squirrels can survive on nuts.
Squirrels can survive on them.

Did you try on the new shoes?
Did you try them on?

1. I know I can count on my friends.
2. They put off the rehearsal.
3. I stumbled across an interesting story.
4. He is good at putting across his ideas.
5. We watched over the children.
6. She hung around the museum.
7. I would like to hand on the responsibility.
8. She leafed through the exercises.
9. I came across a city map.
10. Would you like to think over the proposal?
11. Are you going to trade in your old machine?
12. All our plans hinge on the weather.
Answers

12. For each of the following sentences, substitute the appropriate phrasal verb given in brackets for the underlined word or phrase. For example:
Don't try to avoid it. (walk away with, wriggle out of)
Don't try to wriggle out of it.

1. What does that amount to? (add up to, lead up to)
2. He is trying to compensate for the time he lost. (look out for, make up for)
3. I want to continue my studies. (carry on with, get in on)
4. We want to focus on new developments. (fall back on, zero in on)
5. Do you think you can overtake the others? (catch up with, look down on)
6. We want to abolish the waiting period. (come down to, do away with)
7. The tenants had to tolerate noisy conditions. (get away with, put up with)
8. I developed spots after walking through a patch of poison ivy. (brushed up on, came out in)
9. He admires his older brother. (looks up to, sticks up for)
10. You should reduce the number of cigarettes you smoke per day. (cut back on, zero in on)
11. The problem urgently requires a solution. (adds up to, cries out for)
12. She always defends her friends. (holds out for, sticks up for)
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 27

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. She takes after her mother. 2. We waded through the report. 3. I will stick to what I said before. 4. We will call for a review of the situation. 5. His parents frown on his participating in so many extracurricular activities. 6. Without hesitating, she launched into her speech. 7. I am counting on your support. 8. He will look after everything. 9. What do these initials stand for? 10. All of our plans hinge on the availability of transportation.

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. We are counting on them. 2. Will you stick to it? 3. She takes after her. 4. No one has tampered with them. 5. Yesterday I ran into him. 6. They saw through it. 7. He cut across it. 8. I confided in her.

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. He dealt confidently with every objection to his plan. 2. She sided unhesitatingly with her friend. 3. We cut quickly across the lawn. 4. Since we were very hungry, we settled uncomplainingly for bread and potatoes. 5. I leafed rapidly through the material. 6. They watched patiently over the children. 7. You cannot survive solely on tea and biscuits. 8. We entered eagerly into the discussion.

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. I hope she shows up soon. 2. He usually nods off after lunch. 3. We saw the plane touch down. 4. I told her to watch out. 5. Someone should step in before the situation gets worse. 6. They waited until the train pulled out. 7. Don't let them get away. 8. We were worried when she passed out. 9. The barometric pressure has leveled off. 10. I hope you will all pitch in.

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. He brought up a difficult question. 2. She is good at sizing up people. 3. We should play down the dangers of the situation. 4. I am giving back the raincoat I borrowed. 5. The wine has been watered down. 6. I want to sort out my photographs. 7. We talked over the situation. 8. May I try out your bicycle? 9. You can pick up the tickets at the box office. 10. I rubbed out the notes in the margins of the book. 11. Do you think they made up the whole story? 12. She summed up what we had learned so far.

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. We ironed them out. 2. She called her up. 3. We sent it back. 4. He sent them out. 5. I gave it away. 6. She brought him along. 7. We wrote it down. 8. She let them in. 9. He turned it over. 10. We emptied them out.

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. what: I turned it off. 2. where: She walked into it. 3. where: He climbed up it. 4. what: They sent it in. 5. where: Children should not play on it. 6. what: We set them off. 7. what: Please put it on. 8. where: We turned off it. 9. what: I cut it up. 10. where: The plane flew over it. 11. where: She lived down it. 12. what: Please pass it on. 13. what: He put it down. 14. where: They work in it. 15. where: The ball rolled down it. 16. what: We handed it over. 17. where: He walked off it. 18. what: She turned it down. 19. where: They sat on it. 20. what: I wound it up.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. where: The car slipped suddenly off the road. 2. what: We wearily lifted up the buckets. 3. where: The cable cars moved slowly up the hill. 4. what: She carefully let down the dress. 5. where: The book had been placed neatly on the table. 6. where: He was leaning idly against the wall. 7. what: She methodically filed away the new material. 8. what: We hastily shut off the power. 9. what: They sadly closed up the cottage. 10. where: The swallows flew swiftly over our house.

Answers to Exercise 9:
1. What time did you get up? 2. What are you looking at? 3. The following idea has been put forward. 4. Which group did you come with? 5. What are they searching for? 6. Is he moving away? 7. What kind of music do you like to listen to? 8. When did you get back? 9. How did he find out? 10. When you look at this picture, what are you reminded of? 11. Which diving board did she jump from? 12. Why did you jump back?

Answers to Exercise 10:
1. Let us look into it. 2. Who brought it up? 3. Remember to rub them out. 4. Perhaps we can reason with him. 5. They had to turn them away. 6. We have scaled it down. 7. She looked after her. 8. Remember to stick to it. 9. Did you give it back? 10. How did you dispose of them? 11. We confided in her. 12. Have you figured it out?

Answers to Exercise 11:
1. I know I can count on them. 2. They put it off. 3. I stumbled across it. 4. He is good at putting them across. 5. We watched over them. 6. She hung around it. 7. 1 would like to hand it on. 8. She leafed through them. 9. I came across it. 10. Would you like to think it over? 11. Are you going to trade it in? 12. All our plans hinge on it.

Answers to Exercise 12:
1. What does that add up to? 2. He is trying to make up for the time he lost. 3. I want to carry on with my studies. 4. We want to zero in on new developments. 5. Do you think you can catch up with the others? 6. We want to do away with the waiting period. 7. The tenants had to put up with noisy conditions. 8. I came out in spots after walking through a patch of poison ivy. 9. He looks up to his older brother. 10. You should cut back on the number of cigarettes you smoke per day. 11. The problem cries out for a solution. 12. She always sticks up for her friends.

CHAPTER 28.  CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in bold type.
e.g. We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.
He neither finished his homework nor studied for the test.
I went out because the sun was shining.

1. Coordinate conjunctions

Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses.
e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.

In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the two words friend and I, the two phrases the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses the sun rose and the birds began to sing.

The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are and, but and or. In addition, the words nor and yet may be used as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with nor.

Coordinate Conjunctions

and:  in addition

She tried and succeeded.

but:  however

They tried but did not succeed.

or:  alternatively

Did you go out or stay at home?

nor:  and neither

I did not see it, nor did they.

yet:  however

The sun is warm, yet the air is cool.

As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance, in the example she tried and succeeded, the pronoun she acts as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It should also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which do not have the same subject, the two coordinate clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning clear.

See Exercise 1.

2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course.

The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ... and, either ... or and neither ... nor. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use. Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be omitted.

Correlative Conjunctions

both ... and

He is both intelligent and good-natured.

either ... or

I will either go for a walk or read a book.

neither ... nor

He is neither rich nor famous.

hardly ... when

He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted.

if ... then

If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.

no sooner ... than

No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came.

not only ... but also

She is not only clever, but also hard-working.

rather ... than

I would rather go swimming than go to the library.

scarcely ... when

Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.

what with ... and

What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives.

whether ... or

Have you decided whether you will come or not?

See Exercise 2.

3. Subordinate conjunctions

As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns such as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words such as how, when, where, wherever and why. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
I wonder how he did that.

In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions. In the following examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
Let us wait until the rain stops.

The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.

Subordinate Conjunctions

As
1. because:  As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when:  We watched as the plane took off.

After
1. later in time:  After the train left, we went home.

Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that:  Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.

Before
1. earlier than:  I arrived before the stores were open.

Because
1. for the reason that:  We had to wait, because we arrived early.

For
1. for, because:  He is happy, for he enjoys his work.

If
1. on condition that:  If she is here, we will see her.

Lest
1. for fear that:  I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.
Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest.

Providing or provided
1. on condition that:  All will be well, providing you are careful.

Since
1. from a past time:  I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because:  Since you are here, you can help me.

So or so that
1. consequently:  It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that:  I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.

Supposing
1. if:  Supposing that happens, what will you do?

Than
1. used in comparisons:  He is taller than you are.

Unless
1. except when, if not:  Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.

Until or till
1. up to the time when:  I will wait until I hear from you.

Whereas
1. because:  Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand:  He is short, whereas you are tall.

Whether
1. if:  I do not know whether she was invited.

While
1. at the time when:  While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand:  He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although:  While I am not an expert, I will do my best.

In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.

As if
1. in a similar way:  She talks as if she knows everything.

As long as
1. if:  As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while:  He has lived there as long as I have known him.

As soon as
1. immediately when:  Write to me as soon as you can.

As though
1. in a similar way:  It looks as though there will be a storm.

Even if
1. in spite of a possibility:  I am going out even if it rains.

In case
1. because of a possibility:  Take a sweater in case it gets cold.

Or else
1. otherwise:  Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.

So as to
1. in order to:  I hurried so as to be on time.

See Exercise 3.

Certain words, such as after, before, since and until may function either as prepositions or subordinate conjunctions. However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be used as prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express similar meanings. This is illustrated in the table below.

Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions

Meaning

Preposition

Conjunction

for this reason

because of

because

in spite of this

despite

although

at the time when

during

while

in a similar way

like

as if

In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.
Preposition: They were upset because of the delay.
Conjunction: They were upset because they were delayed.

Preposition: Despite the rain, we enjoyed ourselves.
Conjunction: Although it rained, we enjoyed ourselves.

Preposition: We stayed indoors during the storm.
Conjunction: We stayed indoors while the storm raged.

Preposition: It looks like rain.
Conjunction: It looks as if it will rain.

In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions because of, despite, during and like have the noun objects delay, rain and storm; whereas the subordinate conjunctions because, although, while and as if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs were delayed, rained, raged and will rain.

It should be noted that like is sometimes used as a subordinate conjunction in informal English.
e.g. It looks like it will rain.
However, this use of like is considered incorrect in formal English.

See Exercise 4.

4. Connecting adverbs

Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause, sentence or paragraph. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at what happened.

In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows that there is a conflict between the idea expressed in the clause I was too tired and the idea expressed in the preceding clause I wanted to study. In the second example, the connecting adverb therefore shows that there is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed in the sentence we knew what to expect, and the clause we were not surprised at what happened.

Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be used to introduce clauses. However, the use of connecting adverbs differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated below.

a. Stress and punctuation
In spoken English, a connecting adverb is usually given more stress than a conjunction. Correspondingly, in formal written English a connecting adverb is usually separated from the rest of a clause by commas, whereas a conjunction is usually not separated from the rest of a clause by commas.

In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a connecting adverb is often separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon; whereas a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually not separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
I wanted to study, but I was too tired.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however is preceded by a semicolon, and is separated from I was too tired by a comma. In the second example, the conjunction but is preceded by a comma rather than by a semicolon, and is not separated from I was too tired by a comma.

It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon may be used to connect two main clauses. For example:
The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.
In this example, the two main clauses the clouds dispersed and the moon rose are connected by a semicolon rather than by a conjunction.

b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to show the relationship between ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong. Thus, I felt very cold.
In this example, the connecting adverb thus shows that there is a cause and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the two sentences the wind was strong and I felt very cold.

In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong. And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.

c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a clause. However, as was seen in the discussion on adverbs, a connecting adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a clause. This is illustrated below.
e.g. His visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was, nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.

d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.

Connecting Adverbs

accordingly:  so

He was very persuasive; accordingly, I did what he asked.

also:  in addition

She is my neighbor; she is also my best friend.

besides:  in addition

I like the job. Besides, I need the money.

consequently:  so

She had a fever; consequently, she stayed at home.

furthermore:  in addition

You should stop smoking. Furthermore, you should do it at once!

hence:  for that reason

He is a good friend. Hence, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help.

however:  but

We wanted to arrive on time; however, we were delayed by traffic.

likewise:  in addition

The region is beautiful. Likewise, the climate is excellent.

moreover:  in addition

She is very intelligent; moreover, she is very ambitious.

nevertheless:  but

They are proud. Nevertheless, I like them.

nonetheless:  but

The ascent was dangerous. Nonetheless, he decided to attempt it.

otherwise:  if not, or else

We should consult them; otherwise, they may be upset.

still:  but

It is a long way to the beach. Still, it is a fine day to go swimming.

then:  1. next, afterwards

We went shopping, then we had lunch.

2. so

If you are sure, then I must believe you.

therefore:  for that reason

I was nervous; therefore, I could not do my best.

thus:  so, in this way

He travelled as quickly as possible. Thus, he reached Boston the next day.

As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs have meanings similar to those of the conjunctions and, but or so.

Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and So

Similar to And

Similar to But

Similar to So

also

however

accordingly

besides

nevertheless

consequently

furthermore

nonetheless

hence

likewise

still

therefore

moreover

thus

See Exercises 5 and 6.

5. Parallel construction

The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often referred to as parallel construction. This is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. I am neither angry nor excited.
The resort contains tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar.
In the first example, the two phrases neither angry and nor excited exhibit parallel construction. In the second example, the three phrases tennis courts, swimming pools and a snack bar exhibit parallel construction.

In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction whenever parallel ideas are expressed.

Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed when correlative conjunctions are used. In the following example, the correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Incorrect: He has both a good education, and he has good work habits.
Corrected: He has both a good education and good work habits.
The first sentence is incorrect, since both and and are followed by different grammatical constructions. Both is followed by the phrase a good education; whereas and is followed by the clause he has good work habits. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the clause he has good work habits into the phrase good work habits.

The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction with the correlative conjunctions neither ... nor.
e.g. Incorrect: She turned neither right nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned neither right nor left.
or Corrected: She turned neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since neither is followed by a single word; whereas nor is followed by a prepositional phrase. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase to the left to the word left. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two prepositional phrases can be used.

See Exercise 7.

Parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas. For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is charming, well-situated and inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series, charming and well-situated, are adjectives, whereas the last item, is not expensive, contains a verb. The second sentence has been corrected by changing is not expensive to the adjective inexpensive.

The following is another example of the use of parallel construction when listing a series of ideas.
e.g. Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like skiing, skating and swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series, to ski, is an infinitive, whereas the second and third items, skating and swimming, are gerunds. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the infinitive to ski to the gerund skiing.

See Exercise 8.

EXERCISES for Chapter 28

1. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, and to the presence of inverted word order, fill in the blanks with the correct coordinate conjunctions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
I would like to come, ___ I do not have time. (but, nor)
I would like to come, but I do not have time.

He has not written, ___ has he called me. (but, nor)
He has not written, nor has he called me.

1. I opened the door _________ looked out. (and, yet)
2. She was not in the back yard, _________ was she upstairs. (or, nor)
3. The sun had set, _________ it was still light outside. (or, yet)
4. Do you know his address _________ telephone number? (but, or)
5. He has not arrived yet, _________ have they. (and, nor)
6. I read the book, _________ did not understand it. (but, or)
7. We searched diligently, ________ found nothing. (or, yet)
8. I invited him _________ his friends. (and, but)
Answers

2. Paying attention to the expressions used in the following sentences, fill in the blanks with the words and, but also, nor, or, than, then and when, as appropriate. For example:
We should either walk quickly __ take the bus.
We should either walk quickly or take the bus.

I had scarcely sat down ____ the telephone rang.
I had scarcely sat down when the telephone rang.

1. I have both respect _________ admiration for them.
2. Hardly had I finished reading over the problem, _________ the answer leapt to my mind.
3. It will rain either today _________ tomorrow.
4. He could not decide whether to tell the truth _________ keep silent.
5. It was not only a beautiful day, ___________ the first day of Spring.
6. If you follow the instructions, __________ you should have no difficulty.
7. He is neither proud _________ condescending.
8. What with one thing _________ another, it was very late by the time we left the house.
9. No sooner had I opened my eyes, _________ I remembered where I was.
10. Scarcely had I heard the news, _________ my friend arrived.
11. I do not know whether he has seen the movie before ________ not.
12. I would rather wait here _________ risk missing the bus.
13. She could find the book neither at the Library, _________ at the bookstore.
14. No sooner had I opened the window, _________ a butterfly flew into the room.
15. The crowd was both large _________ enthusiastic.
Answers

3. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, fill in the blanks with the correct subordinate conjunctions or similar expressions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
I went for a walk _______ the sun was shining. (because, otherwise)
I went for a walk because the sun was shining.

Do you know _______ the stores are open today? (as if, whether)
Do you know whether the stores are open today?

1. We recognized her at once, ____________ we had not seen her for years. (although, in case)
2. He kept reading ___________ he fell asleep. (for, until)
3. The moon will rise ____________ the sun sets. (as soon as, than)
4. It looks ____________ the train will be late. (while, as though)
5. ____________ she got her degree, she became a teacher. (After, Than)
6. We will not go skiing ____________ the weather is good. (as if, unless)
7. ____________ he left, he made sure he had his keys with him. (Before, For)
8. ____________ I told the truth, you would not believe me. (Even if, So that)
9. They have known her ___________ she was a child. (until, since)
10. I must leave now, ____________ I have a great deal of work to do. (as, than)
11. What shall we do ____________ it rains? (or else, supposing)
12. ____________ you read this book, you would be sure to enjoy it. (If, Until)
13. The door was open, ____________ we could hear everything. (in case, so)
14. I studied more ____________ he did. (than, whereas)
15. We packed a lunch, ____________ we knew we would soon be hungry. (lest, for)
16. I will join you, ____________ the weather is fine. (providing, than)
17. ____________ he is very busy, he is seldom at home. (Or else, Because)
18. We must hurry, ___________ we will be late. (so that, or else)
Answers

4. For each of the following sentences, paying attention to the structure of the sentence, fill in the blank with either the conjunction or the preposition given in brackets. For example:
_______ my warning, they went ahead with their plan. (Although, Despite)
Despite my warning, they went ahead with their plan.

________ the sun was shining, the water was cold. (Although, Despite)
Although the sun was shining, the water was cold.

The price of oranges is high, __________ frost damage. (because, because of)
The price of oranges is high, because of frost damage. (because, because of)

I went to see the play, _______ it had good reviews. (because, because of)
I went to see the play, because it had good reviews. (because, because of)

1. We stayed up late, ____________ we were tired. (although, despite)
2. They went swimming, ____________ the coldness of the water. (although, despite)
3. I enjoy the course, ____________ the professor is a good teacher. (because, because of)
4. She looks ___________ your sister. (as if, like)
5. Please wait ___________ I make a phone call. (during, while)
6. Did you hear any noises ____________ the night? (during, while)
7. It looked ____________ we would not be able to leave until the next day. (as if, like)
8. We all felt tired ____________ the hot weather. (because, because of)
9. I read a book ___________ I was waiting. (during, while)
10. Her eyes shone _____________ stars. (as if, like)
11. They managed to work together, ___________ their differences of opinion. (although, despite)
12. I left home early, ____________ I had to do several errands. (because, because of)
13. He speaks about the subject ____________ he were an expert. (as if, like)
14. We rested ____________ the hottest part of the day. (during, while)
15. ____________ she lost her way twice, she arrived safely. (Although, Despite)
16. ____________ their interest in comets, they decided to study astronomy. (Because, Because of)
Answers

5. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, fill in the blanks with the correct connecting adverbs chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example:
Will you come with me? _________ I shall have to go alone. (Also, Otherwise)
Will you come with me? Otherwise I shall have to go alone.

She is kind. _______, she is rather forgetful. (However, Consequently)
She is kind. However, she is rather forgetful.

1. The work was new to me. ____________, it did not seem difficult. (Consequently, Nevertheless)
2. Continue along Queen Street. ____________ turn left. (Then, Therefore)
3. It was very misty. ______________, we could not get a clear view of the mountain. (Hence, However)
4. We had walked several miles. ____________, we did not feel tired. (Accordingly, Still)
5. She is a talented actress. ____________, she is very beautiful. (Moreover, Thus)
6. We take the bus every day. __________, we are familiar with the bus route. (Nevertheless, Thus)
7. The child was sleepy. ______________, we went home early. (Otherwise, Therefore)
8. The food was delicious. _____________, the service was excellent. (Likewise, Nevertheless)
9. We looked everywhere. _____________, we could not find the keys. (However, Thus)
10. The book is long. _____________, the vocabulary is difficult. (Consequently, Furthermore)
11. Luckily, the moon was bright. ______________, we could not have seen the path. (Accordingly, Otherwise)
12. He is old. _____________, his mind is still active. (Nonetheless, Therefore)
Answers

6. Paying attention to the structure of the sentences, fill in the blanks with the conjunctions or connecting adverbs given in brackets. Make sure that the sentences conform to the rules of correct formal English. For example:
It was very hot. ____________, we decided to go swimming. (Consequently, So)
It was very hot. Consequently, we decided to go swimming.

It was very hot, __ we decided to go swimming. (Consequently, So)
It was very hot, so we decided to go swimming.

1. I have invited him. ____________, I have invited his sister. (Also, And)
2. He walked up to the door ____________ knocked. (and, likewise)
3. The bus fare is expensive; ____________, I prefer to walk. (so, therefore)
4. She is well-educated. ____________, she has very good manners. (And, Besides)
5. I would rather travel by train, ___________ the bus leaves earlier. (but, however)
6. We were born in this village; ____________, we know everyone here. (hence, so that)
7. Put less wood on the fire, ___________ it will be too smoky. (or, otherwise)
8. They got off the train. __________ they began to search for a hotel. (And, Then)
9. She studied for many months; ____________, she knew the material thoroughly. (consequently, so that)
10. The weather was hot; ____________, the air was humid. (and, moreover)
11. Please come with us, ____________ I can introduce you to my friends. (thus, so that)
12. The sun was warm, ____________ a cool breeze blew in from the sea. (but, however)
13. I have read this book before; ____________, I do not remember the plot. (but, however)
14. They were hot ____________ tired. (also, and)
15. The door was locked; ____________, we would have waited inside. (or, otherwise)
16. I have known her for many years; ____________, I understand her character well. (so that, thus)
17. We opened the window ____________ fresh air would blow into the room. (consequently, so that)
18. He is ignorant; ____________, he is lazy. (and, furthermore)
19. They visited many stores; ___________, they could not find what they were looking for. (but, however)
20. You should go to sleep now, ____________ you will be tired tomorrow. (or, otherwise)
21. I was worried; ___________, I was determined not to show it. (but, nevertheless)
Answers

7. The following sentences are incorrect, because they contain correlative conjunctions, but do not use parallel construction. Rewrite the sentences correctly, using parallel construction. For example:
He owns both a typewriter and he has a word processor.
Corrected: He owns both a typewriter and a word processor.

I prefer either to read or going hiking.
Corrected: I prefer either to read or to go hiking.

1. The train proceeded neither quickly nor was it smooth.
2. They will leave either today or they will go tomorrow.
3. The child hates both getting up in the morning and to go to bed at night.
4. She is neither kind nor has patience.
5. He is not only talented, but also he has charm.
6. The street is lined with both oak trees and there are elm trees.
7. The lecture was not only very long but also it was very dull.
8. You should either eat less, or should exercise more.
9. I am not only proud to be here, but also feel happy to meet you.
10. The town is both historical and it is picturesque.
Answers

8. The following sentences are incorrect, because they present lists of ideas, but do not use parallel construction. Rewrite the sentences correctly, using parallel construction. For example:
The air was cool, dry, and was clear.
Corrected: The air was cool, dry, and clear.

He has started making kites and to fly them.
Corrected: He has started making kites and flying them.

1. We walked out of the door, down the steps and went across the street.
2. She loves singing, dancing and to play the piano.
3. The wind moaned, shrieked and was howling.
4. The music was fast, brilliant and sounded exciting.
5. He proposes to borrow money, open a store and going into business.
6. The town boasts four libraries, two theaters and there are many schools.
7. The clouds were thick, black and looked threatening.
8. He likes running, jumping and to ride a bicycle.
9. They worked carefully, quickly and were quiet.
10. The vegetables were fresh, tender and tasted delicious.
Answers

ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES for Chapter 28

Answers to Exercise 1:
1. and 2. nor 3. yet 4. or 5. nor 6. but 7. yet 8. and

Answers to Exercise 2:
1. and 2. when 3. or 4. or 5. but also 6. then 7. nor 8. and 9. than 10. when 11. or 12. than 13. nor 14. than 15. and

Answers to Exercise 3:
1. although 2. until 3. as soon as 4. as though 5. After 6. unless 7. Before 8. Even if 9. since 10. as 11. supposing 12. If 13. so 14. than 15. for 16. providing 17. Because 18. or else

Answers to Exercise 4:
1. although 2. despite 3. because 4. like 5. while 6. during 7. as if 8. because of 9. while 10. like 11. despite 12. because 13. as if 14. during 15. Although 16. Because of

Answers to Exercise 5:
1. Nevertheless 2. Then 3. Hence 4. Still 5. Moreover 6. Thus 7. Therefore 8. Likewise 9. However 10. Furthermore 11. Otherwise 12. Nonetheless

Answers to Exercise 6:
1. Also 2. and 3. therefore 4. Besides 5. but 6. hence 7. or 8. Then 9. consequently 10. moreover 11. so that 12. but 13. however 14. and 15. otherwise 16. thus 17. so that 18. furthermore 19. however 20. or 21. nevertheless

Answers to Exercise 7:
1. The train proceeded neither quickly nor smoothly. 2. They will leave either today or tomorrow. 3. The child hates both getting up in the morning and going to bed at night. 4. She is neither kind nor patient. 5. He is not only talented, but also charming. 6. The street is lined with both oak trees and elm trees. 7. The lecture was not only very long but also very dull. 8. You should either eat less, or exercise more. 9. I am not only proud to be here, but also happy to meet you. 10. The town is both historical and picturesque.

Answers to Exercise 8:
1. We walked out of the door, down the steps and across the street. 2. She loves singing, dancing and playing the piano. 3. The wind moaned, shrieked and howled. 4. The music was fast, brilliant and exciting. 5. He proposes to borrow money, open a store and go into business. 6. The town boasts four libraries, two theaters and many schools. 7. The clouds were thick, black and threatening. 8. He likes running, jumping and riding a bicycle. 9. They worked carefully, quickly and quietly. 10. The vegetables were fresh, tender and delicious.